Operation Overlord

Operation Overlord was the codename for the Battle of Normandy,

Operation Overlord
the Allied operation that launched the successful invasion of German-
occupied Western Europe during World War II. The operation was Part of the Western Front of World War II
launched on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings (Operation
Neptune, commonly known asD-Day). A 1,200-plane airborne assault
preceded an amphibious assault involving more than 5,000 vessels.
Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June, and
more than two million Allied troops were in France by the end of
August.

The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion in 1944 was taken

at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. General Dwight
D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters
Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), and General Bernard
Montgomery was named as commander of the 21st Army Group, Tank landing ships, with barrage balloons afloat,
which comprised all the land forces involved in the invasion. The coast unloading supplies on Omaha for the break-out
of Normandy was chosen as the site of the invasion, with the from Normandy.
Americans assigned to land at sectors codenamedUtah and Omaha, the
British at Sword and Gold, and the Canadians at Juno. To meet the
Date 6 June 30 August 1944
conditions expected on the Normandy beachhead, special technology Location Northern France
was developed, including two artificial ports called Mulberry harbours Result Allied victory
and an array of specialised tanks nicknamed Hobart's Funnies. In the
Belligerents
months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted a substantial
military deception, Operation Bodyguard, using both electronic and Western Allies Germany
visual misinformation. This misled the Germans as to the date and United States
location of the main Allied landings. Adolf Hitler placed German Field United Kingdom
Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of developing fortifications all along
Canada
the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an invasion.
Free French Forces
The Allies failed to accomplish their objectives for the first day, but Polish Forces[1]
gained a tenuous foothold that they gradually expanded when they French Resistance
captured the port at Cherbourg on 26 June and the city of Caen on 21
Australia
July. A failed counterattack by German forces on 8 August left 50,000
Free Belgian
soldiers of the 7th Army trapped in the Falaise pocket. The Allies
Forces[2]
launched an invasion of southern France (code-named Operation
Dragoon) on 15 August, and the Liberation of Paris followed on 25 Free Czechoslovak
August. German forces retreated across the Seine on 30 August 1944, Forces[3]
marking the close of Operation Overlord. Free Greek
Forces[4]
Free
Luxembourgish
Contents Forces[5]

1 Preparations for D-Day Free Dutch

1.1 Allied invasion plan Forces[2]
1.2 Reconnaissance
New Zealand[6]
 1.3 Technology Free Norwegian
1.4 Deception Forces[1]
1.5 Rehearsals and security
1.6 Weather forecasting Commanders and leaders
1.7 German preparations and defences Dwight D. Gerd von Rundstedt
1.7.1 Atlantic Wall
Eisenhower (Oberbefehlshaber West)
1.7.2 Mobile reserves
(Supreme Allied Erwin Rommel
2 Invasion Commander) (Army Group B)
2.1 Beaches
2.2 Cherbourg Arthur Tedder
2.3 Caen (Deputy Supreme Allied
2.4 Breakout from the beachhead Commander)

3 Campaign close Bernard

4 Casualties Montgomery
4.1 Allies (Ground Forces Commander
4.2 Germany in Chief)
4.3 Civilians and French heritage buildings
Trafford Leigh-
5 War memorials and tourism
Mallory
6 See also
(Air Commander in Chief)
7 Notes
Bertram Ramsay
7.1 Explanatory notes
7.2 Citations (Naval Commander in Chief)

8 References Strength
9 Further reading 1,452,000 troops (by 25 380,000 troops (by 23
10 External links July)[a] July)[8] 1,000,000 (by
[9]
2,052,299 (by the end of the end of August)
August)[7] 2,200[9] 2,500 tanks
Preparations for D-Day and assault guns[10][11]

In June 1940 Germany's leader Adolf Hitler had triumphed in what he Casualties and losses
called "the most famous victory in history"the fall of France.[19] 226,386 casualties[12][b] 400,000 casualties[14] to
British craft evacuated to England over 338,000 Allied troops trapped 530,000[15]
4,101 aircraft[12]
along the northern coast of France (including much of the British
~4,000 tanks[13] 2,127 aircraft[16]
Expeditionary Force (BEF)) in the Dunkirk evacuation (27 May to 4
~2,2002,400 tanks and
June).[20] British planners reported to Prime Minister Winston
assault guns lost[10]
Churchill on 4 October that even with the help of other
Commonwealth countries and the United States, it would not be Civilian deaths:
possible to regain a foothold in continental Europe in the near
future.[21] After the Axis invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, 11,00019,000 killed in pre-invasion bombing[17]
Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing for a second front in 13,63219,890 killed during invasion[18]
Western Europe. Churchill declined because he felt that even with Total: 25,00039,000 killed
American help the British did not have adequate forces for such a
strike,[22] and he wished to avoid costly frontal assaults such as those that had occurred at the Somme and Passchendaele in World
War I.[23] Two tentative plans code-named Operation Roundup and Operation Sledgehammer were put forward for 194243, but
neither was deemed by the British to be practical or likely to succeed.[24] Instead, the Allies expanded their activity in the
Mediterranean, launching the invasion of French North Africa in November 1942, the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and invading
Italy in September.[25] These campaigns provided the troops with valuable experience inamphibious warfare.[26]
Attendees at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943 took the decision to launch a cross-Channel invasion within the next
year.[27] Churchill favoured making the main Allied thrust into Germany from the Mediterranean theatre, but his American allies,
who were providing the bulk of the men and equipment, over-ruled him.[28] British Lieutenant-General Frederick E. Morgan was
appointed Chief of Staff, Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC), to begin detailed planning.[27] The initial plans were constrained
by the number of available landing-craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean and in the Pacific.[29] In part
because of lessons learned in theDieppe Raid of 19 August 1942, the Allies decided not to directly assault a heavily defended French
seaport in their first landing.[30] The failure at Dieppe also highlighted the need for adequate artillery and air support, particularly
close air support, and specialised ships able to travel extremely close to shore.[31] The short operating-range of British aircraft such
as the Spitfire and Typhoon greatly limited the number of potential landing-sites, as comprehensive air-support depended upon
having planes overhead for as long as possible.[32] Morgan considered four sites for the landings: Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula,
Normandy, and the Pas de Calais. As Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, the Germans could have cut off the Allied advance at a
[33]
relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected.

Pas de Calais, the closest point in continental Europe to Britain, was the location of
launch sites for V-1 and V-2 rockets, then still under development.[c] The Germans
regarded it as the most likely initial landing zone, and accordingly made it the most
heavily fortified region.[34] It offered the Allies few opportunities for expansion,
[35] whereas landings
however, as the area is bounded by numerous rivers and canals,
on a broad front in Normandy would permit simultaneous threats against the port of
Cherbourg, coastal ports further west in Brittany, and an overland attack towards
Paris and eventually into Germany. Normandy was therefore chosen as the landing
US Army M4 Sherman tanks loaded site.[36] The most serious drawback of the Normandy coastthe lack of port
in a landing craft tank (LCT), ready [37]
facilitieswould be overcome through the development of artificial harbours.
for the invasion of France, c. late
May or early June 1944 The COSSAC staff planned to begin the invasion on 1 May 1944.[35] The initial
draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. General
Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of SHAEF.[38] General Bernard
Montgomery was named commander of the 21st Army Group, which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion.[39]
On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the COSSAC plan, which proposed amphibious landings by three
divisions, with two more divisions in support. The two generals immediately insisted on expanding the scale of the initial invasion to
five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to speed up the capture of
the port at Cherbourg. The need to acquire or produce extra landing craft for the expanded operation meant delaying the invasion
until June 1944.[39] Eventually the Allies committed 39 divisions to the Battle of Normandy: 22 American, 12 British, three
[40] all under overall British command.[41][d]
Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops

Allied invasion plan

"Overlord" was the name assigned to the establishment of a large-scale lodgement on the Continent.[42] The first phase, the
amphibious invasion and establishment of a secure foothold, was code-named Operation Neptune.[37] To gain the required air
superiority needed to ensure a successful invasion, the Allies launched a bombing campaign (codenamed Operation Pointblank) to
target German aircraft-production, fuel supplies, and airfields. Under the Transport Plan, communications infrastructure and road and
rail links were bombed to cut off the north of France and to make it more difficult to bring up reinforcements. These attacks were
widespread so as to avoid revealing the exact location of the invasion.[37] Elaborate deceptions were planned to prevent the Germans
[43]
from determining the timing and location of the invasion.

The coastline of Normandy was divided into seventeen sectors, with codenames using a spelling alphabetfrom Able, west of
Omaha, to Roger on the east flank ofSword. Eight further sectors were added when the invasion was extended to include Utah on the
[44]
Cotentin Peninsula. Sectors were further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green, Red, and White.
Allied planners envisaged preceding the sea-borne landings with
airborne drops: near Caen on the eastern flank to secure the Orne
River bridges, and north of Carentan on the western flank. The
initial goal was to capture Carentan,Isigny, Bayeux, and Caen. The
Americans, assigned to land at Utah and Omaha, were to cut of
f the
Cotentin Peninsula and capture the port facilities at Cherbourg. The
British at Sword and Gold, and the Canadians at Juno, were to
capture Caen and form a front line from Caumont-l'vent to the
south-east of Caen in order to protect the American flank, while
establishing airfields near Caen. Possession of Caen and its
surroundings would give the Anglo-Canadian forces a suitable
staging area for a push south to capture the town of Falaise. A
secure lodgement would be established and an attempt made to D-day assault routes into Normandy
hold all territory captured north of the Avranches-Falaise line
during the first three weeks. The Allied armies would then swing
left to advance towards theRiver Seine.[45][46][47]

The invasion fleet, led by Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay, was split into the Western Naval Task Force (under Admiral Alan G Kirk)
supporting the American sectors and the Eastern Naval Task Force (under Admiral Sir Philip Vian) in the British and Canadian
sectors.[48][49] The American forces of the First Army, led by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, comprised VII Corps (Utah) and V
Corps (Omaha). On the British side, Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey commanded the Second Army, under which XXX Corps
was assigned to Gold and I Corps to Juno and Sword.[50] Land forces were under the overall command of Montgomery, and air
command was assigned to Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory.[51] The First Canadian Army included personnel and units
from Poland, Belgium, and the Netherlands.[2] Other Allied nations also participated.[52]

Reconnaissance
The Allied Expeditionary Air Force undertook over 3,200 photo-
reconnaissance sorties from April 1944 until the start of the
invasion. Photos of the coastline were taken at extremely low
altitude to show the invaders the terrain, obstacles on the beach,
and defensive structures such as bunkers and gun emplacements.
To avoid alerting the Germans as to the location of the invasion,
this work had to be undertaken over the entire European coastline.
Inland terrain, bridges, troop emplacements, and buildings were
also photographed, in many cases from several angles, to give the
Allies as much information as possible.[53] Members of Combined
Operations Pilotage Partiesclandestinely prepared detailed harbour Map of the air plan for the Allied landing in
maps, including depth soundings.[54] Normandy

An appeal for holiday pictures and postcards of Europe announced

on the BBC produced over ten million items, some of which proved useful. Information collected by the French resistance helped
provide details on Axis troop movements and on construction techniques used by the Germans for bunkers and other defensive
installations.[55]

Many German radio messages were encoded using the Enigma machine and other enciphering techniques and the codes were
changed frequently. A team of code breakers stationed at Bletchley Park worked to break codes as quickly as possible to provide
advance information on German plans and troop movements. British military intelligence code-named this information Ultra
intelligence as it could only be provided to the top level of commanders. The Enigma code used by Field Marshal Gerd von
Rundstedt, Oberbefehlshaber West (Supreme Commander West; OB West), commander of the Western Front, was broken by the end
of March. German intelligence changed the Enigma codes right after the Allied landings of 6 June but by 17 June the Allies were
again consistently able to read them.[56]

Technology
In response to the lessons learned at the disastrous Dieppe raid, the Allies developed
new technologies to help ensure the success of Overlord. To supplement the
preliminary offshore bombardment and aerial assaults, some of the landing craft
were equipped with artillery and anti-tank guns to provide close supporting fire.[57]
The Allies had decided not to immediately attack any of the heavily protected
French ports and two artificial ports, called Mulberry harbours, were designed by
COSSAC planners. Each assembly consisted of a floating outer breakwater, inner
concrete caissons (called Phoenix breakwaters) and several floating piers.[58] The
Remains of Mulberry harbour B at
Mulberry harbours were supplemented by blockship shelters (codenamed Arromanches-les-Bains(Gold) as
"Gooseberries").[59] With the expectation that fuel would be difficult or impossible seen in 1990
to obtain on the continent, the Allies built a "Pipe-Line Under The Ocean"
(PLUTO). Specially developed pipes 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter were to be laid
under the Channel from the Isle of Wight to Cherbourg by D-Day plus 18. Technical problems and the delay in capturing Cherbourg
. A second line was laid fromDungeness to Boulogne in late October.[60]
meant the pipeline was not operational until 22 September

The British military built a series of specialised tanks, nicknamed Hobart's Funnies, to deal with conditions expected during the
Normandy campaign. Developed under the supervision of Major-General Percy Hobart, these were specially modified M4 Sherman
and Churchill tanks. Examples include the Sherman Crab tank (equipped with a mine flail), the Churchill Crocodile (a flame-
throwing tank), and the Armoured Ramp Carrier, which other tanks could use as a bridge to scale sea-walls or to overcome other
obstacles.[61] In some areas, the beaches consisted of a soft clay that could not support the weight of tanks. The "bobbin" tank would
overcome this problem by deploying a roll of matting over the soft surface and leaving the material in place as a route for more
conventional tanks.[62] The Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers(AVREs) were modified for many tasks, including laying bridges and
firing large charges into pillboxes.[63] The Duplex-Drive tank (DD tank), another design developed by Hobart's group, was a self-
propelled amphibious tank kept afloat using a waterproof canvas screen inflated with compressed air.[64] These tanks were easily
[65]
swamped, and on D-Day many sank before reaching the shore, especially at Omaha.

Deception
In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted Operation Bodyguard, the overall strategy designed to mislead the
Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings.[66] Operation Fortitude included Fortitude North, a misinformation
campaign using fake radio-traffic to lead the Germans into expecting an attack on Norway,[67] and Fortitude South, a major deception
designed to fool the Germans into believing that the landings would take place at Pas de Calais in July. A fictitious First U.S. Army
Group was invented, supposedly located in Kent and Sussex under the command of Lieutenant General George S. Patton. The Allies
constructed dummy tanks, trucks, and landing craft, and positioned them near the coast. Several military units, including II Canadian
Corps and 2nd Canadian Division, moved into the area to bolster the illusion that a large force was gathering there.[43][68] As well as
the broadcast of fake radio-traffic, genuine radio messages from 21st Army Group were first routed to Kent via landline and then
broadcast, to give the Germans the impression that most of the Allied troops were stationed there.[69] Patton remained stationed in
England until 6 July, thus continuing to deceive the Germans into believing a second attack would take place at Calais.[70] Military
and civilian personnel alike were aware of the need for secrecy, and the invasion troops were as much as possible kept isolated,
especially in the period immediately before the invasion. One American general was sent back to the United States in disgrace after
revealing the invasion date at a party.[43]
The Germans thought they had an extensive network of spies operating in the UK, but in fact all their agents had been captured, and
some had become double agents working for the Allies as part of the Double-Cross System. The double agent Juan Pujol Garca, a
Spanish opponent of the Nazis known by the code name "Garbo", developed over the two years leading up to D-Day a fake network
of informants that the Germans believed were collecting intelligence on their behalf. In the months preceding D-Day, Pujol sent
hundreds of messages to his superiors in Madrid, messages specially prepared by the British intelligence service to convince the
[69][71]
Germans that the attack would come in July at Calais.

Many of the German radar stations on the French coast were destroyed by the RAF in preparation for the landings.[72] On the night
before the invasion, in Operation Taxable, No. 617 Squadron RAF dropped strips of "window", metal foil that caused a radar return
mistakenly interpreted by German radar operators as a naval convoy. The illusion was bolstered by a group of small vessels towing
barrage balloons. No. 218 Squadron RAF also dropped "window" near Boulogne-sur-Mer in Operation Glimmer. On the same night,
a small group of Special Air Service (SAS) operators deployed dummy paratroopers over Le Havre and Isigny. These dummies led
[73]
the Germans to believe an additional airborne assault had occurred.

Rehearsals and security

Training exercises for the Overlord landings took place as early as July 1943.[74] As
the nearby beach resembled the planned Normandy landing-site, the town of Slapton
in Devon, was evacuated in December 1943 and taken over by the armed forces as a
site for training exercises that included the use of landing craft and the management
of beach obstacles.[75] Near Slapton on 28 April 1944 749 American soldiers and
sailors died when German torpedo-boats surprised members of Assault Force "U"
conducting Exercise Tiger.[76] Exercises with landing craft and live ammunition also
took place at the Combined Training Centre in Inveraray in Scotland.[77] Naval
Training exercise with live
exercises took place in Northern Ireland, and medical teams in London and
ammunition
elsewhere rehearsed how they would handle the expected waves of casualties.[78]
Paratroopers conducted exercises, including a huge demonstration drop on 23 March
1944 observed by Churchill, Eisenhower, and other top officials.[79]

Allied planners considered tactical surprise to be a necessary element of the plan for the landings.[80] Information on the exact date
and location of the landings was provided only to the topmost levels of the armed forces. Men were sealed into their marshalling
areas at the end of May, with no further communication with the outside world.[81] Troops were briefed using maps that were correct
in every detail except for the place names, and most were not told their actual destination until they were already at sea.[82] A news
blackout in Britain increased the effectiveness of the deception operations.[43] Travel to and from the Republic of Ireland was
[83]
banned, and movement within several kilometres of the coast of England restricted.

Weather forecasting
The invasion planners specified a set of conditions regarding the timing of the invasion, deeming only a few days in each month
suitable. A full moon was desirable, as it would provide illumination for aircraft pilots and have the highest tides. The Allies wanted
to schedule the landings for shortly before dawn, midway between low and high tide, with the tide coming in. This would improve
the visibility of obstacles the enemy had placed on the beach while minimising the amount of time the men had to spend exposed in
the open. Specific criteria were also set for wind speed, visibility, and cloud cover.[84] Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as
the date for the assault. However, on 4 June, conditions were clearly unsuitable for a landing; high winds and heavy seas made it
gets.[85]
impossible to launch landing craft, and low clouds would prevent aircraft from finding their tar

By the evening of 4 June, the Allied meteorological team, headed by Group Captain James Stagg of the Royal Air Force, predicted
that the weather would improve sufficiently so that the invasion could go ahead on 6 June. He met Eisenhower and other senior
commanders at their headquarters at Southwick House in Hampshire to discuss the situation.[86] General Montgomery and Major
General Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower's chief of staff, were eager to launch the invasion. Admiral Bertram Ramsay was prepared
to commit his ships, while Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory expressed concern that the conditions would be unfavourable
for Allied aircraft. After much discussion, Eisenhower decided that the invasion
should go ahead.[87] Allied control of the Atlantic meant that German
meteorologists did not have access to as much information as the Allies on incoming
weather patterns.[72] As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris predicted two
weeks of stormy weather, many Wehrmacht commanders left their posts to attend
war games in Rennes, and men in many units were given leave.[88] Marshal Erwin
Rommel returned to Germany for his wife's birthday and to meet Hitler to try to get
more Panzers.[89]

Had Eisenhower postponed the invasion, the next available period with the right Men of the British 22nd Independent
Parachute Company, 6th Airborne
combination of tides (but without the desirable full moon) was two weeks later, from
Division being briefed for the
18 to 20 June. As it happened, during this period the invaders would have
invasion, 45 June 1944
encountered a major storm lasting four days, between 19 and 22 June, that would
have made the initial landings impossible.[85]

German preparations and defences

Nazi Germany had at its disposal 50 divisions in France and the Low Countries, with
another 18 stationed in Denmark and Norway.[e] Fifteen divisions were in the
process of formation in Germany, but there was no strategic reserve.[90] The Calais
region was defended by the 15th Army under Generaloberst Hans von Salmuth, and
Normandy by the 7th Army commanded by Generaloberst (colonel general)
Friedrich Dollmann.[91][92] Combat losses throughout the war, particularly on the
Eastern Front, meant the Germans no longer had a pool of able young men from
which to draw. German soldiers were now on average six years older than their
Troops of the Indian Legion on the
Allied counterparts. Many in the Normandy area were Ostlegionen (eastern legions)
Atlantic Wall in France, 21 March
conscripts and "volunteers" from Turkestan,[93] Russia, Mongolia, and elsewhere. 1944
The Wehrmacht had provided them mainly with unreliable captured equipment; they
lacked motorised transport.[94] Formations that arrived later, such as the 12th SS
Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, were for the most part younger and far better equipped and trained than the static troops stationed
along the coast.[95]

Atlantic Wall
Alarmed by the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe in 1942, Hitler ordered the
construction of fortifications all along the Atlantic coast, from Spain to Norway, to
protect against an expected Allied invasion. He envisioned 15,000 emplacements
manned by 300,000 troops, but due to shortages, particularly of concrete and
manpower, most of the strongpoints were never built.[96] As the expected site of an
Allied invasion, Pas de Calais was heavily defended.[96] In the Normandy area the
best fortifications were concentrated at the port facilities at Cherbourg and Saint-
Malo.[97]

A report by Rundstedt to Hitler in October 1943 regarding the weak defences in

France led to the appointment of Rommel to oversee the construction of further
fortifications along the expected invasion-front, which stretched from the
Netherlands to Cherbourg.[96][98] Rommel was given command of the newly re-
formed Army Group B, which included the 7th Army, the 15th Army, and the forces
guarding the Netherlands.[99][100] Nazi Germany's tangled command structure made
Map of the Atlantic Wall
it difficult for Rommel to achieve his task. He was not allowed to give orders to the Organisation Todt, which was commanded by
[97]
armaments minister Albert Speer, so in some places he had to assign soldiers to do construction work.

Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the
invasion, so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that
shore. In addition to concrete gun-emplacements at strategic points along the coast,
he ordered wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles to be
placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and to impede the
movement of tanks.[101] Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry
would spend less time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to
be placed at the high-tide mark.[84] Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the
Beach obstacles at Pas de Calais, 18
removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry.[101] On
April 1944
Rommel's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled.[97] Given the
Allied air supremacy (4,029 Allied aircraft assigned to operations in Normandy plus
5,514 aircraft assigned to bombing and defence, versus 570 Luftwaffe planes stationed in France and the Low Countries[84] ), booby-
[97]
trapped stakes known asRommelspargel (Rommel's asparagus) were set up in meadows and fields to deter airborne landings.

Mobile reserves
Rommel, believing that the Germans' best chance was to stop the invasion at the shore, requested that mobile reservesespecially
tanksbe stationed as close to the coast as possible. Rundstedt, GeneralLeo Geyr von Schweppenburg (commander of Panzer Group
West), and other senior commanders believed that the invasion could not be stopped on the beaches. Geyr argued for a conventional
doctrine: keeping the Panzer formations concentrated in a central position around Paris and Rouen and deploying them only when the
main Allied beachhead had been identified. Geyr also noted that in the Italian Campaign the armour stationed near the coast had been
damaged by naval bombardment. Rommel's opinion was that because of the overwhelming Allied air superiority, large-scale
movement of tanks would not be possible once the invasion was underway. Hitler made the final decision: he left three divisions
under Geyr's command and gave Rommel operational control of three tank-divisions as reserves. Hitler took personal control of four
[102][103][104]
divisions as strategic reserves, not to be used without his direct orders.

Invasion
You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The eyes of the
world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving people everywhere march with you. In company with
our brave Allies and brothers-in-arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war
machine, the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for ourselves in a free
world.

Eisenhower, Letter to Allied Forces[105]

By May 1944, 1.5 million American troops had arrived in the United Kingdom.[55] Most were housed in temporary camps in the
south-west of England, ready to move across the Channel to the western section of the landing zone. British and Canadian troops
were billeted in accommodation further east, spread from Southampton to Newhaven, and even on the east coast for men who would
be coming across in later waves. A complex system called Movement Control assured that the men and vehicles left on schedule
from twenty departure points.[81] Some men had to board their craft nearly a week before departure.[106] The ships met at a
rendezvous point (nicknamed "Piccadilly Circus") south-east of the Isle of Wight to assemble into convoys to cross the Channel.[107]
Minesweepers began clearing lanes on the evening of 5 June,[85] and a thousand bombers left before dawn to attack the coastal
defences.[108] Some 1,200 aircraft departed England just before midnight to transport three airborne divisions to their drop zones
behind enemy lines several hours before the beach landings.[109] The American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were assigned
objectives on the Cotentin Peninsula west of Utah. The British 6th Airborne Division was assigned to capture intact the bridges over
the Caen Canal and River Orne.[110] The Free French 4th SAS battalion of 538 men was assigned objectives in Brittany (Operation
[111][112]
 Dingson, Operation Samwest).[111][112] Some 132,000 men were transported by sea
on D-Day, and a further 24,000 came by air.[81] Preliminary naval bombardment
commenced at 05:45 and continued until 06:25 from five battleships, twenty
cruisers, sixty-five destroyers, and two monitors.[81][113] Infantry began arriving on
the beaches at around 06:30.[114]

Beaches
British Pathfinders synchronise their The craft bearing the U.S. 4th
watches in front of an Armstrong Infantry Division assaulting Utah
Whitworth Albemarle. were pushed by the current to a spot
about 1,800 metres (2,000 yd) south
of their intended landing zone. The
troops met light resistance, suffering fewer than 200 casualties.[115][116] Their
efforts to push inland fell far short of their targets for the first day, but they were able
to advance about 4 miles (6.4 km), making contact with the 101st Airborne
Division.[46][117] The airborne landings west of Utah were not very successful, as
U.S. soldiers of the 8th Infantry, 4th
only ten per cent of the paratroopers landed in their drop zones. Gathering the men
Infantry Division advance over the
together into fighting units was made difficult by a shortage of radios and by the sea-wall at Utah.
terrain, with its hedgerows, stone walls and marshes.[118][119] The 82nd Airborne
Division captured its primary objective at Sainte-Mre-glise and worked to protect
the western flank.[120] Its failure to capture the river crossings at the River Merderet resulted in a delay in sealing off the Cotentin
Peninsula.[121] The 101st Airborne Division helped protect the southern flank and captured the lock on the River Douve at La
Barquette,[119] but did not capture the assigned nearby bridges on the first day
.[122]

At Pointe du Hoc, the task for the two hundred men of the 2nd Ranger Battalion, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel James Rudder,
was to scale the 30 metres (98 ft) cliffs with ropes and ladders to destroy the gun battery located there. While under fire from above,
the men scaled the cliff, only to discover that the guns had already been withdrawn. The Rangers located the weapons, unguarded but
ready to use, in an orchard some 550 metres (600 yd) south of the point, and disabled them. Under attack, the men at the point
became isolated, and some were captured. By dawn on D+1, Rudder had only 90 men able to fight. Relief did not come until D+2,
when members of the743rd Tank Battalion arrived.[123]

The photograph Into the Jaws of
Death shows American troops, part
of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division,
leaving a Higgins Boat on Omaha.
D-Day objectives were accomplished by D+3.[129]
Omaha, the most heavily defended sector, was assigned to the U.S. 1st Infantry
Division, supplemented by troops from the U.S. 29th Infantry Division.[116][124]
They faced the 352nd Infantry Division, rather than the expected single
regiment.[125] Strong currents forced many landing craft east of their intended
position or delayed them. Casualties were heavier than all the other landings
combined, as the men were subjected to fire from the cliffs above.[126] Problems
clearing the beach of obstructions led to the beachmaster calling a halt to further
landings of vehicles at 08:30. A group of destroyers arrived around this time to offer
supporting artillery fire.[127] Exit from Omaha was possible only via five gullies,
and by late morning barely six hundred men had reached the higher ground. By
noon, as the artillery fire took its toll and the Germans started to run out of
ammunition, the Americans were able to clear some lanes on the beaches. They also
started clearing the draws of enemy defences so that vehicles could move off the
beach.[128] The tenuous beachhead was expanded over the following days, and the

At Gold, high winds made conditions difficult for the landing craft, and the amphibious DD tanks were landed close to shore or
directly on the beach instead of further out as planned.[130] Aerial attacks had failed to hit the Le Hamel strong point, and its 75 mm
gun continued to do damage until 16:00. On the western flank, the 1st Battalion, Hampshire Regiment captured Arromanches (future
site of Mulberry "B"), and contact was made on the eastern flank with the Canadian
forces at Juno.[131]

Landings of infantry at Juno were delayed because of rough seas, and the men
arrived ahead of their supporting armour, suffering many casualties while
disembarking. Most of the offshore bombardment had missed the German defences.
In spite of these difficulties, the Canadians quickly cleared the beach and created
two exits to the villages above. Delays in taking Bny-sur-Mer led to congestion on
the beach, but by nightfall the contiguous Juno and Gold beachheads covered an area
12 miles (19 km) wide and 7 miles (10 km) deep.[132] Casualties at Juno were 961
men.[133] Gold, as of 7 June 1944.

On Sword, 21 of 25 DD tanks succeeded in getting safely ashore to provide cover

for the infantry, who began disembarking at 07:30. They quickly cleared the beach and created several exits for the tanks. In the
windy conditions, the tide came in more quickly than expected, making manoeuvring the armour difficult.[134] The 2nd Battalion,
King's Shropshire Light Infantry advanced on foot to within a few kilometres of Caen, but had to withdraw due to lack of armour
support.[135] At 16:00, the German 21st Panzer Division mounted a counterattack between Sword and Juno and nearly succeeded in
reaching the channel. They met stiff resistance from the British 3rd Infantry Division and were soon recalled to assist in the area
between Caen and Bayeux.[136][137]

The first components of the Mulberry harbours were brought across on D+1 and the structures were in use for unloading by mid-
June.[59] One was constructed at Arromanches by the British, the other at Omaha by the Americans. Severe storms on 19 June
interrupted the landing of supplies and destroyed the Omaha harbour.[138] The repaired Arromanches harbour was able to receive
around 6,000 tons of materiel daily and was in continuous use for the next ten months, but most shipments were brought in over the
beaches until the port of Cherbourg was cleared of mines and obstructions on 16 July.[139][140]

Allied casualties on the first day were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead.[141] The Germans lost 1,000 men.[142] The Allied
invasion plans had called for the capture of Carentan, St. L, Caen, and Bayeux on the first day, with all the beaches (other than
Utah), linked with a front line 10 to 16 kilometres (6 to 10 mi) from the beaches; none of these objectives were achieved.[46] The five
bridgeheads were not connected until 12 June, by which time the Allies held a front around 97 kilometres (60 mi) long and 24
kilometres (15 mi) deep.[143] Caen, a major objective, was still in German hands at the end of D-Day and would not be completely
captured until 21 July.[144] Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June, and more than two million Allied troops
were in France by the end of August.[145]

Cherbourg
In the western part of the lodgement, US troops were to occupy the Cotentin Peninsula, especially Cherbourg, which would provide
the Allies with a deep water harbour. The terrain behind Utah and Omaha was characterised by bocage, with thorny hedgerows on
embankments 3 to 4 feet (0.91 to 1.2 m) high with a ditch on either side.[146] Many areas were additionally protected by rifle pits and
machine-gun emplacements.[147] Most of the roads were too narrow for tanks.[146] The Germans had flooded the fields behind Utah
with sea water for up to 2 miles (3.2 km) from the coast.[148] German forces on the peninsula included the 91st Infantry Division and
the 243rd and 709th Static Infantry Divisions.[149] By D+3 the Allied commanders realised that Cherbourg would not quickly be
taken, and decided to cut off the peninsula to prevent any further reinforcements from being brought in.[150] After failed attempts by
the inexperienced 90th Infantry Division, Major General J. Lawton Collins, the VII Corps commander, assigned the veteran 9th
Infantry Division to the task. They reached the west coast of the Cotentin on 17 June, cutting off Cherbourg.[151] The 9th Division,
joined by the 4th and 79th Infantry Divisions, took control of the peninsula in fierce fighting from 19 June; Cherbourg was captured
on 26 June. By this time the Germans had destroyed the port facilities, which were not brought back into full operation until
September.[152]

Caen
 Fighting in the Caen area versus the 21st Panzer, the 12th SS Panzer Division
Hitlerjugend and other units soon reached a stalemate.[153] During Operation Perch,
XXX Corps attempted to advance south towards Mont Pinon but soon abandoned
the direct approach in favour of a pincer attack to encircle Caen. XXX Corps made a
flanking move from Tilly-sur-Seulles towards Villers-Bocage with part of the 7th
Armoured Division, while I Corps tried to pass Caen to the east. The attack by I
Corps' attack was quickly halted and XXX Corps briefly captured Villers-Bocage.
Advanced elements of the British force were ambushed, initiating a day-long Battle
Operations in the Battle for Caen.
of Villers-Bocage and then the Battle of the Box. The British were forced to
withdraw to Tilly-sur-Seulles.[154][155] After a delay because of storms from 1723
June, Operation Epsom began on 26 June, an attempt by VIII Corps to swing around and attack Caen from the south-west and
establish a bridgehead south of the Odon.[156] Although the operation failed to take Caen, the Germans suffered many tank losses
after committing every available Panzer unit to the operation.[157] Rundstedt was dismissed on 1 July and replaced as OB West by
Field Marshal Gnther von Kluge after remarking that the war was now lost.[158] The northern suburbs of Caen were bombed on the
evening of 7 July and then occupied north of the River Orne in Operation Charnwood on 89 July.[159][160] Operation Atlantic and
Operation Goodwood captured the rest of Caen and the high ground to the south from 1821 July by when the city was nearly
destroyed.[161] Hitler survived an assassination attempt on 20 July.[162]

Breakout from the beachhead

After securing territory in the Cotentin Peninsula south as far as Saint-L, the U.S. First Army launched Operation Cobra on 25 July
and advanced further south to Avranches by 1 August.[163] The British launched Operation Bluecoat on 30 July to secure Vire and
the high ground of Mont Pinon.[164] Lieutenant General George S. Patton's U.S. Third Army, activated on 1 August, quickly took
most of Brittany and territory as far south as the Loire, while the First Army maintained pressure eastward toward Le Mans to protect
their flank. By 3 August, Patton and the Third Army were able to leave a small force in Brittany and drive eastward towards the main
concentration of German forces south of Caen.[165] Over Kluge's objections, on 4 August Hitler ordered a counter-offensive
(Operation Lttich) from Vire towards Avranches.[166]

While II Canadian Corps pushed south from Caen toward Falaise in Operation
Totalize on 8 August,[167] Bradley and Montgomery realised that there was an
opportunity for the bulk of the German forces to be trapped at Falaise. The Third
Army continued the encirclement from the south, reaching Alenon on 11August.
Although Hitler continued to insist until 14 August that his forces should counter-
attack, Kluge and his officers began planning a retreat eastward.[168] The German
forces were severely hampered by Hitler's insistence on making all major decisions
himself, which left his forces without orders for periods as long as 24 hours while
information was sent back and forth to the Fhrer's residence at Obersalzberg in
Map showing the break-out from the
Bavaria.[169] On the evening of 12 August, Patton asked Bradley if his forces should
Normandy beachhead and the
continue northward to close the gap and encircle the German forces. Bradley
formation of the Falaise Pocket,
refused, because Montgomery had already assigned the First Canadian Army to take August 1944.
the territory from the north.[170][171] The Canadians met heavy resistance and
captured Falaise on 16 August. The gap was closed on 21 August, trapping 50,000
German troops but more than a third of the German 7th Army and the remnants of nine of the eleven Panzer divisions had escaped to
the east.[172] Montgomery's decision-making regarding the Falaise Gap was criticised at the time by American commanders,
especially Patton, although Bradley was more sympathetic and believed Patton would not have been able to close the gap.[173] The
issue has been the subject of much discussion among historians, criticism being levelled at American, British and Canadian
forces.[174][175][176] Hitler relieved Kluge of his command of OB West on 15 August and replaced him with Field Marshal Walter
Model. Kluge committed suicide on 19 August after Hitler became aware of his involvement in the 20 July plot.[177][178] An
invasion in southern France (Operation Dragoon) was launched on 15 August.[179]
 The French Resistance in Paris rose against the Germans on 19 August.[180]
Eisenhower initially wanted to bypass the city to pursue other targets, but amid
reports that the citizens were going hungry and Hitler's stated intention to destroy it,
de Gaulle insisted that it should be taken immediately.[181] French forces of the 2nd
Armoured Division under General Philippe Leclerc arrived from the west on 24
August, while the U.S. 4th Infantry Division pressed up from the south. Scattered
fighting continued throughout the night, and by the morning of 25 August Paris was
liberated.[182]

British infantry aboard Sherman
tanks wait for the order to advance,
near Argentan, 21 August 1944.
over the Seine the next day.[183]
and entered Rouen to a jubilant welcome.[184]
Operations continued in the British and Canadian sectors until the end of the month.
On 25 August, the U.S. 2nd Armored Division fought its way into Elbeuf, making
contact with British and Canadian armoured divisions.[183] The 2nd Canadian
Infantry Division advanced into the Fort de la Londe on the morning of 27 August.
The area was strongly held; the 4th and 6th Canadian brigades suffered many
casualties over the course of three days as the Germans fought a delaying action in
terrain well suited to defence. The Germans pulled back on 29 August, withdrawing
On the afternoon of 30 August, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division crossed the Seine near Elbeuf

Campaign close
Eisenhower took direct command of all Allied ground forces on 1 September. Concerned about German counter-attacks and the
limited materiel arriving in France, he decided to continue operations on a broad front rather than attempting narrow thrusts.[185] The
linkup of the Normandy forces with the Allied forces in southern France occurred on 12 September as part of the drive to the
Siegfried Line.[186] On 17 September, Montgomery launchedOperation Market Garden, an unsuccessful attempt by Anglo-American
airborne troops to capture bridges in the Netherlands to allow ground forces to cross the Rhine into Germany.[185] The Allied
advance slowed due to German resistance and the lack of supplies (especially fuel). On 16 December the Germans launched the
Ardennes Offensive, also known as the Battle of the Bulge, their last major offensive of the war on the Western Front. A series of
successful Soviet actions began with the VistulaOder Offensive on 12 January. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April as Soviet
[14]
troops neared his Fhrerbunker in Berlin, and Germany surrendered on 7 May 1945.

The Normandy landings were the largest seaborne invasion in history, with nearly 5,000
landing and assault craft, 289 escort vessels, and 277 minesweepers.[107] They hastened the
end of the war in Europe, drawing large forces away from the Eastern Front that might
otherwise have slowed the Soviet advance. The opening of another front in western Europe
was a tremendous psychological blow for Germany's military, who feared a repetition of the
two-front war of World War I. The Normandy landings also heralded the start of the "race for
Europe" between the Soviet forces and the Western powers, which some historians consider to
be the start of the Cold War.[187]

Victory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. German preparations along the Atlantic
Wall were only partially finished; shortly before D-Day Rommel reported that construction
was only 18 per cent complete in some areas as resources were diverted elsewhere.[188] The
deceptions undertaken in Operation Fortitude were successful, leaving the Germans obliged to
Canadian soldiers with a
defend a huge stretch of coastline.[189] The Allies achieved and maintained air superiority, captured Nazi flag
which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of the preparations
underway in Britain and were unable to interfere via bomber attacks.[190] Transport
infrastructure in France was severely disrupted by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to
bring up reinforcements and supplies.[191] Much of the opening artillery barrage was off-target or not concentrated enough to have
any impact,[192] but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they
disembarked onto the beaches.[193] The indecisiveness and overly complicated command structure of the German high command was
also a factor in the Allied success.[194]

Casualties

Allies
From D-Day to 21 August, the Allies landed 2,052,299 men in northern France. The
cost of the Normandy campaign was high for both sides.[12] Between 6 June and the
end of August, the American armies suffered 124,394 casualties, of whom 20,668
were killed.[f] Casualties within the First Canadian and Second British Armies are
placed at 83,045: 15,995 killed, 57,996 wounded, and 9,054 missing.[g] Of these,
Canadian losses amounted to 18,444, with 5,021 killed in action.[195] The Allied air
forces, having flown 480,317 sorties in support of the invasion, lost 4,101 aircraft
and 16,714 airmen (8,536 members of the USAAF, and 8,178 flying under the
command of the RAF).[12][196] The Free French SAS paratroopers suffered 77
American assault troops injured while
killed, with 197 wounded and missing.[197] Allied tank losses have been estimated
storming Omaha
at around 4,000, with losses split evenly between the American and British/Canadian
armies.[13] Historians slightly differ on overall casualties during the campaign, with
the lowest losses totaling 225,606[198][199] and the highest at 226,386.[200][201]

Germany
German forces in France reported losses of 158,930 men between D-Day and 14
August, just before the start of Operation Dragoon in Southern France.[202] In action
at the Falaise pocket, 50,000 men were lost, of whom 10,000 were killed and 40,000
captured.[13] Estimates of German losses for the Normandy campaign range from
400,000 (200,000 killed or wounded; 200,000 captured)[14] to 500,000 (290,000
killed or wounded, 210,000 captured)[10] to 530,000.[15]

There are no exact figures regarding German tank losses in Normandy.

Approximately 2,300 tanks and assault guns were committed to the battle,[h] of
German forces surrender inSaint-
which only 100 to 120 crossed the Seine at the end of the campaign.[10] While
Lambert-sur-Dive, 21 August 1944
German forces reported only 481 tanks destroyed between D-day and 31 July,[202]
research conducted by No. 2 Operational Research Section of 21st Army Group
indicates that the Allies destroyed around 550 tanks in June and July[203] and another 500 in August,[204] for a total of 1,050 tanks
destroyed by enemy action, including 100 destroyed by aircraft.[205] Luftwaffe losses amounted to 2,127 aircraft.[16] By the end of
the Normandy campaign, 55 German divisions (42 infantry and 13 panzer) had been rendered combat inef
fective; seven of these were
disbanded. By September, OB West had only 13 infantry divisions, 3 panzer divisions, and 2 panzer brigades rated as combat
effective.[206]

Civilians and French heritage buildings

During the liberation of Normandy, between 13,632 and 19,890 French civilians were killed,[18] and more were seriously
wounded.[17] In addition to those who died during the campaign, 11,000 to 19,000 Normans are estimated to have been killed during
pre-invasion bombing.[17] A total of 70,000 French civilians were killed throughout the course of the war.[17] Land mines and
[207]
unexploded ordnance continued to inflict casualties upon the Norman population following the end of the campaign.

A British soldier escorts an elderly
lady in Caen, July 1944
buildings, but their intent was to keep the facilities in good condition for use as accommodation by German troops.
Prior to the invasion, SHAEF issued instructions (later the basis for the 1954 Hague
Convention Protocol I) emphasising the need to limit the destruction to French
heritage sites. These sites, named in the Official Civil Affairs Lists of Monuments,
were not to be used by troops unless permission was received from the upper
echelons of the chain of command.[208] Nevertheless, church spires and other stone
buildings throughout the area were damaged or destroyed to prevent them being
used by the Germans.[209] Efforts were made to prevent reconstruction workers
from using rubble from important ruins to repair roads, and to search for
artefacts.[210] The Bayeux tapestry and other important cultural treasures had been
stored at the Chteau de Sourches near Le Mans from the start of the war, and
survived intact.[211] The occupying German forces also kept a list of protected
[210]

Many cities and towns in Normandy were totally devastated by the fighting and bombings. By the end of the Battle of Caen there
remained only 8,000 liveable quarters for a population of over 60,000.[209] Of the 18 listed churches in Caen, four were seriously
damaged and five were destroyed, along with 66 other listed monuments.[211] In the Calvados department (location of the Normandy
.[212]
beachhead), 76,000 citizens were rendered homeless. Of Caen's 210 pre-war Jewish population, only one survived the war

Looting was a concern, with all sides taking partthe retreating Germans, the invading Allies (for example British forces looting the
Muse des Antiquaires in Caen and Chteau d'Audrieu near Bayeux), and the local French population.[210] Looting was never
[213]
condoned by Allied forces, and perpetrators were punished.

War memorials and tourism

The beaches of Normandy are still known by their invasion code names. Significant
places have plaques, memorials, or small museums, and guide books and maps are
available. Some of the German strong points remain preserved; Pointe du Hoc in
particular is little changed from 1944. The remains of Mulberry harbour B still sits
in the sea at Arromanches. Several large cemeteries in the area serve as the final The Bny-sur-Mer Canadian War
Cemetery
resting place for many of the Allied and German soldiers killed in the Normandy
campaign.[214]

See also
List of Allied forces in the Normandy Campaign
Outline of war
Rhino tank
The Battle of Normandy leaders
Operation Dragoon
Operation Downfall

Notes

Explanatory notes
a. Around 812,000 were American and 640,000 were British and CanadianZetterling
( 2000, p. 408).
b. In addition, the Allied air forces made 480,317 sorties directly connected to the operation, with the loss of 4,101
planes and 16,714 lives.Tamelander & Zetterling 2003, p. 341.
c. V-weapons were first launched against the UK on 12 June (Wilmot 1997, p. 316).
 d. The British 79th Armoured Division never operated as a single formationBuckley
( 2006, p. 13), and thus has been
excluded from the total. In addition, a combined total of 16 (three from the 79th Armoured Division) British, Belgian,
Canadian, and Dutch independent brigades were committed to the operation, along with four battalions of the
Special Air Service (Ellis, Allen & Warhurst 2004, pp. 521523, 524).
e. As of November 1943. They also had 206 divisions on the Eastern Front, 24 in the Balkans, and 22 in Italy
. Wilmot
1997, p. 144.
f. American casualties are sourced from the G-3 W ar Room Summary 91, dated 5 September 1944, covering the
campaign (Pogue 1954, Chapter XIV, footnote 10). In 1953, the US Statistical and Accounting Branch, Office of the
Adjutant General issued a final report on US casualties (excluding Air Force losses), for the period from 6 June to 15
September 1944. These figures place overall American casualties at 123,109, of which 29,370 were killed US( Army
1953, p. 92).
g. British casualties are sourced from "War Diary, 21st Army Group, 'A' Section, SITEP" dated 29 August 1944D'Este
(
2004, pp. 517518).
h. The most common tank/assault gun deployed at Normandy by the Germans was by far the Panzer,IV followed by
the Panther (650) and Stug III (550). Also present were 120130 iger
T Is, 20 Tiger 2s, and smaller numbers of other
types, including Marders and Jagdpanthers.Buckley 2006, pp. 117120.

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173. Bradley 1951, p. 377. 203. Shulman 2007, p. 166.
174. Beevor 2009, pp. 439440. 204. Copp 2000, pp. 399400.
175. Wilmot 1997, p. 424. 205. Zetterling 2000, p. 408.
176. Hastings 2006, p. 369. 206. Zaloga 2015, p. 470.
177. Wilmot 1997, pp. 421, 444. 207. Flint 2009, p. 305.
178. Evans 2008, p. 642. 208. Flint 2009, p. 350.
179. Beevor 2009, pp. 445, 447. 209. Beevor 2009, p. 520.
180. Wilmot 1997, p. 429. 210. Flint 2009, p. 354.
181. Beevor 2009, pp. 481, 483, 494. 211. Flint 2009, p. 352.
182. Wilmot 1997, p. 430. 212. Flint 2009, p. 337.
183. Stacey 1960, p. 286. 213. Flint 2009, p. 292.
184. Stacey 1948, p. 219. 214. Ford & Zaloga 2009, pp. 345354.

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Further reading
Ambrose, Stephen E. (1969). The Supreme Commander: The War Years of General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Garden
City, New York: Doubleday. OCLC 660826327.
Foot, M. R. D. (1984). SOE: An Outline History of the Special Operations Executive 19401946 . London: BBC
Publications. ISBN 978-0-563-20193-9.
Keegan, John (1982). Six Armies in Normandy. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-005293-0.
Montgomery, Bernard (1946). Normandy to the Baltic. London: Hutchinson.OCLC 637320842.
Neillands, Robin (2002). The Battle of Normandy, 1944. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-35837-3.
Pogue, Forrest C. (1954). "Chapter XIV: The Pursuit Stops Short of the Rhine". United States Army in World War II:
European Theater of Operations: The Supreme Command . Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History,
Department of the Army. LCCN 53-61717.
Ryan, Cornelius (1959). The Longest Day: June 6, 1944. New York: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 1175409.
Whitlock, Flint (2004). The Fighting First: The Untold Story of The Big Red One on D-Day . Boulder: Westview.
ISBN 978-0-8133-4218-4.
Zaloga, Steven (2001).Operation Cobra 1944: Breakout from Normandy . Osprey Campaign Series #88. Oxford:
Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-296-8.

External links
Ambrose, Stephen (5 June 1994)."D-Day: June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of W orld War II" (Video of interview).
Booknotes. C-SPAN.
Churchill, Winston (21 October 1940). "Dieu Protege (sic) la France"(Transcript of speech). London: The Churchill
Society.
Leighton, Richard M. (2000) [1960]."Overlord Versus the Mediterranean at the Cairo-Tehran Conferences". In
Greenfield, Kent Roberts.Command Decisions. Washington: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH
Pub 70-7.
"World War II: D-Day, The Invasion of Normandy". Eisenhower Presidential Center.
"Operations:D-Day and the Normandy Campaign" . Democracy: Canadian Newspapers and the Second World W ar.
Canadian War Museum. 19 September 2003.

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