Proceedings of the ASME 2014 Power Conference

POWER2014
July 28-31, 2014, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

POWER2014-32049

STANDARDIZATION OF CROSS FLOW TURBINE DESIGN FOR TYPICAL

MICRO-HYDRO SITE CONDITIONS IN PAKISTAN

J. A. Chattha M. S. Khan
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering,
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences & Mohammad Ali Jinnah University,
Technology Islamabad, Pakistan
Topi, Pakistan

H. Iftekhar S. Shahid
Faculty of Mechanical Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering Engineering
GIK Institute of Engineering GIK Institute of Engineering
Sciences & Technology Sciences & Technology
Topi, Pakistan Topi, Pakistan

ABSTRACT Nsd Specific speed

Pakistan has a hydro potential of approximately 42,000MW;
however only 7,000MW is being utilized for electrical power
production [1, 2]. Out of 42,000 MW, micro hydro potential is
about 1,300MW [1, 2]. For typical site conditions (available
flow rate and head) in Pakistan, Cross Flow Turbines (CFTs)
are best suited for medium head 5-150m [3] for micro-hydro
power production. The design of CFT generally includes details
of; the diameter of the CFT runner, number of blades, radius of
curvature and diameter ratio. This paper discusses the design of
various CFTs for typical Pakistan site conditions in order to
standardize the design of CFTs based on efficiency that is best
suited for a given site conditions. The turbine efficiency as a
function of specific speed will provide a guide for cross flow
turbine selection based on standardized turbine for
manufacturing purposes. Standardization of CFT design will not
only facilitate manufacturing of CFT based on the available site
conditions with high turbine efficiency but also result in
reduced manufacturing cost.
NOMENCLATURE:
a - Radial rim width
B Nozzle width
C - Coefficient accounting for nozzle roughness
D,D1 -Outer Diameter of Runner
D2 - Inner Diameter of the runner
H Head
ht - Head total
HPin Input Horse Power
HPout - Output Horse Power
L Breadth of runner
N - Angular speed of the runner
n - Number of blades
Pt - Theoretical Power Output
Q - Flow Rate
So - Thickness of jet
s1 Tangential blade spacing
t - Blade spacing
u1 - Tangential velocity of runner outer periphery
u1 - tangential velocity of runner inner periphery
V - Absolute velocity of water along the channel
V1 - Absolute velocity of the entering water jet
V1 - Absolute velocity of entering water jet (2nd stage)
V2 - Absolute velocity of water from first stage exit
1 - Relative velocity of the entering water jet
1 - Relative velocity of the entering jet (2nd stage)
2 - Relative velocity of the water from first stage exit
y1 - Distance of jet from centre of the shaft
y2 - Distance of jet from inner periphery of the runner
Greek symbols
1 - Angle between runner inner periphery and absolute
velocity of entering water jet (2nd stage)

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 2 - Angle between runner inner periphery and absolute
velocity exiting water jet (1st stage)
1 - Angle between runner inner periphery and relative velocity
of entering water jet (2nd stage)
2 - Angle between runner inner periphery and relative velocity
of exiting water jet (1st stage)
Nozzle width ratio
- System Mechanical Efficiency
- Specific weight of water
- Radius of blades curvature
- Coefficient accounting for blade roughness
INTRODUCTION
Cross Flow Turbines (CFTs) are best suited for medium
head range which is the typical site conditions (available flow
rate and head) in Pakistan. CFTs are considered also due to
their relatively lower manufacturing cost, ease of manufacturing
and higher efficiency. Currently in Pakistan the general
procedure for installation of CFT at a site requires designing
specifically for those particular site parameters in order to attain
the maximum efficiency. This process requires designing and
manufacturing of CFTs for individual sites. Design
standardization of CFT will ease the process by designing
reduced number of CFTs as explained in this paper for the range
of conditions of Pakistan. This will result in design standardized
turbine for off shelf availability. In Pakistan design
standardization practices for packaged cross flow turbine are
required as mentioned by Hydropak [4] among several others.
The turbine efficiency as a function of specific speed will
provide a guide for cross flow turbine selection based on
standardized turbine for manufacturing purposes.
Standardization of CFT design will not only facilitate
manufacturing of CFT based on the available site conditions
with high turbine efficiency but also result in reduced
manufacturing cost.
The simplicity of CFTs design, manufacturing and its low cost
makes it best suited for installation in many of the situations.
LITERATURE REVIEW:
Much improvement in the design of Cross Flow turbine has
been made through experimental research and analysis since its
advent. Experimental results published by different researchers
have been presented in the literature. Khosrowpanah [5] studied
the performance of cross flow turbines with variation of the
runner diameter, number of blades, and nozzle entry arc under
different head and flow conditions. He tested four runners of 6
inches width. The nozzle was 6 inches wide. Water entered
vertically rather than entering horizontally or at an angle
through the nozzle with nozzle entry arc of 58, 78 and 90o. It
was observed that the discharge of Cross Flow turbine increases
with an increase in nozzle entry arc and runner diameter aspect
ratio and a decrease in the number of blades. For a runner
diameter of 12 inches, his results concluded that number of
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blades should be 15 for best efficiency. The effect of increasing
the nozzle entry arc was also studied. The efficiency of Cross
Flow Turbine increases with increase in nozzle entry arc.
Nozzle entry arc was increased from 58o to 90o. The effect of
decreasing runner diameter was also studied keeping runner
length constant and it was found that maximum efficiency
decreases to some extent.
Nakase et al. [6] conducted experiments to study the effect of
nozzle shape on the performance of cross-flow turbines. The
runner outer diameter used was of 315mm; with blade inlet and
outlet angles of 30 and 90 degrees. The runner had 26 blades.
They investigated the flow pattern of Cross Flow Turbine and
classified the flow pattern into two stages. Water that flows
through the both stages was termed as crossed flow and that
passed through only first stage was termed as uncrossed flow.
The crossed flow constitutes a major portion of the flow which
gives rise to flow contraction. These flow contractions are
responsible for accelerating the flow from 1st stage to the 2nd
stage. Nakase et al. [6] concluded that nozzle throat width ratio
(2So/D) near 0.26 is more efficient.
Akerkar [7] has conducted Laboratory study for the efficiency
of Cross Flow turbine. The study involved evaluating the effect
of factors such as angle of attack, nozzle entry arc and nozzle
entry configuration on the overall turbine efficiency. Three
runners were constructed; different angles of attack 16, 20 and
24 degrees were kept. The outer diameter of 12 inches, inner to
outer diameter ratio of 0.68 and the number of blades for the
rotor runner used were 20. A total of five nozzles were
constructed with a throat width ratio 0.41.
Akerkar [7] reported that when viewing the flow pattern inside
the cross flow turbine runner from the centre of the shaft was
concave. For vertical position of nozzle the jet angle at the first
stage exit of the runner is greater. It would result in more cross
flow than either the slant or horizontal position of nozzle. It was
concluded that horizontal position of the nozzle results in least
efficiency.
Akerkar and Fiuzat [8] determined that maximum efficiency is
achieved at the speed ratios in between 0.45 and 0.55. The first
stage of cross flow turbine produced 55% of the total power at
90 degrees nozzle entry arc and 59% at 120 degrees nozzle
entry arc. The maximum efficiency attained without the interior
guide tube was 89% for 90 degrees and with an angle of attack
of 24 degrees. They reported that the efficiency increased with
an increase in the angle of attack from 16 to 24. This
contradicted Banki theory [14] of keeping angle of attack as
minimum as possible.
Hara and Aziz [9] studied the effect of increasing the number of
blades and concluded that highest efficiency is obtained when
number of blades are in the vicinity of 35 with angle of attach of
22o. They performed experiments on nozzle width of 6 inches
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 and 4 inches. They also reported that blade exit angle of 55o account the seasonal variations. He has discussed the approach
results in maximum efficiency. They also studied the effect of for estimating the turbine dimensions.
increasing the number of blades from 20 to 40.
METHODOLOGY
Hayati [10, 11] reported that the operation of cross-flow The calculations and formulas used for this standardization
turbines is efficient especially for a wider range of gate procedure are derived from Mockmore and Merryfield [14] and
openings (in cross flow turbines). For all gate openings with Aziz & Desai [13].
constant head, optimum efficiency usually occurs at a constant
speed. With maximum efficiency, the speeds vary by increasing The first step towards design standardization was to gather the
the head while keeping the gate-opening constant; in addition, data for typical site conditions available in Pakistan. For this
runners of diameter ratio 0.67 provide optimum efficiency; in purpose different CFT manufacturers of Pakistan were
comparison to diameter ratios of 0.54, 0.58 and 0.75. contacted and the typical site conditions reported by the
manufacturers are summarized in Table 1.
Durgin and Fay [12] designed cross-flow turbine to allow
extraction of the inter stage cross flow. They also observed the Table 1: Typical Pakistan micro-hydro site parameters
internal flow patterns. They achieved a maximum efficiency of Manufacturer Head range Flow rate
61%. They determined that the second stage contribute much range
less than that of the first stage in the total power of turbine. 83 Hydro Link Engineering 14-250 ft 2-40 cusecs
percent of the power is contributed by the 1st stage of the Services
runner whereas only 17% of the total power is contributed by Chitral Engineering Works 10- 250 ft 2-40 cusecs
the second stage. It was reported that a significant amount of Mukhtar Engineering Works 10-200 ft 3-50 cusecs
flow was entrained; i.e. carried by the runner, and did not Aga Khan Works 15-250 ft 10-40 cusecs
contribute in the power of CFT by striking the second stage.
They developed analysis for the effects of entrained flow to The data given by the manufacturers show the range of
match it with the measured efficiency collected data. They conditions at which they have installed the CFTs in Pakistan.
presented a modified theory for efficiency measurement. The The factors which were considered during the design
theoretical efficiency came out closer to that of the measured standardization are listed below:
efficiency. The existing theory presented an efficiency of 87%
as entrained flow was not accounted. But the theory presented 210 Q
LD = (1)
by Durgin and Fay matched with that of experimental results. H
Modified theory presented efficiency of 66% closer to the Where, L and D are in inches, Q in cusecs and H in feet.
results obtained indicating that entrained flow should be taken
into account.
39.81 H
N= (2)
The experimental study of Aziz and Desai [13] reveals that in D1
very rare case the increase in diameter ratio causes an increase Where the H and D1 are in meters
in the efficiency. Second Stage also contributes when the
diameter ratio is kept in the vicinity of 0.68. Also maximum
2 S0
efficiency is achieved when the diameter ratio is kept 0.68. 0.41
They concluded that maximum efficiency is achieved by D
keeping nozzle width to runner width ratio of 0.67. They also (3)
studied the effect of angle of attack on the turbine efficiency
and concluded that the angle of attack should be around 24 B
0.67 (4)
degrees, an increase in the angle of attack from 24 to 32 degrees L
resulted in an increase of the turbine efficiency. They also From the above two relations, taken from Aziz & Desai [13]:
studied the effect of increasing the number of blades to 25, L B
resulted in maximum efficiency for 12 inch runners. However 0.48 (5)
D S0
they did not studied the effect of further increasing the number
Generally B/S0 is kept between 3~4 in improved designs, a
of blades at that time. Hara and Aziz [9] studied the effect of
value of 3.5 was considered in this work. Therefore:
further increasing the number of blades.
L
1.5 (6)
Sadrul-Islam et al. [16] analyzed the data of various micro D
hydro sites in Bangladesh and concluded that the cross flow
turbine is suitable for head less than 10m. He also has taken into Other factors which have been taken into account are Number
of blades, Angle of attack (), Blade inlet angle (1), Blade exit

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 angle (2). For higher efficiency, it is recommended that S0 (jet
thickness) should be higher, Length of runner should be small
and diameter should be greater.

Two different design standardization approaches are explained

in this paper.

Efficiency of CFT is given as: [14]

cos 2 u
2C2u11 cos 1 1
cos 1 V1
= (7)
V1

It is clear that efficiency is a function of

= f r, , H
Figure 1: Head vs. Efficiency

The plot of versus head remains the same at the same

If a specific turbine is designed than this will make radius of arbitrary head i.e., (16, 50, 165 ft.) and its respective , are:
runner r=constant, and will leave head H and angular
velocity as variables. In the first approach to design 2
standardization was varied and D was kept constant. By N (8)
60
changing in accordance with the site head H, for different
sites will resolve the issue for efficiency. But the problem in this
procedure is that length to diameter (L/D) ratio becomes so high For determining the flow rate range, use the following relation
that turbine design does not remain feasible for higher flow given by [14]:
rates. 210Q
L.D = (9)
H
Therefore in the second approach was kept constant for a
specific design turbine and varying D of runner. An arbitrary Where, L and D are in inches, Q in cusecs and H in feet.
head from the provided range and a feasible diameter (30, 40,
50, 60, 70, .. cm) were considered. In metric system the Table 2: CFT standard designs for typical conditions
runner rpm N for maximum turbine efficiency is given by
[14]: Design Head Flow Rate Range
Range
39.81 H Design 1 10-32ft D40cm- 3-6 cusecs- 222 rpm
N=
D1 Design 2 D50cm - 6-9 cusecs- 178rpm
Design 3 D60cm- 9-12 cusecs- 150 rpm
From selected head H and runner diameter D the angular Design 4 D70cm- 12-17 cusecs- 127rpm
speed for which the turbine will have maximum theoretical Design 5 D80cm- 17-22cusecs - 111rpm
efficiency of 88%. Design 6 D90cm -22-28 cusecs-100 rpm
Design 7 D100cm- 28-35cusecs- 89 rpm
The efficiency versus head, keeping and D constant were Design 8 32-105ft D40cm- 3-10 cusecs - 398rpm
plotted in Fig. 1, in which efficiency does not fall below 80%. Design 9 D50cm- 10-16 cusecs- 318rpm
Head range in which the turbine has high efficiency is then Design 10 D60cm- 16-23 cusecs- 265rpm
chosen. Next arbitrary head is chosen such that the head range Design 11 D70cm-23-32cusecs -227 rpm
starting off the previous head range.
Design 12 D80cm -32-50 cusecs - 199rpm
From Fig. 1, the head range (10-32 ft, 32-105 ft and 105-250 Design 13 105-250ft D40cm- 3-18 cusecs - 703rpm
ft)) in which that turbine design will correspond to high turbine Design 14 D50cm - 18-36cusecs -563rpm
efficiency is chosen. For the higher flow rates at the same head
range, change D and find its corresponding Runner rpm N. To find the flow rate range for that particular turbine, L has to
be maximized by putting minimum Head (i.e., 10, 32, 105 ft)

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 and find that flow rate for which the L/D ratio is approximately
1.5. Similarly choose another runner Diameter and carry out the
same procedure. Had L/D was kept smaller the objective of 2 1
reduced number of CFTs would not be achieved. There are
therefore a total of 14 designs suitable for our typical site V2 2 1 V1
conditions. The Head Range, Diameter, Flow rate range and the
rpm at which the turbine will operate with maximum efficiency v2 v1
is given in Table 2. Note the turbine will have maximum
efficiency on the designed head and rpm (i.e., 16, 50, 165 ft)

Table 2 shows that there are a total of 6 designs i.e., 6 diameter Figure 2: Velocity triangle at the inlet of runner
turbines, catering different flow rates at different runner rpm
and head range. Designs 7, 12 and 14 may not be considered
DESIGN 1 CALCULATION:
since in case of a flow rate of 18 cusecs and in the above sites
two or three turbines may be installed in parallel. It is necessary
Runner Outer Diameter (D1) is chosen to be 40 cm.
to not consider the three designs in order to achieve our
objective of reduce standard designs of CFTs. Using Eq.(2) and plugging in 16 ft for this particular design the
N comes out to be 222 rpm. For our case, using Eq. (1) LD1 =
Designs 7, 12 & 14 are not considered because of following 2591 cm2
reasons: Breadth of the runner(L):

1) To reduce the number of CFT off-shelf designs Dividing L.D1 by D1, L comes out to be 64.8cm
2) For flow rates of more than 18 cusecs turbine shaft needs to
be reinforced to increase its strength (higher probability of shaft Thickness of jet (So):
failure)
3) Manufacturing cost increases drastically Thickness of jet is calculated using Eq.(3)
4) The same purpose of reaping the full potential of site can be
achieved by installation of parallel turbines D1
Number of blades: n
The complete design of a specific CFT is now discussed. t
Angle of Attack (1):
cos 2 Fixing the number of blades to 30 as recommended by Aziz &
u
2C2u11 cos 1 1 Desai [13] and putting D1=40cm and t=4.2cm. Spacing of
cos 1 V1 blades s1 in the runner:
=
V1
According to the above turbine efficiency 1 should be s1 t sin 1 = 2.1cm
decreased in order to increase efficiency of turbine. The angle
of attack may be kept 16o as it is convenient for construction. Radial rim width: a 0.17 D1 i.e., =6.8cm
Calculations are therefore based on angle of attack of 16o ,
since:
Inner diameter of the runner:
u1 = V1 cos 1
1
2 . D2 D1 2a , i.e., = 26.4 cm
From the velocity triangle shown in Fig. 2 the angle of attack
can be calculated:
Radius of blades curvature:
tan 1 2 tan 1

D1 D2
2
Putting 1 = 16o gives 1 = 30o. 1
4 D1
= 11.2 cm

D2
cos 1 cos 1'
D1

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 Table 3: CFT parameters design calculations

Parameters units Design 1 Design 2 Design 3 Design 4 Design 5 Design 6

D cm 40 50 60 70 80 90
LD cm2 2365.36 3784.57 5440.32 7341.51 9500.77 12091.89
L cm 59.1 75.7 90.7 104.9 118.8 134.4
s0 cm 12.9 16.1 19.3 22.5 25.8 29.0
L/D 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
S1 cm 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.2 4.7
t cm 4.2 5.2 6.3 7.3 8.4 9.4
no of blades N 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
a cm 6.8 8.5 10.2 11.9 13.6 15.3
D2 cm 26.4 33 39.6 46.2 52.8 59.4
blade curvature cm 11.3 14.1 17 19.8 22.6 25.4
blade central angle [] 48.7 48.7 48.7 48.7 48.7 48.7
y1 cm 4.66 5.82 6.98 8.15 9.31 10.47
y2 cm 1.97 2.46 2.95 3.44 3.93 4.43

Blade central Angle In order to select single design, from the group of designs of
D
that head range, find the flow rate range in which site flow
cos 1 2 cos 1' rate lies.
1
D
tan Finally, a turbine design is selected out of the designs given
2 D2 '
sin 1 sin 1 in Table 2. However, it may not be necessarily the desired
D1 design, as there is a possibility that smaller design (the
design above it) is more feasible, because flow rate ranges
Where is the blade central angle which comes out to be have been developed using Eq. (1) and keeping head
minimum of that particular head range.
48.69o. Using 1 = 30o and blade exit angle 1' =55o as
In order to check that if the smaller design can fit the site
recomended by Aziz & Desai [13] and diameter ratio of 0.68. conditions, consider the value of D of the design above that
Distance of jet from centre of shaft: of the selected turbine design. Put in the site head and site
flow rate, if L/D ratio falls below 1.5 then select the smaller
y1 (0.1986 - 0.945k)D1 , i.e., = 4.66 cm design (i.e., the design above the turbine design selected
earlier).
Distance of jet from inner periphery of the runner:
Figure 3a shows the graph of L 1.5 D. Only consider the
y2 (0.1314 - 0.945k)D1 , i.e., = 1.97 cm portion in the first quadrant. The graph of L = 1.5 D is a straight
line. Whereas the graph of L<1.5D is the shaded portion in the
For most cases k ranges between 0.075- 0.1 and is thus first quadrant. L is on the Y axis and D is on the x axis.
considered to be 0.087.

This is repeated for all cases and Table 3 shows the CFT design
parameters calculations of all designs.

Turbine Selection:

For a given site conditions, the following steps can be followed

for selection of a standard turbine.
First determine the head range (i.e., 10-32, 32-105, 105-250 Figure 3a: Plot of L 1.5 D
ft) of the site.
Figures 3b, 3c, 3d show the graphs of efficiency as a function of
specific speed for head ranges 10-250 ft. These graphs have been
drawn keeping head and rpm of that particular design and flow

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 rate constant. As the efficiency does not depend on flow rate,
these graphs give the general trend at the range of head
conditions. For a given head, the best efficiency point of the
turbine can then be determined.
The relation of specific speed and efficiency can be found using:
[15]
(rpm) HPout (bhp) HP
N 'sd = = out
h t ( ft )4
5
HPin

QV12
HPin =
C2 2 g

Figure 3d: Plot of Specific Speed vs. Efficiency for Head range
105-250 ft

Finally Fig. 4 shows the power output trend at constant head of

20 ft and flow rate range from 3-9 cusecs, efficiency of 0.87 and
222 rpm.

Figure 3b: Plot of Specific Speed vs. Efficiency Head for range
10-32 ft
Fig 4: Output Power vs. Specific Speed

CONCLUSION
The CFT design standardization will help in selection of turbine
from the shelf and thus facilitate in quick installation. Designs for
typical micro-hydro sites for Pakistan have been discussed in
detail. Design 1 is of D 40 cm and L 59 cm, design 2 is D 50 cm
and L 78 cm, design 3 is of D 60 cm and L 91 cm, design 4 is of
D 70 cm L 105 cm, design 5 is of D 80 cm L 119 cm and design
6 is of D 90 cm L 134cm. Other parameters that have been
calculated include number of blades, radius of blade curvature,
blade spacing, diameter ratio and jet thickness. The graphs
between specific speed and efficiency, specific speed and power
have been plotted in Figs 3a, 3b, 3c and Fig 4 respectively that
determine the operating conditions of the turbine.
The lengths of the turbine can be altered according to site flow
Figure 3c: Plot of Specific Speed vs. Efficiency for Head range rates at an appropriate diameter by keeping L/D small. This
32-105 ft alteration will be effective to reduce the weight of the turbine
thus making it more efficient during operation. Similarly within a
head range can be adjusted for maximum efficiency. An
advantage of keeping L/D smaller is to get a smaller turbine area.

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 REFERENCES
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