Air bearing

For the specic type of air bearing known as a foil-air

bearing, see foil bearing.

Air bearings (also known as aerostatical or aerody-

namical bearings) are bearings that use a thin lm of
pressurized air to provide an exceedingly low friction
load-bearing interface between surfaces. The two sur-
faces do not touch. As they are contact-free, air bearings
avoid the traditional bearing-related problems of friction,
wear, particulates, and lubricant handling, and oer dis-
tinct advantages in precision positioning, such as lack-
ing backlash and static friction, as well as in high-speed
applications.[1]
The uid lm of the bearing is air that ows through the
bearing itself to the bearing surface. The design of the air
bearing is such that, although the air constantly escapes
from the bearing gap, the pressure between the faces of
the bearing is enough to support the working loads. Thus,
there is a dierentiation that has to be made between
hydrodynamical bearings, which establish the air cush-
ion through their movement, and hydrostatical bearings,
in which the pressure is being externally inserted.
Air bearings are being mainly used in precision machin-
ery tools (measuring and processing machines) and fast
running machines (highspeed spindle).
Air borne high frequency spindle with integrated feeding

1 Air bearing types

The main air bearing types fall under the following cate-
gories:
The main advantage of a hydrostatic air bearing is that
even at little or no movement, there is no friction. This is
what gives the bearing ultra high repeatability and indef- Air borne high frequency spindle
inite lifetime. Hydrodynamic air bearings do not require
any external air supply. However, they have the issue of
friction and wear until sucient velocity is attained to pressure in the gap is that the stiness and damping of the
create the air gap. air cushion reaches the highest possible level. In addition,
air consumption and uniformity of air supply into the gap
are crucial for the behaviors of air bearings.
1.1 Comparison of air bearing technolo-
gies
1.1.1 Dead volume
Air bearings belong to slide bearings. Pressurized air acts
as a lubricant in the gap between bearing moving parts. Dead volumes refer in particular to chambers and canals
The air cushion carries the load without any contact be- existing in conventional air bearings in order to distribute
tween the moving parts. Normally, the compressed air is the air and increase the compressed pressure within the
supplied by a compressor. A key goal of supplying the air gap. The cavity inside porous (sintered) air bearings are

1
2 1 AIR BEARING TYPES

also attributed to dead volume.[2] 1.5 Porous Air Bearings

1.2 Conventional air bearings

Porous Air Bearing

Porous air bearings utilize porous material such as

Nozzle-air bearing with chambers and channels
With conventional single nozzle air bearings, the com-
pressed air ows through a few relatively large nozzles
(diameter 0.1 0.5 mm) into the bearing gap. The air
consumption thus allows only some exibility such that
the bearings features (force, moments, bearing surface,
bearing gap height, damping) can be adjusted only insuf-
ciently. However, in order to allow a uniform air pres-
sure even with only some nozzles, air bearing manufac-
turers take constructive techniques. In doing so, these air
bearings cause dead volumes (non-compressible and thus
weak air volume). In eect, this dead volume is very
harmful for the air bearings dynamic and causes self-
excited vibrations.[3]
graphite to allow a uniform air distribution.
One major advantage is the lack of metal-on-metal con-
tact. Graphite has a natural lubricity.[6][7] Therefore, if
there is any drop in air pressure, the bearing will still func-
tion and will not get damaged. Because of this, porous air
bearings are the most reliable and have innite lifetime.
Graphite can be tuned such that the air bearing will meet
requirements of uid ow, stiness, load capacity, size,
etc. This Video demonstrates a porous air bearing in mo-
tion.
1.6 Laser drilled Micro-nozzle air bear-
ings

1.3 Single-nozzle air bearings

The pre-pressured chamber consists of a chamber around
the centralized nozzle. Usually, this chambers ratio is be-
tween 3% and 20% of the bearings surface. Even with a
chamber depth of 1/100 mm, the dead volume is very
high. In the worst cases, these air bearings consist of
a concave bearing surface instead of a chamber. Dis-
advantages of these air bearings include a very poor tilt
stiness.[4]

1.4 Air bearings with channels and cham-

bers
Typically, conventional air bearings are implemented
with chambers and canals. This design assumes that with
a limited amount of nozzles, the dead volume should de-
crease while distributing the air within the gap uniformly.
Most constructive ideas refer to special canal structures.
Since the late 1980s, air bearings with micro canal struc-
tures without chambers are manufactured. However, this
technique also has to manage problems with dead volume.
With an increasing gap height, the micro canals load and
stiness decreases. As in the case of high-speed linear
drives or high-frequency spindles, this may cause serious
disadvantages.[5]
Cut through a cylindrical element
Laser-drilled micro nozzle air bearings make use of com-
puterized manufacturing and design techniques to opti-
mize performance and eciency. This technology allows
manufacturers more exibility in manufacturing. In turn
this allows a larger design envelope in which to optimize
their designs for a given application. In many cases engi-
neers can create air bearings that approach the theoretical
limit of performance. Rather than a few large nozzles,
1.7 Technical advantages
Laserprocessing (cut through a bearing element)
air bearings with lots of micro nozzles avoid dynamically
disadvantageous dead volumes. Dead volumes refer to
all cavities in which air cannot be compressed during de-
crease of the air gap. These appear as weak gas pressure
stimulates vibration. Examples of the benets are: linear
drives with accelerations of more than 1,000 m/s (100
g), or impact drives with even more than 100,000 m/s
(10,000 g) due to high damping in combination with dy-
namic stiness; sub-nanometer movements due to lowest
noise-induced errors; and seal-free transmission of gas or
vacuum for rotary and linear drives via the gap due to
guided air supply.
Micro-nozzle air bearings achieve an eective, nearly
perfect pressure distribution within the air gap with a
large number of micro nozzles. Their typical diameter
is between 0.02 mm and 0.06 mm. The narrowest cross-
section of these nozzles lies exactly at the bearings sur-
face. Thereby the technology avoids a dead volume on
the supporting air bearings surface and within the area
of the air supplying nozzles.
The micro nozzles are automatically drilled with a laser
beam that provides top-quality and repeatability. The
physical behaviors of the air bearings prove to have a
low variation for large as well as for small production vol-
umes. In contrast to conventional bearings, with this tech-
nique the air bearings require no manual or costly manu-
facturing.
The advantages of the micro-nozzle air bearing technol-
ogy include:
ecient use of the air cushion (close to the physical
limit) through a uniform pressure within the whole
gap; 1.8
perfect combination of static and dynamic proper- Standard air bearings are oered with various mountings
ties; to link them in a system:
3
highest-possible exibility of the air bearing proper-
ties: with a particular gap height, it is possible to op-
timize the air bearing such that it has, for example,
a maximum load, stiness, tilt stiness, damping,
or a minimum air consumption (respectively also in
combination with others);
multi-approved highest precision of all air bearings,
e.g. in the measurement technology due to slight-
est movements (<< 2 nanometer) through physical,
lowest-possible self-excited vibrations;
considerably higher tilt stiness than conventional
air bearings such that the air within the gap ows
through canals from the loaded to the unloaded ar-
eas away;
vibration-free within the entire operating range even
with high air pressure supply (actually even much
more than 10 bar are possible);
highest reliability due to the large number of nozzles:
clogging of nozzles by particles is out of question
(no failure in operation) because their diameters are
much higher than the gap height;
possibility to adjust bearing properties for deforma-
tion and tolerances of the bearing and opposite sur-
face;
proven usability for many bearing materials and
coatings.
Some of these advantages, such as the high exibility, the
excellent static and dynamic properties in combination,
and a low noise excitation, prove to be unique among all
other air bearings.[8][9]
1.7 Technical advantages
In a direct comparison with competitive products, the
standard air bearings are quite signicantly advanced:
The stiness maximum is higher, and most importantly,
this stiness is achieved for operation-relevant (higher)
air gaps. The air bearing technology solely allows such a
high stiness and distinctive maximum, even for a higher
air gap, without any disadvantages. Unlike others, micro-
nozzle air bearings do not face any self-excited vibrations
even with a higher air pressure (more than 10 bar). With
a higher tilt stiness, the air bearings achieve a higher dy-
namic (acceleration, jerk, speed) and smoothness of the
system.[8]
Various designs
4 2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AIR BEARINGS

roller and friction bearings face a high friction when ap-

plied at high speed or acceleration or small strokes, caus-
ing high abrasion such that the precision decreases which
in turn causes a breakdown.
The perfect combination of acceleration and precision
(repeatability and positioning) oers very high produc-
tivity of machines in the semiconductor and electronics
industry. Reachable accelerations of such pick-and-place
systems are not a problem. Micro-nozzle air bearings,
Standard bearing round
however, oer a much higher acceleration (more than 50
m/s) than conventional air bearings (4 to 5 m/s).

Bearings for exible connection with ball-pins. This

Guiding, repeatability, and position accuracy:
design for standard air bearings is usually supplied
on the market.
In the chip production and when positioning at the back-
Bearings with a high-sti joint instead of a conven- end, repeatability accuracy of 1-2 m must be reached
tional ball-pin. Using this version the stiness of the with the wire bonder. At the die bonder, even 5 m must
complete system is signicantly higher. be achieved. With such a precision, roller bearings reach
their physical limit without a lower acceleration. At the
Bearings with integrated piston for preload of stati-
front end (lithography), air bearings are already estab-
cally determined guidances.
lished.
In addition, there are also rectangular bearings with Within the electronic production, precision requirements
a xed mounting (joint-less) for guidances with increase greatly. This is due to smaller components and a
highest stiness for highest accuracy or highest dy- technological change, e.g. chip-on board, ip-chip tech-
namic. nology or wafer-level-chip packaging. A repeatability ac-
curacy of less than 10 m is required. Roller bearings do
Furthermore, there are also air bearings with inte- not achieve this because of their Stick-slip phenomenon
grated vacuum or magnetic preloads, air bearings for and a tight drawer eect.
high temperatures with more than 400 C, as well as
ones manufactured with alternative materials.[10] [8]
Cost advantage and repeatability:

2 Advantages and disadvantages of When applied in series, air bearings even have a cost ad-
vantage compared to roller bearings: the production of
air bearings a roller-guided high-frequency spindle is - according to
a manufacturer - about 20% more expensive than air-
2.1 Advantages guided spindles.

High-purity, oil-less operation:

In general, the chip production is made in clean rooms,

but some dirt may cause defects and thus high costs.
Within the electronic production, cleanliness require-
ments increase with the implementation of small compo-
nents. Other than oil, air is the perfect lubricant and is as
clean as the surrounding medium. That is why no costly
Comparison of bearings sealing of the bearing is necessary with air lubrication.

Wearless operation, durability: Environmental advantages:

Air bearings operate contact-free and so without Nowadays the air bearings popularity increases even in
abrasion. The only friction results from airow air in industries other than the classical air bearing industries as
the gap. Thus, the durability of air bearings is unlimited it does not make any use of mineral oil-based or synthetic
if they are designed and calculated correctly. Especially lubricants.
3.1 Theoretical modeling
2.2 Disadvantages
Air bearings only have a few disadvantages. The main
challenging issues are the high geometrical accuracies
which are required during manufacture. Another issue
is the supplied pressurized air which has to be clean and
dry. Fundamentally air bearings require some form of
power consumption during operation to supply the high
pressure air, unlike mechanical systems which may oper-
ate without any power input (except mechanical forces)
[11][12]
3 Exact calculations
Structural analysis (FEM-Simulation)
Comparison between calculations and measurements
Undoubtedly, air bearings have outstanding features in
many applications. Rarely, however, and because of a
wrong or inadequate interpretation, an air bearings po-
tential is completely made use of. Far too often air bear-
5
ings are incorrectly deemed as unsuitable even though
they would have provided a superior system with a cor-
rect calculation. Normally, one makes use of a simula-
tion software specially developed for the calculation of
air bearings. This software has been developed based on
exact, theoretical physical models. Thus, one is able to
solve problems which would have not been solved oth-
erwise with previous formulas and calculations. Calcu-
lation opportunities greatly increase the trustworthiness
and speed of developments.
3.1 Theoretical modeling
When calculating the air bearing behaviors, the uid ow
is simulated within the gap and micro nozzles. As a result
we get the pressure characteristics within the gap. Given
this pressure, one is able to calculate all static properties.
Thus, the result relies, indeed, only on descriptions of
given physical eects and a clear vision of the real cir-
cumstances in the application.[13]
3.2 Tilt stiness
For many applications, the tilt stiness of an air bear-
ing or a complete guidance is fundamental. For this, the
simulations oer exact mathematical values. When com-
paring the micro nozzle air bearing technology with con-
ventional air bearings, the micro-nozzle air bearings only
produce their air cushion where it is necessary.
3.3 Speed
Moving air bearings are tilting due to the aerodynamic ef-
fects within the gap. Depending on the tilt stiness, an air
bearings force capacity decreases with an increasing ve-
locity until it reaches a limit at which it totally fails. Micro
nozzle air bearings have a velocity limit which can reach,
depending on the customization, dozens of m/s. How-
ever, for air bearings with chambers and variable canal
structures, a velocity only of a few m/s is already harm-
ful.
3.4 Deformation
Usually, the mechanical stiness of an air bearings body
is overestimated in comparison to the stiness of the air
cushion. The diagram shows the characteristics of a at
air bearing unit (height 20 mm, diameter 80 mm) in com-
parison to the theoretical characteristics of an inelastic
bearing body with the same geometry. Based on such
simulations, we determine both the material of the air
bearing as well as the distribution and number of micro
nozzles such that it is perfectly adjusted to deformation.
The deformation of an air bearings surface due to the
6 4 EXAMPLES

force of the cushion is calculated on the basis of a struc-

tural analysis, calculated with a special software. The re-
sult obtained becomes a geometric parameter for the cal-
culation of an air bearings simulation. With an iterative
process, each point on the characteristics can be calcu-
lated. In doing so, an exact calculation of the deformation
and air pressure prole is obtained.

3.5 Spindles and cylindrical air bearings

Simulation software also allows calculations of symmet-

ric, rotating systems. We are able to calculate load, sti-
ness, tilt stiness, and air consumption of a complete
spindle guidance conguration, both at a standstill and
highest rotary speed (including dynamic eects). With
this method, one is able to give a prediction about the
maximum rotary speed and natural frequencies. This is
an indispensable requirement for a perfect spindle cong- Air beared cutting engine
uration. With this calculation technique, cylindrical air
bearings stiness and air consumption on manufacturing
tolerances are optimized.

3.6 Accuracy

Many times, the calculation models have been validated

by measurements. Typically, results and reality match
within 5% of the load and 10% of the stiness. Devi-
ations do not result from incorrect calculations but only
because of the condition of an air bearings surface (such
as form deviation and roughness).[14]
[15]
Air beared Doppler engine

4 Examples

4.1 Automotive technology

Air-guided high-frequency knife drive

Even for movements which cause damage due to disrup-

tive wear with roller bearings, lifetimes of the drive sys-
tems are unlimited.
Air beared 2-achs table with friction drive
Air-guided turbo charger
4.2 Semiconductor technology
In order to provide condence and for the rst inves-
tigations,an initial conversion from a conventional oil- Air bearing for inspection device
guided turbo charger into air-guided was done. For a
real future version, the use of results obtained from high- In terms of the measurement of wafers and at panels, it
temperature solutions, mass products (proved produc- is very important to place the sensor chip precisely and
tion costs) and high-frequency spindles (know-how of dy- without any contact along the surface. Therefore the chip
namic background) will be very helpful. is integrated directly into the bearings surface. The max-
4.3 Linear drives
Bearing with piston actor
Air beared satellite system for Solar Arrays
imum distance tolerance to the surface which refers to the
gap variation of the air bearing, is smaller than 0.5 m.
When placing the air bearing with the sensor chip, they
must not touch the wafer surface being measured. As for
the up-and-down movement, a pneumatic piston is used
which is, for repeatability reasons, also air-guided. The
preload of the air bearing and thus the gap height are also
adjusted with this piston.
Chuck with integrated lift drive
For the electrical testing of wafers the chuck can be lifted
stick-slip-free up to 3 mm. The needed contact force for
the probe is adjustable and independent from stroke. The
lift drive is based on a voice coil motor; the guidance is
air-guided. An air-guided pneumatic piston between the
chuck and the drive limits the contact force.
7
4.3 Linear drives
Precision measurement stage
The ligree structure enables through light measurements
for the 300 mm chip production with the utmost precision
of less than 1 nm. In particular, the air bearings are de-
signed for lowest air consumption with the highest sti-
ness.
High-accelerated Doppler drive
The High-accelerated Doppler drive supports and guides
a carbon ber mirror (surface 500 mm x 250 mm) with an
acceleration of up to 300 m/s and a exible movement
prole with high precision. The solution consists of an
air-guided drive: The beam (length 900 mm), which is
xed at the mirror, is manufactured of carbon bre and
carries the magnets of the linear motors. Cables/tubes
(motor, air bearing, measurement system) do not move
in order to avoid breakages due to high load cycles. The
air-bearings are absolutely insensitive against geometric
uctuation as a result of a temperature change.[16]
Drive for production machine
Beside the performance, the reliability is extremely im-
portant for a production machine. The air-guided solu-
tion is designed to be statically determined. The iron-core
linear motor and piston bearings achieve the preload for
the air bearings. Thereby, the drive is easy to assemble
and insensitive against geometric variations, for instance
through temperature inuences or the disposition of the
machines.[17]
4.4 Medical technology
Fat- and oil-free drives for respirators, stick-slip-free
movements of scanners or a high rotary speed of large
rotors have all been achieved with air bearings.
Air-guided computed tomography
High rotary speed (> 5.5 Hz / 330 rpm), low operation
costs, no noise, large inner rotor diameter (> 1m), small
weight of rotor and frame, tilt possibility of the rotor as
well as a high reliability. Besides a direct drive, a belt
drive is also possible.
4.5 Production technology
Primarily, stick-slip-free movements and/or smallest
forces are required. The air bearing technology is pre-
destinated for fat/oil-free high-dynamic movements with
short strokes.
8 5
Air bearing for the adjustment of components
With air-guided units, optical components can be ar-
ranged to have the same diameter on a rotary table. The
air bearing with vacuum preload and a constant bearing
gap height oats contact-less on top of the rotary table.
Adjustment slider for optics production
The linear slider, which is air-guided and statically deter-
mined, guarantees a high-precision positioning of the op-
tical component before grinding. The self-aligning pro-
cess is done without friction or force. When clamped the
component retains its position for further manufacturing
in the sub-micrometer-range.
4.6 Space technology
Air-magnetic slip system
When transporting solar panels for satellites in a launch-
ing rocket, these must be folded. After reaching or-
bit, they unfold via a spring mechanism, weightlessly and
without friction. This process requires prior testing on
Earth due to security reasons. During the testing de-
sign, the solar panels are hung on magnetic preloaded air-
bearings that compensate for gravity. In doing so, the
unfolding movement process is carried out with a mini-
mum friction impact which means that the solar panels
are tested at close to reality. Moreover, the design oers
absolutely maintenance-free handling with equal sequen-
tial movements.
The air-bearing components (diameter 34 mm) with in-
tegrated magnets are so small such that they are able to
glide contact-free along conventional rolled sheet plates
smoothly and with a bearing gap height of about 25 m.
The holding force of an air bearing for one solar panel
averages 600 N. This force is achieved by an equal distri-
bution of the load on 16 single air bearing elements. The
unfolding process of the solar panels has been developed
for an area of 21 m x 2.5 m.
The permanent magnetic preloaded air-bearing guidance
system may be used for many types of hanging trans- [8] Schulz 1997, pp. 1-9.
portation movements as well as for many other applica- [9] Schulz 1999, pp. 21-79.
tions, such as for instance for the stick-slip-free position-
ing of components during assembly.
[18] [19] [20] [21]
5 References
Schulz, Bernd (1999). Herstellung von aerostatis-
chen Lagern mit Laserendbearbeitung [Production of
Aerostatical Bearing with Laser Processing] (Ph.D.)
(in German). Germany: VDI Verlag. ISBN 3-18-
352502-X.
REFERENCES
Schulz B., Muth M. (1997). Dynamically opti-
mized air bearings manufactured with the laser beam
(Ph.D.). England: SPIE. ISBN 0819425222.
Bartz, J.W (1993). Luftlagerungen [Air bearings].
Germany: Expert Verlag. ISBN 978-3816919629.
KLement, Joachim (2009). Funktionsweise der
Luftlager In: Technologie der elektrischen Di-
rektantriebe [Function analysis of air bearings In:
Technology of electrical direct engines]. Germany:
Expert Verlag. ISBN 3816928226.
Germany DE4436156, J. Heinzl; M.Muth; B.
Schulz, Aerostatische Lager und Verfahren zur
Herstellung eines aerostatischen Lagers/Aerostatical
bearings and procedures for the production of aero-
statical bearings, published 10. Oktober 1994,
issued 10. Oktober 1994, assigned to J. Heinzl;
M.Muth; B. Schulz
Schroter, Andreas (1995). Ausgleichsvorgnge und
Strmungsgersche bei aerostatischen Lagern mit
chig verteilten Mikrodsen [equalizing procedures
and current noize at aerostatical bearing with spread
micro-nozzles]. Germany: VDI Verlag. ISBN
3183245019 9783183245017.
Gerke, M. Auslegung von ebenen und zylindrischen
aerostatischen Lagern bei stationren Betrieb [con-
struction of plain and cylindrical aerostatical bear-
ings bei stationary operating year= 1991]. germany:
tu-mnchen. ISBN 978-3-8316-0631-3.
[1] Schulz 1999, pp. 6.
[2] Schulz 1999, pp. 14.
[3] Schulz 1999, pp. 7-8.
[4] Schulz 1999, pp. 9.
[5] Schulz 1999, pp. 11.
[6] OAV What happens when air shuts o?"
[7] http://www.scienceviews.com/geology/graphite.html
[10] Schulz 1999, pp. 59-62.
[11] Schulz 1999, pp. 63-72.
[12] Bartz 1993, pp. 1-26.
[13] Schulz 1999, pp. 69.
[14] Schulz 1999, pp. 17.
[15] Schulz 1999, pp. 17-55.
[16] Klement 2009, pp. 56-60.
[17] Schulz 1999, pp. 76.
 9

[18] Aerolas Air bearings-Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

[19] Air bearing Youtube Video channel

[20] OAV Air Bearing Ultra Precision Air Bearings

[21] OAV Air Bearing Youtube Channel

10 6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1 Text
Air bearing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20bearing?oldid=633357700 Contributors: RHaworth, Dovid, Cydebot, Rusl,
Missvain, Davidwr, Thgoiter, XLinkBot, Dthomsen8, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Cnwilliams, John of Reading, Hhhippo, Anupmehra,
BG19bot, EricEnfermero, BattyBot, Jodosma, Muroerturk, Aerobearing, CFDMasterFlux and Anonymous: 6

6.2 Images
File:Air_bearing_comparison.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Air_bearing_comparison.png Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aerobearing
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artist: ?
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File:Cut_thru_a_cylindrical_element.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Cut_thru_a_cylindrical_
element.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0-de Contributors: Own work Original artist: AeroLas GmbH
File:Flat_round_air_bearing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flat_round_air_bearing.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CFDMasterFlux
File:Lager_mit_kolbenaktor.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Lager_mit_kolbenaktor.jpg License:
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File:Luftgelagerte_Hochfrequenz-Bohrspindel_mit_integriertem_Vorschub_(mehrfach_patentiert).gif Source: http:
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artist: AeroLas GmbH
File:Luftgelagerter_Messerantrieb_bewegt.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Luftgelagerter_
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File:Luftgelagertes_Entfaltsystem_fr_Satelliten_Solar_Arrays.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/
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File:Luftlagerung_einer_Hochfrequenz-Spindel_fr_das_Leiterplattenbohren.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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