Lake Superior

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For other uses, see Lake Superior (disambiguation).

Lake Superior
Lac Suprieur
Gitche Gumee

Landsat image

Lake Superior and the other Great Lakes

Location North America

Group Great Lakes

47.7N 87.5WCoordinates: 47.7N 87.5W

Coordinates

Lake type Glacial

Primary Nipigon, St.

inflows Louis, Pigeon, Pic, White, Michipicoten, Kaministiquia

Rivers
 Primary St. Marys River

outflows

Catchment 49,300 sq mi (127,700 km2)[1]

area

Basin countries United States

Canada

Max. length 350 mi (560 km)[2]

Max. width 160 mi (260 km)[2]

Surface area 31,700 sq mi (82,100 km2)[1]

Average depth 483 ft (147 m)[1]

Max. depth 1,333 ft (406 m)[1][3]

Water volume 2,900 cu mi (12,000 km3)[1]

Residence time 191 years

Shore length1 1,729 mi (2,783 km) plus 997 mi (1,605 km) for

islands[4]

Surface 601.71 ft (183 m) (2013 average)[5]

elevation

Islands Isle Royale, Apostle Islands, Michipicoten Island, Slate

Islands

Settlements Thunder Bay, Ontario

Duluth, Minnesota

Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario

Marquette, Michigan

Superior, Wisconsin

Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan

1
Shore length is not a well-defined measure.

Lake Superior (French: Lac Suprieur) is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America. The lake
is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north, the US state of Minnesota to the west,
and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south. It is generally considered
the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area. It is the world's third-largest freshwater lake
by volume and the largest by volume in North America.[6]
 Contents
[hide]

1Name
2Hydrography
o 2.1Tributaries and outlet
o 2.2Water levels
o 2.3Climate change
3Geography
o 3.1Great Lakes Circle Tour
4Climate
5Geology
6History
o 6.1Shipping
o 6.2Shipwrecks
7Ecology
8See also
o 8.1General
9References
o 9.1Notes
10Bibliography
o 10.1Further reading
11External links

Name[edit]
The Ojibwe call the lake gichi-gami (pronounced as gitchi-gami and kitchi-gami in other
dialects),[7] meaning "be a great sea." Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote the name as "Gitche
Gumee" in The Song of Hiawatha, as did Gordon Lightfoot in his song, "The Wreck of the Edmund
Fitzgerald". According to other sources, the actual Ojibwe name is Ojibwe Gichigami ("Ojibwe's
Great Sea") or Anishinaabe Gichigami ("Anishinaabe's Great Sea").[8] The 1878 dictionary by Father
Frederic Baraga, the first one written for the Ojibway language, gives the Ojibwe name as Otchipwe-
kitchi-gami (reflecting Ojibwe Gichigami).[7] The first French explorers approaching the great inland
sea by way of the Ottawa River and Lake Huron during the 17th century referred to their discovery
as le lac suprieur. Properly translated, the expression means "Upper Lake," that is, the lake above
Lake Huron. The lake was also called Lac Tracy (named for Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy) by
17th century Jesuit missionaries.[9] The British, upon taking control of the region from the French in
the 1760s following the French and Indian War, anglicized the lake's name to Superior, "on account
of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent."[10]

Hydrography[edit]
Lake Superior bathymetric map.[11][12][13] The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with
"".[14] The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated from tunnel valleys.[15][16]

Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and the Soo Locks. Lake Superior is
the largest freshwater lake in the world in area (if Lakes Michigan and Huron are taken
separately; see Lake MichiganHuron), and the third largest in volume, behind Lake
Baikal in Siberia and Lake Tanganyika in East Africa. The Caspian Sea, while larger than Lake
Superior in both surface area and volume, is brackish; though presently isolated, prehistorically the
Caspian has been repeatedly connected to and isolated from the Mediterranean via the Black Sea.

Lake Superior deepest point[14] on the bathymetric map.[11]

Lake Superior has a surface area of 31,700 square miles (82,103 km2),[1] which is approximately the
size of South Carolina or Austria. It has a maximum length of 350 statute miles (560 km; 300 nmi)
and maximum breadth of 160 statute miles (257 km; 139 nmi).[2] Its average depth is
80.5 fathoms (483 ft; 147 m) with a maximum depth of 222.17 fathoms (1,333 ft; 406 m).[1][2][3] Lake
Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km) of water.[1] There is enough water in Lake Superior
to cover the entire land mass of North and South America to a depth of 30 centimetres (12 in).[17] The
shoreline of the lake stretches 2,726 miles (4,387 km) (including islands).[1]
American limnologist J. Val Klump was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on
July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1 foot (733 ft or 223 m) below
sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of the United States and the third-
lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent after Iliamna Lake in Alaska (942 feet [287
m] below sea level) and the Great Slave Lake in Canada (1,503 feet [458 m] below sea level).
(Though Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater
Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is 4,229 feet (1,289 m) above sea
level.)
While the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below 110
fathoms (660 ft; 200 m) is an almost constant 39 F (4 C).[citation needed] This variation in temperature
makes the lake seasonally stratigraphic. Twice per year, however, the water column reaches a
uniform temperature of 39 F (4 C) from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix. This
feature makes the lake dimictic. Because of its volume, Lake Superior has a retention time of 191
years.[18][19]
Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over 20 feet (6 m).[20] Waves well
over 30 feet (9 m) have been recorded.[21]
Tributaries and outlet[edit]

Lake Superior Basin

The lake is fed by over 200 rivers. The largest include the Nipigon River, the St. Louis River,
the Pigeon River, the Pic River, the White River, the Michipicoten River, the Bois Brule River and
the Kaministiquia River. Lake Superior drains into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River. There
are rapids at the river's upper (Lake Superior) end where the river bed has a relatively
steep gradient. The Soo Locks were built to enable ships to bypass the rapids and to overcome the
25-foot (8 m) height difference between Lakes Superior and Huron.
Water levels[edit]

Lake Superior in winter, as seen from Duluth, Minnesota in December 2004

Ice on Lake Superior as seen from space (MODIS, March 3, 2009)

The lake's average surface elevation is 600 feet (183 m)[2][18] above sea level. Until approximately
1887 the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined outflow from
Lake Superior. By 1921 development in support of transportation and hydroelectric power resulted in
gates, locks, power canals and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids. The
regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation
plan known as Plan 1977-A. Water levels, including diversions of water from the Hudson
Bay watershed, are regulated by the International Lake Superior Board of Control which was
established in 1914 by the International Joint Commission.
Lake Superior's water level was at a new record low in September 2007, slightly less than the
previous record low in 1926.[22] However, the water levels returned within a few days.[23]
Historic high water The lake's water level fluctuates from month to month, with the highest lake
levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is 1.17 feet (0.36 m) above datum
(601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the summer of 1985, Lake Superior reached its highest recorded level at
2.33 feet (0.71 m) above datum.[24] The winter of 1986 set new high-water records through the winter
and spring months (January to June), ranging from 1.33 feet (0.41 m) to 1.833 feet (0.559 m) above
Chart Datum.[24]
Historic low water The lake's lowest levels occur in March and April. The normal low-water mark is
0.33 feet (0.10 m) below datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the winter of 1926 Lake Superior reached its
lowest recorded level at 1.58 feet (0.48 m) below datum.[24] Additionally, the entire first half of the
year (January to June) included record low months. The low water was a continuation of the
dropping lake levels from the previous year, 1925, which set low-water records for October through
December. During the nine-month period October 1925 to June 1926 water levels ranged from 1.58
feet (0.48 m) to 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below Chart Datum.[24] In the summer of 2007 monthly historic
lows were set; August at 0.66 feet (0.20 m), September at 0.58 feet (0.18 m).[24]
Climate change[edit]
According to a study by professors at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Lake Superior may have
warmed faster than its surrounding area.[25] Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to
have increased by about 4.5 F (2.5 C) since 1979, compared with an approximately 2.7 F (1.5 C)
increase in the surrounding average air temperature. The increase in the lake's surface temperature
may be related to the decreasing ice cover. Less winter ice cover allows more solar radiation to
penetrate and warm the water. If trends continue, Lake Superior, which freezes over completely
once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040.[26] This would be a significant departure
from historical records as, according to Hubert Lamb, Samuel Champlain reported ice along the
shores of Lake Superior in June 1608.[27] Warmer temperatures could actually lead to more snow in
the lake effect snow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan. However, 2 recent consecutive winters (20132014 and 20142015) brought unusually
high ice coverage to the Great Lakes, and on March 6, 2014 overall ice coverage peaked at 92.5%,
the second-highest in recorded history.[28]

Geography[edit]
Brooklyn Museum Lake Superior Walter Shirlaw

The largest island in Lake Superior is Isle Royale in the state of Michigan. Isle Royale contains
several lakes, some of which also contain islands. Other well-known islands include Madeline
Island in the state of Wisconsin, Michipicoten Island in the province of Ontario, and Grand Island (the
location of the Grand Island National Recreation Area) in the state of Michigan.
The larger cities on Lake Superior include the twin ports of Duluth, Minnesota and Superior,
Wisconsin; Thunder Bay, Ontario; Marquette, Michigan; and the twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie,
Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Duluth-Superior, at the western end of Lake Superior, is the
most inland point on the St. Lawrence Seaway and the most inland port in the world.
Among the scenic places on the lake are Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, Isle Royale National
Park, Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park, Pukaskwa National Park, Lake Superior
Provincial Park, Grand Island National Recreation Area, Sleeping Giant (Ontario) and Pictured
Rocks National Lakeshore.
Great Lakes Circle Tour[edit]
The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes
and the St. Lawrence River.[29]

Climate[edit]
Lake Superior's size reduces the severity of the seasons of its humid continental climate (more
typically seen in locations like Nova Scotia).[30] The water surface's slow reaction to temperature
changes, seasonally ranging between 32 and 55 F (013 C) around 1970,[31] helps to moderate
surrounding air temperatures in the summer and winter, and creates lake effect snow in colder
months. The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall.
The lake's surface temperature has risen by 4.5 F (2.5 C) since 1979.[32]

Bedrock geologic map of the U.S. area bordering Lake Superior: Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan
North American cratons and basement rock, showing the formation of the Midcontinent Rift containing today's
Lake Superior

Geology[edit]
The rocks of Lake Superior's northern shore date back to the early history of the earth. During
the Precambrian (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago) magma forcing its way to the
surface created the intrusive granites of the Canadian Shield.[33] These ancient granites can be seen
on the North Shore today. It was during the Penokean orogeny, part of the process that created
the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone, that many valuable metals were deposited. The region surrounding
the lake has proved to be rich in minerals. Copper, iron, silver, gold and nickel are or were the most
frequently mined. Examples include the Hemlo gold mine near Marathon, copper at Point Mamainse,
silver at Silver Islet and uranium at Theano Point.
The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers of sediments that compacted and
became limestone, dolostone, taconite and the shale at Kakabeka Falls.
The continent was later riven, creating one of the deepest rifts in the world.[34] The lake lies in this
long-extinct Mesoproterozoic rift valley, the Midcontinent Rift. Magma was injected between layers
of sedimentary rock, forming diabase sills. This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock
below, forming the flat-topped mesas in the Thunder Bay area.
Amethyst formed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift and there are several
amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area.[35]

Basaltic columns along Lake Superior

Lava erupted from the rift and formed the black basalt rock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay
Peninsula, and St. Ignace Island.
During the Wisconsin glaciation 10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of 1.25
miles (2 km). The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of the ice
sheet. The retreat left gravel, sand, clay and boulder deposits. Glacial meltwaters gathered in the
Superior basin creating Lake Minong, a precursor to Lake Superior.[36] Without the immense weight
of the ice, the land rebounded, and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste. Marie, which would
become known as St. Mary's River.

History[edit]

Pictographs at Lake Superior Provincial Park, Ontario

The first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers
in the last Ice Age. They are known as the Plano, and they used stone-tipped spears to
hunt caribou on the northwestern side of Lake Minong.
The next documented people were known as the Shield Archaic (c. 5000500 BC). Evidence of this
culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore. They used bows and
arrows, dugout canoes, fished, hunted, mined copper for tools and weapons, and established trading
networks. They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe and Cree.[37]
The Laurel people (c. 500 BC to AD 500) developed seine net fishing, evidence being found at rivers
around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten.
Another culture known as the Terminal Woodland Indians (c. AD 9001650) has been found. They
were Algonkian people who hunted, fished and gathered berries. They used snow shoes, birch
bark canoes and conical or domed lodges. At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of
encampments have been discovered. Most of the Pukaskwa Pits were likely made during this time.[37]
The Anishinaabe, which includes the Ojibwe or Chippewa, have inhabited the Lake Superior region
for over five hundred years and were preceded by the Dakota, Fox, Menominee, Nipigon, Noquet
and Gros Ventres. They called Lake Superior either Ojibwe Gichigami ("the Ojibwe's Great Sea")
or Anishnaabe Gichgamiing ("the Anishinaabe's Great Sea"). After the arrival of Europeans, the
Anishinaabe made themselves the middle-men between the French fur traders and other Native
peoples. They soon became the dominant Indian nation in the region: they forced out the Sioux and
Fox and won a victory against the Iroquois west of Sault Ste. Marie in 1662. By the mid-18th century,
the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores.[38]

Reconstructed Great Hall, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota

In the 18th century, the fur trade in the region was booming, with the Hudson's Bay Company having
a virtual monopoly. In 1783, however, the North West Company was formed to rival the Hudson's
Bay Company. The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior at Grand Portage, Fort
William, Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste. Marie. But by 1821, with
competition taking too great a toll on both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company
name.
Many towns around the lake are either current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or
shipping. Today, tourism is another significant industry; the sparsely populated Lake Superior
country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts tourists and adventurers.
Shipping[edit]

Vintage stereoscopic photo titled, "Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873

Lake Superior has been an important link in the Great Lakes Waterway, providing a route for the
transportation of iron ore as well as grain and other mined and manufactured materials. Large cargo
vessels called lake freighters, as well as smaller ocean-going freighters, transport these
commodities across Lake Superior.
Because of ice, the Lake is closed to shipping from mid-January to late March. Exact dates for the
shipping season vary each year,[39] depending on weather conditions that form and break the ice.
Shipwrecks[edit]
See also: Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes, List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale,
and Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
According to shipwreck historian Frederick Stonehouse, the southern shore of Lake Superior
between Grand Marais, Michigan, and Whitefish Point is known as the "Graveyard of the Great
Lakes" and more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake
Superior.[40] These shipwrecks are now protected by the Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve.
Storms that claimed multiple ships include the Mataafa Storm in 1905 and the Great Lakes Storm of
1913.
Wreckage of SS Cyprus a 420-foot (130 m) ore carrier that sank on October 11, 1907, during a
Lake Superior storm in 77 fathoms (460 ft or 140 m) of water was located in August 2007. All but
Charles G. Pitz of Cyprus's 23 crew perished . The ore carrier sank in Lake Superior on her second
voyage, while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. Built in Lorain,
Ohio, Cyprus was launched August 17, 1907.[41]
In 1918 the last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, French minesweepers Inkerman and Cerisoles,
vanished in a Lake Superior storm. With 78 crewmembers dead, their sinking marked the largest
loss of life on Lake Superior to date.
SS Edmund Fitzgerald was the last major shipwreck on Lake Superior, sinking 15 nautical
miles (28 km; 17 mi) from Whitefish Point in a storm on November 10, 1975. The wreck was
immortalized by Gordon Lightfoot in his ballad "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". All 29 crew
members perished when the ship sank, and no bodies were ever recovered. Edmund Fitzgerald was
swallowed up so intensely by Lake Superior that the 729-foot (222 m) ship split in half; her two
pieces are approximately 170 feet (52 m) apart in a depth of 91 fathoms 4 feet (550 ft or 170 m).
According to legend, "Lake Superior seldom gives up her dead".[42] This is because of the unusually
low temperature of the water, estimated at under 36 F (2 C) on average around 1970.[31] Normally,
bacteria feeding on a sunken decaying body will generate gas inside the body, causing it to float to
the surface after a few days. However, Lake Superior's water is cold enough year-round to
inhibit bacterial growth, and bodies tend to sink and never resurface.[43] This is alluded to in
Lightfoot's "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" ballad. Fitzgerald adventurer Joe
MacInnis reported that, in July 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the wreck
of Edmund Fitzgerald discovered and filmed a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not
far from the open door, "fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the
sediment."[44]

Ecology[edit]

Bedrock shoreline, Neys Provincial Park, Ontario

Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan

Over 80 species of fish have been found in Lake Superior. Species native to the lake
include: banded killifish, bloater, brook trout, burbot, cisco, lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake
whitefish, longnose sucker, muskellunge, northern pike, pumpkinseed, rock bass, round
whitefish, smallmouth bass, walleye, white sucker and yellow perch. In addition, many fish species
have been either intentionally or accidentally introduced to Lake Superior: Atlantic salmon, brown
trout, carp, chinook salmon, coho salmon, freshwater drum, pink salmon, rainbow smelt, rainbow
trout, round goby, ruffe, sea lamprey and white perch.[45][46]
Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its water volume than the other Great Lakes
and so is less productive in terms of fish populations and is an oligotrophic lake. This is a result of
the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed.[18] However, nitrate concentrations in
the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century. They are still much lower than levels
considered dangerous to human health; but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of
environmental nitrogen buildup. It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regional nitrogen
cycle, but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology.[47]
As for other Great Lakes fish, populations have also been affected by the accidental or intentional
introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey and Eurasian ruffe. Accidental introductions
have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes.
Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations.[6]

See also[edit]
North Shore of Lake Superior
South Shore of Lake Superior
General[edit]

Great Lakes
Great Lakes Areas of Concern
Great Lakes census statistical areas
Great Lakes Commission
Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal
Great Storm of 1913
International Boundary Waters Treaty
List of cities along the Great Lakes
Seiche
Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm
Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes
Third Coast

References[edit]
Notes[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i "Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical

Facts". U.S. Government. May 25, 2011. Archived from the original on
October 29, 2010. Retrieved November 9, 2011.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e "Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1". United States
Environmental Protection Agency. April 11, 2011. Retrieved November
10, 2011.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b Wright, John W., ed. (2006). The New York Times
Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books.
p. 64. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.
4. Jump up^ Shorelines of the Great Lakes Archived April 5, 2015, at
the Wayback Machine.
5. Jump up^ Great Lakes Water Levels, published by the US Army
Corps of Engineers. The link also has daily elevations for the current
month.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake
Minnesota Sea Grant University of Minnesota. Retrieved on August
9, 2007.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Kitchi-Gami Almanac The Name. lakesuperior.com.
January 1, 2006
8. Jump up^ Under the Shadow of the Gods: A guide to the History of
the Canadian Shore of Lake Superior by Barbara Chisholm & Andrea
Gutsche 1st edition 1998 printed bound in Canada by Transcontinental
Printing Inc
9. Jump up^ Great Lakes Atlas, Environment Canada and U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1995.
10. Jump up^ George R. Stewart, "Names on the Land, A historical
Account of Place-Naming in the United States," 1945, p. 83
11. ^ Jump up to:a b National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry
of Lake Superior. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. [access
date: 2015-03-23].
(the general reference to NGDC because this lake was never
published, compilation of Great Lakes Bathymetry at NGDC has been
suspended).
12. Jump up^ National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry of
Lake Huron. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA.
doi:10.7289/V5G15XS5 [access date: March 23, 2015]. (only small
portion of this map)
13. Jump up^ National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land
One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, D. and P.K.
Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA.
doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: March 16, 2015].
14. ^ Jump up to:a b "About Our Great Lakes: Tour". National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Great Lakes Environmental
Research Laboratory (GLERL). Retrieved April 2, 2015. Google Earth
Great Lakes Tour GreatLakesTour_Merged.kmz
15. Jump up^ Wright Jr., H. E. (1973). Black, Robert Foster; Goldthwait,
Richard Parker; Willman, Harold, eds. "Tunnel Valleys, Glacial Surges,
and Subglacial Hydrology of the Superior Lobe,
Minnesota". Geological Society of America Memoirs. Geological
Society of America Memoirs. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of
America Inc. 136: 251276. doi:10.1130/MEM136-
p251. ISBN 0813711363. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
16. Jump up^ Regis, Robert S., Jennings-Patterson, Carrie, Wattrus,
Nigel, and Rausch, Deborah, Relationship of deep troughs in the
eastern Lake Superior basin and large-scale glaciofluvial landforms in
the central upper peninsula of Michigan. The Geological Society of
America. North-Central Section 37th Annual Meeting (March 2425,
2003) Kansas City, Missouri. Paper No. 19-10.
17. Jump up^ North America (2.47107 km) and South
America (1.78107 km) combined cover 4.26107 km. Lake
Superior's volume (1.20104 km) over 4.26107 km gives a depth of
0.282 m.
18. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Lake Superior". Minnesota Sea Grant, University of
Minnesota. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
19. Jump up^ Lake Superior's Natural Processes | Minnesota Sea Grant.
Seagrant.umn.edu (October 15, 2014). Retrieved on 2015-11-17.
20. Jump up^ "The fall storm season." (Website.) National Weather
Service, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Retrieved on September 25, 2007
21. Jump up^ Chisholm, B. & Gutsche, p. xiii
22. Jump up^ Associated Press. (October 1, 2007.) "Lake Superior hits
record lows." The Globe and Mail, via globeandmail.com. Retrieved on
2007-10-06. Archived June 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
23. Jump up^ Current Great Lakes Water Levels. Great Lakes
Information Network. Retrieved on October 23, 2007.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Monthly bulletin of Lake Levels for The Great
Lakes; September 2009; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Detroit
District
25. Jump up^ Marshall, Jessica. (May 30, 2007.) "Global warming is
shrinking the Great Lakes." New Scientist, via newscientist.com.
Retrieved on 2007-09-25. Archived October 13, 2007, at the Wayback
Machine.
26. Jump up^ Associated Press. (June 4, 2007.) "Lake Superior warming
faster than surrounding climate." The Globe and Mail, via
globeandmail.com (fee required). Retrieved on 2007-09-
25. Archived April 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
27. Jump up^ Lamb, Hubert H. (1995). "The little ice age". Climate,
history and the modern world. London: Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 0-415-
12734-3.
28. Jump up^ Extensive Great Lakes Ice Coverage to Limit Severe
Weather, Pose Challenges to Shipping Industry. Accuweather.com.
Retrieved on November 17, 2015.
29. Jump up^ Great Lakes Circle Tour. Great-lakes.net. Retrieved on
November 17, 2015.
30. Jump up^ Highway 17: A Scenic Route along the northern Lake
Superior shore. Thekingshighway.ca (February 18, 2012). Retrieved
on 2015-11-17.
31. ^ Jump up to:a b Derecki, J. A. (July 1980.) "NOAA Technical
Memorandum ERL GLERL-29: Evaporation from Lake
Superior." Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, page 37. Retrieved
on September 25, 2007.
32. Jump up^ "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes." New
Scientist, via newscientist.com. Retrieved on September 25,
2007. Archived October 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
33. Jump up^ Geology of National Parks, Second Edition, Ann G. Harris,
Kendall Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, Iowa, 1977, p. 200
34. Jump up^ Linder, Douglas O. (2006) ''Simply Superior: The World's
Greatest Lake'' "Lake Superior facts". Law.umkc.edu. Retrieved on
November 17, 2015.
35. Jump up^ Ontario Amethyst: Ontario's Mineral Emblem Ontario
Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. Retrieved on August 4,
2007.
36. Jump up^ Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xv
37. ^ Jump up to:a b Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xvi
38. Jump up^ Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xvii
39. Jump up^ "Paul R. Treggurtha: Last trip for the Tregurtha this year".
Duluth Shipping News. January 12, 2015. Retrieved January
21, 2015. Another trip here was planned but has apparently been
canceled, making this her last and 41st visit this season. Last year,
without a late start due to ice, the Tregurtha was here 49 times.
40. Jump up^ Stonehouse, Frederick (1985, 1998). Lake Superior's
Shipwreck Coast, p. 267, Avery Color Studios, Gwinn, Michigan,
U.S.A. ISBN 0-932212-43-3,
41. Jump up^ "Century-old shipwreck discovered: Ore carrier went down
in Lake Superior on its second voyage". Traverse City, Michigan:
MSNBC. Associated Press. September 10, 2007.
42. Jump up^ Kohl, Cris (1998). The 100 Best Great Lakes Shipwrecks,
Volume II, p. 430. Seawolf Communications, Inc. ISBN 0-9681437-3-3.
43. Jump up^ Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xxxiv
44. Jump up^ MacInnis, Joseph (1998). Fitzgerald's Storm: The Wreck of
the Edmund Fitzgerald. Berkeley, CA, USA: Thunder Bay Press.
p. 101. ISBN 1-882376-53-6.
45. Jump up^ "Lake Superior Fish Species". Minnesota Sea Grant,
University of Minnesota. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
46. Jump up^ Minnesota 2009 fishing regulations, p. 23
47. Jump up^ Sterner, Robert W.; Anagnostou, Eleni; Brovold, Sandra;
Bullerjahn, George S.; Finlay, Jacques C.; Kumar, Sanjeev; McKay, R.
Michael L.; Sherrell, Robert M. (2007). "Increasing stoichiometric
 imbalance in North America's largest lake: Nitrification in Lake
Superior". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (10):
L10406. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410406S. doi:10.1029/2006GL028861
.

Bibliography[edit]
Chisholm, B. & Gutsche, A., Superior: Under the Shadow of the
Gods, Lynx Images, 1998 ISBN 0-9698427-7-5
Further reading[edit]

Burt, Williams A., and Hubbard, Bela Reports on the Mineral Region
of Lake Superior (Buffalo: L. Danforth, 1846), 113 pages.
Grady, Wayne. The Great Lakes: The Natural History of a Changing
Region.Greystone Books, D&M Publishers INC, 2007
Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. The Northern Lights:
Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State
University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8143-2554-8 ISBN 9780814325544.
Oleszewski, Wes, Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and
Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes
Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc.,
1998) ISBN 0-932212-98-0.
Penrod, John, Lighthouses of Michigan, (Berrien Center, Michigan:
Penrod/Hiawatha, 1998) ISBN 978-0-942618-78-5 ISBN
9781893624238
Penrose, Laurie and Bill, A Traveler's Guide to 116 Michigan
Lighthouses (Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications, 1999). ISBN
0-923756-03-5 ISBN 9780923756031
Sims, P.K. and L.M.H. Carter, eds. Archean and Proterozoic
Geology of the Lake Superior Region, U.S.A., 1993 [U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1556]. Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 1996.
Splake, T. Kilgore. Superior Land Lights. Battle Creek, MI: Angst
Productions, 1984
Stonehouse, Frederick. Marquette Shipwrecks. Marquette, MI:
Harboridge Press, 1974
Wagner, John L., Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic
Perspective, (East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner, 1998) ISBN
1-880311-01-1 ISBN 9781880311011
Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia, Great Lakes Lighthouses
Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006) ISBN 1-
55046-399-3
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. "[ Record Low Water Levels
Expected on Lake Superior]." August 2007
Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. "Great Lakes
Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models." NOAA, 2006
Shipwrecks

"America"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; Vol. 29;

June 8, 1928
 Stonehouse, Frederick; Isle Royale Shipwrecks; Marquette,
Michigan; Arery Color Studios; 1977
"Cumberland" & "Wreck of Sidewheel Steamer Cumberland";
Detroit, Michigan; Detroit Free Press; January 29, 1974
"S.S.George M. Cox Wrecked"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton
Mining Gazette; May 28, 1933
Holdon, Thom "Reef of the Three C's"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake
Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 2, #4; July/August 1977
Holdon, Thom; "Above and Below: Steamer America"; Duluth,
Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 3, #3 & #4;
May/June & July/August 1978

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Lake
Superior.

Geographic data related to Lake Superior at OpenStreetMap

Lake Superior NOAA nautical chart #14961 online
International Lake Superior Board of Control
EPA's Great Lakes Atlas
EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Factsheet #1
Great Lakes Coast Watch
Parks Canada Lake Superior
Minnesota Sea Grant Lake Superior Page
Lake Superior Bathymetry

[show]

Great Lakes of North America

[show]

Upper Peninsula of Michigan

WorldCat Identities

l VIAF: 244089340
GND: 4075549-6
Categories:
 Lake Superior
Lakes of Michigan
Lakes of Wisconsin
Lakes of Minnesota
Lakes of Ontario
Great Lakes Waterway
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Lakes of Algoma District
Lakes of Thunder Bay District
Rift lakes
Mesoproterozoic rifts and grabens
CanadaUnited States border
International lakes of North America
Great Lakes
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