Chapter 1:

Electronic Introduction to Electronic

Communications Systems Communications
Chapter 1: Part 1:
Introduction to Electronic Communications Introduction

Electronic Communications Systems Definition of terms

The transmission, reception, and processing
of information between two or more locations
using electronic circuits.
Communication
Refers to the sending and receiving of
information through a medium.
Information
Anything that conveys a thought or an idea, e.g.
speech, picture, video.
Medium
Any facility in which communication is made
possible, e.g. air, wire, optic fiber.

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A Brief History of
Electronic Communications
1837. Samuel Morse invents the telegraph
1847. Alexander Bain invents the facsimile
1866. The first trans-Atlantic telegraph cable is
laid between the US and England
1876. Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas
Watson invents the telephone
1887. Heinrich Hertz discovers radio waves
A Brief History of
Electronic Communications
1908. Lee DeForest invents the vacuum tube
triode (amplifier)
1920. First commercial AM broadcasts
1923. Vladimir Zworykin invents television
1933. Edwin Howard Armstrong invents the
superheterodyne receiver and FM
1936. Commercial FM broadcasting commences
A Brief History of
Electronic Communications
1894. Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmits
the first wireless radio signals
1901. First trans-Atlantic radio transmission
1903. John Fleming invents the vacuum tube
diode (rectifier)
1906. Reginald Fessenden invents AM, transmits
first AM broadcast
A Brief History of
Electronic Communications
1939. First use of two-way radio systems (US)
1940. Invention of RADAR. Perfected after
World War II
1948. John von Neumann creates the first stored-
program electronic digital computer
1949. Invention of the transistor (Bell
Laboratories Bardeen, Brattain, Shockley)
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A Brief History of
Electronic Communications
1953. RCA/NBC transmits the first colored TV
broadcasts
1959. Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments) invents the
integrated circuit
First communications satellites tested (US)
1975. First personal computers (IBM)
1977. First use of fiber optic cables
A Brief History of
Electronic Communications
1978. First cellular telephone network (Motorola)
1990s. Adoption and growth of computer
networking (LANs, Internet, and the
WorldWide Web)
2000 to present. 3G cellular networks, wireless
LANs, digital broadcasting, high-speed fiber-
optic communications

Block Diagram of an Ideal

Communications System Message
Physical manifestation of the information.
INFORMATION DESTINATION
SOURCE
(MESSAGE)
(RECEIVED
INFORMATION)
Two distinct types of messages:
Analog a physical quantity that varies
continuously with time.
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER Digital an ordered sequence of symbols selected
from a finite set of discrete elements.

MEDIUM

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Transmitter Block Diagram of a Transmitter
Processes the message (input signal) to
produce a signal suitable to the characteristics
of the transmission medium.
AUDIO RF
In modern communications systems, the input source
AMPLIFIER
MODULATOR
AMPLIFIER
signal undergoes modulation before
transmission.
RF
OSCILLATOR

Examples of Analog Modulation

Modulation Techniques
The process of superimposing a low-
frequency information wave on a high-
frequency carrier signal.
Varying the properties of a carrier wave with
respect to the properties of the information
wave.

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Why Modulate? Receiver
For efficient transmission Operates on the received signal to extract
Transmitting low-frequency information from the carrier wave.
electromagnetic energy is extremely This process is known as demodulation.
difficult.
For frequency assignment
Several information sources can be tuned
to different frequencies to avoid mix up.
This is also known as multiplexing.

Receiver Modes of Transmission

Simplex (SX)
Unidirectional (one-way) transmission.
Examples: broadcasting, cable TV, paging
RF AUDIO
DEMODULATOR destination services, telemetry.
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
Half Duplex (HDX)
Bidirectional (two-way) transmission, but not at
RF
the same time.
OSCILLATOR
Examples :amateur radio, citizens band radio.

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Modes of Transmission Medium
Full Duplex (FDX) The physical facility wherein the transmission
Simultaneous bidirectional transmission. of information takes place.
Example: telephone system Could be wired, wireless (over the air), or
Full/Full Duplex (F/FDX) optic fiber.
One station may transmit to a second station and Composed of channels.
receive from a third station at the same time.
Example: data communication circuits

The Electromagnetic Spectrum The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Channel Bandwidth
Range of frequencies allocated for a particular The difference between the highest and lowest
service or transmission frequencies contained in the information signal.
CHANNEL 1 The difference between the highest and lowest
CHANNEL 2
frequencies that a communications channel will
allow to pass.
.
. The bandwidth of the channel must be large
. enough to pass all significant information
CHANNEL n frequencies.
MEDIUM

Bandwidth Information Capacity

Example 1: The human ear can hear
frequencies from 20 Hz up to 20 kHz. What is
the bandwidth of this (audio) information?
Answer: 19.98 kHz (~20 kHz)
Example 2: Telephone circuits bandpass voice
information between 300 Hz and 3.4 kHz.
What is the bandwidth of the circuit?
Answer: 3.1 kHz
The theoretical study of the efficient use of
bandwidth to propagate information is called
information theory.
In a data communications system, information
capacity is the measure of the amount of
information that can be propagated, and is a
function of bandwidth and the transmission
time.

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Information Capacity Information Capacity
Information capacity represents the number of According to R. Hartley (Hartleys Law, 1928)
independent symbols that can be carried
through a system in a given amount of time. I Bt
The most basic unit of digital information is
where:
called a binary digit or bit. I information capacity, bps
Therefore the amount of digital information B bandwidth, Hz
T transmission time, s
carried per unit time is measured as bits per
second or bps, and is referred to as the bitrate.

Information Capacity Information Capacity

Claude Shannon related the information
capacity to the bandwidth and signal-to-noise
ratio (Shannon limit, 1948)
I B log 2 1 S
N
or I 3.32 B log10 1 S N
where:
I information capacity, bps
B bandwidth, Hz
S/N signal-to-noise ratio
Example: For a standard telephone circuit
with a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000 and
a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, determine the
Shannon limit for information capacity.
Answer:
From the previous equation:
I 3.32( 2700) log10 1 1000
I = 26.9 kbps

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 Chapter 1: The Decibel
A logarithmic unit used to measure ratios
Introduction to Electronic
(voltage, power, sound pressure, etc.).
Communications Originally used to measure differences in
power between source and receiver sides in a
Part 2: telephone circuit.
Power Measurements and Noise Analysis
Named after Alexander Graham Bell, the
inventor of the telephone.

The Decibel The Decibel

Pmeas Example 1: Solve for the following relationships
P

10 log10 AP ( dB )
AP ( dB)
P
ref


Pmeas 10 10
ref 1.
2.
10 W versus 1 W
1 W versus 10 W
10 dB
-10 dB
where: 3. 100 mW versus 1 W -10 dB
AP(dB) power gain, dB 4. 100 mW versus 1 mW 20 dBm
Pmeas quantity to be measured, watts 5. 2 W versus 1 W 3 dB
Pref reference power, watts 6. 0.5 W versus 1W -3 dB
7. 4 W versus 1 W 6 dB
Decibels are used to denote relative magnitudes 8. 250 mW versus 1 W -6 dB
between two quantities (Pmeas vs. Pref)

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The Decibel Noise
Example 2: Given the cascaded amplifier below, Specifically, electrical noise, is any
determine the following: undesirable electrical energy that falls within
Amplifier (system) voltage gain 120
Output voltage in dBV 7.604 dBV
the passband of the signal.
Amplifier (system) power gain

Power across Ro in dBm
14400
7.604 dBm
Noise causes distortions in the signal which
Assume Ri = Ro = 1 k for all amplifiers may affect reception and/or intelligibility of
the demodulated signal.
vi = 20 mV Av1 = 20 Av2 = 15 Av3 = 0.4 vo

Noise External Noise

Noise can fall into two general categories: Atmospheric Noise
Uncorrelated noise is present regardless Also termed as static
whether there is a signal or not. It can either be
external (generated from outside of the system) or Caused by lightning and thunderstorms
internal (generated by components from within Consists of impulses
the system, e.g. resistors, transistors). Spread across a wide range of frequencies
Correlated Noise produced by the system Less severe at frequencies above 30 MHz
(internal) due to the presence of a signal. It is
caused by nonlinearities in a components
behavior.

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External Noise
Extraterrestrial Noise
Also called space noise. Two types of space noise
are worth discussing:
Solar Noise
The sun is a large body at a very high temperature emitting
constant noise radiation called thermal or black-body
radiation.
Aside from this quiet condition, the sun also has peaks in
its activity in the form of solar flares and sunspots.
This solar cycle repeats approximately every 11 years, with a
super-cycle every 100 years.
External Noise
Extraterrestrial Noise
Cosmic Noise
Distant stars are themselves suns, which emit the same
kind of radiation as our Sun
Though not as powerful, they make up for it in numbers
There are also quasars and pulsars
Also called galactic noise
Industrial Noise
Sources include engine ignition, electric motors and
switching equipment, high-voltage lines, arc lamps
Comes in the form of impulse noise
Occurs within the range of 1 to 600 MHz

Internal Noise Internal Noise

Transit-time noise
If the time taken by an electron to travel from the
emitter to the collector of a transistor becomes
significant to the period of the signal being
amplified, transit-time effect takes place, and the
noise input admittance of the transistor increases.
Shot Noise
Caused by the shot effect. First observed by
W. Schottky in 1918 in a vacuum tube triode.
Present in virtually all active devices
Caused by the random variations in the arrival
of carriers at the output electrode of an
amplifying device.
Appears a randomly varying noise current
superimposed on the output

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Internal Noise Internal Noise
Shot Noise Thermal Agitation Noise
Also referred to as thermal noise, agitation noise,
in 2 q i p B white noise, or Johnson noise.
Due to the rapid and random motion of molecules
where: (atoms and electrons) inside the component itself.
in rms shot noise current
q charge of an electron, 1.6x10-19 C where:
ip direct diode current K Boltzmanns constant, 1.38x10-23 J/K
B bandwidth of interest Pn TB KTB T absolute temperature, K
B bandwidth of interest
Pn maximum noise power output of a resistor

Internal Noise Internal Noise

Thermal Agitation Noise Thermal Agitation Noise
Example: An amplifier operating over the
V 2 For maximum V 2 frequency range from 18 to 20 MHz as a 10-k
R Pn power transfer, Pn
input resistor. What is the rms noise voltage at
V RL RL RL = R.
R
Vn
Therefore
(Vn / 2) 2 Vn 2 the input to this amplifier if the ambient
temperature is 27C?
R 4R
2
Answer:
Vn 4 RPn 4 RKTB
Figure 1.1. A resistance noise generator From the previous equation:

Vn 4 RKTB vn 4(10103 )(1.381023 J K )[(27 273)K][(20 18) 106 Hz]

vn = 18.1989 V

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Internal Noise Internal Noise
Harmonic Distortion Harmonic Distortion
One type of correlated noise. The Total Harmonic Distrortion (THD) is the
It is the unwanted harmonics of a signal that are ratio of the quadratic sum of the rms amplitudes
created when amplified in a nonlinear device (e.g. of the higher harmonics to the rms amplitude of
a transistor amplifier). the fundamental frequency.
These harmonics add to the original signal, V 2 2 V3 2 V n 2
%THD 100
causing amplitude distortion. V1
Harmonic distortion is calculated as the ratio of where:
the rms amplitude of the nth harmonic frequency to %THD percent total harmonic distortion
the rms amplitude of the fundamental frequency. V2, V3, Vn rms amplitudes of higher harmonics
(2nd up to nth harmonic)
V1 rms amplitude of fundamental frequency

Internal Noise Internal Noise

Harmonic Distortion Harmonic Distortion
Example: Determine the percent 2nd-order,
percent Answer:
3 -order, and total harmonic distortion of the
rd V2 2
% 2 nd - order 100 100 66 .667 %
signals shown below: V1 3
3 V3 1
% 3rd - order 100 100 33 .333 %
2
V1 3
Vrms

V2 2 V3 2 2 2 12
%THD 100 100 74 .536 %
100 200 400 800 1600
V1 3
Frequency (Hz)

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Internal Noise
Intermodulation Noise
Also called intermodulation distortion.
It is caused by unwanted cross product (sums and
difference) frequencies created when two or more
signals mix or are amplified in a nonlinear device,
such as a large scale amplifier.
It is impossible to measure all the intermodulation
components produced when two or more
frequencies mix in a nonlinear device.
Internal Noise
Intermodulation Noise
For comparison purposes, a common method
used to measure intermodulation distortion is
percent second-order intermodulation distortion,
which is the ratio of the total rms amplitude of the
second order cross products to the combined rms
amplitude of the original input frequencies.

Internal Noise Internal Noise

Intermodulation Noise Intermodulation Noise
To measure second-order intermodulation The second-order intermodulation distortion
distortion, four test frequencies are used: (%2nd-order IMD) is given as:
Two are designated as the A-band (fa1 and fa2), and
Two are B-band frequencies (fb1 and fb2). n Vn 2
% 2 nd order IMD 100
The second-order cross products (2A B) are:

m V fm
2

2fa1 fb1 2fa2 fb1 (fa1 + fa2) fb1

2fa1 fb2 2fa2 fb2 (fa1 + fa2) fb2 where:
Vn rms amplitudes of intermodulation components
Vfm rms amplitude of input frequencies

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Internal Noise Internal Noise
Intermodulation Noise Intermodulation Noise
Example: Determine the intermodulation Answer: 1.885 MHz, 1.892 MHz, 1.896 MHz,
1.903 MHz, 1.907 MHz, 1.914 MHz
components of the A-band and B-band
frequencies, and their percent 2nd-order %2nd orderIMD
22 22 12 22 12 22
100 39 .911 %
intermodulation distortion. 62 52 42 62
0.856 1.385
1.885
0.863 1.892 1.903 1.914
6 2
1.374 Intermodulation
components
4 1.896 1.907
Vrms

Vrms
B-band A-band
1
2

0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 1.850 1.860 1.870 1.880 1.890 1. 900 1. 910 1. 920 1. 930 1. 940 1.950

Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)

Interference Chapter 1:
A form of external noise and as the name

implies, means to disturb or detract from. Introduction to Electronic

This happens when information signals from Communications
one source produce frequencies that fall outside
their allocated bandwidth and interfere with Part 3:
information signals from another source. Noise Calculations
Most interference occurs when harmonics or
cross products from one source fall into the
passband of a neighboring channel.

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Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio Noise Factor and Noise Figure
The ratio of the signal power to the noise Ratio of the S/N supplied to the input of an
power at the same point in the circuit. amplifier to the S/N of the output resistor.
S Ps where:
S Ps A measure of the amount of noise a certain
Ps signal power In decibels: (dB) 10 log
N Pn Pn noise power device introduces into a system.
N Pn
Example: For an amplifier with a input signal Should ideally be 1.
voltage of 4V and a noise voltage of 5mV at Noise figure (NF) is the noise factor (F)
the input, determine the signal to noise ratio in expressed in decibels.
decibels across the input when Rin = 100k. input S input S
Vs 2 F N N
S Vs 4V NF ( dB ) 10 log
(dB) 10 log 2 Rin 20 log 20 log 58.062dB

output S
N output S
Vn N
N Rin Vn 0.005V

Noise Factor and Noise Figure Noise Factor and Noise Figure
Amplifier with gain A Amplifier with gain A
Example: Given an non-ideal amplifier with the
Ro
following parameters
RR
i
i
Ro Ri Vno Input signal power = 2 x 1010 W
Vi Vo Vi Vo
Vni
AVi
Vni
AVi
Input noise power = 2 x 1018 W
Power gain = 1,000,000
Ideal amplifier (noiseless) Practical amplifier
Amplifier noise = 6 x 1012 W
Si Si Si Si
Ni
Si Determine the following:
Ni Ni Ni Ni
F 1 F a) Input S/N in dB 100,000,000 (80 dB)
A Si A Si
N N A
So So Si
No A Ni No ( A Ni N A ) i
A b) Output S/N in dB 25,000,000 (74 dB)
c) Noise factor and noise figure 4 (6 dB)
Ni N A
F A
Ni

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Noise Factor and Noise Figure Noise Factor and Noise Figure
For amplifiers in cascade, the noise factor is Example: Calculate the total noise figure for three
computed using Friisss formula similar cascaded amplifiers having individual
noise figures and power gains of 3 dB and 10 dB.
input
AP1 AP2 AP3

APn
output
Answer:
F1 F2 F3 Fn
Convert first the noise figure and power gain into a ratio
3 10
F 10 10 2 A p 10 10 10
F2 1 F3 1 Fn 1
FT F1
A1 A1 A2 A1 A2 An 1 2 1 2 1
NFT 10 log FT 10 log 2
10 (10)(10)

3.243dB

Equivalent Noise Temperature Equivalent Noise Temperature

Since the noise power is proportional to the From Pn KTB
temperature, an amplifier tends to get noisier
as the temperature increases. The noise factor can be expressed as
As a result, the noise factor of the amplifier Teq where:

F 1 Teq equivalent noise temperature, K

also increases. Conversely, amplifiers with T0 T0 reference temperature, 290K (17 C)
large noise factors are said to be hotter.
The temperature at which this amplifier is Example: Determine the following
operating at is said to be its equivalent noise a) Noise figure at Teq = 70K 0.9391 dB (1 dB)
temperature. b) Teq for a noise figure of 6 dB 870 K

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