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Demonstration o f t h e h y b r i d concept on a brine-to-isobutane heater. The b r i n e , which
geopressured w e l l has t h e b e n e f i t o f t e s t i n g leaves t h e separator a t 278oF i s cooled t o
current technology available to produce 21OOF i n t h e brine-to-isobutane b o i l e r . The
e l e c t r i c i t y from geopressured resources. During brine from the boiler then enters the
t h e year o f operation, much i s expected t o be brine-to-isobutane preheater. The
learned about potential problems such as pressure-enthalpy diagram f o r isobutane w i t h t h e
s c a l i n g , corrosion, f l o w i n s t a b i l i t i e s , and gas b i n a r y c y c l e p o r t i o n o f t h e HPS design process
engine l i f e w i t h t h e impure wellhead gas. path i s presented i n Fig. 6 (Gas Processors
Supp. ASSOC., 1987). A s i m p l i f i e d process f l o w
The s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s of the HPS test diagram o f t h e h y b r i d c y c l e power p l a n t i s shown
program are as f o l l o w s : i n Fig. 7.
Exhaust gas from t h e gas engine a t 1130oF The parasitic load l a b e l e d "condensers"
i s used t o b o i l about 14% o f t h e isobutane i n includes four water pumps, one f o r each
the exhaust gas-to-isobutane boiler. The Baltimore A i r c o i l Condenser u n i t , and e i g h t f a n
remainder o f t h e isobutane i s b o i l e d i n t h e motors. Fans are approximately 85% o f t h e 75 kW
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condenser p a r a s i t i c load. The l o a d l a b e l e d The h o t t e s t s u r f a c e i n c o n t a c t w i t h isobutane i s
" c i r c u l a t i n g pump" i s t h e isobutane pump used t o t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e tube bundle where t h e exhaust
pump t h e condensed isobutane l i q u i d i n t o t h e gases first enter. Here t h e exhaust gas
high-pressure heat exchangers. The temperature i s near i t s design i n l e t value o f
miscellaneous loads t o t a l 60 kW and i n c l u d e t h e 1130OF, b u t an e x c e l l e n t b o i l i n g heat t r a n s f e r
utility cooler, lube oil pumps, air c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e isobutane side, combined w i t h
conditioning, pressurizing a i r f o r the t r a i l e r s , a low convective h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t on
instrument a i r , c o n t r o l power and l i g h t i n g . the gas s i d e combine t o keep t h e o u t s i d e
These p a r a s i t i c loads a r e a h i g h e r percentage of (isobutane s i d e ) o f t h e tube a t an estimated
generator o u t p u t than would be expected f o r a 246OF, w e l l below t h e c r i t i c a l temperature o f
commercial power p l a n t . 550oF. The heat f l u x a t t h e tube entrance i s
estimated t o be 15,500 B t u / h r - f t z , over 2-1/2
times t h e average f o r t h e whole heat exchanger.
Process Equipment The heat exchanger i s designed t o minimize vapor
blanketing in t h i s r e g i o n by l o c a t i n g t h e
Isobutane i s pumped t o a pressure o f 330 isobutane inlet here and u t i l i z i n g several
psia by t h e isobutane c i r c u l a t i n g pump, a b a f f l e s which c r e a t e d h i g h v e l o c i t i e s over t h e
m u l t i - s t a g e v e r t i c a l t u r b i n e pump. Isobutane i s tubes.
heated t o i t s bubble p o i n t by warm b r i n e i n t h e
b r i n e - t o - i s o b u t a n e preheater, a shell-and-tube Although a s a f e t y c o n t r o l i s provided t o
heat exchanger w i t h c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t f l o w . A f t e r divert the exhaust gas directly t o the
l e a v i n g t h e b r i n e - t o - i s o b u t a n e preheater, t h e atmosphere i f t h e l i q u i d l e v e l i n t h e b o i l e r
isobutane f l o w s p l i t s w i t h some o f t h e isobutane drops below a s p e c i f i e d value, we i n v e s t i g a t e d
being b o i l e d by exhaust gas from t h e engine and t h e case o f a tube exposed t o vapor over one
t h e remainder b o i l e d by t h e h o t b r i n e . h a l f o f i t s length. I t was assumed t h a t t h e
bottom h a l f o f t h e tube (where t h e h o t exhaust
Isobutane vapor from t h e b r i n e - t o - i s o b u t a n e gas e n t e r s ) was l i q u i d covered. The exhaust gas
b o i l e r and exhaust gas-to-isobutane b o i l e r i s temperature a t t h e tube m i d p o i n t was c a l c u l a t e d
combined, passed through an entrainment t o be a t 498oF, and t h e tube o u t s i d e s u r f a c e
separator, and expanded through a t u r b i n e t o temperature a t t h e p o i n t was c a l c u l a t e d t o be
generate e l e c t r i c i t y . Exhaust isobutane l e a v i n g 292oF. These calculations conservatively
the t u r b i n e i s condensed i n f o u r B a l t i m o r e neglect tube w e t t i n g from s p l a s h i n g by t h e
A i r c o i l condensers. Condensed isobutane e n t e r s b o i l i n g going on below t h e l i q u i d surface, which
the isobutane accumulator b e f o r e being pumped would further lower the tube surface
back through t h e loop, thus completing t h e temperature. I t can t h e r e f o r e be concluded t h a t
b i n a r y cycle. thermal degradation o f t h e isobutane due t o
c o n t a c t w i t h h o t surfaces i n t h e heat exchanger
Wellhead gas used i n t h e power p l a n t w i l l be w i l l n o t be a problem (Lawford, 1988).
burned i n a gas engine. The h y b r i d c y c l e design
i s based on t h e use o f two C a t e r p i l l a r 398
engines. These engines r e q u i r e j a c k e t c o o l i n g Mechanical I n t e g r i t y
which i s g e n e r a l l y done by c i r c u l a t i n g water.
Jacket c o o l i n g can a l s o be accomplished by The f a c t t h a t t h e tubes s t a y q u i t e cool has
p u t t i n g water i n t h e j a c k e t where i t b o i l s t o been discussed. A maximum tube sheet
make steam. This second method o f c o o l i n g i s temperature of 256OF was c a l c u l a t e d which
called ebullient cooling. Use of an should n o t induce excessive thermal s t r e s s e s
e b u l l i e n t - c o o l e d engine i s b e s t f o r t h e h y b r i d (Texas Metal F a b r i c a t i o n s , 1988). The exhaust
c y c l e s i n c e t h e j a c k e t heat i s a v a i l a b l e a t a gas i n l e t chamber (head) would be expected t o
h i g h e r temperature. However, e b u l l i e n t - c o o l e d see temperatures near t h e i n l e t gas temperature
engines were n o t a v a i l a b l e , so t h e c u r r e n t o f 1130OF. However, t h i s temperature w i l l be
design was based on engines w i t h water-cooled f a i r l y u n i f o r m over t h e e n t i r e chamber, and t h e
jackets. chamber i s b o l t e d , n o t welded, t o t h e much
c o o l e r tube sheet. Thus, stresses between t h e
chamber and tube sheet should n o t be excessive.
Thermal E f f e c t s
The e n t i r e gas s i d e o f t h i s heat exchanger
Several areas o f concern have been addressed has such a low design pressure ( 5 p s i g ) t h a t i t
i n design reviews, i n c l u d i n g 1) thermal e f f e c t s , i s n o t considered a pressure vessel. Also t h e r e
2) mechanical i n t e g r i t y , and 3) c o r r o s i o n . The a r e minimal complications from minor leakage
temperature associated with t h e combustion from t h e gas s i d e t o t h e atmosphere.
engine exhaust gases has given r i s e t o concerns
about t h e d y o m p o s i t i o n o f isobutane. Isobutane The s h e l l (isobutane) s i d e i s designed t o
tends to c r a c k " o r t h e r m a l l y decompose a t t h e ASME S e c t i o n VI11 D i v i s i o n I Pressure Wells
temperatures above 550oF. Analyses made by Code and t h e TEMA-R standard. The ASME code
INEL v e r i f y t h e adequacy o f t h e design t o r e q u i r e s t h a t s t r e s s c a l c u l a t i o n s be made t o
m a i n t a i n t h e temperature o f a l l surfaces i n back up t h e design, and t h a t thermal stresses
c o n t a c t w i t h the isobutane below t h i s value. must be considered i n those c a l c u l a t i o n s . The
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s h e l l s i d e has a l s o been hydrotested a t 1-1/2 Corrosion
times t h e design pressure o f 350 psig, although
t h i s t e s t was probably made a t room temperature. Corrosion of t h e heat exchanger d u r i n g
o p e r a t i o n i s n o t expected t o present a problem
The j u n c t u r e o f t h e tubes and t h e tubesheet with r e s p e c t t o t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e heat
are b o t h r o l l e d and sealwelded. R o l l i n g i s a exchanger. It may, however, prove necessary t o
process where the tube ends a r e expanded develop a lay-up procedure f o r shutdowns.
mechanically from t h e i n s i d e t o an i n t e r f e r e n c e
f i t w i t h t h e tube sheet. Thus, leakage o f h i g h S u l f i d e s a r e present i n t h e engine f u e l gas
pressure isobutane i n t o t h e low pressure exhaust t o t h e e x t e n t o f 22 ppm. These would be
gas would r e q u i r e a f a i l u r e o f one o r more o f expected to be converted t o (SO), i n the
the seal welds, which i s considered h i g h l y engine. The engine a l s o forms (NO), from t h e
unlikely. Furthermore a leakage o f isobutane a i r i t ingests, amounting t o about 0.3% o f t h e
i n t o t h e o u t l e t ( c o l d ) chamber would merely exhaust gas stream. I n an aqueous s o l u t i o n ,
result i n a discharge o f isobutane t o t h e these two components would form s u l f u r i c and
atmosphere, as t h e 300OF discharge temperature n i t r i c a c i d r e s p e c t i v e l y . This problem has been
i s below t h e i g n i t i o n temperature o f isobutane. avoided d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n by u s i n g t h e standard
A leakage o f isobutane t o t h e 1130OF i n l e t boiler practice of maintaining the o u t l e t
chamber would be expected t o combust upon temperature above 300oF, which keeps a l l o f
contact with the h o t gas. However, t h e t h e H20 i n t h e exhaust i n t h e vapor s t a t e .
combustion engine manufacturer p r e d i c t s t h a t t h e During shutdown, however, t h e small amount of
(unreacted) oxygen c o n t e n t o f t h e exhaust gas water vapor present i n t h e heat exchanger would
w i l l be o n l y 2%. Thus, t h e magnitude o f t h e be expected t o condense, and small q u a n t i t i e s o f
possible combusti on would be s i g n i f i c a n t l y a c i d would be formed. I f i t i s deemed
l i m i t e d , and temperature increases i n s i d e t h e necessary, t h i s c o u l d be avoided by a simple a i r
heat exchanger would n o t be expected t o be purge of the heat exchanger tube side
excessive. i m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g shutdown o f t h e engine.
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electrical energy from a Pleasant Bayou type average cost to produce of about 15 cents/kWh
resource (Negus-de Wys et al. , 1989). with off the shelf technology (Negus-de Wys, et
al., 1989).
Cost to Produce
Form Method $/ kWh The future possibilities for the
geopressured-geothermal resource could include
Gas Gas Engine 0.07 the following:
Thermal HPS or-off-the shelf 0.32
technology 1. Conversion of geopressured gas to
electricity through use of a gas
The costs to produce electrical energy from engine, resulting in a cost-to-produce
both the gas and hydraulic energy fall within of about 7 cents/kWh. This may be of
the range set as the Geopressured Program goal, interest to independent oil and gas
6-10 cents/kWh (level ized 1986 constant operators.
dol 1 ars) . However, the conversion of
geopressured thermal energy to electricity is 2. Conversion of geopressured hydraulic
high. Increased efficiency and lower cost for energy to electricity through use of a
technology are needed to meet the Program's hydraulic engine, resulting in a
objective. cost-to-produce of about 8 to 10
cents/kWh.
With advanced technology (assuming an
increased efficiency of 100%) the cost to 3. Research on advanced technology to
produce electricity from thermal energy in a increase efficiency and reduce cost to
Pleasant Bayou type resource can conceivably be convert geopressured thermal energy to
reduced to 16 cents/kWh. This estimate is electricity.
predicated on a flow rate of 20,000 barrels per
day, 23 scf/bbl methane content, 278oF brine 4. Direct use projects for cascading
wellhead temperature, a 970 kW plant, and a utilization of geopressured thermal
10-year plant and reservoir life (Negus-de Wys, energy tailored to regional markets and
et al. , 1989). needs. The concept of total energy use
makes the geopressured-
When gas, hydraulic and thermal are geothermal resource more economically
considered as an energy package, the overall viable.
cost to produce becomes about 15 cents/kWh.
Thus, the capital cost and efficiency of thermal 5. Other direct uses of geopressured
conversion remain an anchor on the economic thermal energy such as the recovery of
viability of geopressured thermal conversion. medium to heavy oil.
Direct use of the thermal energy could enhance
the economic viability in using this energy
form. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the
CONCLUSIONS considerable information received from reports
by R. Miller, Eaton Operating Company, EPRI, and
It is anticipated that the Pleasant Bayou H. Coffer. These all contributed to the
HPS will have been constructed and be in the development and review of the HPS at the
testing phase at the time of this presentation. Pleasant Bayou Well. Additionally, the author
This is the first actual conversion of wishes to thank Dr. Carl Bliem, and Ms. S.
geopressured-geothermal energy to electricity. Stiger, for reviewing the manuscript.
The Pleasant Bayou HPS will provide measurements
of the increase in efficiency obtained by using The Geopressured-Geothermal Program is
the waste heat from the high temperature exhaust sponsored by The Department of Energy under
gas in the power cycle to heat the evaporator. contract No. DE-AC07-76ID01570.-
An economics review concludes that both
geopressured gas and hydraulic energy conversion REFERENCES
to electricity are within the program's desired
cost to produce range (6 to 10 cents/kWh). Gas Processors Suppliers Association,
However, the thermal conversion for a Pleasant Engineering Data Book, 1987, Tenth Edition,
Bayou type resource with off-the-shelf Tulsa, Oklahoma, pp 24-32.
technology falls well above the goal (32
cents/kWh), but could be brou ht closer with HPS Test Plan, 1989, modified by INEL, for
advanced technology (16 cents/kWhq. Geopressured-Geothermal Report to DOE.
Taken as an energy package, the gas, D. F. Keeley and J . R. Meriwether, 1985,
hydraulic, and thermal energy from a Pleasant Aromatic Hydrocarbons Associated With Brines
Bayou type resource results in an estimated
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From Geopressured We1 1s , i n Geopressured-
Geothermal Energy, proceedings o f t h e S i x t h U.S.
Gulf Coast Geopressured-Geothermal Energy
Conference, E d i t o r s : Myron H. Dorfman and Robert
A. Morton, Pergamon Press.
J. Negus-de Wys, S. G. S t i g e r , M. Plum, D.
D. Faulder, C. J. Bliem, and B. C. Lunis, 1989,
Geopressured-Geothermal Resource Economics
Summary.
W. M. Z a r e l l a , R. J. Mousseau, N. D.
Coggeshall, M. S. N o r r i s , and 6. J. Schrayer,
1967, Analysis and S i g n i f i c a n c e o f Hydrocarbons
i n Subsurface Brines. Geochim Cosmochim Acta,
-
31, 1155-1166
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