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Schuyler Morales

Astronomy

Prof. El-Jeaid

17 November 2017

The Sun

To first understand the importance of the Sun to the universe, one must first understand

how the sun itself was formed. Approximately 4.5 billion years ago, energy in space compressed

clouds of the remnants of dead stars with intense pressure. Gravity caused these particulate

clouds to collapse in upon each other and enter a spinning action. This spinning action, combined

with the effects of gravity and incredible energy caused the ball of material to compress further

into a disk-like shape. In the nucleus of this disk, was formed a protostarwhich would

eventually become what we know now as the sun. A protostar is defined as an infant star, still

forming, still collecting its eventual mass from its surrounding particulate cloud. The protostellar

phase is the first in the phase of stellar evolution. This phase lasts, in relative terms, quite a short

timeabout a million years. The defined

end to the protostellar state occurs when

the infant star begins to repel and return

the collapsing gasses to the cloud. At this

point, the becomes a visibly distinct

stara so-called pre-main-sequence star.

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This early star was primarily composed of hydrogen and helium. Over the course of the

next several tens of millions of years, still a short period of time by astronomical terms, the

building pressure and growing heat caused by both the present pressure and energy, built the

foundations of what

became the fusion that

still today drives the

suns activity and

energy. NASA

estimates that the sun,

and any star of a similar

size would, require[s]

about 50 million years

to mature from the beginning of the collapse to adulthood. Further, NASA estimates that the

sun will remain in this state of maturity for about ten billion years. This means the sun has

reached about a third of its useful mature life.

The formation of the sun obviously did not utilize the full material present in the

particulate cloud disk. The remaining material in the disk compressed in various ways and at

various times, creating the other objects present in the solar system. Of these, the most notable

are the planetary objects, including the Earth.

The nuclear fusion, triggered during the formation of the sun and its surrounding solar

system, allowed the sun to enter the main-sequence stage. This fusion acts in such a way that in

the core of the sun, hydrogen atoms are fused into helium. This is a self-sustaining process

throughout the mature or main-sequence stage of the sun. This fusion is effectively acting as a
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furnace and is responsible for the incredible energy output of the sun. When the sun became a

star, the thermal pressure resultant from that fusion activity, neutralized the gravitational

pressure, allowing a stasis of hydrostatic equilibrium. It is this equilibrium upon which the

stability of the solar system relies, and the lack of which will cause the end of the same system.

When the suns reserve of hydrogen gas depletes at the end of its main-sequence some

five billion years from now, the sun will swell. This will cause the sun to enter a state known as

red giant. A red giant has a significantly higher luminosity, of up to several thousand times, than

the current luminosity of the sun,

and a radius of several hundred

times greater than that of the sun.

While the luminosity and radius

of the sun will be much greater,

such that the Earth itself will be

enveloped by the sun, the surface

temperature of the sun will be

significantly lower than its main-

sequence temperature. Eventually,

as the sun compresses and fuses the remaining helium into carbon, the core will begin to

collapse. The full collapse will occur when the full amount of helium is spent. This collapse will

be limited by electron degeneracy, which states that electrons cannot be compressed beyond a

particular point. This will leave the sun as a compressed remnant of its core, creating a white

dwarf. From there, the energy will slowly dissipate and the dwarf star will slowly, over the

course of many millions of years, die a slow death.

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The sun is composed of six distinct layers. The three outermost layersthe corona,

chromosphere, and photosphere are what compose the atmosphere and surface of the sun. The

three innermost layers are not visible and comprise the inner workings of the sunthe

convective zone, radiative zone, and the core. Each layer is critical to the function of the sun and

has distinctly unique features and behaviors.

The core of the sun is the innermost layer

and is the most important to the fusion furnace

action of the sun and is the source of all of its

energy. It is quite good at self-regulating energy

output and does so at a relatively constant, stable

rate. This allows for stability throughout the solar

system and is necessary for the sustainment of

life on Earth. The core of the sun rests at roughly

fifteen million degrees Kelvin. It is comprised of dense, intensely compressed material. This

heat, high pressure, and high density creates the environment necessary for the thermonuclear

fusion reactions that power the sun. The incredible heat in the core of the sun breaks the

hydrogen atoms present into their individual

constituent parts, destroying their atomic integrity.

The neutrons of the atoms are discharged from the

core, leaving the positively charged protons and

negatively charged protons. The material that these

two composite parts create in the core of the sun is referred to as plasma. The accelerated
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movement of these parts in the core causes fusion, creating helium and the energy drive of the

sun.

The next layer, working outward from the center, is the radiation zone. The way a star

like the sun transfers energy outward is via radiationhence radiation zone. The fully intact

atoms in the radiation zone absorb the energy emitted by the core. These atoms store this energy

for some time and eventually will transmit the energy via radiation again. The radiation zone,

then, acts as a sort of solar energy conveyor belt and aids in the transmission of energy. This

process though is much less regulated than that of a conveyor belt, and is random in its action.

This means it takes an approximate 150 thousand years for energy from the core to exit the

radiation zone.

The next layer, and the last of the inner, non-visible layers, is the convection zone. At this

layer, the temperature is much cooler than that of the core and radiation zoneroughly two

million degrees Kelvin. The

cooler temperature at the

convection zone layer allows

atoms to retain their absorbed

energy for longer periods of

time. This necessarily slows

the transfer of energy from the

radiation zone to the convection zone and aids in the regulation of the suns energy output. The

movement of material in this layer relies of the premise of convection hence the namesuch

that the hot material with freshly absorbed energy from the radiation zone flows upward towards

the surface and the cooler material towards the top of the convection zone which has dissipated
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its absorbed energy flows downward towards the radiation zone. This wavelike ebb and flow

with longer-term energy holding atoms allows for a direct and faster energy transfer path than

that of the radiation zone which relies on rapid, random transfer of energy from atom to atom.

The time for energy to transit this zone is just about a week as compared to the over 150

thousand average years in the radiation zone.

The next layer is the first of the outer layers of the sun and the first visible layer, known

as the photosphere. The photosphere is the surface of the sun. While there is no actual solid,

surface on the sun, this layer is

the first so dense that the further

layers cannot be observed via

conventional means, and is the

visible sphere people observe

through filtered observation

methods on Earth. The energy

transmission at this layer is

predicated on radiation, and this

layer is responsible for most of the light from the sun observed on Earth.

The next layer is the chromosphere, which is a gaseous layer of an approximate thickness

of 2000 km. Energy transfer and transmission at this layer continues to be conducted via

radiation and is emitted as red light. The gas is composed of hydrogen atoms which absorb

energy emitted by the photosphere.

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The final and outermost layer of the sun is the Corona. This layer is far-reaching and so

much so that some coronal particles

can reach Earths orbital path. The

shape is loose and the layer thin in

composition. The magnetic field is the

primary determinant of the shape of

this layer. This layer no longer

transfers energy, but simply emits it, across various wavelengthsradio to X-ray.

Two key solar phenomena are known as sunspots and solar winds. These have important

effects on the solar system and are heavily researched.

Sunspots are temporary, visible spots on the suns photosphere that appear as darker than

the rest of the observed surface. They

comprise areas of lower surface

temperatures caused by magnetic field

flux, which slows the convective

activity occurring. They exist at

temperatures generally 2500-1000

degrees Kelvin lower than the surrounding areas of the surface of the sun. While they appear

dark in imagery, an isolated sunspot is still very luminescent, more so than even the Earths

Moon. Sunspots are composed of two central parts: the umbra and the penumbra. The umbra of a

sunspot is the darkest, central area with an almost vertical magnetic field. The penumbra of a

sunspot is lighter in color and has an inclined magnetic field.

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Sunspots tend to last between several days to a few months. Their sizes vary as they

travel around the surface, but range generally in size from 15 to 150,000 km. It is theorized that

sunspots are visible representations of magnetic flux tubes that are wound by the differential

rotation in the convective zone, below the photosphere. The theory is that as stress increases on

the flux tubes, they reach a particular limit and breach the photosphere. It is known that sunspots

occur in pairs with opposite magnetic polarity and are observed as depressed areas of the

photosphere. Further, sunspots tend to appear in groups. These spots decrease the energy flux of

the sun and result in the lower temperatures.

Sunspots are so heavily researched because that have significant cross applications in

terms of predicting and further studying the sun as a whole object with its accompanying
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phenomena. Sunspots are used to aid in prediction

of space weather, ionospheric state, satellite

communication conditions, and even Earth climate

concerns. They also tend to occur before and in

conjunction with coronal looping, solar flares, and

coronal mass ejections, which each have larger

implications.

Solar wind is a torrent of coronally-released charged particles. These particles comprise a

plasma made primarily of electrons, protons, and alpha particles. The solar wind contains the

interplanetary magnetic

field. This plasma stream

varies in its structure,

speed, and direction over

The particulates in the

plasma travel at such

rapid speed and with such

high energy that they are

capable of escaping the

grip of the suns gravity.

The speed of the solar

wind is generally between

250 and 750 kilometers per second, though that speed dissipates greatly at the termination shock.

The solar wind is associated with many observed phenomena throughout the solar system.
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Magnetic fields and thermal acceleration are through to be responsible for the high

speeds of material in the solar wind. The coronas temperatures exceed one million degrees

Kelvin and this accounts for about 150 kilometers per second of speed of solar wind. Solar wind

escape velocity is measured at 618 kilometers per second. Electrons create a field that increase

the velocities of the solar wind around the corona.

Solar wind has been observed to be interrupted by interplanetary coronal mass ejections.

These are known to have significant effects throughout the solar system when they occur, even

observable ones on Earth, such as the deforming of the magnetic field of Earth which can be

observed in a number of ways, they also are linked to the presence of aurora on Earth.

Planetary magnetospheres allow the solar wind particles to travel around their respective

objects, rather than bombarding them. Beyond this,

they are the cause of the tendency of comet tails to

always point away from the sun, regardless of

direction, and geomagnetic storms generally.

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One of the most notable of the suns phenomena, from an Earth-based scientific

perspective, is that of the eclipse. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the sun

and the Earth, blocking totally or partially, the sun from view on Earth. Such eclipses occur only

during the new moon phase, and due to the non-circular, offset orbits of the Earth and Moon, do

not occur during each new moon. Per year, at least two and up to five solar eclipses may be

observed, and no more than two may be total in any given year.

There are four distinct varieties of solar eclipses: total, annular, hybrid, and partial. Total

eclipses are the rarest and the most sought after type of eclipse for study. In a total solar eclipse,

the moon passes between the sun and Earth at a close relative distance to Earth. When this occurs

as shadow is cast on the Earths facing surface. The moon passes closely enough to Earth such

that observers along the path of totality, or the umbral area, will witness an eclipse that

completely obscures the face of the sun.

An annular eclipse is one that creates a ring like vision of the sun visible, where the moon

passes in such a way that it covers the center of the sun from an observers perspective, but

leaving its outer edge unobscured. As such, these occur when the moon is at a distance causing it

to appear smaller than the sun. In such an eclipse the moon is further from Earth than in a total
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eclipse and its umbra is not large enough to reach Earth. Those outside the umbral area observe a

simple partial eclipse in this situation.

A hybrid eclipse is rarer than a normal total eclipse, but still encompasses the definition

of a total eclipse and an annular eclipse. It is an eclipse in which those observing on one part of

the Earth can witness an annular eclipse and those at another, a total eclipse. This happens when

the moon is far enough from the Earth along its ellipse that the umbra cannot reach to the edges

of the Earth. During the beginning and end parts of the eclipse, it appears as an annular eclipse,

but during a portion, it appears as a total eclipse.

A partial eclipse is the most common type of eclipse and is one, as the name would

imply, in which the moon covers only a portion of the sun without being centered. Partial

eclipses happen when the umbra does not connect with the Earth and in which only the
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penumbral shadow falls on the Earth. The amount of obscuration increases as the observer is

located closer to or within the penumbral shadow.

Total solar eclipses allow scientists on Earth prime opportunities to study the corona.

Normally, the corona is obscured too greatly by the photosphere when it comes to earthbound

traditional observation of the sun. During a total solar eclipse, scientists are provided an

uninhibited view of the solar edge. Emission lines observed in the late 1800s during a total solar

eclipse allowed Pierre Janssen to discover the presence of the element helium at the sun. Current

observations focus on a deeper understanding of the emission lines, coronal behavior, the suns

magnetic field, and more. Nowadays, scientists are able to use a spectrometer mounted on

aircraft which travel along part of the path of totality, to take intimate and long measurements of

various coronal elements.

The sun is responsible in a very significant way for the sustainment of life on Earth.

Generally speaking, without the suns radiation and thermal energy, the earth would simply be a
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floating ice-covered rock in space. The sun affects almost everything vital to the sustainment of

life on Earth. Among these, the most noteworthy are the heating of the surface of the earth,

oceans, and atmosphere, its impact on climate via solar radiation, even short-term weather

impacts have been noted by scientists as results of solar flares in some studies.

The heating of the Earths surface to a habitable temperature is predicated upon its

distance from the sun. The sun heats the Earth via radiation, whichdue to the lack of a medium

or gaseous substance in space is the

primary method of heat travel in

space. When this radiated heat

reaches the earths atmosphere it

transfers its thermal energy to the

molecules in it, which in turn pass this same radiated solar heat onward to the surface. Without

the radiation heat from the sun, the Earth would be uninhabitably frigid. The same goes for the

oceans and all bodies of water.

The plant life on earth is generally dependent upon radiated energy from the sun for life.

Photosynthetic organisms require the energy provided by the sun, and many organisms require

these photosynthetic organisms for

their own lives. Without plant life

there would not be a habitable level

of oxygen present to sustain human

life, and frankly, many other

negative impacts would be observeda list likely too long to even begin to include. Plant life is
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the base of the food chain, and thus all other life is dependent, directly or indirectly, upon it, and

thus upon the sun.

The rate of energy received by the Earth from the sun varies daily. The Union of

Concerned Scientists says of this:

Over many millennia the Earth-Sun orbital relationship can change the

geographical distribution of the suns energy over the Earths surface. It has been

suggested that changes in solar output might affect our climateboth directly, by

changing the rate of solar heating of the Earth and atmosphere, and indirectly, by

changing cloud forming processes. Over the time-scale of millions of years, the

change in solar intensity is a critical factor influencing climate (e.g., ice ages).

They also note, that manmade climate change

potentially will serve to debilitate the fragile and

exacting relationship between the Earth and the

sun. Throwing off this balance could spell an end

to habitable conditions on Earth in the years to

come.

To understand just how exact the relationship between the Sun, its energy

radiation, and Earth, one need only understand

the solar constant. The Earth receives only one

two-billionths of the suns energy. The solar

constant is the average solar radiation received

by the Earths atmosphere by area. This number

is approximately 1367 watts per square meter.

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The constant has varied in the past 400 years, according to study, by less than one fifth of

a percent in either direction. This constant is theorized to be critical to the sustainment of

life on Earth, as life can only be sustained at a narrow specific range of temperatures.
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