CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO AIR POLLUTION

1.1 Importance of air

Other planets have sunlight, but the Earth is the only planet we know that has air and water.
Without air and water, the Earth would be unable to sustain life. A diverse community of plant
and animal life has thrived on this planet for millions of years, sustained by the sun and
supported by the soil, water and air.

1.1.1 The Importance of Air Quality

Air quality is important simply because we cant avoid breathing in the air around us.
Man can survive without food for 5 weeks and 5 days without water but without air???????? not
even five minutes. The average adult breathes in about 20 cubic meters, or 20,000 litres of
air a day! Mass of air taken in is 16 kg/day. Those of us who live in cities should be especially
concerned, since we are exposed to a greater amount of pollutants coming from automobile
traffic, commercial, industrial and manufacturing facilities, as well as other sources.

Air pollutants can cause a variety of health problems - including breathing problems;
asthma; reduced lung function; lung damage; bronchitis; cancer; and brain and nervous system
damage. Air pollution can also irritate the eyes, nose and throat, and reduce resistance to colds
and other illnesses. Air pollution can be especially harmful to the very young, the very old, and
those with certain pre-existing medical conditions.

Air pollution also causes haze and smog reduces visibility, dirties and damages buildings
and other landmarks, and harms trees, lakes and animals. It is also responsible for thinning the
protective ozone layer in the upper atmosphere that protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiation
from the sun, and may be contributing to the phenomenon known as global warming- the steady
increase in average temperature of the global climate.

1.1.2 Historical Background of Air Pollution

With increasing urbanisation and Industrialisation, humans started to release more wastes
into the atmosphere than nature could cope with. Since then, more pollution has been added to
the air by industrial, commercial and domestic sources. As these sources are usually found in
major cities, the gases that are produced are usually concentrated in the air around them.

The adverse effects of air pollution were graphically illustrated in London in 1952 when,
in just a few days, an estimated 4000 people died from effects of fine particle pollution. It is
when these concentrated gases exceed safe limits that we have a pollution problem. Nature can
no longer manage air pollution without our help.

During the last couple of centuries we witnessed an emergence of several fundamental

trends that became the major forces behind the dramatic levels of air pollution worldwide.
Industrialization set in motion the widespread use of fossil fuels which are now the main drivers
of pollution as we know it. Population growth causes the demand for food and other goods to go
up, which is met by expanded production and use of natural resources. This then leads to higher
levels of atmospheric pollution.

Globalization has in a way become a facilitator of air pollution. Big industry takes
advantage of lapses environmental controls in developing nations and moves its manufacturing
facilities to such pollution havens from where air pollution travels around the world without
any obstacles.

1.2 Structure of atmosphere

1.2.1 Earths great spheres : The earth consists of 4 spheres

Lithosphere- The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust
(surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the center of the
planet

Hydrosphere- The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the plane

Biosphere- The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. This sphere includes all of the
microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth

Atmosphere- The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system

 Figure 1.1 Earths Sphere
1.2.2 Four Zones of atmosphere
Atmosphere is divided into four zones
i. Troposphere
ii. Stratosphere
iii. Mesosphere
iv. Thermosphere

Detailed characteristics of each zone are given in table 1.1 and it can also be represented
by graphical means (Figure 1.2).

Table 1.1: Structure of atmosphere

Name of region Height above the Temperature range O C Major chemical

earths surface km species

Troposphere 0-11 15 to -56 O2, N2, CO2, H2O

Stratosphere 11-50 -56 to -2 O3

Mesosphere 50-85 -2 to -92 O2+and NO+

Thermosphere 85-500 -92 to 1200 O+, O2+ and NO+

 Figure 1.2 Structure of atmosphere

1.3 Definitions of Air pollution

Following are the definitions of air pollutions given by various authorities over the world.

a) General definition: Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or

biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms,
or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere.
b) Engineers joint council USA: Air pollution means the presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or
vapour, in quantities, with characteristics, and of duration such as to be injurious to
human, plant or animal life, or which unreasonably interfere with the comfortable
enjoyment of the property
c) American Medical Association: Air pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign
matter in the air which adversely affects the well being of the individuals or causes
damage to property.
d) Definition based on composition of air: Another method of defining air pollution is first
to specify the composition of clean air and then to classify all other materials or increased
amounts of those materials given in composition of atmospheric air pollutants if their
 presence results in damage to human beings, plants and animals or materials. Thus
according to this definition CO, hydrogen, water vapours, ozone in a concentration
greater than 0.04 ppm (0.000004% by volume) would be air pollutants.
Composition of clean air is given in table 1.3
Table 1.3 Composition of clean air

Gas Name Chemical Formula Percent Volume

Nitrogen N2 78.08%

Oxygen O2 20.95%

Water H2 O 0 to 4%

Argon Ar 0.93%

Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.0360%

Neon Ne 0.0018%

Helium He 0.0005%

Methane CH4 0.00017%

Hydrogen H2 0.00005%

Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003%

Ozone and others O3 0.000004%

e) IS definition [IS-4167 (1966)]: Air pollution is presence in ambient atmosphere of

substances, generally resulting from the activity of man, in sufficient concentration,
present for a sufficient time and under circumstances which interfere significantly with
the comfort, health or welfare of persons or full use or enjoyment of property.

1.4 Types of exposures

There are three types of exposures in air pollution
 a) Personal air exposure: It refers to exposure to dust, fumes and gases to which an
individual exposes himself when he indulges himself in smoking.
b) Occupational Air Exposure: It represents the type of exposure of individuals to
potentially harmful concentration of aerosols, vapors, and gases in their working
environment.
c) Community Air Exposure: This is most serious, complex, consists of varieties of
assortment of pollution sources, meteorological factors, and wide variety of adverse
social, economical, and health effects.

1.5 Classification of Air pollutants and sources of air pollution

Any substance occurring in the atmosphere that may have adverse effects on humans,
animals, plant life, and/or inanimate materials is called Air Pollutant. Air pollutants have
known or suspected harmful effects on human health and environment.

A source of air pollution is any activity that causes pollutants to be emitted into the air.
Natural sources of air pollution, also known as biogenic sources. Human-generated pollutants
or anthropogenic sources.

1.5.1 Classification of sources of air pollution

Air pollutants consist of gaseous pollutants, odours, and SPM, (suspended particulate
matter) such as dust, fumes, mist, and smoke. The concentration of these in and near the urban
areas causes severe pollution to the surroundings. The largest sources of human-created air
pollution are energy generation, transportation, and industries that use a great deal of energy
sources. Depending on their source and interactions with other components of the air, they can
have different chemical compositions and health impacts. Since these pollutants are generally
concentrated in and around urban areas, the outdoor urban pollution levels are far higher than in
the rural areas.

Fires are another major source of air pollution and can lead to severe problems if the
smoke is inhaled for a period of time. These fires can either be forest fires, oil well fires, burning
of leaves in the backyard or as in the case of rural areas, large-scale burning of agricultural
waste. Other sources include industries and power plants located in these areas.

Sources of air pollution are classified into two types

Sources

Natural Sources Artificial sources

 Figure__: Natural and artificial sources

A source of air pollution is any activity that causes pollutants to be emitted into the air.
Natural sources of air pollution are also known as biogenic sources. Human generated
pollutants or anthropogenic sources.

Examples of natural sources are forest fires (CO2, ash), volcanic eruptions (sulfur,
mercury), Biological decay, Disintegration of rocks. Where as examples of artificial sources
(anthropogenic sources) are Vehicular pollution, cooking, Industries, incineration, agricultural
activities etc.

Second way to classify sources is as follows

 Another way to classify sources is as follows

Sources

On road Sources Off road sources

"Mobile sources" is a term used to describe a wide variety of vehicles, engines, and
equipment that generate air pollution and that move, or can be moved, from place to place.
Mobile sources are classified as On-road and Non-road sources.

"On-road" or highway sources include vehicles used on roads for transportation of

passengers or freight. On-road sources include light-duty vehicles (LDVs, also referred to as
passenger cars), heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), and motorcycles that are used for transportation on
the road. On-road vehicles may be fuelled with gasoline, diesel fuel, or alternative fuels, such as
alcohol or natural gas.

"Non-road" sources include gasoline and diesel powered vehicles, engines, and
equipment used for construction, agriculture, transportation, recreation, and many other
purposes. These sources emit both criteria pollutants and other hazardous air pollutants.
 Mobile sources pollute the air through combustion and fuel evaporation. These emissions
contribute greatly to air pollution nationwide and are the primary causes of air pollution in many
urban areas. Combustion is the process of burning. Motor vehicles and equipment typically burn
fuel in an engine to create power. Petrol, Gasoline and diesel fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons,
which are compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Difference between perfect combustion and typical engine combustion

Perfect Combustion
Fuel (hydrocarbons) + Air (oxygen and nitrogen) Carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H2O) +
unaffected nitrogen

Typical Engine Combustion

Fuel + Air Unburned Hydrocarbons + Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) + Carbon monoxide (CO) +
Carbon dioxide + water

Therefore all vehicles emit oxides of nitrogen and CO as chief pollutants.

1.5.2 Classification of air pollutants

Air pollutants can be classified by three different approaches.

a) Based on states of mater

Gaseous pollutants are those pollutants which gets mixed with the air and do not normally settle
out.

Particulate pollutants are those, which comprise of finely divided solids or liquids and often
exist in colloidal state as aerosols.

b) Based on Chemical Composition

Organic pollutants are those which contains H-C (hydrocarbons)

Inorganic pollutants are those which do not contain hydrocarbons

c) Based Origin

Primary air pollutants are those which are emitted from identifiable sources.

Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction among two
or more primary pollutants or by reaction with normal atmospheric constituents with or without
photo activation.
Figure 1.3 Primary and Secondary pollutants