Geotechnical engineering

Geotechnical engineering is a broader term which includes soil

engineering, rock mechanics and geology.

Definitions:

• Soil Engineering

Soil engineering is an applied science dealing with the applications of

principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

• Soil Mechanics

a. It is branch of mechanics which deals with the action of forces on

soil and with the flow of water in soil.

b. According to Terzaghi, "Soil mechanics is the application of the laws

of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with
sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles
produced by the -mechanical and chemical disintegration of rock,
whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents."

• Soil

a. It is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid

particles, produced by the disintegration of rocks.

b. The void space between the particles may contain air, water or both.
The solid particles may contain organic matter. The soil particles can
be separated by such mechanical means as agitation in water.

Application Areas of Soil Engineering

It has vast application in the construction of various civil engineering

works.
1. Foundation Design and Construction

• Every structure like building, bridge, highway, dam, and canal are
founded on or below the surface of the earth. Foundations are
required to transmit the load of the structure to soil safely and
efficiently.

• A foundation is termed as shallow foundation when it transmit load to

upper strata of earth.

• Foundation is called as deep foundation when the load is transmitted

to strata at considerable depth below the ground surface. Pile
foundation is type of deep foundation.

• Thus investigation, design and construction of different type of

structure soil mechanics is needed as it gives bearing capacity of
soil, pattern of stress distribution beneath the landed area, effect of
water table, vibration etc.

2. Design of underground and earth retaining structures

• Soil mechanics gives the theories of earth press on retaining

structure.

• The design and construction of underground surfaces structures,

such as tunnels, conduits, and shafts require evaluation of forces
exerted by the soil on these structures. These forces are discussed
in soil mechanics.

• Underground structure
e.g. Tunnels, building pipelines, conduits, shafts.

• Earth Retaining Structure e.g. Gravity retaining wall, bulk heads and
coffer dams.
3. Stability of slopes (Design of embankment and evaluation)

• If soil surface is not horizontal, there is a component of weight of

the soil which tends to move it downward and thus causes instability of
slope.

• The slopes may be natural or manmade. Soil mechanics provides the

methods for checking the stability of slopes.

4. Pavement Design

• It is a hard crust placed on soil for the purpose of providing a smooth

and strong surface on which vehicles can move. The pavement
consists of surfacing, such as a bitumen layer, base and sub base.

• The behavior of subgrade under various conditions of loading and

environmental changes is studied in soil mechanics.

5. Design of dam (Earth Dam)

• Earth dams are huge structures in which soil is used as a

construction material.

• The earth dams are built for erecting water reservoirs.

• It requires a thorough knowledge of soil mechanics.

6. Soil mechanics provides an in-depth study of the problems related

with soil, such as soil heave, soil subsidence, frost heave, shrinkage
and swelling of soils.

Types of foundation

Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include

pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts.
Deep foundations include piles, pile walls, diaphragm walls and
caissons.

Shallow foundations

Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground

surface; generally where the founding depth is less than the width of
the footing and less than 3m. These are not strict rules, but merely
guidelines: basically, if surface loading or other surface conditions will
affect the bearing capacity of a foundation it is 'shallow'. Shallow
foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include pads
('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts.

Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently

strong and stiff to support the imposed loads; they are generally
unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-
compacted fill, peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.

Pad foundations

Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as

that due to a structural column. They may be circular, square or
rectangular. They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform
thickness, but they may be stepped or haunched if they are required to
spread the load from a heavy column. Pad foundations are usually
shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used.

Strip foundations

Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due to a

load-bearing wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where
column positions are so close that individual pad foundations would be
inappropriate.
Raft foundations

Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a
large area, normally the entire area of the structure. They are used
when column loads or other structural loads are close together and
individual pad foundations would interact.

A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends

over the entire loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or beams
incorporated into the foundation.

Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential

settlements as the concrete slab resists differential movements
between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils
with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger
area.

Deep foundations

Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished
ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by
surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished
ground level. They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated
foundations using deep basements and also deep pad or strip
foundations. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to a
deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present
near the surface.

Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation

loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock
strata having a high bearing capacity. They are used when for
economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable
to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of shallow
foundations. In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to
anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist structures in
resisting lateral and overturning forces.

Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is

constructed insitu in a deep excavation.

Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above

ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging
material from within the caisson.

Compensated foundations are deep foundations in which the relief of

stress due to excavation is approximately balanced by the applied
stress due to the foundation. The net stress applied is therefore very
small. A compensated foundation normally comprises a deep
basement.

Different super-structure and sub-structure patterns

General

A. The District Materials Engineer or the Department’s

Environmental/Geotechnical Consultant will determine the
environmental classifications for all new bridge sites. Environmental
classification is required for major widening and may be required for
minor widening. This determination will be made before or during the
development of the Bridge Development Report (BDR)/30% Plans
Stage and the results will be included in the documents. The bridge
site will be tested, and separate classifications will be determined for
both superstructure and substructure.
B. In the bridge plans “General Notes,” include the environmental
classification for both the superstructure and substructure according to
the following classifications:

1) Slightly Aggressive

2) Moderately Aggressive

3) Extremely Aggressive

C. For the substructure, additional descriptive data supplements the

environmental classification. After the classification, note in
parentheses, the source and magnitude of the environmental
classification parameters resulting in the classification.

Commentary: As an example, for a proposed bridge located in a

freshwater swampy area where the substructure is determined to be in
an Extremely Aggressive environment due to low soil pH of 4.5 and the
superstructure to be in a Slightly Aggressive environment, the format
on the bridge plans will be:

Environmental Classification:

Substructure: Extremely Aggressive (Soil - pH = 4.5)

Superstructure: Slightly Aggressive

D. The substructure will not be classified less severely than the

superstructure.

Classification Criteria

A. Bridge substructure and superstructure environments will be

classified as Slightly Aggressive, Moderately Aggressive, or Extremely
Aggressive environments according to the following criteria and as
shown in figure.

The superstructure is defined as all components from the bearings

upward. Conversely, every element below the bearings is classified as
substructure.

Diagram 700 X 450

B. Marine Structures: Structures located over or within 2500 feet of a

body of water containing chloride above 2000 ppm are considered to
be marine structures and all other structures will be considered non-
marine structures. Only chloride test results are required to determine
if a structure is classified as marine.

Classify superstructure and substructure as follows:

1) For structures over or within 2,500 feet of a body of water with

chloride concentrations in excess of 6000 ppm, both superstructure
and substructure will be classified as extremely aggressive.

2) For structures over any water with chloride concentrations of 2000

to 6000 ppm, the substructure will be classified as extremely
aggressive. Superstructures located at 12 feet or less above the mean
high water elevation will be classified as extremely aggressive.
Superstructures located at an elevation greater than 12 feet above the
mean high water elevation will be classified as moderately aggressive.

3) For structures within 2,500 feet of any of a body of water with a

chloride concentration of 2000 to 6000 ppm, but not directly over the
body of water, the superstructure will be classified as moderately
aggressive. The substructure will follow the non-marine criteria in
Table.
C. Non-Marine Structures: All structures that do not meet the criteria
above are considered non-marine structures.

1) Substructure: Classify all non-marine substructures in contact with

water and/or soil given in Table.

2) Superstructure: Any superstructure located within 2,500 feet of any

coal burning industrial facility, pulpwood plant, fertilizer plant, or any
other similar industry classify as Moderately Aggressive. All others
classify as Slightly Aggressive.

Diagram 700 X 450

Chloride Content

A. To optimize the materials selection process, the Designer and/or

District Materials Engineer have the option of obtaining representative
cores to determine chloride intrusion rates for any superstructure
within 2,500 feet of any major body of water containing more than
6,000-ppm chlorides. The District Materials Engineer will take core
samples from bridge superstructures in the immediate area of the
proposed superstructure. The sampling plan with sufficient samples
representing the various deck elevations will be coordinated with the
State Corrosion Engineer. The Corrosion Laboratory of the State
Materials Office will test core samples for chloride content and
intrusion rates.

Commentary:

Generally, all superstructures that are within line-of-sight and within

2,500 feet of the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico are subject to
increased chloride intrusion rates on the order of 0.016 lbs/cy/year at a
2-inch concrete depth. The intrusion rate decreases rapidly with
distance from open waters and/or when obstacles such as rising
terrain, foliage or buildings alter wind patterns.

B. After representative samples are taken and tested, will be used to

correlate the core results (the chloride intrusion rate in lbs/cy/year at a
depth of 2-inch) with the classification.

Summary

• Soil is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid

particles, produced by the disintegration of rocks.

• Soil engineering is an applied science dealing with the applications

of principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

• Soil Mechanics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the

action of forces on soil and with the flow of water in soil.

• Application Areas of Soil Engineering are, Foundation design and

construction , design of underground and earth retaining structures,
stability of slopes, pavement design, design of dams, etc.