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Example: If
2 3 1
A= , and x = ,
3 2 1
then
5
Ax = = 5x.
5
So = 5 is an eigenvalue of A, and x an eigenvector corresponding to this eigenvalue.
Remark: Note that the definition of eigenvector requires that v 6= 0. The reason for this is
that if v = 0 were allowed, then any number would be an eigenvalue since the statement
A0 = 0 holds for any . On the other hand, we can have = 0, and v 6= 0. See the
exercise below.
Those of you familiar with some basic chemistry have already encountered eigenvalues and
eigenvectors in your study of the hydrogen atom. The electron in this atom can lie in any one
of a countable infinity of orbits, each of which is labelled by a different value of the energy
of the electron. These quantum numbers (the possible values of the energy) are in fact
the eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian (a differential operator involving the Laplacian ). The
allowed values of the energy are those numbers such that H = , where the eigenvector
is the wave function of the electron in this orbit. (This is the correct description of the
hydrogen atom as of about 1925; things have become a bit more sophisticated since then,
but its still a good picture.)
Exercises:
1. Show that
1
1
is also an eigenvector of the matrix A above. Whats the eigenvalue?
2. Show that
1
v=
1
is an eigenvector of the matrix
1 1
.
3 3
What is the eigenvalue?
1
3. Eigenvectors are not unique. Show that if v is an eigenvector for A, then so is cv, for
any real number c 6= 0.
E = {v Rn such that Av = v}
Exercise: Show that E is a subspace of Rn . (N.b: the definition of E does not require
v 6= 0. E consists of all the eigenvectors plus the zero vector; otherwise, it wouldnt be a
subspace.) What is E0 ?
represents a counterclockwise rotation through the angle /2. Apart from 0, there is no
vector which is mapped by A to a multiple of itself. So not every matrix has real eigenvectors.
Exercise: What are the eigenvalues of this matrix?
Av v = 0, or, equivalently
(A I)v = 0.
2
we compute
a b
det(A I) = det = 2 (a + d) + (ad bc).
c d
Example: If
1 3
A= .
3 1
Then
1 3
A I = , and pA () = (1 )2 9 = 2 2 8.
3 1
We should be able to find an eigenvector for each of these eigenvalues. To do so, we must
find a nontrivial solution to the corresponding homogeneous equation (A I)v = 0. For
1 = 4, we have the homogeneous system
14 3 3 3 v1 0
v= = .
3 14 3 3 v2 0
This leads to the two equations 3v1 + 3v2 = 0, and 3v1 3v2 = 0. Notice that the first
equation is a multiple of the second, so theres really only one equation to solve.
Exercise: What property of the matrix A I guarantees that one of these equations will
be a multiple of the other?
The general solution to the homogeneous system 3v1 3v2 = 0 consists of all vectors v such
that
v1 1
v= =c , where c is arbitrary.
v2 1
Notice that, as long as c 6= 0, this is an eigenvector. The set of all eigenvectors is a line with
the origin missing. The one-dimensional subspace of R2 obtained by allowing c = 0 as well
is what we called E4 in the last section.
3
Exercises:
is an eigenvector corresponding to 2 = 2.
What are the possibilities for the characteristic polynomial pA ? For a 2 2 matrix A, its a
polynomial of degree 2, so there are 3 cases:
1. The two roots are real and distinct: 1 6= 2 , 1 , 2 R. We just worked out an
example of this.
4
3. pA () has a repeated root. An example is
1 0
A= = I2 .
0 1
Ae = E 1 AE
is diagonal.
In the example, our matrix E has the form E = (e1 |e2 ), where the two columns are two
eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalues = 4, and = 2. In fact, this is the
general recipe:
5
Proof: Suppose {e1 , . . . , en } is a basis for Rn with the property that Aej = j ej , 1 j n.
Form the matrix E = (e1 |e2 | |en ). We have
Examples:
and check that E 1 AE = Diag(3, 2). Of course, we dont really need to check: the
result is guaranteed by the theorem above!
The matrix
1 1
A=
0 1
has only the one-dimensional eigenspace spanned by the eigenvector
1
.
0
6
Theorem: If 1 and 2 are distinct eigenvalues of A, with corresponding eigenvectors v1 , v2 ,
then {v1 , v2 } are linearly independent.
Av1 = 1 v1 = Av2 = 2 v2 .
On the other hand, multiplying the same equation by 1 and then subtracting the two
equations gives
0 = (2 1 )v2
which is impossible, since neither nor (1 2 ) = 0, and v2 6= 0.
It follows that if A22 has two distinct real eigenvalues, then it has two linearly independent
eigenvectors and can be diagonalized. In a similar way, if Ann has n distinct real eigenvalues,
it is diagonalizable.
Exercises:
2. List the two reasons a matrix may fail to be diagonalizable. Give examples of both
cases.
where a, b, c can be any real numbers. Show that A always has real eigenvalues. When
are the two eigenvalues equal?