Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Leachates draining from controlled municipal solid waste landfill:

Detailed geochemical characterization and toxicity tests
Bienvenu K. Mavakala a, Sverine Le Faucheur b, Crispin K. Mulaji a, Amandine Laffite b,
Naresh Devarajan b, Emmanuel M. Biey c, Gregory Giuliani d, Jean-Paul Otamonga e,
Prosper Kabatusuila e, Pius T. Mpiana a, John Pot a,b,e,
a
University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo
b
Faculty of Science, F.-A. Forel Institute and Institute of Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, 66, Boulevard Carl-Vogt, CH 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
c
University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Faculty of Science, Department of Environmental Sciences, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo
d
University of Geneva, Institute for Environmental Sciences, enviroSPACE Lab., Uni Carl-Vogt, 66 Boulevard Carl-Vogt, CH 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
e
Universit Pdagogique Nationale (UPN), Croisement Route de Matadi et Avenue de la Libration, Quartier Binza/UPN, B.P. 8815, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Management of municipal solid wastes in many countries consists of waste disposal into landfill without
Received 22 December 2015 treatment or selective collection of solid waste fractions including plastics, paper, glass, metals, electronic
Revised 22 April 2016 waste, and organic fraction leading to the unsolved problem of contamination of numerous ecosystems
Accepted 26 April 2016
such as air, soil, surface, and ground water. Knowledge of leachate composition is critical in risk assess-
Available online 10 May 2016
ment of long-term impact of landfills on human health and the environment as well as for prevention of
negative outcomes. The research presented in this paper investigates the seasonal variation of draining
Keywords:
leachate composition and resulting toxicity as well as the contamination status of soil/sediment from
Municipal solid waste
Landfill leachate
lagoon basins receiving leachates from landfill in Mpasa, a suburb of Kinshasa in the Democratic
Tropical conditions Republic of the Congo. Samples were collected during the dry and rainy seasons and analyzed for pH,
Toxic metals electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, soluble ions, toxic metals, and were then subjected to toxicity
Ecotoxicity test tests. Results highlight the significant seasonal difference in leachate physicochemical composition.
Risk assessment Affected soil/sediment showed higher values for toxic metals than leachates, indicating the possibility
of using lagoon system for the purification of landfill leachates, especially for organic matter and heavy
metal sedimentation. However, the ecotoxicity tests demonstrated that leachates are still a significant
source of toxicity for terrestrial and benthic organisms. Therefore, landfill leachates should not be dis-
carded into the environment (soil or surface water) without prior treatment. Interest in the use of macro-
phytes in lagoon system is growing and toxic metal retention in lagoon basin receiving systems needs to
be fully investigated in the future. This study presents useful tools for evaluating landfill leachate quality
and risk in lagoon systems which can be applied to similar environmental compartments.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2014; Wijesekara et al., 2014). Consequently, landfill leachates

Management of municipal solid waste (MSW) is a problem in
many parts of the world and can pose risks to human health and
the environment in both industrialized and developing countries.
In many countries landfills are considered to be disposal sites for
solid and liquid wastes from municipal refuse collection, commer-
cial activities, hospitals, hazardous mining, energy generation resi-
dues, and industry (Augustin and Viero, 2012; Cutruneo et al.,
Corresponding author at: University of Geneva, Faculty of Sciences, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, 66, Boulevard Carl-Vogt, CH 1205 Geneva, Switzerland.
E-mail address: john.pote@unige.ch (J. Pot).
may contain several types of contaminants including toxic metals,
persistent organic pollutants, pathogenic organisms, and pharma-
ceutical drugs which can cause major environmental concerns
and risks to human health (Kjeldsen et al., 2002; Huang et al.,
2009).
Uncontrolled urban landfills, hospital effluents, and urban run-
off in most developing countries represent a significant source of
toxic elements in the aquatic environment because the effluents
are discharged into drainage systems, rivers, and lakes without
prior treatment and then accumulate in sediments, which can have
serious environmental effects and threaten human health
(Pritchard et al., 2008; Mubedi et al., 2013; Atibu et al., 2013;

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.04.028
0956-053X/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248
Mwanamoki et al., 2015). The main risk is posed by accumulation
of toxic substances in soils, input into surface water by runoff,
accumulating in sediment receiving systems and living organisms
as well as infiltrating into groundwater followed by remobilization
of the contaminants and their return to the food chain (Wildi et al.,
2004; Pot et al., 2008; Ngelinkoto et al., 2014). One way of
preventing the potential risks of landfill to the surrounding envi-
ronment is to practice selective collection of the different fractions
of urban solid wastes such as plastics, paper, glass, metals, elec-
tronic wastes, and organic fraction favoring reuse of recycled mate-
rials from the different fractions and only disposing of unrecycled
materials in landfill. Therefore, as receiving systems are affected by
contaminated leachates, analyses of contaminants such as toxic
hazardous elements as well as sediment toxicity are important
for understanding and prevention of further risks (Kjeldsen et al.,
2002; Mantis et al., 2005; Melnyk et al., 2014).
Kinshasa is the capital and largest city of the Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo (DRC) and has an estimated population of more
than 10 million. In the two decades up to the time of writing the
largest cities in the DRC have been characterized by rapid increases
in urbanization and industrialization which constitute the greatest
problem of environmental compartment pollution by toxic metals
and pathogenic organisms (Mwanamoki et al., 2014a,b, 2015).
Municipal and industrial waste management systems are very
limited and it is very difficult to estimate what exactly the waste
production rate is. MSW production rate is variously estimated at
0.51 kg/person/day depending on the standard of living (Parau,
2015). Public spaces and urban rivers are customarily considered
as possible landfill sites (Mwanamoki et al., 2015; Tshibanda
et al., 2014). Moreover, there is a controlled municipal landfill in
Mpasa which has been in operation since the year 2010.
Little information is available on the assessment of contami-
nants or about ecotoxicological aspects of landfill leachates in
receiving systems in developing countries (under tropical condi-
tions). Consequently, there is little data regarding the characteriza-
tion of both leachates and soil/sediment from lagoon basins
receiving draining leachates under tropical condition in developing
countries. The aim of the research presented in this paper was to
assess the quality of leachates draining from the Mpasa landfill
and stored in the receiving system (lagoon basins receiving drain-
ing leachates). The assessment is based on (i) the physicochemical
characterization of leachates including pH, electrical conductivity,
dissolved oxygen, soluble ions, and toxic metal content (Cr, Co,
Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Pb) according to seasonal variation, (ii) evalua-
tion of the pollution status of soil/sediment from lagoon basins
by determination of enrichment factor (EF) and the geoaccumula-
tion index (Igeo), and (iii) leachate and soil/sediment ecotoxicolog-
ical analysis in order to evaluate potential environmental risks.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study site description
The Mpasa landfill (named CET) is an exceptional active and
controlled landfill site in Kinshasa City (capital of the Democratic
Republic of Congo) which mainly serves 9 of the 24 communes
(municipalities) of Kinshasa. The landfill activity started in May
2010. The CET is located about 35 km from Kinshasa city center
(Latitude 4220 0400 South-west and Longitude 15320 0800 ) and
extends over an area of 135 ha of which 50 ha have been used to
date. The site has a capacity of 7,000,000 m3 for disposal of domes-
tic and commercial waste at an average of 420,000 tons per year
(Parau, 2015). The landfill is composed of inverted trapezoidal
compartments (30 m high base, 14 m small base which forms the
239
bottom, 4 m deep) and each is composed of a sloping bottom with
PVC pipes perforated to drain fluid from the percolation of rainwa-
ter through the mass of garbage and inclined walls covered with
geomembrane (plastic film) (Fig. 1). The polyethylene pipes in
the draining system leachate collection have a diameter of
110 mm with a flow rate of 7.2 m3/day in the rainy season. The
landfill leachates are collected via a draining system and stored
in three lagoon basins (receiving system) interconnected by pipes.
The leachate residence time is 50 days for the first lagoon basin
and 40 days for the second and third. No appropriate treatment
is performed for leachate from landfill. Lastly, there is an experi-
mentation using macrophytes planted in the second and third
lagoon basins for possible metal bioaccumulation (Fig. 2A). How-
ever to date no result is available from this experimentation.
2.2. Landfill leachates and soil/sediment collection
Leachate and soil/sediment samples were collected between
May and August 2014 (dry season) and from January to April
2015 (rainy season) with leachates being collected during each
season from: (i) B0 (n = 3): directly from the outlet pipe discharge
into the first basin; (ii) B1 (n = 9): basin-1, surface area of
1080.86 m2 (water depth 1 m maximum during the dry season
sample collection); (iii) B2 (n = 9): basin-2, surface area
504.40 m2, water depth 0.5 m; and (iv) B3 (n = 9): basin-3, surface
area 541.61 m2, water depth 0.5 m. The frequency of leachate sam-
pling from each basin was three times per month/season, that is, at
the beginning (first week), in the middle (at the end of second
week), and during the last week of each month. The sediment sam-
ples labeled AS1 (n = 9), AS2 (n = 4), and AS3 (n = 4) were respec-
tively collected manually (Fig. 2B) from basins B1, B2, and B3.
The number of samples collected from lagoon basins was deter-
mined according to the dimension and form of lagoon basin
(Fig. 1). Water and sediment were sampled from the same points.
Water samples (250 mL sealed in sterile plastic bottles) were trip-
licated from each sampling point, and retrieved at 1050 cm water
depth and a maximum of 1 m from the shore. Approximately 100
250 gr of sediment were also taken from each point in triplicate.
The soil sampling point ES1 located outside the landfill was used
as control as it has no contact with waste and landfill leachates.
Samples were collected in triplicate and the sampling distance
between each replicate in the lagoon basins was approximately
15 cm.
Once collected, samples were stored at 4 C and transported to
the analytical platform of the University of Geneva for analysis
within 72 h.
2.3. Leachate physicochemical analysis
Physicochemical parameters of leachates including tempera-
ture (T), pH, dissolved oxygen (O2) and electrical conductivity
(EC) were measured in situ using a Multi 350i (WTW, Germany).
The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and total organic carbon
(TOC) measurements were performed using Shimadzu High Tem-
perature Total Organic Carbon Analyser (5000 GmbH, Switzerland)
on acidified samples (200 lL of 2 M HCl in 30 mL samples). The
concentration of dissolved ions, cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) and
anions (Cl, SO2  
4 , NO3 , NO2 ) was measured using Ion Chromatog-
raphy (Dionex ICS-3000, Canada) according to the method
described by Graham et al. (2014). The reference material (certified
water CRM, Ontario-99) from the National Water Research Insti-
tute, Canada was used to verify the accuracy of the instrument.
All CRM results were within the acceptance range on the CRM
certificate.
240 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248

Fig. 1. Study site of Mpasa landfill location map (adapted from Google Maps Data). A: Africa outline, Democratic Republic of Congo marked in red. B: Map of Democratic
Republic of the Congo approximate location of study area marked in red (the City of Kinshasa). C: Location map of Mpasa landfill. D: Preparation of dumping sites at Mpasa
landfill. E and F: Landfill leachate residual in lagoon ponds during dry and rainy season respectively (photos taken by Bienvenu Mavakala, E in July 2014 and F in February
2015). G: B1, B2 and B3, lagoon pond receiving systems (blue dots represent sediment and leachate sampling point. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 2. A: Experimentation test for phytoremediation of metals in leachate using macrophytes; B: Technic performed for sediment sampling from lagoon ponds (basins); C:
Uncontrolled landfill near Ndjili River, Kinshasa; D: Pump of leachate evacuation from basins and discarding into the environment without treatment. (A, B, D photos taken
by Crispin Mulaji in June 2015 and C photo taken by John Pot in June 2014.)
 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248
2.4. Sediment grain size, organic matter and total phosphorous
analysis
The particle grain size was measured with a laser Coulter LS-
100 diffractometer (Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, CA, USA), following
5-min ultrasonic dispersal in de-ionized water according to the
method described by Loizeau et al. (1994). Sedimentary organic
matter content was estimated from loss on ignition at 550 C for
1 h in a Salvis oven (AG Emmenbrcke, Luzern, Switzerland). Total
phosphorus concentration (TP) was measured with a spectropho-
tometer (Helios Gamma UVVis Thermo Electroporation, Thermo
scientific, USA) at 850 nm. 50 mg of dry sediments was diluted in
5 mL HCl 1 N and introduced in centrifuge tubes. The mixture
was ultrasonicated at ambient temperature for 16 h and cen-
trifuged (4000 rpm) for 20 min. The supernatants were mineralized
for 45 min at 130 C after addition of K2S2O8 solution (5%). TP con-
centration was performed by measuring the absorbance of the blue
complex obtained after reduction of molybdophosphoric acid
according to the method described by Pot et al. (2008).
2.5. Metal analysis in leachate and sediment samples
The concentration of metals (Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd and Pb) in
landfill leachate was determined using the method described pre-
viously by Chai et al. (2007). Briefly, 5 mL of landfill leachate,
0.7 mL of 65% HNO3 and 0.1 mL of 30% H2O2 were added to the ves-
sel and incubated overnight at 100 C. Digestion mixture was fil-
tered through a 0.45 lm membrane (Millipore, Darmstadt,
Germany) and used for further analysis after appropriate dilution.
For soil/sediment samples, around 1015 mg of lyophilized and
homogenized powder samples was completely digested with pure
acids in Teflon bombs and a glass ceramic hotplate. The procedure
involves three heating steps followed by evaporation with (i) 1 mL
HNO3 (suprapur, 65%), (ii) a mixture of 0.5 mL of HClO4 (suprapur,
70%) with 0.5 mL HF (suprapur, 40%) and (iii) one additional treat-
ment with 0.5 mL of HNO3 (suprapur, 65%). The samples were com-
pletely evaporated between each step, and finally diluted to 10 mL
with 1% HNO3 solution for the measurement (Thevenon et al.,
2012). Digested samples were subjected to analysis by Inductive
Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy (Agilent 7700x series ICP-MS
developed for complex matrix analysis, Santa Clara, CA, USA). A
collision/reaction cell (Helium mode) and interference equations
were utilized to remove spectral interferences that might other-
wise bias results. Multi-element standard solutions at different
concentrations (0, 0.02, 1, 5, 20, 100 and 200 lg L1) were used
for calibration. The certified reference materials LKSD-2, STSD-2,
SLRS-3 were used for sediment, soil and leachate analysis, respec-
tively in order to verify the sensibility of the instrument and the
reliability of the results. Metal concentrations in soil/sediment
samples were expressed in mg kg1 dry soil/sediment and lg L1
for leachate samples. Standard deviations of three replicate mea-
surements were below 5%, and chemical blanks for the procedure
were less than 1% of the sample signal.
Total Hg analysis in sediment samples was carried out using the
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) for mercury determi-
nation (Advanced Mercury Analyser; AMA 254, Altec s.r.l., Czech
Rep.) following the method described by Hall and Pelchat (1997)
and Ross-Barraclough et al. (2002). The method is based on sample
combustion, gold amalgamation, and AAS. The detection limit (3 SD
blank) was 0.005 mg kg1 and the reproducibility better than 5%.
2.6. Toxicity assessment in soil/sediment samples
TK36-Ostracodtoxkit F (MicroBio Tests Inc., Belgium) was used
to perform sediment toxicity test, following manufacturers recom-
mendations. Before analysis, the sediment samples were homoge-
241
nized and weighted according to the manufacturers instructions.
In brief, benthic Ostracod crustacean (Heterocypris incongruens)
cysts were hatched in standard fresh water at 25 C with perma-
nent illumination (approximately 30004000 lx) 54 h before the
tests. Neonates were placed in test wells after the initial measure-
ment for length. Each test well consisted of 1 mL test sediment,
2 ml standard fresh water, 2 ml algal food suspension and ca. 10
living Ostracods. Test plates containing 6 wells were sealed with
parafilm, covered with a lid, and incubated at 25 C in the dark
for 6 days. At the end of the test, the mortality (%) of the organisms
was determined using the formula % Mortality = B/A 100, where
B = total number of dead Ostracods and A = total number of Ostra-
cods added to the test plate. In addition, the length of the surviving
Ostracods was measured using a micrometric strip placed at the
bottom of the glass microscope plate. Growth Inhibition was calcu-
lated using the following formula (Oleszczuk, 2007):
Growth inhibition % 100  growth in test sediment=
growth in reference sediment  100
2.7. Toxicity assessment of the leachate samples
Acute toxicity bioassays were performed on leachate samples
using the Rapidtoxkit test provided by Microbiotest Inc. (Belgium).
That test uses the particle uptake inhibition of the crustacean larvae
Thamnocephalus platyurus as a toxicity endpoint. Prior to exposure
experiments, the crustacean cysts were hatched in 10 mL of stan-
dard freshwater (moderately hard EPA medium) in controlled con-
ditions of temperature (25 C) and light (4000 lx). After 42 h, the
larvae were exposed to the leachate samples w/o dilution and
diluted by 10, 100 and 1000 with the standard medium. After 1 h
exposure, 200 lL of a concentrated red bead solution was added
to the exposure media and left in contact with T. platyurus for
30 min. The microorganisms were then fixed and examined using
a stereomicroscope for the number of total exposed organisms
(Ntot) and the number of organisms, which had ingested the given
red beads (Nred). The percentage of stressed organisms (Nstress) in
each treatment were then calculated using the following formula:
N red  100
%Nstress
Ntot
and the percentage of particle uptake inhibition (%I) was calculated
using the following equation:
%Ic  %It
%I
%Ic
with
% Ic: percentage of stressed organisms in the control
% It: percentage of stressed organisms in the treatment
2.8. Enrichment factor (EF) and Geoaccumulation index (Igeo)
The enrichment factor (EF) and geoaccumulation index (Igeo) in
soil/sediment samples were calculated as described by Maanan
et al. (2004), Varol et al. (2011), Thevenon et al. (2012, 2013) and
Mwanamoki et al. (2015).
The enrichment factor (EF) is calculated using the following
equation, and Scandium (Sc) was used for normalization according
to our previous study performed in the region (Mwanamoki et al.,
2015).
EF Metal=Sc Sample=Metal=Sc Background
EF: Enrichment factor
Metal: Concentration of metal in analyzed samples
Sc: Concentration of Scandium in analyzed samples
242 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248

The geoaccumulation index (Igeo) is defined by the following
equation:
Igeo Log2 Cn =1:5Bn
Cn = Concentration of metals (n) examined in the sediment
samples
Bn = Concentration of the metal (n) geochemical background
1.5 = Lithospheric effect background correlation matrix factor
These values were calculated using the metal mean and litho-
genic background values (Mwanamoki et al., 2015).
2.9. Statistical analysis
All analyses were conducted in triplicate for each set of condi-
tions. Data were analyzed descriptively by means of t-test analysis,
with a significance level difference set at P < 0.05. Two way ANOVA
statistical analysis was done to compare the obtained data during
different sampling periods. A confidence level a of 0.05 was cho-
sen. The statistical treatment of the data has been realized using
SigmaStat 11.0 (Systat Software, Inc., USA).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physicochemical parameters and metal content in leachate
samples
The physicochemical composition of landfill leachate according
to seasonal variation is reported in Table 1. The leachate from out-
let pipe as well as stored in lagoon basins (ponds) is characterized
by a blackish color (Fig. 2B) and unpleasant odor. Dry season values
ranged from 25.2 to 29.6 C (T), 7.8 to 8.7 (pH), and 0.20 to
0.36 mg L1 (O2) while rainy season values ranged from 12.6 to
19, 1 C (T), 6.7 to 12.3 (pH), and 0.25 to 0.61 mg L1 (O2). The
values of electrical conductivity ranged from 19.8 to 27.4 mS/cm
during the dry season and from 0.147.70 mS/cm during the rainy
season. Leachates are characterized by highly variable concentra-
tions of dissolved ions according to the seasons. For example, the
concentration of Na+, K+, NO 2
3 , and SO4 during the dry season ran-
ged from 3440 to 4740, 7140 to 7880, 140 to 400, and 460 to
680 mg L1, respectively. On the other hand, the rainy season
values observed were 29806420, 11248320, 142460, and
27003724 mg L1, respectively. These results indicate that
dissolved ion concentrations in leachates are higher during the
rainy season than those observed during the dry season, which is
probably explained by rainwater percolation.
Metal concentration in leachate samples is reported in Table 2.
Metal concentration (in lg L1) during the dry season varied from
721.1886.3, 26.448.8, 31.738.4, 2.93.4, 6.36.9, and 1.82.8
for Fe, Zn, Cr, Cu, Co, and Pb, respectively. The values (in lg L1)
during the rainy season varied from 1519.33380.4, 570.6714.2,
9.3169.8, 316.4461.2, 0.862.2, and 70.587.2 for Fe, Zn, Cr,
Cu, Co, and Pb, respectively. These results demonstrate that these
metal concentrations in landfill leachates during the rainy season
were 2040 times higher than those in the dry season. The concen-
tration for other metals (Sc, Mn, Ni, As, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sn, and Sb) in
leachate was also higher during the rainy season than in the dry
season (but less than 20 times). A few studies carried out in similar
environments have demonstrated that leachate parameters
fluctuate according to seasonal variation and have demonstrated
that total Cu and Zn concentrations during the rainy season are
respectively approximately 10 and 30 times higher than those in
the dry period (e.g. Tsarpali et al., 2012). It has been reported that

Table 1
Average values of physicochemical parameters and dissolved ions of leachates from Mpasa landfill according to the seasonsa. Errors are presented as SD.

Parameter B0 B1 B2 B3
Dry season (MayAugust 2014)
T C 29.6 0.2 29.5 0.3 26.8 1.14 25.2 0.1
pH 7.8 0.1 7.9 0.1 8.7 0.1 8.7 0.1
EC (mS/cm) 27.4 0.9 26.6 1.1 20.9 0.8 19.8 0.7
O2 (mg/L) 0.36 0.01 0.20 0.10 0.22 0.10 0.23 0.10
Na+ (mg/L) 4600 116 4740 128 4640 125 3440 120
K+ (mg/L) 7140 193 7700 208 7880 213 7680 207
Ca2+ (mg/L) n/a n/a n/a n/a
Mg2+ (mg/L) n/a 300 8 220 6 n/a
NO 3 (mg/L) 140 6 160 7 400 17 200 8
NO 2 (mg/L) 80 3 n/a 260 11 n/a
SO2
4 (mg/L) 680 27 640 27 460 19 500 21
Cl (mg/L) 5640 237 5940 249 5860 246 5720 240
DOC (mg/L) 12,395 1066 11,286 971 9365 805 6981 600
TOC (mg/L) 19,476 1675 18,469 1588 15,869 1365 11,759 1011
Rainy season (JanuaryApril 2015)
T C 19.1 0.7 14.9 0.1 18.8 0.8 12.6 1.6
pH 12.3 0.0 7.9 0.0 9.8 0.1 6.7 0.0
EC (mS/cm) 7.7 0.1 6.9 0.7 6.1 0.1 0.14 0.00
O2 (mg/L) 0.61 0.01 0.45 0.02 0.28 0.03 0.25 0.03
Na+ (mg/L) 6420 173 5940 160 3260 88 2980 80
K+ (mg/L) 8320 225 1368 370 1286 347 1124 303
Ca2+ (mg/L) 10,320 279 2800 76 360 10 180 5
Mg2+ (mg/L) 820 22 680 18 540 15 360 10
NO 3 (mg/L) 440 18 460 19 320 13 142 6
NO 2 (mg/L) 380 16 240 10 188 8 168 7
SO2
4 (mg/L) 3724 156 3260 137 3140 132 2700 113
Cl (mg/L) 6440 270 6260 263 5480 230 4560 192
DOC (mg/L) 13,797 1187 11,937 1027 12,748 1096 7843 674
TOC (mg/L) 24,676 2122 21,816 1876 18,389 1581 12,189 1048
a
Physicochemical parameters (T, pH, EC and O2) were performed about twice per month. The analysis of dissolved ions, DOC and TOC was performed with samples of July
and August 2014 (dry season), and January and February 2015 (rainy season); SD: Standard deviation (statistically significant coefficients P < 0.05). B0: leachate directly from
the outlet pipe discharge to the first basin; B1, B2, B3: lagoon basins 1, 2 and 3 respectively. n/a: analysis no performed.
 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248 243

Table 2
Average metal concentration (in lg L1 sd) in leachates from outlet pipe and lagoon receiving systems. Errors are presented as SD.

Dry season (MayAugust 2014) Rainy season (JanuaryApril 2015)

Sample B0 B1 B2 B3 B0 B1 B2 B3
Sc 0.13 0.02 0.26 0.00 0.12 0.02 0.20 0.00 0.33 0.01 14.34 0.27 8.29 0.15 6.24 0.11
Cr 38.36 0.72 29.37 0.55 31.72 0.60 29.30 0.55 169.81 3.22 123.44 2.34 124.91 2.37 9.30 0.17
Mn 39.12 1.10 21.05 0.58 14.75 0.41 13.77 0.38 123.70 3.46 87.46 2.44 100.55 2.81 35.19 0.98
Fe 866.30 39.10 886.43 39.90 721.60 32.40 613.8 27.6 3380.4 152.1 2531.3 113.9 2930.6 131.9 1519.3 68.4
Co 6.90 0.13 6.69 0.12 6.88 0.13 6.03 0.11 62.23 1.18 22.47 0.42 52.36 0.99 0.77 0.01
Ni 24.40 0.46 24.70 0.46 26.85 0.51 25.02 0.47 116.38 2.21 78.29 1.48 115.64 2.19 10.88 0.20
Cu 3.44 0.06 3.33 0.06 2.26 0.04 2.98 0.05 461.16 8.76 317.17 6.02 395.5 7.51 316.38 6.01
Zn 48.96 0.93 40.85 0.77 28.00 0.53 26.37 0.50 714.18 13.56 529.10 10.05 1148.2 21.8 570.55 10.84
As 3.95 0.07 2.19 0.04 2.14 0.04 2.03 0.03 7.07 0.13 0.56 0.01 n/a 5.71 0.10
Mo 0.57 0.01 0.48 0.00 0.47 0.01 0.80 0.01 0.01 0.01 2.31 0.04 2.15 0.04 1.67 0.03
Ag 0.09 0.001 0.11 0.02 0.08 0.01 0.16 0.003 0.86 0.01 3.74 0.07 1.63 0.03 0.84 0.01
Cd 0.21 0.003 0.20 0.03 0.20 0.03 0.18 0.003 1.04 0.01 0.53 0.01 0.58 0.01 0.21 0.03
Sn 5.79 0.11 6.31 0.11 5.61 0.10 5.27 0.10 38.95 0.74 24.71 0.46 22.98 0.43 11.96 0.22
Sb 1.65 0.03 1.67 0.03 1.75 0.03 2.40 0.04 15.43 0.29 14.95 0.28 12.08 0.22 9.87 0.18
Pb 2.78 0.05 3.12 0.05 2.07 0.03 1.78 0.03 87.22 1.65 79.72 1.51 132.88 2.52 70.48 1.33

Metal analysis in leachate was performed with samples of July and August 2014 (dry season), and January and February 2015 (rainy season); SD: Standard deviation
(statistically significant coefficients P < 0.05). All analyses from sampling points were performed in triplicate and the standard deviation was less than 2% of average. B0:
leachate directly from the outlet pipe discharge to the first basin; B1, B2, B3: lagoon basins 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

rainwater percolating through the waste layers in a landfill is a
major factor in the generation of landfill leachate. Therefore, land-
fill leachate composition varies according to waste composition,
waste age, landfilling technology, and climatic conditions
(temperature and precipitation) (Kjeldsen et al., 2002).
Consequently, monitoring the landfill leachate requires several
samplings programmed according to seasonal variation.
Assessing the impact of a functional landfill leachate may be
difficult to interpret because a variety of waste types deposited
in landfills cause the penetration of several substances into surface
and ground waters that are not subject to periodic analytical stud-
ies nor covered by continuous monitoring (Wijesekara et al., 2014;
Melnyk et al., 2014). In the study presented in this paper, the
assessment of landfill leachate was performed during one dry
and one rainy season. The results obtained agree with the above-
mentioned previous studies that leachate composition of physico-
chemical parameters (pH, EC, O2), dissolved ions, and toxic metals
vary seasonally. In general, higher concentrations of elements in
leachates were observed during the rainy season (mainly during
the first rains). However, as reported in several previous studies,
a significant temporal variation in the concentration of physico-
chemical parameters and solute ions present in leachates was
found in Mpasa (Chu et al., 1994; Ben Salem et al., 2014). Landfill
leachate is generated by rainwater percolating through the landfill
mass and mixed with water released during waste decomposition
(Huang et al., 2009). The relationship between flow and concentra-
tions of all parameters measured in leachate samples has been
found to have decreasing concentrations with increasing flow rates
during the rainy season (Chai et al., 2007; Kiddee et al., 2014). A
similar observation has been made by other researchers in similar
environments (e.g. Tsarpali et al., 2012; Wijesekara et al., 2014).
Compared to other studies as summarized by Al-Wabel et al.
(2011) and Bouzayani et al. (2014) among others, leachates from
other landfills present higher values of physicochemical parame-
ters, dissolved ions, and toxic metals equal to or greater than those
observed at the CET landfill study site. For example, TOC and DOC
can reach values of 36,955 and 28,493 mg L1, respectively, while
the soluble Cl and SO2 4 values ranged from (5503 to 11,530) to
(981 to 1944) mg L1, respectively (Al-Wabel et al., 2011). The
DOC and TOC values observed during the dry season in the study
presented in this paper ranged from 2871 to 12,395 and 8746 to
19,476 mg L1, respectively whereas the values during the rainy
season ranged from 3720 to 13,797 and 6378 to 24,676 mg L1
for DOC and TOC, respectively. High values of DOC and TOC in
leachates can be explained by the presence of soluble organic mat-
ter (OM) runoff from landfill, indicating the eventual predomi-
nance of organic matter in landfill. Similar observations were
reported in other studies carried out in tropical conditions (e.g.
Mangimbulude et al., 2009; Kiddee et al., 2014).
3.2. Lagoon sediment characteristics and metal content
Sediment characteristics including OM, grain size, carbonate
(CaCO3), and total phosphorus are reported in Table 3. Sediment
samples from B1 (AS1) receiving the leachate directly from the
landfill outlet pipe present OM content values of approximately
11% (measured by loss on ignition at 550 C). Sediments from B1
are generally soft, muddy, and black in color with a mean grain size
of 177.6 lm and a strong odor. Coarser sediments of a mean grain
size of 188.5 and 215.3 lm were respectively observed in samples
from B2 and B3. Sediments were classified as sandy sediments
with wide variations in OM content and particle grain sizes. High
concentration of TP was observed in sediment samples from B1
with mean values of 2410.5 mg kg1. The sediment samples from
B2 and B3 present identical values (approximately 270 mg kg1)
of TP content. The values of sediment characteristics including
OM, grain size, and TP are similar to those observed in sediments
of river receiving untreated wastewater (Mubedi et al., 2013;
Mwanamoki et al., 2014a,b; 2015). Soil control samples are gener-
ally sandy with average values of 95% sand, 1.55% (OM), 0.4%
(CaCO3), and 165 mg kg1 (TP), with a mean grain size of
232.8 lm.
Concentrations of Sc, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Mo, Ag, Cd,
Sn, Sb, Pb, and Hg in sediment samples are reported in Table 4,
where they are compared to the Sediment Quality Guidelines for
the Protection of Aquatic Life (SQGs) as recommended by the CCME
in 1999. The trend in mean metal concentration in lagoon basins is
B1 > B2 > B3. Results indicate sedimentation mechanisms espe-
cially during the dry season. The average Cu values were 303.5,
2.0, and 1.8 mg kg1 for sediment samples from B1, B2, and B3,
respectively. On the other hand, values observed during the rainy
season were 351.6, 142.8, and 14.5 mg kg1 respectively for sedi-
ment samples from B1, B2, and B3. Metal concentrations in sedi-
ment collected from lagoon basins were 10100 times higher
than those measured in leachate samples, indicating the abate-
ment of lagoon systems in purifying landfill leachates, especially
for metal sedimentation (Guigue et al., 2013; Ben Salem et al.,
2014). The evaluation of the potential deleterious effects of metals
244 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248

Table 3
Soil/sediment characteristics including organic matter (OM), carbonate, grain size and total phosphorus (TP).a

OM (%) CaCO3 (%) Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Median grain size (lm) TP (mg kg1)
B-1 (AS1) 10.86 1.30 15.12 1.40 0.2 28.5 71.3 177.6 2410.5 123.7
B-2 (AS2) 3.36 0.70 1.57 0.30 1.3 11.3 87.4 188.5 272.2 16.2
B-3 (AS3) 2.20 0.20 0.73 0.11 0.9 4.4 94.6 215.3 273.5 14.9
ES1 1.55 0.20 0.40 0.12 0.5 4.3 95.1 232.8 165.0 18.3
a
Total organic matter (OM) and total phosphorus (TP) average values during dry season (MayAugust 2014) from B-1(AS1, n = 9), B-2 (AS2, n = 4) and B-3 (AS3, n = 4). The
values presented for sediment grain size analysis were performed with samples of July 2014 (no great difference of the values of sediment characteristics was observed for
samples from the same points during rainy season).

Table 4
Metal content (mg kg1 dry weight soil/sediment) of soil/sediment analyzed by ICP-MS and by AMA for total mercurya. Errors are presented as SD.

Dry season (July 2014) Rainy season (February 2015)

Sample B-1 (AS1) B-2 (AS2) B-3 (AS3) B-1 (AS1) B-2 (AS2) B-3 (AS3) ES1 Rec. Max. Concb
Sc 2.57 0.04 1.13 0.02 0.63 0.01 5.13 0.09 1.17 0.02 0.86 0.01 0.81 0.01
Cr 325.8 6.2 11.61 0.22 8.98 0.17 307.40 5.80 123.49 2.34 14.87 0.28 8.27 0.15 37.30
Mn 818 23 11.76 0.32 9.29 0.26 420.9 11.8 82.53 2.31 46.02 1.28 7.50 0.21
Fe 22,197 499 5394 243 4177 188 53,007 885 9090 409 6161 277 4684 210
Co 3.87 0.07 0.12 0.00 0.18 0.03 8.67 0.16 2.24 0.04 1.28 0.02 0.37 0.02
Ni 196.42 3.73 1.49 0.02 1.24 0.02 156.71 2.97 70.95 1.34 4.23 0.08 1.27 0.02
Cu 303.47 5.76 2.02 0.03 1.75 0.03 351.59 6.68 142.80 2.70 14.49 0.27 1.92 0.03 35.70
Zn 498.40 9.46 6.35 0.12 7.29 0.13 748.2 14.2 309.9 5.88 216.44 4.11 3.57 0.06 123.00
As 2.42 0.04 0.21 0.00 0.18 0.03 10.17 0.19 1.60 0.03 0.79 0.01 0.23 0.04
Mo 0.54 0.01 0.40 0.00 0.06 0.01 4.07 0.07 0.81 0.01 0.42 0.07 0.40 0.07
Ag 0.13 0.02 0.20 0.00 0.20 0.03 0.51 0.01 0.21 0.03 0.30 0.02 0.20 0.03
Cd 0.71 0.07 0.50 0.01 0.30 0.01 28.52 0.54 9.94 0.18 9.50 0.18 0.54 0.06 0.60
Sn 1.06 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.08 0.01 26.41 0.50 4.15 0.07 2.76 0.05 0.30 0.05
Sb 0.25 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.01 5.25 0.09 1.53 0.02 1.15 0.02 0.30 0.01
Pb 163.31 3.10 1.29 0.02 1.16 0.02 191.93 3.64 105.90 2.10 42.43 0.80 1.00 0.01 35.00
Hg 0.85 0.01 0.10 0.01 0.11 0.02 0.91 0.01 0.13 0.02 0.15 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.17
a
Metal content (mg kg1 dry weight soil/sediment) of soil/sediment from the lagoon basins B-1(AS1, n = 9), B-2 (AS2, n = 4) and B-3 (AS3, n = 4). The values in bold
represent the concentration of toxic metals above the recommended concentration according to the Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life rec-
ommendation (CCME EPC-98E, 1999).
b
Recommendation maximum concentration Sediment Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life recommendations.

toward benthic fauna, which is based on consensus-based guideli-
nes for sediment quality, provides an estimate of the hazard that
sediments may represent to the local biota (Long et al., 2006;
MacDonald et al., 2000). These authors proposed a Threshold
effect concentration (TEC) for specific metals above which a cer-
tain effect (or response) is produced in a living organism and below
which there are no effects, and a probable effect levels (PELs) is a
contaminant level that is likely to cause an adverse effect on biota.
Sediment samples have contrasting metal contamination levels.
Many metals are present in relatively high concentrations (espe-
cially in lagoon B1 during both dry and rainy seasons). For exam-
ple, values between 307.4325.8, 420.9818.0, 22,19753,007,
303.5351.6, and 498.4748.2 mg kg1 for Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn
respectively were recorded. These values are higher than SQGs
and PELs, indicating the potential threat for environmental risks.
Hg values were relatively low ranging from 0.85 to 0.91 mg kg1
in B1 but were higher than the recommended value in sediment
(0.17 mg kg1).
3.3. Enrichment factor (EF) and Geoaccumulation index (Igeo)
EF and Igeo values for selected metals in sediment samples from
lagoon basins receiving systems are reported in Table 5. The EF and
Igeo indices are important in discriminating between anthro-
pogenic metals and provide a quantitative criterion for character-
izing the sediment according to the degree of metal pollution
(Adamo et al., 2005). EF values of Cu above 50 indicating ex-
tremely severe enrichment were observed in the samples AS1
(B1 dry season), AS1, AS2, and AS3 (respectively rainy season B1,
B2, B3). Very severe enrichment of Ni was observed in samples
AS1 (dry season) and AS2 (rainy season); severe enrichment of
Zn was observed in AS1 (dry season) and AS2 and AS3 (rainy sea-
son). Other elements present moderate or no enrichment in
lagoon basins according to season. The Igeo classification of ex-
tremely polluted was observed for Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Pb. Cr and
Zn in all samples from lagoon B1 (rainy and dry season) and ex-
tremely polluted were also observed in samples from B1, B2,
and B3 during both dry and rainy seasons. Furthermore, an ex-
tremely polluted level of Pb was observed in samples from B1,
B2, and B3 during the rainy season and from B1 during the dry sea-
son. No Hg pollution was observed according to the Igeo classifica-
tion values. Based on the values from Igeo and EF calculations, the
lagoon basins receiving leachate from CET landfill can be consid-
ered to be polluted with toxic metals including Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and
Pb. No enrichment or pollution was observed for the ES1 soil (con-
trol) samples.
3.4. Toxicity assessment in lagoon sediment
Toxic metals accumulated in sediments are a good indicator for
predicting the toxicity of a contaminated environment. However,
to fully evaluate the toxicity of receiving systems, chemical analy-
sis needs to be combined with ecotoxicological aspects (Mantis
et al., 2005; Pablos et al., 2011; Mubedi et al., 2013). Ostracods
(H. incongruens) and various other species such as the brine shrimp
(Artemia franciscana) are usually included as useful bioindicators in
changing environmental conditions including soil and sediment
receiving systems in relation to climatic conditions (Anadon
et al., 2002; Boomer and Eisenhauer, 2002; Tsarpali et al., 2012;
Devarajan et al., 2015). The study presented in this paper used
the potential of the group Ostracods as a possible bioindicator of
environmental changes to the lagoon sediments receiving systems
 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248
Table 5
EF and Igeo values for selected metals in the sediment samples from lagoon basins.
induced by landfill effluent waters according to seasonal variation.
The percentage of growth inhibition and the mortality rate of
Ostracods are presented in Table 6.
The percentage rate of mortality in the sediment samples col-
lected from the three lagoon basins ranged from 28.4 to 100% dur-
ing the dry season. All sediment samples present a mortality rate of
100% during the rainy season. The growth inhibition calculated for
samples with less than 30% mortality rate (as per the manufac-
turers instructions) was only observed in two sediment samples
from lagoon basin B-3 during the dry season (values of 51.9% and
64.2%). In comparison with samples from lagoon basins, the soil
samples from the control site of the study area (ES1) showed the
smallest effect on benthic Ostracods with a mortality rate of
approximately 18% and growth inhibition of 14%. However, accord-
ing to the manufacturers recommendation for the validation of the
results, the percentage mortality of the Ostracods in the TK36-
Ostracodtoxkit reference sediment should not be higher than
245
20%. So all of the tests carried out in this study were validated
because the percentage mortality of the Ostracods was less than
8%.
Consequently, the impact on both mortality and/or growth inhi-
bition of Ostracods is notable. These ecotoxicological results indi-
cate a potential risk to organisms exposed to the sediment
samples from lagoon basins.
3.5. Assessment of toxicity in leachate samples
Exposure of T. platyurus to leachate samples led to 100% of par-
ticle uptake inhibition at all studied sites and during both seasons
(Table 7). Although the test applied is a pass-fail test used for
rapid detection of toxic compounds in water samples, a series of
dilutions of leachate samples was performed in order to obtain
information concerning their toxicity level. Samples collected dur-
ing the dry season did not further impact on the crustacean when
246 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248

Table 6
Percentages of mortality and growth inhibition of Ostracods (Heterocypris incongruens) exposed to the lagoon sediments.

Samplea Dry season (July 2014) Rainy season (February 2015)

% Mortality % Growth Inhibition % Mortality % Growth Inhibition
Basin-B1: AS1 AS11 100 n/d 100 n/d
AS12 100 n/d 100 n/d
AS13 100 n/d 100 n/d
AS14 100 n/d 100 n/d
Basin-B2: AS2 AS21 100 n/d 100 n/d
AS22 100 n/d 100 n/d
AS23 100 n/d 100 n/d
AS24 100 n/d 100 n/d
Basin-B3: AS3 AS31 97.6 n/d 100 n/d
AS32 27.9 51.9 9.0 100 n/d
AS33 28.4 64.2 7.0 100 n/d
AS34 100 n/d 100 n/d
Soil control: ES1 ES11 18.3 13.9 4.0 n/a n/a
ES12 17.9 14.2 5.0 n/a n/a

n/d: Growth Inhibition not determined if the mortality rate is more than 30% according to the manufacturers recommendation.
n/a: no analysis performed, nd: no detected.
a
Four samples were used from each lagoon basin (Basin-B1: AS11-4; Basin-B2: AS21-4; Basin B-3: AS31-4). Two samples form control soil (ES1: ES11-2).

diluted 10 times whereas samples collected during the rainy sea- rainy season. That latter concentration is very close to the range
son had to be diluted 100 times to demonstrate no further inhibi- of concentrations (between 410 and 4600 lg L1) reported as
tion. These results confirmed those found with H. incongurens and LC50 measured for T. Platyurus exposed to CuSO4 for 24 h
the sediments collected in basin B3, i.e. samples (sediments and (Blinova et al., 2010). Regardless of the season, the leachates are
leachates) collected during rainy seasons are more toxic to organ- classified as very toxic (Santiago, 2002). A good correlation has
isms than those collected during dry seasons. Extremely high con- been reported between the response of the rapidtoxkit (applied
centrations of salts (Cl concentration at 6 g/L) and DOC (10 g/L) in the present study) and 24 h exposure tests also performed with
in both seasons may explain the severe effects of leachates on the T. platyurus and with the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus both of
crustacean larvae. Indeed, a value of 147 mg/L has been reported as which have mortality as endpoint (Nalecz-Jawecki and Persoone,
EC50 for T. Platyurus exposed to NH4Cl for 24 h, which is about 2006; Jaweski et al., 2011). An understanding of the ranges of tox-
40 times lower than the concentrations measured in the leachates icity of landfill emissions is crucial in determining the degree of
(Centeno et al., 1995). However, the conductivity (proxy of the concern about the potential effects they could have upon nearby
total dissolved solid) of the leachates decreased by 4 times in populations and the surrounding environment (Koshy et al.,
basins 1 and 2, and by 140 times in basin 3 during the rainy season 2007). The results of this study indicate that leachates from munic-
compared to the dry season but without positive consequences on ipal landfill contain very high concentrations of organic matter,
their toxicity. One plausible explanation is the greater desorption salts, and contaminants including metals, which are lethal to
of contaminants from the wastes during the rain observed with organisms and whose toxicity is exacerbated during rainy seasons.
the increase of dissolved metal concentrations which could lead
to the greater toxicity of the leachates. For example, Cu concentra- 4. Conclusion
tions in Basin 1 increased by approximately 100 fold between the
two seasons, from 3 lg L1 in the dry season to 317 lg L1 in the The main aim of this study was to characterize the composition
and toxicity of leachates drained from a controlled municipal solid
waste landfill under tropical conditions according to seasonal vari-
Table 7 ations. The results demonstrated high and seasonal variation of
Percentage of the particle uptake inhibition of Thamnocephalus platyurus exposed to landfill composition in terms of electrical conductivity, dissolved
the leachate samples (30% inhibition is the threshold value, which represents a
ions, and toxic metals. In general, concentrations of these parame-
significant effect).
ters in leachates during the rainy season are higher than the values
Sample Dilution Dry season Rainy season observed during the dry season. Therefore, greater attention
factor (July 2014) (February 2015)
should be paid to rainy season leachate discharges. The analysis
B1 1 100 100 of toxic metals distribution in lagoon basin receiving systems
10 16 100
showed relative high levels of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cr accumulated
100 0 13
1000 0 7
in the lagoon sediments, which were many times higher than SQGs
and PLEs, and so represent potential environmental risks. The eco-
B2 1 100 100
10 0 100
toxicity analysis performed in leachates and sediments from the
100 0 7 lagoon basins demonstrated the potential toxicity of leachates for
1000 0 0 terrestrial and benthic organisms.
B3 1 100 81 Quantity of municipal wastes in the city of Kinshasa continues
10 20 100 to increase according to the growing of population. There is no
100 10 6 appropriate policy of waste management, and there is only one
1000 n.d. 8
controlled municipal landfill (Mpasa, studied area). Consequently,
B0 1 100 100 public spaces and urban rivers are customarily considered as pos-
B0: leachate directly from the outlet pipe discharge to the first basin; B1, B2, B3: sible landfill sites (Fig. 2C) that result in potential human and envi-
lagoon basins 1, 2 and 3 respectively. ronmental risks.
 B.K. Mavakala et al. / Waste Management 55 (2016) 238248
According to the results of this research, there is a need for new
strategies of waste management including selective collection and
recycling of solid wastes, which will reduce the amount of waste
deposition into landfill and so their potential environmental
impacts. On the other hand, it is important to apply new technol-
ogy to landfill leachate treatment rather than discharging it into
the environment without previous treatment (Fig. 2D). The
attempt at using macrophytes in lagoon basins (Fig. 2A) to treat
any metal bioaccumulation is encouraging. Therefore, further stud-
ies are recommended in order to evaluate the effect of macro-
phytes on metal retention in lagoon basins.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Institute F.-A. Forel via the trip-
licate collaboration between University of Geneva (Institute F.-A.
Forel), University of Kinshasa and Pedagogic National University
of Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo) through Programme
de Renforcement des Capacits de lEnseignement et de la
Recherche en Sciences de lEnvironnement PRCERSE. The authors
thank collaborators of Forel Institute for their precious analytical
help to students from Congo DR during their training in University
of Geneva. Clive Prestt (UK) kindly revised and checked the English
of the manuscript.
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