FFI briefing: Why biodiversity matters for carbon storage

Is carbon protection the same as biodiversity protection?

Protection of forests for their carbon value through Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and
Degradation (REDD) schemes has been increasing in recent years. These schemes concentrate
on preserving forest cover, and thus have great potential for the conservation of natural
biodiversity. Some (REDD+) initiatives already specifically take biodiversity protection into
account.
There has been debate about the potential impacts of REDD schemes on biodiversity, given its
potential to protect natural forests
1

. However, where REDD projects

are not well designed, they could fail to effectively protect the biodiversity within the forest
itself; protecting these areas for their carbon value may not necessarily conserve their
biodiversity value. Furthermore, relatively little is known about how such reductions in
biodiversity may in turn affect the ability of a forest to store carbon2.
The carbon storage value of a forest is essentially dependent on the trees within it
photosynthesising and storing carbon. Different plant species are more efficient at sequestering
and storing carbon from the atmosphere. In general, large, slow growing trees with high wood
densities tend to store the most carbon in the long term. When such a tree dies, much of the
carbon stored within it will be released back into the atmosphere. Changes in biodiversity may
directly, and indirectly, affect the likelihood of tree survival and thus carbon storage.
Potential impacts on biodiversity in carbon forests
Although habitat destruction remains a key global threat to biodiversity, simply protecting forest
cover does not necessarily prevent a loss of the species within. If not managed effectively then
threats such as uncontrolled hunting, selective logging or collection of non-timber forest
products may alter both biodiversity levels and species composition. This will have direct
impacts, but may also have indirect impacts on the resilience of the ecosystem, and thus its
ability to store carbon in the long term
3

. For example, one study suggested Even forests

whose trees received full protection from a program such as REDD could, over decades, lose
carbon stocks through the ripple effects of bushmeat hunting on species interactions
4
.

Direct effects of biodiversity loss on carbon storage

REDD initiatives are designed to control threats related to trees, such as selective logging, fires
or destructive collection of tree products. However, they may not necessarily protect against the
loss or destruction of non timber plants or collection of animals. One of the most interesting
examples of the potential impact of biodiversity loss on carbon storage is the case of hunting
be it for bushmeat or for commercial use activities that are widespread across many forested
areas.
Poaching often focuses on large bodied vertebrates, and thus removes species which tend to play
critical functional roles in an ecosystem. Where top predators (such as tigers) are removed from a
forest, this can result in an increase in herbivore abundance
5

and in a forest context this may lead to over browsing of seedlings and
prevent regeneration of trees. Similarly the removal of large herbivorous species (such as
elephants), which would normally create small clearings as a result of their feeding behaviour,
has been linked to a decline in tree regeneration
6

.
Bushmeat hunting of species which act as seed dispersers may result in a shift in tree species
composition, and could ultimately alter carbon storage potential - although this process is still the
subject of debate. Field studies in Thailand, Cameroon and Panama have found that 70%-90% of
tree species rely on animal seed dispersal and that bushmeat hunting has a direct impact on tree
species composition4,6,7. In Cameroon and Thailand, the removal of large bodied seed
dispersers was linked to the loss of larger seeded trees, which are often those that store the most
carbon. However, others have questioned the impact of bushmeat hunting on carbon storage,
given an associated reduction in seed predation8.
Changes in species composition implications for carbon?
There is evidence that the loss of vertebrate seed dispersers can shift plant species composition
towards those with wind dispersed seeds, such as lianas. This can result in a reduction in the net
carbon stored in the forest.
For example, lianas grow quickly and are able to out-compete slower growing trees for both
light, water and soil nutrients
9,10

. This inhibits tree growth and

regeneration, and increases tree mortality. An increase in lianas within a forest has been shown
to negatively affect both the rate and volume of carbon storage. This occurs for two reasons:
firstly while lianas out-compete trees, their thin stems and low wood density mean that they store
relatively little carbon
compared to the trees which they replace10. Secondly, lianas will infest certain species
preferentially, causing a shift in species composition to faster growing tree species, which often
have lower wood density and store much less carbon11. One model predicts a 34% decrease in
carbon storage of a forest following liana infestation2.
Biodiversity loss and ecosystem resilience
Unpredictable disturbances such as fires, natural disasters and invasive species introductions -
and the ongoing changes to temperature or precipitation caused by climate change - all require
ecosystems to adapt. Resilience of an ecosystem (its ability to recover from such impacts) is a
key concern as a degraded forest ecosystem quickly ceases to be a carbon sink and becomes a
carbon source. High levels of biodiversity can provide biological insurance against losses from
disturbances, making the ecosystem more resilient and likely to recover, and allowing it to
continue storing carbon in the long term
2

. A 2009 report by the CBD

supported this, stating that within a given biome, diverse forests are more biologically
productive and provide larger and more reliable carbon stocks, especially in old-age stable
forest systems...Hence, protecting and restoring biodiversity serves to maintain resilience in
forests, in time and space, and their ongoing capacity to reliably sequester and store carbon
12

For example, a large fire may destroy several dominant trees and plants, but quickly colonising
plant species will take their place, producing the appropriate environment to enable the
subsequent recovery of larger, dominant species2. This recovery is only possible if a diversity of
species co-exist in the first place.
Similarly a biodiverse ecosystem is less likely to be severely damaged by the introduction of an
invasive, exotic species. For example, an ecosystem with several natural predator species and a
variety of plant species is likely to be less susceptible to the introduction of a non-native pest
species13,14. In a forest context this may help to prevent large insect invasions, which are often
linked to tree die back. In a system of reduced biodiversity, invasions of pests may be a serious
threat and may result in tree mortality and loss of carbon storage function.
Resilience to the changing climate is also becoming a more important issue and biodiversity is
likely to strengthen an ecosystems ability to survive without significant loss of above-ground
carbon storage. One study concluded that biodiverse ecosystems in Panama are likely to show
greater resilience to a drying climate as the presence of several drought tolerant species provides
biological insurance to counter the loss of other species2.
Additional indirect benefits of protecting biodiversity
Building biodiversity protection within REDD schemes adds extra value, beyond enhanced
carbon protection
15

. Maintaining biodiversity maintains other non- carbon

functions of forests for both local communities and wider ecosystem service benefits -
including opportunities for sustainable harvests, but also maintenance of services such as water
quality and pollination and erosion prevention.
Text and research by Amy Hinsley
Literature cited:
1 Freedman, B., G. Stinson, and P. Lacoul. 2009. Carbon credits and the conservation of natural areas. Environmental Reviews,
17: 1-19.
2 Bunker, D.E., DeClerck, F., Bradford, J.C., Colwell, R.K., Perfecto, I., Phillips, O.L., Sankaran, M., Naeem, S. (2005) Species
loss and aboveground carbon storage in a tropical forest. Science 310 (5750), pp. 1029-1031
3 Diaz, S., Hector, A., and Wardle, D.A. (2009) Biodiversity in forest carbon sequestration initiatives: not just a side benefit.
Current Opinion in environmental Sustainability 1: 55-60.
4
Brodie JF, Helmy OE, Brockelman WY, Maron JL. (2009) Bushmeat poaching reduces the seed dispersal and population
growth rate of a mammal-dispersed tree Ecological Applications, 19(4), 2009, pp. 854863
5 Lyons, K., Brigham, C., Traut, B., Schwartz, M. (2005 )Rare Species and Ecosystem Functioning. Conservation Biology, 19
(4) pp.1019-1024.
6 Maisels, F., Keming, E., Kemei, M., Toh, C. (2001) The extirpation of large mammals and implications for montane forest
conservation: the case of the Kilum-ljim Forest, North-west Province, Cameroon Oryx Vol 35 No 4
7 Wright, S., Hernandez, A., Condit, R. (2007) The Bushmeat Harvest Alters Seedling Banks by Favoring Lianas, Large Seeds,
and Seeds Dispersed by Bats, Birds, and Wind BIOTROPICA 39(3): 363371
8 Jansen, P., Muller-Landau, H. and Wright, S. J.(2010) Bushmeat Hunting and Climate: An Indirect Link (Letter). Science 327
pp 30.
9 Phillips, O.L., Martinez, R.V., Arroyo, L., Baker, T.R., Killeen, T., Lewis, S.L., Malhi, Y., Mendoza, A.M., Neill, D., Vargas,
P.N., Alexiades, M., Ceron, C., Di Fiore, A., Erwin, T., Jardim, A., Palacios, W., Saldias, M. and Vinceti, B. (2002) Increasing
dominance of large lianas in Amazonian forests. Nature, 418 (6899). pp. 770-774.
10 Wright, S., Hernandez, A., Condit, R. (2007) The Bushmeat Harvest Alters Seedling Banks by Favoring Lianas, Large Seeds,
and Seeds Dispersed by Bats, Birds, and Wind BIOTROPICA 39(3): 363371
11 van der Heijden, G. M. F. and Phillips, O. L. (2009). Liana infestation impacts tree growth in a lowland tropical moist forest,
Biogeosciences Discuss., 6, 3133-3158,
12
Thompson, I., Mackey, B., McNulty, S., Mosseler, A. (2009). Forest Resilience, Biodiversity, and Climate Change. A
synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
Diversity, Montreal. Technical Series no. 43, 67 pages.
13 Chapin III, F.S., Zavaleta, E.S., Eviner, V.T., Naylor, R.L., Vitousek, P.M., Reynolds, H.L., Hooper, D.U., , Daz, S. (2000).
Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature 405 (6783), pp. 234-242
14 Juliano, S.A., Lounibos, L.P., Nishimura, N., Greene, K. (2010). Your worst enemy could be your best friend: Predator
contributions to invasion resistance and persistence of natives Oecologia 162 (3), pp. 709-718
15 Diaz, S., Hector, A., and Wardle, D.A. (2009) Biodiversity in forest carbon sequestration initiatives: not just a side benefit.
Current Opinion in environmental Sustainability 1: 55-60.