96481

SEISMIC IMAGING OF FRACTURES IN GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

Nafi M. Toksoz, Yingping Li

Massachusetts Institute of Technology
42 Carleton St., E34-462
Cambridge, Massachusetts, MA 02142
Tel: (617)253-7852; Fax: (617)253-6385

Jung M. Lee
Kyungpook National University
Taegu, 702-701 KOREA
Tel: 82-53-950-6347; Fax: 82-53-950-5362

ABSTRACT
The fracture systems that act as conduits for fluids play an
important role in the extraction of geothermal energy in both
liquid- and vapor-dominated fields. Hydraulic fracturing is a
common engineering practice used to enhance fluid production
from reservoirs with low permeability. In hot dry rock (HDR)
and in vapor-dominated reservoirs that are being depleted, it is
necessary to inject water to produce steam. This process
generally requires hydraulic fracturing in advance to enhance the
recovery. Therefore, fracture imaging and characterization are
important in obtaining a better understanding of geothermal
reservoirs. In this paper we will present two new techniques for
seismic characterization of fracture systems.
The first technique involves the detection and characterization
of existing fractures with a seismic source at the surface and a
hydrophone array in a borehole, i.e., the hydrophone vertical
seismic profiling (VSP). P- and S-waves impinging on an open
fracture induce fluid flow from the fracture into the borehole and
generate tube waves in the borehole. Orientations of fractures
can be determined by using the ratios of an S-wave generated
tube wave to a P-wave generated tube wave. This method is
applied to VSP data from the Kent Cliffs test well in southeastern
New York. The orientations of three major fractures determined
by this method generally agree well with the orientations
measured from the borehole televiewer images.
The second technique is the high-precision location of induced
earthquakes during hydrofracturing for imaging the fracture. This
method was applied to determine the relative source locations of
157 microearthquakes induced by hydraulic fracturing during an
HDR experiment at Fenton Hill, New Mexico, using seismic data
from four borehole seismometers. High-precision source
locations of a cluster of induced earthquakes clearly delineate a
near-vertical hydraulic fracture zone with an orientation of about
N40"W. The fracture length and height are estimated to be 40
and 35 m. The spatial-temporal distribution of induced seismicity
indicates that the fracture zone grows significantly in a two-hour
period, migrating toward the northwest with a growth rate of 0.1
to 0.2 m per minute.
The two methods we present demonstrate new approaches for
detecting and imaging fractures that are applicable to geothermal
reservoirs. These approaches provide the means to obtain much
more detailed information about fracture systems within
geothermal reservoirs.
INTRODUCTION
The extraction of geothermal energy from the earth's crust
involves fluid flow through fracture systems in many cases. In
hot dry rock (HDR) reservoirs, and in vapor-dominated reservoirs
that are being depleted, injection of water into reservoirs is
required to generate sufficient steam. Hydraulic fracturing has
been a useful tool in the enhancement of fluid production from
reservoirs with low permeability. In order to efficiently and
economically extract the geothermal energy in both liquid- and
vapor-dominated fields, we need more detailed knowledge about
underground fracture systems that act as fluid conduits.
Therefore, fracture imaging is critical in obtaining a better
understanding of underground fracture systems.
In liquid systems, a novel method for detecting major fractures
is to use a surface seismic source (explosion, weight drop, or a
vibrator) and an array of hydrophones. Hydrophone VSPs have
been shown to detect open fractures (Huang and Hunter, 1982).
Tube waves generated by a P- or S- wave impinging on fractures
have been used for characterization of these fractures (Beydoun et
al., 1985; Hardin and Toksoz, 1985; Hardin et al., 1987; Toksoz
et al., 1987,1992; Cicerone and Toksoz, 1995). Lee and Toksoz
(1995) extend the model to the case for impinging SV-waves to
utilize tube waves generated by both P- and SV-waves in
determining the dip angles of the fractures.
This study applies this new technique to the tube waves
observed in hydrophone VSP sections collected at the Kent Cliffs
test well in southeastern New York State. The orientations of
three major fractures that generate primary tube waves in the

1647
seismic profiling sections are obtained. The results agree well
with the orientations measured from the borehole televiewer
images in general.
Hydraulic fracturing often produces numerous induced
microearthquakes. Acoustic and elastic waves generated by these
seismic events can be recorded by seismometers in monitor wells
and at the surface. By analyzing the seismic signals, we can
obtain an image of a fracture system and then obtain reliable and
accurate estimates of the geometric, mechanical, and dynamic
parameters for the fracture system. Seismic monitoring and
imaging techniques have been applied in the extraction of
geothermal energy, the enhancement of oil and gas production,
and the safe disposal of hazardous waste (e.g., House, 1987;
Fehler et al., 1987; Wills et al., 1992; Phillips et al., 1992; Block
et al., 1994). However, these previous investigations focused on
the final geometry of a hydraulic fracture zone rather than on the
fracturing process and mechanical properties of a fracture system.
We developed a new technique (Li et al., 1995), which takes
advantage of a relative event location method and waveform
correlation analysis, to precisely locate the hypocenters of 157
earthquakes induced by hydraulic fracturing during an HDR
experiment at Fenton Hill, New Mexico. By analyzing the
seismicity distribution in space and time, we determine the
orientation, length, and height of a hydraulic fracture zone and
estimate the fracture growth rate and direction. We also infer the
mechanical properties of the fracture zone by analyzing the
microearthquake source properties. The rupture direction of a
single, larger event is found to be consistent with the fracture
growth direction estimated with location results.
In the next section, we describe the tube wave approach for
fracture detection and the source location method for imaging
fractures with induced microearthquakes in an HDR reservoir.
FRACTURE CHARACTERIZATIONWITH VSP DATA
In liquid systems, major fractures can be detected and
characterized using hydrophone VSPs. Toksoz et al. (1992) and
Cicerone and Toksoz (1995) attempted to determine both the
orientation and hydraulic conductivity of fracture by using tube
waves generated by P- and SV-waves from several surface
sources. Lee and Toksoz (1995) utilized tube waves generated by
both P- and SV-waves to determine the orientation and dip angle
of the fracture from a single surface source. The amplitude ratio
of the tube wave generated by the impinging SV-wave to the tube
wave generated by the impinging P-wave, after normalizing by
the hydrophone response of the generating SV- and P- waves,
respectively, is derived as a function of the fracture orientation.
Thus, the orientations of open fractures can be inverted using this
forward modeling function. This technique is applied to tube
waves observed in hydrophone VSP sections collected at the Kent
Cliffs test well in southeastern New York State.
The Kent Cliffs borehole is drilled 1 km deep for scientific
studies. Geologically, the borehole is located in the northern
Reading Prong which is composed of Precambrian crystalline
rocks. The borehole cuts first through amphibolite and then
through underlying gneiss. The site is Characterized by a number
of geophysical approaches, including well logs, borehole
televiewer logging and caliper logging, hydraulic fracturing stress
measurements, core measurements, and hydrophone VSP.
The multiple offset hydrophone VSP experiment was carried
out using a repeatable vertical impact source - an accelerated
weight drop source. The downhole sensors were separated by a
3.048 m interval, and source impacts were repeated 4 to 6 times
for each hydrophone location depending on the quality of raw
data. The source offsets were 37.5, 350.5, and 288.0 m, with
1648
azimuths of 268", 318", and 85", respectively (Figure 1). Two
second recordings were made with a sampling interval of 0.5 ms.
The raw waveform data were processed and stacked. The
amplitude of each stacked trace was normalized utilizing the
amplitude of the corresponding source monitor phone record. A
band-pass filter was applied to the stacked data. The processed
sections of the 288.0 m and 350.5 m offset are plotted in Figures
2 and 3. The VSP section shows tube wave trains of the larger
amplitude (the Chevron -shaped signals), and P- and S-wave
trains of thesmaller amplitude. The primary tube waves are
generated at depths of 232,287, and 513 m.
To accurately measure the amplitudes of tube waves and P-
and SV-waves, it is necessary to isolate these wavefields from the
total observed wavefields. Anf-k filter was applied to isolate the
wavefields of interest. In order to increase the signal-to-noise
ratio, neighboring traces were stacked. The normalized amplitude
ratios have been estimated by two independent methods: the ratio
of RMS amplitudes and the average of spectral ratio. The two
observed quantities were inverted separately for the orientation of
the three major fractures. Refer to Lee and Toksoz (1995) for
more details of the data processing and inversion procedures.
The inversion results with RMS amplitudes and the average of
spectral ratio are shown in Table 1. The inversion results for each
fracture using different independent normalized tube wave ratio
estimates are very similar. The largest discrepancy shown for the
fracture at a depth of 232 m does not exceed 10 ' in both the dip
direction and the angle. The dip direction and the angle of the
three major fractures in the Kent Cliffs well were also derived
from televiewer images (Figure 4), providing an independent
estimate to compare with the hydrophone VSP inversion results.
In comparison of the results of the tube wave inversion with
the measurements of the televiewer images (Table l), there is
reasonable agreement, except for the fracture at 232 m. The
differences for the fractures at 287 and 531 m are about lo" in the
dip direction and about 20" in the dip angle. If the measurement
errors of the dip direction and the angle in the televiewer images
are considered, the agreement appears to be more reasonable.
The discrepancy between the tube wave inversion results and
the measurements from televiewer images may be attributed to:
(1) the bending ray due to inhomogeneities, (2) possible SH-wave
motion caused by anisotropy, and (3) variation of the fracture
orientation away from the well. Alternatively, the discrepancy
may be attributed to the fact that the borehole televiewer only
samples a small area of each fracture at the borehole, whereas the
tube waves sample the formation over a much larger area.
FRACTURE IMAGING WITH MICROEARTHQUAKE
SOURCE LOCATIONS
Hydraulic fracturing invariably generates microearthquakes.
Seismic data were collected during a hydraulic fracturing
experiment at Fenton Hill, New Mexico as part of an evaluation
of the feasibility of extracting heat energy from hot dry rocks
(HDR) at depths by circulating water through man-made fracture
systems between two deep boreholes. During HDR experiment
#2032 at Fenton Hill, about 21600 m3 of water were injected into
a well at a depth of 3.5 km for 61 hours and more than 10,000
earthquakes with magnitudes from -6 to 1.5 were induced by
hydraulic fracturing. Seismic events were recorded by four
borehole stations (Figure 5) with a sampling rate of 5,000
samples per second. We obtained waveform data from the Los
Alamos National Laboratory for a small subset of the seismic
events (Cluster B) and determined the relative hypocentral
locations of 157 earthquakes using a waveform correlation
analysis and a relative source location method (Li et al., 1995).
 There are two major error sources in an earthquake location
problem: reading errors for the arrival times of seismic waves and
errors from an incorrect velocity model used for the locations.
Earthquakes close to each other in a cluster have very similar
propagation paths. Travel-time errors along the ray paths caused
by an incorrect model are almost the same for these events. If
two events close to one another have similar focal mechanisms,
their waveforms recorded at the same station will be very similar,
as shown in Figure 6. Therefore, we can use waveform
correlation analysis to improve the accuracy of arrival time
readings and reduce measurement errors (e.g., Poupinet et al.,
1984; Phillips et al., 1992; Li et al., 1995). Although the
absolute location of the whole cluster may be biased by an
incorrect velocity model, the relative source locations of
earthquakes in a cluster can be determined with a high precision.
We calculated cross-correlation functions for master-slave
pairs to measure the differential arrival times between the master-
slave events with a timing accuracy of 0.2 ms. A half-space
velocity model with Vp = 5920 m/s and Vs = 3500 m/s and an
initial station correction model (House, 1987) were adopted in our
location calculations. We developed a grid search method to
determine the locations of the induced earthquakes. A volume of
1 km3, centered at the injection point, was selected as a search
target. The space was grided on the cubic of 0.5 by 0.5 by 0.5 m.
We put a hypothetical source at each grid and calculated the P-
and S-wave travel-times from the source to the four stations and
compared them with the observed data. We scanned the target
volume to find the source location by best-fitting the calculated
travel-times and observed data in the least-squares sense. When
total RMS residuals reached a global minimum, a location of the
event was determined. The reader is referred Li et al. (1995) for
more details of the waveform correlation analysis and a grid
search inversion approach.
We located hypocenters for 157 microearthquakes using this
approach. The absolute RMS residual ranged from 3.5 to 5 ms,
corresponding to an absolute location error ellipsoid with a semi-
major axis of 30 to 40 m. This absolute error is dominated by the
systematic error caused by the incorrect velocity model. We
analyzed statistically the residuals at four stations for 157
microearthquakes and obtained new station corrections. We reran
the grid search program using a new station correction model and
found that the RMS was reduced to 0.2 to 1.0 ms. The maximum
relative errors obtained with an SVD analysis are estimated to be
1 to 3 m for the epicenter and 2 to 7 m for the focal depth.
The hypocentral locations for 157 induced microearthquakes
are shown in Figure 7 with a map view and two cross-sections.
147 are concentrated in a small volume defining a tight cluster.
Ten other events are scattered and may not be associated with
hydrofracturing. The tight cluster delineates an approximate
vertical fracture plane with an orientation of N40"W. From the
seismicity distribution, the length and height of the fracture zone
are about 40 and 35 m, respectively. The spatial-temporal
distribution of the microearthquakes indicates that about 80% of
the events in this cluster occurred between 09:OO and 11:OO and
that the fracture zone grew rapidly during this period. The
hypocenter distribution (Figures 8a and 8b), in the different time
window of 20 minutes long, indicates that the fracture zone
length grows to the northwest as the time increases. In contrast to
the fracture length, the growth of the fracture zone height is less
than 30% during the same period (Figure 8b). Location
variations of the front (or centroid) event in each 20-minute
window were used to estimate the fracture zone growth rate. We
estimate that the fracture zone grows to the northwest with a
growth rate of 0.1 to 0.2 m per minute (Figure 9).
1649
We also infer the mechanical properties off the fracture zone by
analyzing seismic source parameters. For two close events with
similar focal mechanisms, but different sizes, we can use the
waveform of the smaller event as an empirical Green's function
(EGF) to correct for the propagation effects (e.g., Mueller, 1985;
Li and Thurber, 1988) and retrieve the relative source time
function (RSTF) of the larger event. RSTF's of event 2967 (M=-
2.2) retrieved with three station's data, indicate azimuthal
variations of the RSTF pulse widths and amplitudes. This
variation indicates that the source ruptured to the northwest
(Figure lo), away from station PC1 (Figure 5). This result is
consistent with the fracture growth direction derived from relative
source locations. We obtained RSTFs of 16 master events
(Figure 10) and found their source duration to be 2.2 to 7.6 ms
and the source radii was from 3.5 to 12 m. The stress drops of the
16 events were estimated ranging from 0.1 to 1.9 MPa,
suggesting significant heterogeneity of the stress field and rock
mechanical properties in the fracture zone and vicinity.
CONCLUSIONS
We have demonstrated the power of two new techniques in
seismic imaging and characterization of the underground
hydraulic fracture systems. In the liquid systems, the inversion of
the normalized ratio of tube waves recorded on hydrophone
VSPs can obtain the dip direction and the angle of fractures
intersecting the borehole. The seismic imaging results for three
major fractures in the Kent Cliffs test well agrees well with the
measurements from televiewer images. In HDR reservoirs, the
high-precision relative source location method can obtain not
only the final geometrical parameters of a hydraulic fracture zone,
but also the dynamic growth process of the fracture zone.
Analyzing the source parameters of induced earthquakes can also
be used to infer the mechanical properties of the fracture zone.
These new approaches provide a good means to obtain much
more detailed information about created geothermal reservoirs,
including the physical properties of individual fracture systems
within these reservoirs. We expect wide applications of these
new techniques in characterizing and managing geothermal
reservoirs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The hydrophome VSP data collection was supported by the
Empire State Electric Energy Research Corporation through a
contract with Woodward-Clyde Consultants. We would like to
thanks Drs. Scott Phillips and Mike FehXer for providing the
seismic data collected during the HDR experiment. This study is
supported by the Borehole Acoustics and Logging Consortium at
MIT and Department of Energy Grant DE-FG02-86ER13636.
REFERENCES
Beydoun, W. B., Cheng, C. H., and Toksoz M. N., 1985,
"Detection of open fractures with vertical seismic profiling,"
Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 90, pp. 4557-4566.
Block, L. V., Cheng, C. H., Fehler, M. C.,and Phillips, W. S.,
1994, "Seismic imaging using microearthquakes induced by
hydraulic fracturing," Geophysics, Vol. 59, pp. 102-112.
Cicerone, B. D., and Toksoz, M. N., 1995, "Fracture
characterization from vertical seismic profiling data," Joumal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 100, pp. 4131-4148.
Fehler, M., House, L., and Kaieda H., 1987, "Determining
planes along which earthquakes occur: method and application to
earthquakes accompanying hydraulic fracturing," Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 92, pp. 9407-9414. N
Hardin, E. L., and Toksoz M. N., 1985, "Detection and S/P#2 Ir
characterization of fractures from generation of tube waves,"
Trans., SPWLA Annu. Loggoing Symp. 26 th, pp. 111-1121.
Hardin, E. L,. Cheng, C. H., Paillet, F. L., and Mendelson J.
D., 1987, "Fracture characterization by means of attenuation and
gneration of tube waves at fractured crystalline rock at Mirror
Lake, New Hampshire," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol.
2\ \
cti
92, pp. 7989-8006.
House, L. 1987, "Locating microearthquakes induced by
\\ SIP#3
hydraulic fracturing in crystalline rock," Geophysical Research.
Lerters, Vol. 14, pp. 919-921.
Huang, C. F., and Hunter J. A., 1982, "A seismic 'tube wave' sp#i BOREHOLE
method for in-situ estimation of fracture permeability in T,D. 1007.8 m
boreholes, Geophysics, Vol. 47, pp. 414-429.
Lee, J. M., and Toksoz, M. N., 1995, "Determination of the
offset azimuth elevation'
orientation of open fractures from hydrophone VSP," submitted
S/P#l 37.5 m 268O 0.0m
to Geophysics.
s/P#~ 350.5 m 318O -3.4m
Li, Y., Cheng, C. H., and Toksoz M. N., 1995. "Seismic
SP#3 288.0 m 85O -12.2m
imaging geometry and dynamic growth process of a hydraulic
fracture zone at Fenton Hill, New Mexico," submitted to
Geophysics. FIGURE 1. MAP VIEW OF THE CONFIGURATION FOR
Li, Y. and Thurber, C. H., 1988, "Source properties of two THE KENT CLIFFS HYDROPHONE VSP EXPERIMENT.
microearthquakes in Kilauea volcano, Hawaii," Bull. Seism. Soc. S/P#l, S/P#2, AND S/P#3 ARE THE LOCATIONS OF
Am., Vol. 78, pp. 1123-1132. THREE SHOT POINTS. THE SOURCE ELEVATION IS
Mueller, C., 1985, "Source pulse enhancement by RELATIVE TO THE WELL HEAD. IN THE BOREHOLE,
deconvolution of an empirical Green's function," Geophysical THE FIRST HYDROPHONE IS AT A DEPTH OF 21.34 M,
Research. Letters, Vol. 2, pp. 33-36. SLIGHTLY BELOW THE WATER TABLE, AND THE LAST
Phillips, W. S., House, L. S., and Fehler, M. C., 1992, "Vp/Vs HYDROPHONE IS AT A DEPTH OF 9990.6 M, SLIGHTLY
and the structure of microearthquake clusters,"Seismol. Research ABOVE THE WELL BOTTOM.
Letters, Vol. 63, pp. 56-57.
Poupinet, G., Ellsworth, W.L., and Frechet, J., 1984. Kent Cliffs Hydrophone VSP S/P #2
Monitoring velocity variations in the crust using earthquake
doublets: an application to the Calaversa fault, California,
Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 89, pp. 5719-5731.
Toksoz, M. N., Cicerone, R. D., Lee, J. M., and Alexander, S. 152
S., 1987, "Fracture dectection andcharacterization from
hydrophone VSP data," Soc. Explor. Ceophys. 57 th Ann.
Meeting, Expanded Abst., pp. 695-696.
Toksoz, M. N., C. H. Cheng, and Cicerone, R. D., 1992, 305
"Fracture detection and characterization from hydrophone vertical
seismic profiling data, in Fault Mechanism and Transporration
Properties of Rocks, eds., B. Evens and T, Wong, Academic
Press, London, pp. 389-414. -
E
457
Wills, P. B., DeMartini, D. C., Vinegar, H. J., Shlyapobersky, 1

2
J., Deeg, W. F., Woerpel, J.C., Fix., J . E., Sorrells, G. G., Adair, a
U
R. G., 1992, "Active and Passive imaging of hydraulic fractures,"
Geophysics:Tlie Leading EDGE, Vol 11, pp. 15-22. 610

TABLE 1. THE ORIENTATIONS OF THREE MAJOR 762

FRACTURES IN THE KENT CLIFFS TEST WELL

Fracture VSP Televiewer Images 914

Depth RMS Amplitude Ave. Spec. Ratio
(m) direction/ dip angle directioddip angle directioddip angle
0 50 lW 150 ZW 250 360
time (ms)
232 151"118" 161"127" 180' 160"
287 177' 184' 177' 184' 165' I60'
513 177' 150' 177' 153' 170' 175" FIGURE 2. A HYDROPHONE VSP SECTION FOR S/P#2.
THE SOURCE OFFSET IS 350.5 M WITH AN AZIMUTH

1650
OF N42"W. A BAND PASS FILTER OF A 80 TO 200 HZ
PASS BAND IS APPLIED.
Kent Cliffs Hydrophone VSP SIP #3
FRACTURES PER 10M IS PRESENTED AS A FUNCTION
OF DEPTH. BLACK DIAMONDS INDICATES THE
LOCATIONS OF THE MAJOR OPEN FRACTURES
GENERATING PRIMARY TUBE WAVES I N
HYDROPHONE VSP. (B) THE TELEVIEWER IMAGE AT
THE DEPTH AROUND 232 M.

*500}
n
E
v
r
U
I

-1500
U(2855 m)

-loo0 0
(571 m)

loo0
East (m)

FIGURE 5. MAP VIEW OF THE GEOMETRY OF FOUR

BOREHOLE SEISMIC STATIONS (TRIANGLES) AND
EPICENTERS FOR A CLUSTER OF
MICROEARTHQUAKES INDUCED BY HYDRAULIC
time (ms) FRACTURING DURING AN HDR EXPERIMENT. THE
STATION DEPTH ARE GIVEN IN PARENTHESES.

FIGURE 3. A HYDROPHONE VSP SECTION FOR S/P#3. LEI: Verticol Comvonent Selsmwroms
THE SOURCE OFFSET IS 288.0 M WITH AN AZIMUTH I
OF N85'E. A BAND PASS FILTER OF A 80 TO 200 HZ
PASS BAND IS APPLIED.

O W N E S W N

228 8

n"
I

Time (s)

FIGURE 6. VERTICAL COMPONENT SEISMOGRAMS

OF THREE SIMILAR EARTHQUAKES RECORDED AT
STATION EE1.
Map View
-2501 A I
236 2

-310'
-520 -490 460 -430
FIGURE 4. THE FRACTURE DENSITY OBTAINED FROM
THE BOREHOLE TELEVIEWER LOGS. (A) NUMBER OF East (m)

1651
 STRIKE OF THE FRACTURE ZONE) SHOWING
VARIATION OF HYPOCENTERS OF THE INDUCED
Cross Section AA' Cross Section BB' EVENTS. THE CIRCLE REPRESENTS THE FIRST
-32601- I
- .
...
1
EVENT WITHIN THE FRACTURE ZONE.
t

-3290 Growth Rate of Fracture Zone Length

h

E
Y
0 Frontevent
0 Centrold
-
E
U
30
D = 5.40 t O.22T R A 2 = 0.982

-3380-
-10 20 50 80 -30 0 30
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FIGURE 7. A MAP VIEW AND TWO VERTICAL CROSS-

SECTIONS SHOWING HYPOCENTERS OF 157 I
INDUCED MICROEARTHQUAKES. THE INDUCED 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
SEISMICITY SHOWS THE GEOMETRY OF A Time (minutes)
HYDRAULIC FRACTURE ZONE.

FIGURE 9. ESTIMATES OF THE GROWTH RATE OF

THE FRACTURE LENGTH. THE FRONT (OR
CENTROID) IN EACH TIME FRAME IS THE EVENT ON
THE NORTHWEST EDGE (OR CENTER) OF EACH
SUBCLUSTER. THE DISTANCE IS MEASURED FROM
THE FIRST EVENT WITH THE FRACTURE ZONE.

10:00-10:19.9 10:20-10:39.9 10:40-10:59.9

2651-- Map View (16 Master Events)
-285
[A B'1

-
0 I

East (m) % 2967

0
(b) 09:00-09:19.9 09:20-09:39.9 09:40-09:59.9
O%I

+++
B A
-305
++ *+ + -510 -500 -490 -480 -470
+

1O:OO-10:19.9 10:20-10:39.9 10:40-10:59.9

-3265 A. , , ,
A ' ] v l \ A ' ' A']
' FIGURE 10. EPICENTRAL LOCATIONS OF 16 LARGER
-3275 1 + it + 41 I EVENTS. THEIR SOURCE PARAMETERS WERE
ESTIMATED a y ANALYZING THEIR RSTF'S.
AZIMUTHAL VARIATION OF RSTF's FOR EVENT 2967
INDICATES THAT THE SOURCE RUPTURED TOWARD
THE NORTHWEST, AWAY FROM STATION PC1.
Distance (m)

FIGURE 8. THE SPATIAL-TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION

OF INDUCED EARTHQUAKES DURING A TWO-HOUR
PERIOD. (A) MAP VIEWS OF EARTHQUAKE
EPICENTERS. (B) AA' CROSS-SECTIONS (ALONG THE

1652