Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Student Name
Professor
University
State
Date Due
2
Abstract
Various discussions have arisen over time regarding human resources and organization
knowledge. However, the voices of those who act in organizations have been highly ignored.
This paper aims to come up with relevant findings of how professionals in the Human Resource
(HR) understand about knowledge in their endeavors of managing large organizations. The
participants in this paper talked about such areas as the importance of knowledge, areas of
knowledge as well as the practice of knowledge. The data collected allows us to evaluate how
knowledge relates to practice with a reflection of both influences in specific organizations and
broader occupations. The findings provide an insight into how the current theoretical ideas
regarding knowledge are applied. Also, this paper examines areas which are not sufficiently
addressed. Such areas are how the various construction of knowledge co-exist, how they serve
more than the traditional acknowledgment of knowledge to enhance the processes in the
operation of a business and evaluating knowledge process for the role of effect.
1. Introduction
According to Borgatti and Foster (2003), there are different versions of literature from
Much of such is the definition and the nature of knowledge. Other scholars have tried to research
on the knowledge process in small and large organizations. A significant focus is on how to
create knowledge, transfer and how to apply it. The work of Maylor, Blackmon, and Huemann
(2016) on this subject has laid down a foundation for ideas with an objective of capturing and
leveraging knowledge to improve on competitiveness. The current market environment has been
characterized by the increased emphasis on situated and social nature of knowledge. This paper
3
will explore various academic approaches to knowledge especially views on social and situated
knowledge. In the current practice, it is not fully clear how people in organizations understand
and perceive knowledge in their work and how they develop, share and interpret it in their
practice. Therefore, we shall use the basic concept to extend what they think. In this regard, it is
important to establish the talks of individuals regarding knowledge and how they describe the
knowledge in practice. Scholars such as Van de Ven and Johnson (2006) have criticized the
current academic work on knowledge terming it abstract and conceptual. On the other hand
increasing empirical work still lags behind. The studies conducted on knowledge processes have
concentrated on the functions of product development and manufacturing firms while others
relating to the social nature of knowledge focus on the practice by craft workers and the highly
skilled manual (Asheim & Coenen 2005). This study will help evaluate how to apply the existing
Most of the writings on this subject are dominated by arguments about the definition
and nature of knowledge. Many scholars focus on differentiating between explicit and tacit while
others categorize these distinctively often asserting that one can manage each differently. As
noted by Bratianu, Jianu, and Vasilache (2010), some authors form a concept that is based on a
continuum between very tacit and very explicit judgment, aspects of skills, spiritual and
emotional knowledge. Some proposed classifications are complex. They tend to follow a four-
way grouping that factors categorizing knowledge on both the explicit/tacit and it is collectively
established by Garshol (2004), a richer taxonomy better than traditional explicit vs. explicit is
provided. This classification focuses on establishing the know-how, know-why, know-who, and
know-what. The above classifications often lead to complicating knowledge and its
characteristics. This paper will take a better version of trying to understand knowledge through
observations, and feelings regarding knowledge that a deeper insight into the concept will be
achieved.
with knowledge management. Some individuals are of the view that new knowledge is formed in
a continuous cycle of tacit to explicit and explicit to tacit. This view created a heated discussion
with a concern of how knowledge can change from one form to another. As asserted by Seidler
Alwis, and Hartmann (2008), this argument provides a ground for a concept of knowledge with a
linear knowledge creation as well as utilization and transfer, considering the challenges of
storing knowledge every stage along the way. Also, network analysis has enabled the
examination of such processes and the identification of the use of various interpersonal
relationships as a route for transferring knowledge. However, such literature assumes that the
decisions making processes are rational because they term knowledge an object. Although the
scope and range of research continue to increase, the concentration is to identify remarkable
knowledge processes in certain organizational functions. This approach has been criticized due
to its emphasis on an epistemology of possession. As a result, it has been emphasized that social
In this case, measures have been taken to get richer explanations by factoring the
context and considering knowledge via practice. It involves exploring both the construction of
the social nature of knowledge and the already constructed social nature of knowledge.
Although these ideas are based on communication processes and social interaction, little research
has been employed to evaluate talk in line with knowledge. This study follows this approach to
knowledge as the beginning point in order to add to the current research through evaluating both
how people discuss knowledge and how their explanations of practice portray knowledge in
action. Thinking and research about social nature of knowledge revolve around three core
concepts which are; communities of practice, sense-making and social capital (Marshall &
Rollinson 2004).
as groups of people doing real work. The term practice refers to the way the work is done as
well as social interaction process that is undertaken. A group of people working and at the same
time socializing provides a regime negotiated locally where knowing is defined in the context
of particular competence practices and fixed within shared mental schemes or models. In this
case, knowing and knowledge are bound inextricably with local content, practice and group
identity. However, the way the word community is presented and used conveys a simple
practice. Although in the early writings about communities of practice power relation was an
important dynamic, the subsequent work has not developed it. Surprisingly, the role of the
knowing and knowledge has not been highly considered in the recent researches. Instead, more
attention is on identifying with identifying and knowledge being a major component in the
(2001) suggests that knowledge and identity are closely intertwined for professional groups.
ignores the concerns between informal structures and formal structures which should be the
focus of attention. Other challenges involve looking at the communities as a closed entity instead
understood to be the case especially for professional groups where communities of practice cross
the organizational walls and connect with wider professional communities. This area is
characterized by ethnographic studies in describing one communities of practice (Vickers & Fox
2010). Other scholars have focused their attentions on the boundaries of communities and
practice. Some researchers have been focused on product development teams, craftwork or
highly skilled manual with an argument that there is a production of tangible output. However,
studies have not yet used these concepts to evaluate the practice of professionals in HR as an
knowledge, other concepts like sensemaking go more particular about the process. Both concepts
are closely related with sensemaking being related to bringing about the community of practice
concept. As provided by Choi, and Ruona (2011), sensemaking is regarded a continuous process
of associated response and ascription. Knowing and knowledge are not static but constructed
between and by the people in response to specific cues interpreted and constructed in a particular
manner. Narrative and storytelling are viewed as very influential in the process of sensemaking
7
and have been approved as a way of ensuring the sharing of knowledge which is not easy to
make explicit in some forms. As noted by Adler, and Kwon (2002), while the concepts of
sensemaking and communities of practice point out the necessity of relationships, they form the
basis of conceptualizing social capital. In fact, relationships among individuals play a major
focus for investigators of knowledge in many analyses. Network analysis investigates the flow
of knowledge. However, Wasko and Faraj (2005) are of the opinion that such networks are
complex social systems which share norms and language and in which obligations and trust
provide a basis for effective relationships. Social capital is understood as the available goodwill
to groups or individuals Its source is the content and structure of the actors in a social relation.
The effects follow from the information through solidarity and influence it provides to the actor.
The term is controversial considering some scholars are of the view that the term capital is
more of economics than social aspect. They suggest that the term social capacity should be
applied. Trust is an important element in social capital. However, the relative significance of
cognition-based and affect-based trust are not yet fully integrated. Social capital as a concept
provides us with an opportunity to evaluate knowing and knowledge in a social context where
obligations, credential, membership, influence, communication, negotiation and social status all
play a role. The concepts of sensemaking, social capital, and communities of practice are all
closely related. The emphasis on focusing on practice and social processes provides a new
avenue for exploring knowledge at various levels of analysis. These concepts are not static.
Scholars continue to come up with ideas to expand the research on an empirical basis. However,
there is a need to further expand the types of occupational and organizational contexts under
review to allow different individuals bring forth their ideas on the subject. This study will
8
explore how professionals in the HR talk about and practice knowledge in order to expand the
3. Methods
The research process and the concept of knowledge follow a perspective of social
constructionist. This research is focused on the practice and actors in evaluating how knowing
and knowledge are portrayed in daily working of practitioners in the HR using the collection of
qualitative data and analysis methods. A total of 16 semi-structured interviews were done with
where we were provided with volunteers giving rise to snowball sampling. The last sample
consisted of 9 participants from the bank and seven from the consultancy firm. Those from the
HR background ranged from one to seventeen years of practice. These professionals had
performed different roles in the HR departments. Interviews were conducted in the workplace;
tape recorded and took approximately an hour. The approaches used were two. In the first case,
before the interviews were conducted, every participant had to complete a test consisting 20
statements as a primer. The statements that participants were to answer were structured as
the inclusion of our definition of knowledge or practice. The participants forwarded the results to
the first author before the interview. The first part of the interview involved the discussion of the
responses focusing on matters relevant to the research. The 20 statements were not necessarily
analyzed to form source data. The next approach made use of the questions structured in a
critical incident style. The purpose was to explore particular projects or responsibilities with
which the participants were engaged. This is a good technique to elicit stories regarding
4. Results
This part provides us with the central themes that emerged from the analysis of the
data collected during the interview. The themes are grouped according to knowledge in practice,
the importance of knowledge and areas of knowledge. The adopted methodology provides that
the intention of this research is not to present these themes as a view of the reality of
practitioners in the HR. Instead, we recognize that they were arrived at through the process that
took place, our roles as researchers, views of the participants and personal interpretation when
reading. Additionally, the themes are not a reflection of an attempt to provide a dominant or
average view.
Participants did not respond about knowing and knowledge as academics but regarding what
they needed to know and how it related to their duties as HR practitioners. The following themes
were obtained: Knowing what should work, knowing what, legal knowledge, basic HR
Best Practice
Participants showed the interest of understanding and applying best practice. They
sought to apply best practice within their firms in terms of products, tools, and solutions. In this
case, the positioning was tangible and concrete. Although individuals talked about the
significance of best practice, they had no consistency or clear definition. For instance; I guess it
shows a benchmark of practice best applied with what is there being the question. Best practice
was viewed as dynamic and as tied to a means of progress in the HR field. Also, sometimes they
10
positioned best practice as inspirational, an objective that has been upheld by various bodies and
organizations. Therefore, the notion of best practice has complex values and set of ideas.
Basic HR Knowledge
According to Bratton, and Gold (2012), the legal framework is a major area of knowledge as it
interprets various concerns on practice and perceived is valuable in the business and HR
practitioners.
I believe there are various things such as employment that your clients expect to understand.
According to me employees are different and could have some similar scenarios but quite not
the same you cant just follow the guidelines and expect to understand everything. Instead,
Other participants talked about leveraging the law in order to arrive at certain objectives in
business.
While the nature and the objective of the law are appreciated, legal knowledge is provided as
being more than just having the facts. Instead, the art of applying it in the HR is emphasized.
Participants gave their views on their relationship with the business. They asserted about
delivering solutions in the form of products, projects, and tools. They insisted on the essentials of
understanding the local context and having a sense of what is likely to work. This was seen as
critical for the ability to deliver. Two aspects were evident from the data. The first one is the
awareness of the circumstances locality which involves the concept of being ready for certain
practices.
11
environment can deal with peculiar mattersso I think you should be positioned to come up
Much of what you can do is to understand what you can influence, what you cant and what you
will never..instead of wasting time, carry out an assessment and be ready to shift your
The above participants insisted that even though you know what will work, its important to
apply personal experience and judgment. Therefore, while focusing on implementing techniques
Common Sense
Common sense was applied in two special ways. The first considered that most of the practices
in the HR are common sense (Gloet & Terziovski 2004). The participants had some shared views
but experienced difficulties when defining common sense and explaining its development.
In most cases, the use common sense in HR works well.You cant apply rocket science in this
case but just use c your brain and consider the necessary frameworks.
The next use of the term was more of action-oriented. It involved applying common sense when
We have covered a lot of information on knowledge. In this case, it is important to evaluate the
presentation of knowledge during the interviews in relation to such themes as credibility and
It was observed that a sense of individuals knowledge was essential for their confidence and
building a good relationship with their clients. It results from constant interaction with clients
and application of relevant knowledge and not inherently possessing knowledge themselves.
The clients must see that you have enough knowledge that you can apply coupled with expertise
in the area of their interest..it will be easier to build a strong business relationship.
I think someone with knowledge is confident.the clients will gauge whether you are familiar
Some of the participants were worried that they were not sufficiently knowledgeable in some
It was observed that expertise was significant in the HR and the business as a whole.
On the other hand, some participants were frustrated due to the limited opportunity they had to
I think I have more to offer, but the resources and the chance are constrained..
Sharing expertise through working as a group was deemed a necessary aspect of their practice.
13
I am not an expert in some areas such as recruitment and succession planning. So I rely on
One of the participants asserted about the potential downside associated with being viewed as an
expert.
There is much pressure on you when everybody says..so you take up most of the tasks. The
Knowledge in Practice
Individuals narrated about their experiences in setting up projects. They talked about
how they shared knowledge, developed and utilized it in practice. In this case, the explored
themes are exposure to new ideas, personal reflection, use of trusted advisors and brainstorming.
Brainstorming
This was done by bringing people together and discussing various aspects of concern. I involved
We gathered together in groups and discussed what options we had in our scenario. Some were
of the thought that we were so arrogant not to involve relevant bodies and authorities..
Individuals who applied brainstorming did not only discuss ideas but also they made clear
progress in moving matters forward. It was observed that brainstorming provided an avenue of
sharing knowledge and presenting solutions to challenges from different participants. At the end
This involved a process of checking the sense of the available ideas. It included using another
person as a reference board. Stories were narrated coupled with relevant questions which sought
You discuss in a group and as you know different people have different ideas..solution is .
You only need to give your views and confirmyour opinion was not so misguided......
The participants described various relationships including the ones outside the organizations,
friends, and families as well as the ones in the HR departments. It was observed that trust was
paramount in these relationships. However, some asserted that they didnt find it necessary to
It is better to do it through relationships because you get a better insight and you get the
Two particular exchanges require further reactions. Firstly, some participants talked about the
need to seek input from people with different point of view actively.
engaging him.
Secondly, some individuals were of the opinion that it was important to get views on individuals
who are politically recognized to be difficult to overlook. Although they were considered good
advisors, this looked more of some individuals trying to seek recognition using their knowledge.
Its about evaluating who need to be ahead of and coming with a way of doing it. You are likely
Personal Reflection
crucial element of knowledge in practice. However, some individuals asserted the need to have a
self-reflection. This involves evaluating what it all meant by taking a back step and considering
I sat down in the room with my notes and worked out my head .
15
Also, it includes relating what other people were doing and what your experiences were. There
were means of reaching personal decisions about various issues. This was accompanied by
frustration when other people talked about their experiences and ideas.
Sometimes there is a lot to do with a task until you get confused whether to take your time or go
Some participants reacted to the challenges of becoming more cynical, insular and trapped in
I think as you grow in a career you tend to rely more on your personal experience and disregard
Some individuals narrated on their experiences attending different seminars. According to them,
the seminars and professional conferences expounded their horizon of thinking thereby being
able to solve old problems using the learned skills. Much of it did not necessarily expose them to
new ideas but to different content. Sometimes when out of the Workplace, individuals talked
about how they had been impacted with reflective moods, motivation, and inspiration by the
individuals, speakers, and the atmosphere thereby providing them with a special lease of life
The findings provided further evaluation of the complex relationship between practice
and knowledge. Knowing and knowledge seems to frame practice in different forms. The HR
community impacts notions and knowledge of best practice further appears to be an influence in
16
their daily work. On the other hand, common sense and the knowledge of what works seems to
affect their approach to service delivery to the clients. The sharing of individual knowledge
serves a strong base of shaping both collective and individual identity thus influencing practice.
Also, the practice appears to frame their knowing and their knowledge especially through
emphasizing on verbal, informal and social processes such as the use of trusted advisors and
brainstorming. Additionally, the nature of relationships influences views on important and valid
knowledge. Sharing experience reinforces ideas about understanding what is likely to work and
The data allows us to consider that knowledge is differently defined as dynamic and
static. It is understood ad subjective and objective combining both explicit and tacit elements.
knowledge in practice. It is likely that when knowledge is shared at a generic point, its particular
meanings may be located in a place and time such as a project activity or an individual
conservation. The findings from the participants in the research show that knowledge and
knowing performs different functions within the practice. Various processes and various
political purposes apart from the commonly known functions of knowledge. This is because
important to explore beyond considering knowledge in terms of its application and content and
instead examine its construction within the practice and its functions. What is interesting is not
just knowledge is viewed as explicit or tacit, but when, why, how, and by whom its constructed
in that manner. This study is important for anyone pursuing further studies in HR, practitioners
List of References
Adler, P.S. and Kwon, S.W., (2002). Social capital: Prospects for a new concept. Academy of
Asheim, B.T. and Coenen, L., (2005). Knowledge bases and regional innovation systems:
Borgatti, S.P. and Foster, P.C., (2003). The network paradigm in organizational research: A
Bratianu, C., Jianu, I. and Vasilache, S., (2010). Integrators for organisational intellectual capital.
Bratton, J. and Gold, J., 92012). Human resource management: theory and practice. Palgrave
Macmillan.
Choi, M. and Ruona, W.E., (2011). Individual readiness for organizational change and its
implications for human resource and organization development. Human Resource Development
Freidson, E., (2001). Professionalism, the third logic: On the practice of knowledge. University
of Chicago press.
Garshol, L.M., (2004). Metadata? Thesauri? Taxonomies? Topic maps! Making sense of it all.
Gloet, M. and Terziovski, M., (2004). Exploring the relationship between knowledge
Marshall, N. and Rollinson, J.,(2004). Maybe Bacon had a point: The politics of interpretation in
Maylor, H., Blackmon, K. and Huemann, M., (2016). Researching business and management.
Palgrave.
Paavola, S., Lipponen, L. and Hakkarainen, K., (2004). Models of innovative knowledge
communities and three metaphors of learning. Review of educational research, 74(4), pp.557-
576.
Seidler-de Alwis, R. and Hartmann, E., (2008). The use of tacit knowledge within innovative
Smith, H.A. and McKeen, J.D., (2004). Creating and facilitating communities of practice. In
Van de Ven, A.H. and Johnson, P.E., (2006). Knowledge for theory and practice. Academy of
Vickers, D. and Fox, S., (2010). Towards practice-based studies of HRM: an actor-network and
Wasko, M.M. and Faraj, S., (2005). Why should I share? Examining social capital and