INTRODUCTION

Slave Dyansty in India is also referred to as Mamluk dynasty and Ghulam dynasty. It was
founded by Qutubuddin Aibak.

Muhammad Ghori died in 1206 A.D. and his Indian kingdom passed into the hands of his slave,
and general qutub-ud-din-Aibak whom Ghori had earlier appointed as the Governor of India.
Muhammad Ghoris death brought for Aibak his formal recognition as the Sultan of Delhi from
Ghias-ud- din Muhammad, the nephew and successor of Muhammad Ghori in Ghor.

Thus Qutub-ud-din Aibak ascended the throne of Delhi in 1206 and with him started a new line
of successive kings in Delhi hitherto came to be known as the slave dynasty in the history of the
Delhi Sultanate Qutub-ud-din Aibak and all his successors were slaves to their respective
predecessors. Three families of the slaves are known in history after their founders, i.e. Qutub-
ud-din Aibak, Ilutmish and Ghias -ud-din Balban. But excepting Qutub-ud-din Aibak
both Iltutmish and Ghias-ud-din-balban were slaves only in their earlier career.

The slave kings ruled about eighty four years, from 1206 A.D. to 1290 A.D. Out of the ten kings
who ruled during this period five kings rose to prominence and three of them rather reckoned
among the greatest Sultans of history. These three greatest Sultans were Qutub-ud-din
Aibak, Iltutmish and Ghias-ud-din Balban. The achievements of these three Sultans had
enhanced the prestige and importance of the history of the Delhi Sultanate period.

and later sultan muhammad of ghur . Qutb al-Din had been among Muammads most trusted
Turkish officers and had overseen his masters Indian conquests. When Muammad was
assassinated in 1206, Qub The Slave dynasty was founded by qutub al-Din Aibak, a favourite
slave of the Muslim general took power in lahore. He managed to consolidate his position in a
seesawing war with a rival Slave ruler, Tj al-Dn Yildoiz, during which he captured and
lost ghazna. He was eventually confined to being a purely Indian soverisgn. He died in 1210 as a
result of a polo accident, and the crown shortly passed to Iltutmish, his son-in-law.

By the time of Iltutmishs accession, the familys holdings had been severely reduced. Iltutmish,
the greatest of the Slave kings, defeated and put to death Yildoiz (1216), restored
the Bengal governor to obedience, and added considerable new territory to the empire, including
the Lower Sindh.

After the death of Iltutmish, his able daughter Raziyya attempted to serve as sultan but was
defeated by opposing Turkish Slave nobles. After 1246 the sultanate was controlled by Ghiys
al-Dn Balban, who was to be sultan himself from 1266 to 1287. Under Balban
the sultanate fought off several mongol invasions. The Slave dynasty ended when Jall al-Dn
Frz Khalj staged a successful coup on June 13, 1290, and brought the Khaljs to power.

Qutub-ud-din Aibak Founder of the Sultanate of Delhi.

Qutub-ud-din Aibak (also Qutubuddin Aibak, Qutb-ud-din Aibak) ruled for a shorter period of
four years, from 1206 to 1210 A.D. He started the Slave dynasty. Virtually Qutub-ud-din Aibak
is considered to be the founder of the Delhi Sultanate. It was Aibak who saved the infant state
from all its impending dangers and immediate break up and also gave it its required stability.

Aibak realized that it would not be worthwhile to crave for suzerainty over Gazni as that would
cost him heavily. Hence he accepted the over lordship of Tazi-ud-din Yilduz in Gazni and Nasir-
ud-din Qabacha (also Kubacha) on Sindh and Punjab to the west of the Indus. This action of
Qutub-ud-din was indeed prudent enough as that had saved the Sultanate of Delhi from many
dangers in its infancy.

Qutub-ud-din also formed matrimonial alliances with the above noted kings so that these rival
powerful chiefs might not cause any trouble in future. In fact both Yilduz and Kubacha were the
slaves of Muhammad Ghori and they could easily claim their right on the throne of Delhi. But
Aibak cleverly diverted their attention from Delhi politics at least for a while.

It should also be remembered that the Delhi Sultanate was essentially a Muslim State System but
the Muslims were the minority in number. In order to increase the number of these Muslim
subjects, Qutub-ud-din lavishly bestowed munificence on the Muslim subjects and the Hindu
converts. Thus Qutub-ud-din set an ideal which was blindly followed by all the subsequent
monarchs of the Delhi Sultanate.

In fact Qutub- ud-din Aibak ruled for only four years. During this period he made no fresh
conquests. He did not find time for establishing a sound system of administration either. His
administration was purely military and rested absolutely on the strength of his army. Hence we
cannot call him a constructive genius as he could not lay the foundation of a solid structure of
civil administration. But he just saved the Turkish kingdom of Delhi from demise in its infancy.
He subdued the revolting Bengal and Bihar. Ali Mardan, the self styled independent Sultan of
Lakshanauati had to accept his suzerainty.

In fact Qutub-ud- din had been so much occupied with the politics of the north-western region
and those of Bengal that he failed to pursue a policy of aggressive warfare against the Rajputs.
While playing Polo, he fell from the horse and this caused his death in 1210 A.D. He was burned
at Lahore and over his remains a very unpretentious monument was raised which is hardly
worthy of the first independent Turkish Sultan of Northern India. But we shall always
remember him for his greatest achievement of severing Indias connection with Gazni and thus
to put an end to Gaznis sovereignty over Hindustan.
Aram Shah

Aram Shah was the next sultan of Delhi. His reign was short lived. He came to power in 1210.
He ruled for around one year and was soon replaced by Iltutmish in 1211.

Iltutmish

After Aram Shah, the next able ruler was Iltumish. He ruled from 1211 to 1236. Under his strong
governance, the slave dynasty was able to find a strong footing and establish itself as an
important kingdom. The army was organized efficiently under Iltumish and he also introduced a
coin currency known as Tanka. He was not the rightful heir on the throne of Delhi for which
some modern writers called him a usurper. But in reality he was not a usurper because at that
time there was no unified Turkish State in the country. Iltutmish, also called Shams al-Dn
Iltutmish, Iltutmish also spelled Altamsh.

As the Turks conquered Hindustan, they divided the land into four independent principalities
namely Lahore, Badaun, Lakhnauti, Multan and Uch. Iltutmish was selected by the nobility and
the officials of Delhi who ruled practically over the rest. Iltutmish was a great military general
and an able administrator too. Thus he was indeed a good choice for the throne and cannot be
called a usurper in any sense of the term.
When Iltutmish became the Sultan, the Sultanate of Delhi was almost non-existent. However, he
became the master of Delhi and Badaun and the outlying districts extending from Banaras in the
East to the Sivalik hills on the West. Punjab was hostile. Kubachah, the master of Multan
extended his boundaries up to Bhatinda, Khuram and Lahore. Ali Mardan the king of Lakhnauti
(also Lakshanauati) became independent. The Rajput kings including Jalor, Ajmer, Gwalior and
Doab assumed independence. Taj-ud-din Yalduz again claimed the sovereignty of entire
Hindustan. Even the royal guards of Delhi allied with Aram Shah and revolted. Thus Iltutmishs
position from the very beginning became precarious.

Iltutmish was a shrewd and able king. Iltutmish pretended to recognize Yalduz as his sovereign
master so as to avoid all controversies and tactfully put down Aram Shahs party at Delhi who
were creating menace for him. Thus making himself free from internal troubles he turned to
settle his scores with Yalduz who by that time had occupied vast area of Punjab. Iltutmish was
not ready to allow the Khwarizm Shah to claim Hindustan as a dependency of Gazni. Hence as
Yalduz was driven out of Gazni by the Khwarizm Shah and took shelter at Lahore. Iltutmish
marched against him and defeated the later. He also subdued Kubacha. Each of them accepted
his complete subjugation.
But greater danger was waiting for Iltutmish. Changiz Khan, the great Mongol chief had
dethroned the Khwarizm Shah and chased the Khwarizm Prince Zalal-ud-din up to Sind, the
border region of Iltutmishs empire. Zalal-ud-din sought refuge at Iltutmishs court but the later
was unwilling to become a party in the Central Asian politics either. Moreover it was very hard
as well as dangerous game to resist the great Mongol who always carried death and destruction
trailing behind him. Iltutmish was not in a position to resist this tyrant which would possibly
crush the young Turkish empire of India. The Sultan realized the gravity of the situation and
hence refused shelter to prince Zalal-ud-din. Changiz Khan retired from the gateway of India.
Delhi was saved from a possible disaster.

Another achievement of Sultan Iltutmish was to give a legal status to the Sultanate of Delhi by
the investiture which he received from the hands of the Caliph. This brought honor and prestige
to the Sultanate in the Muslim world and served to consolidate the Turkish authority in India. He
struck coins on which he described himself as the lieutenant of the Caliph. The coinage was
issued in silver and was called the Tanka. It became the standard coins of the Sultanate and
maintained its value even during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq where his own token
coins had failed.

Rukn-ud-din Firuz

Iltutmish was succeeded by his son, Rukn-ud-din Firuz. He could continue as sultan for seven
months only. He was a weak ruler. He spent most of his time in pleasure and enjoyment. Rukn-
ud-din Firuz was the ruler of the Slave dynasty who was placed on the throne of Delhi Sultanate
by the nobles of the court in deference to the wishes of the Slave Sultan Iltutmish who had
nominated his daughter Razia as his successor before his death in April, 1236.

Rukn-ud-din Firuzs reign did not last long as the kingdom plunged into utter chaos and disorder
due to the undue influencne of his mother Shah Turkhan, an inordinately ambitious woman of
low origin, who let loose a reign of terror by persecuting her co-wives and their children. The
provincial governors of Badaun, Multan, Hansi, Lahore, Oudh and Bengal threw off their
allegiance to the Delhi Sultanate.

Razia Sultan
Razia Sultan, a brave sultan belonged to slave dynasty was the first mulim women to rule India
and only women to occupy the throne of Delhi. She was talented, wise, brave, excellent
administrator, and a great warrior. Once Razias father, Iltutmish was busy with the siege of the
Gwalior fort, he had entrusted the government in Delhi to Razia, and on his return was so
impressed with her performance that he decided to appoint her as his successor. One of Iltutmish
sons, Rukn-ud-din Firuz occupied the throne after fathers death. He ruled Delhi for about seven
months. In 1236, Razia Sultana defeated her brother.

Being an efficient ruler Razia Sultana set up proper and complete law and order in her in his
empire. During three years of her ruling, she tried to improve the infrastructure of the country by
encouraging trade, building roads, digging wells. And also she established schools, academies,
centers for research, and public libraries that included the works of ancient philosophers along
with the Quran and the traditions of Muhammad. Hindu works in the sciences, philosophy,
astronomy, and literature were reportedly studied in schools. Despite having been nominated by
her father, Razia wasnt supported by the court of nobles, who refused to be ruled by a woman.
Her oldest surviving brother Rukn-ud-din Firuz was raised to the throne instead.
The reason behind end of her was her unacceptable love. Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, an
African Siddi slave turned nobleman who was a close confidante to her and was speculated to be
her lover. Though it happened behind many veils and doors, their relationship was no secret in
the Delhi court. Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, was against such
relationship of Razia. The story goes that Altunia and Raziya were childhood friends. As they
grew up together, he fell in love with Raziya and the rebellion was simply a way of getting back
Raziya. When she was trying to curb a rebellion, the Turkish nobles who were against such
female throne, took advantage of her absence at Delhi and dethroned her. Her brother Bahram
was crowned.

Yaqut was murdered and Altunia imprisoned Raziya. To save her own head, Raziya sensibly
decided to marry Altunia, the governor of Batinda and marched towards Delhi with her husband.
On October 13, 1240, she was defeated by Bahram and the unfortunate couple was put to death
the very next day.

Nasiruddin Mahmud (Nasir-ud-din Firuz Shah)

Nasiruddin Mahmud (also Nasir-ud-din Firuz Shah) was the eighth sultan of Slave or Malmuk
dynasty. He was the grandson of Iltutmish. He was a kind hearted, pious and religious person.
During his reign from 1246 to 1266, the real authority of Delhi Sultanate was in the hands of his
minister, Balban. Balban was the father-in-law of Nasiruddin Mahmud.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmuds accession to the throne after Razias death and as a matter of fact while
she was away from Delhi in connection with checking revolts, the Corps of forty had made
Bahram Shah, (1240- 1242) the son of Iltutmish as the Sultan of Delhi. The Corps of Forty
pressurised the Sultan to work according to their dictates.The Sultan, however, tried to exert
himself which cost him his life.

After Bahram Shah, the Corps of Forty managed to make Masood Shah (1242-46) the Sultan of
Delhi. The Sultan was forced to delegate all his power to the Corps of Forty. A conspiracy was
hatched against the Sultan and he was murdered. After the deposition of Masood, the Corps of
Forty made Nasir-ud- din the youngest son of Iltutmish, as the Sultan of Delhi. Balban one of
the Corps of Forty became so powerful that he assumed all the real powers of the Sultan. Nasir-
ud-din remained the Sultan in name only.

The new Sultan knew the power of the Turkish nobles and was aware of the fact that his two
predecessors who had dared to challenge the authority of the nobles were murdered. Balban was
the Naib or the Deputy to the Sultan and enjoyed vast powers. He married his daughter to the
Sultan.
An estimate of Nasir-ud-din:

Some historians hold the view that Nasir-ud-Din was a religious minded man. He had no wordly
desires or ambitions. Several anecdotes became popular about him. It is said that he earned his
living by copying the Quran and selling it.

Again it is stated that his wife prepared his meals. One day, her fingers were burnt and she
requested the Sultan to keep a maid-servant. But the Sultan refused to do soon the plea that he
was simply a trustee of the state and therefore, could not utilise public money for his personal
convenience. It may also be remembered that his wife was the daughter of Balban, his Naib-
holding the most important post.
It is stated by several historians that such claims are exaggerated. According to P. Saran, the
Sultan was very much afraid of the Turkish nobles and therefore kept himself aloof from active
politics. It is accepted that he possessed the virtues of continence, frugality and practical piety
and simplicity but more than that the circumstances had forced him to behave like that. He knew
the power of the Turkish nobility.

Therefore, as Prof. K.A. Nizami writes, The surrender was absolute the Sultan did nothing
which could provoke the displeasure of forty. According to historian Islami, He expressed no
opinion without their prior permission; he did not move his hands or feet except at their order.
He would never drink nor go to sleep except with their knowledge. In the words of Thomas,
Mahmud (Nasir-ud-Din) seems, like the sons of Iltutmish to have been but little fitted to
dominate over his own turbulent nobles or to coerce imperfectly conquered native, races,
nominally subject to his sway.

Ilbari Turk Baha-ud din Balban (Ghiyas-ud-din Balban 1246-1287)

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (or Baha-ud-din Balban) was the next remarkable sultan of slave dynasty.
He was earlier known as Baha-ud-din. Since, he was a Ilbari Turk, he was also known as Ilbari
Turk Bahaud-din Balban. The last effective emperor of the slave dynasty was Ghiyasuddin
Balban. He ruled from 1266 to 1286. During his reign, the administration was strengthened and
he paid much attention to governance in his empire. The army was trained effectively to use
weapons and the production of arms and other war weaponry was at its peak. This is what helped
them fight against attacks by the Mongols. He died in 1286.
His father was a Khan of 10,000 families but in his early youth he was captured by the Mongols
who sold him as a slave at Ghazni. He was brought to Delhi and was sold to Sultan Iltutmish.

His intelligence, ability and loyalty had pleased Razia Sultant who promoted him to the post of
Amir-i-Sikar. After the fall of the Sultana, Balban gradually rose into prominence and in 1246 he
became the principal adviser of the young Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud.

In 1266, he became the Sultan of Delhi assuming the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban. He was the
sultan of delhi from 1266 to 1287. During this period his only aim was to consolidate the
prestige, power and position of the crown which had fallen low in the days of his predecessors.
He crushed the big feudal lords of the Turkish aristocracy and thereby gave a new colour to the
Turkish State in the country.

He achieved his object ruthlessly and by striking terror all round. He reorganized the army and
sub pressed the revolting chiefs of Rajputana and also recovered Bengal from the revolting
general Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal.

During his reign the menacing Mongols made several attempts to invade India but was
successfully resisted. Thus when he died, Balban had ensured the safety of the Turkish state and
gave it a new lease of life. He also ensured peace and order in the country possibly for the first
time during the early Sultanate regime, which was not mean achievement in that age of Indian
history. Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the Turkish nobles. He spared
only the most obedient nobles and eliminated all others by fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the
governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty towards his servants. Haybat Khan, the
governor of Oudh, was also punished for killing a man who was drunk. Sher Khan, the governor
of Bhatinda was poisoned. Instead of expanding his kingdom, Balban paid more attention to the
restoration of law and order. He established a separate military department diwan-i-arz and
reorganized the army. The outskirts of Delhi were often plundered by the Mewatis. Balban took
severe action against them and prevented such robberies. Robbers were mercilessly pursued and
put to death. As a result, the roads became safe for travel.

In 1279, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban. It was suppressed and he
was beheaded. In the northwest the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud
against them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to the Sultan.
Balban died in 1287. He was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. He
enhanced the power of the monarchy. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the
Mongol invasions.

When Balban died, one of his grandsons Kaiqubad was made the Sultan of Delhi. After four
years of incompetent rule, Jalaluddin Khalji captured the throne of Delhi in 1290.

Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Qaiqabad

He was the grandson of Balban and the last sultan of Slave dynasty. Muiz-ud-din Muhammad
Qaiqabad reigned from 1287 to 1290. He was only eighteen years old when he ascended to the
throne. He was completely under the influence of his wazir. The administration of the state fell
into disorder. With the death of Qaiqabad, the slave dynasty came to an end. The slave dynasty
was succeeded by Khilji dynasty. The first sultan of Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji.

Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The administration system of Delhi Sultanate were directed and governed by the Quranic
injunctions. The Quranic law was the supreme law of the empire.

The Caliph was the supreme sovereign according to the Islamic theory of sovereignty. All
Muslim kings through the world were his subordinates. During the Sultanate period, the power of
the Caliph was at its zenith.

Even if a governor became an independent king, he had to invoke the sanction of the Caliphs
name and called himself his vassal. In fact, the rulers of the Sultanate period always tried to
maintain a formal relation with the Islamic world.
Sultan Head of the Sultanate Administration

The real head of the administration of Delhi Sultanate was the king or Sultan himself. The
Sultan was the independent sovereign and all-powerful man. His will was the law of the country.
The Sultan at his death bed could also nominate his heirs and that was recognized by all other
nobles. There was no hereditary principle of succession.

Theoretically the office of the Sultan was open to all real Muslims, but in practice the Sultanate
was restricted to the immigrant Turkes. Later on it became restricted to a smaller oligarchy and
at last to the members of the royal family only. During the 15th and 16th centuries the Arab and
Afghan people also could become the Sultan.

The Sultans regarded themselves as a part of the Islamic world. Following the Islamic theory the
Sultans of Delhi were considered to be the agent of Allah, i.e. God and it was his duty to enforce
the divine laws expressed by the Holy Quran. He was thus the chief executive. It was his duty
not only to enforce the Quranic laws but also to interpret them.

Judicial Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Sultan was the highest judicial authority of Delhi Sultanate. He was a perfect autocrat with
wide powers and unfettered authority. His power was based on two pillarsreligion and military.
As long as he was upholding the Quranic law he enjoyed enormous and supreme power. Of
course, the entire matter depended on the personality and military strength of Sultan himself.
Nobody dared to challenge the powerful sultans like Ala-ud-din-Khilji and Muhammad-Bin-
Tughluq. In fact there were no constitutional devices to remove a Sultan from the throne
peacefully. The only way to remove him was rebellion and civil war. The Sultans of Delhi were
not only the kings, they were also the religious head of the Muslim people in India.

Military Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Sultan was also the head of the Military Administration of Delhi Sultanate. He was the
commander-in-chief of the army as well. The Sultan of Delhi was thus a military despot having
all powers of the State concentrated in his hands.

Central Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Sultanate government was essentially a centralized one though it had the original democratic
nature of an Islamic State. In fact, the circumstances had forced them to become a centralized
one. During this period the Hindu chiefs were not altogether suppressed and being hostile to the
Muslim rule they were always rebellious. There was the danger of repeated Mongal invasion. In
view of this the Sultans were compelled to keep a large army and a centralized government.

The Sultan in his administration had to keep a good number of ministers the member of which
varied from time to time. During the rule of the slave dynasty there were four ministers

(1) the wazir,

(2) the arizimamalik,

(3) the diwaniinsha and

(4) the diwanirasalat.

Sometimes there was also the post of naib or naibimamalik. He was superior to the wazir and
next only to the Sultan. During the normal period he remained merely a deputy Sultan much
inferior to the Wazir. But when the Sultan himself became weak and inefficient, this naib used to
wield great authority later on, the posts of SadrusSudur and diwani-qaza was raised to the
status of ministers. Thus, there were altogether six ministers during the prime period of Sultanate
administration though sometimes the post of the comptroller of the royal household used to exert
greater power than the other ministers.

The Wazir or the Prime Minister

In fact, the wazir stood midway between the sovereign and the subjects. He had great authority
and often exercised the Sultans power and prerogatives though with some restrictions. All
important officers of the state were appointed by him in the name of the Sultan. He used to hear
complaints against all officials of the administration.

During the illness or absence of the Sultan or when he was a minor, the Wazir acted for the king.
He was the adviser of the Sultan in the affairs of administration and always kept him informed
about the sentiments and needs of the subjects.

The Wazir was also the head of the finance department. He used to lay down the rules and
regulations of revenue settlement, fixed the rate of other taxes and controlled the expenditure of
the empire.

He was the superintendent of the civil servants and controlled the military establishment. All the
requirements of the army were to be referred to him. The duty of his subordinates was to keep
the accounts and disburse the salary of the military officers and troops.
He was also to look after the stipends and subsistence allowances to learned men and the poor
people. He was to look after every branch of public administration. As he had wide power he
also enjoyed great prestige and was handsomely paid the revenue of a large estate.

His office was called the diwan-i-wazarat. The in-charge of the office was naib wazir. There was
also the other stuffs like the mushrif-i-mamalik (accountant general), mustaufimamalik
(auditor general). It was the duty of the accountant general to enter all accounts received from
the provinces and various departments. The auditor general used to audit them. During Firoz
Tughluqs reign there was, however, a change while the accountant general used to deal with
income and the auditor general with that of expenditure. The accountant general was assisted by
a Nazir while the auditor general too had his assistants. Both the offices had many subordinate
clerks.

Diwan-i-ariz or diwan-i-arz or the army master

The post of Diwan-i-ariz was next to the Wazir. He was the controller general of the military
establishment. It was his duty to recruit troops and to maintain the descriptive rolls of men and
horses. He was also to arrange to held review in order to inspect the forces. The Sultan was the
commander-in-chief of the army. So the Ariz-i-mamalik was not to command the royal troops
generally, but sometimes he had to do it, at least a part of the army. He particularly looked after
the discipline of the army, their equipments and their dispositions on the battle field. It was a
very important department. Sometimes the Sultan himself performed some of its tasks. Ala-ud-
din Khilji often paid personal attention to it.

Diwan-i-insha or the in-charge of royal correspondence

Diwan-i-insha was the third important minister. He was in charge of the royal correspondence. A
member of Dabir (writers) assisted him. They were all masters of style. This department used to
make all correspondences, even of the confidential matters made between the Sultan and the
rulers of other states or of the important vassals and officials of the kingdom. They drafted the
important royal orders and sent to the Sultan for his sanction. They were then copied, registered
and dispatched. Thus the department performed very confidential nature of work. Naturally the
head of the department was always a very trusted person of the Sultan.

Diwan-i-risalat or the minister for foreign affairs

There is, however, a controversy about the function of this officer. Dr. I.H. Qureshi told us that
the minister used to deal with the religious matters and also look after grant and stipends to
scholars and pious men. Dr. A. B. M. Habibullah, on the other hand, said that he was the minister
for foreign affairs and was the in-charge of diplomatic correspondences and the ambassadors and
envoys sent to and received from the foreign rulers. It seems that Dr. Habibullahas view was
correct. The diwanirasalat was an important officer as all the Sultans of Delhi were always
eager to maintain diplomatic relations with the Central Asian powers and other powers of the
country.

Sadr-us-Sudur or Minister of the department of religions

The Sadr-us-Sudur was the minister of the department of religion, religious endowment and
charity. It was the duty of the chief Sadr (Sadr-us-Sudur) to enforce the Islamic rules and
regulations and to look after that the Muslims strictly follow those regulations in their daily life.
He also disbursed money in charity and rewarded the learned Muslim divines. He also paid the
grants of subsistence allowances to scholars and men of piety.

Diwan-i-Qaza or the Chief Qazi

The chief Qazi was the head of the judicial department. He supervised the administration of
justice in the kingdom. Very often, only one man was appointed to carry on the works of both the
departments of the religious endowment and charity and the department of justice.

All these ministers were not of the same rank or importance. Only the Wazir enjoyed higher
status and privileges. The other ministers were like secretaries to the Sultan and very ordinary in
status. There was no council of ministers. The Sultans often appointed and dismissed the
ministers at his own sweet will. The Sultan had a large number of non-official advisers. This
circle of advisors was known as MajlisiKhalwat. They consisted of the Sultans personal
friends, trusted officials and ulemas. Though the Sultan was not bound to accept their advices yet
often they exerted great influence on him. There were some other departmental heads as well like
baridimamalik (head of the intelligence and posts department) diwaniamir
kohi (department of agriculture), diwanimustakhraj, diwani-khairat (department of
charity), diwaniistihqak (department of pension), Sarijandar (Chief of the royal bodyguards)
and diwan-i-bandagan (chief of the slaves). The latter two chiefs had great influences on the
Sultans.

Provincial Administration
Provincial administration was run by Muqti, Iqtadars and other government officials. Iqtadars
were the landholders. It was the responsibility of the Muqtis and Iqtadars to provide the Sultans
with troops. Each province was divided into a number of parganas. Each parganas was further
divided into several villagers.

The Sultanate of Delhi was never divided into homogeneous provinces with uniform
administrative system. The Sultanate of Delhi was a centralized monarchy and no Sultan of
Delhi ever thought of rearranging the provinces on a uniform basis.

During the thirteenth century, the entire Sultanate was consisted of military commands. These
were known as the Iqtas. Iqta means part or share of a land and land revenue given to a person by
the ruler, the Sultan. The system was introduced by Sultan Iltutmish who had distributed Iqtas in
a wide scale among his Turkish followers. Each Iqta was under a powerful military officer
known as Muqti.

During the time of the so-called slave kings of Delhi, the important Iqtas were Mandawar,
Amraha, Sambhal, Badaun, Baran (Bulandshahr), Koli (Aligarh), Awadh, Kara, Manikpur,
Bayana, Gwalior, Nagpur, Hansi, Multan, Uch, Lahore, Samana, Sunam, Kluhram, Bhatinda and
Sanhind.

When Alaud-din-Khilji conquered practically the whole of the country including the Deccan, he
had allowed the big and small provinces to remain as they were. Thus during his time there were
two types of provinces that is, the lqtas which he had inherited from his predecessors and the
new areas which he had conquered. Alaud-din retained the old Iqtas. To the newly acquired
provinces he appointed new military governors. As all these provinces had been big and
flourishing states before they were conquered, they were naturally larger in area and income.
The principalities or some vassals were also reduced to the position of governors. Thus from the
time of Sultan Alauddin Khilji there were three kinds of provinces in the Sultanate. The officers-
in-charge of an lqta continued to be known as the Muqti and those appointed in-charge of the
new military provinces were called walis or sometimes the amirs. These walis or amirs obviously
enjoyed higher status and powers than the muqtis. Thus the muqtis were the governors of their
respective jurisdictions and enjoyed great powers. The size or the administrative system of the
Iqtas were never uniform and even the degree of the political and military power of the muqtis
differed from Iqta to lqta.

However, the Muqti was free to carry on his own administration though, of course, he had to
follow the local traditional usages. It was his duty to employ his own officials, to collect the
revenues, to defray the expenditure of his own administration. He was also to pay the surplus
revenue to the central government. Though in theory, he was subjected to the central audit, in
practice he was practically fully independent. His principal duty was to maintain law and order in
his province and to carry out the kings commands. It was also his duty to furnish a contingent of
troops to the Sultan of Delhi whenever the latter asked him to do so. The Muqti enjoyed a high
salary which was charged on the revenue of his province. He had a big army of his own and a big
official establishment as well. He was also required to collect revenues from the Sultans vassals
whose kingdoms were situated within his province. These vassals were required to pay Kharaj or
land revenue and also the Jizyas. Though the muqtis acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sultan
of Delhi they were otherwise independent in their own Iqtas. Both the muqtis and walis were
required to do the same task. They were required to keep powerful military establishments, to
maintain law and order in their jurisdiction and to punish the refractory Zamindars. They were
also required to furnish an account of their income and expenditure and to pay the residue to the
central government. They were advised to protect and enforce the Muslim laws, to protect the
Ulemas, to arrange for the administration of justice, to enforce the decisions of the courts, to
keep the high way free from robbers and to encourage trade and commerce. In each province
there were the staffs to collect the revenues known as Nazirs and Waqufs. There was also a
higher officer known as Sohib-i-diwan or Khwaja appointed by the Sultan to keep accounts.
There were also a Quazi and other subordinate officers. The most important provinces during the
Sultanate period were Bengal, Gujrat, Jaunpur, Malwa, Khandish and the Dakhin.

Society and culture under the sultanate

Whilwthe historians of the Delhi Sultanate have left full accounts that make possible a
reconstruction of military and political affairs, unfortunately no such records exist for social and
economic history. Scattered comments in the histories, however, as well as such works as the
Travels of Ibn Battuta, the narrative poems of Amir Khusrau, and the table talk of Hazrat Nizam-
ud-din, illuminate the social life of the time.

Muslim society during the period was dominated by the Turkish rulers and nobles who sought to
maintain their position not only against non-Muslims or the Muslims of indigenous origin, but
also against other non-Turkish immigrants, or over other Turks whose long separation from the
Turkish homeland marked them off themselves. It can be argued that most of the sultans and
nobles were ultimately Turkish in origin, even though they bear different designations, but the
first hundred years of the Delhi Sultanate was clearly a period of Turkish supremacy: rule by
groups that regarded themselves as Turks, and heirs of a definite cultural and historical tradition.
During this time they produced not only three great rulers, Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji, and
Balban, but also a great poetAmir Khusrau.

One of the most interesting features of Islamic society during the sultanate is the long struggle
of Indian MuslimsHindu and Buddhist converts or their descendantsto assert themselves.
They tried to gain power in the middle of the thirteenth century, but Balban and other Turkish
nobles were too powerful for them. Their position gradually improved under the Khaljis, and
under the Tughluqs a distinct change can be seen. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq had an Indian mother,
Muhammed Tughluq appointed a Hindu as the governor of Upper Sind, and the dominant
personality of the reign of Firuz Tughluq was Khan-i-Jahan, a Hindu convert from Telingana.

Although it took a long time for the Indo-Muslims to reach positions [[108]] of power, local
usages and customs influenced social life and behavior at an early period. The Indian pan (betel
leaf) soon became popular among the Muslims; the use of spices for seasoning food became
common; and standard Muslim dishes such as pilau were transformed. The newcomers also
adopted Indian headgear; but, more significantly, religious ceremonies, especially those related
to marriage and death, showed a definite Indian influence. The popularity of music, as well as its
forms, reflected the local atmosphere.

The lives of the Muslim upper classes, especially in Delhi, were modeled on those of their
Turkish and Persian counterparts, with the sports of a society that valued the horsepolo, riding,
racingbeing the chief outdoor amusements; these were the prerogatives of the rich. All classes
enjoyed chess and backgammon, although the more orthodox regarded them with disapproval.
Most of the Muslims, at least during the earliest period of the sultanate, were city dwellers, many
of them attached to the garrisons. For this reason there was a good deal of communal life among
the ordinary people. There were, for example, bakeries instead of individual kitchens, and
hammams (Turkish baths) in the larger towns.

As for the Hindus, their social life was relatively unchanged, although during military
operations they suffered losses in property and life. Even when the harsh laws of war gave place
to peace, the Hindus were burdened by certain handicaps. The loss of sovereignty itself was a
major loss, especially in the case of the Brahmans and the Kshatriyas. The sultanate period was
more difficult for them than any other period of Muslim rule. The liberal and conciliatory policy
adopted by Muhammad ibn Qasim had given place to a new relationship, and the integration of
the Hindu population into the political and administrative structure was not to come about until
later. Muslim conquest of Sind and Multan and even of Lahore and Peshawar had not led to the
same tensions and conflicts which followed their domination over the heart of Aryavarta. Even
the indirect effect of the Mongol invasion of Muslim lands led to a stiffening of attitude, as the
Muslim refugees, who had suffered so much at the hands of the pagan Mongols, were not
disposed to be friendly towards the non-Muslims of India.

All these factors make the sultanate a period of tensions and conflicts. The theory of Turkish
racial superiority which held sway during the rule of early Slave kings was not favorable to the
employment of Hindusor even indigenous Muslimsin high civil and military appointments,
as was the case under the Arabs in Sind or even under the Ghaznavids. It would, however, be
wrong to think that the Hindus were completely excluded from service. In rural areas the Hindu
landed aristocracy still occupied a position of prestige and power, and the muqaddams, the
chaudharis, and the khuts had important roles in the administration. The land system was not
altered, and the Hindu peasant must have led much the same kind of life as he did before the
coming of the Muslims. Trade and commerce also remained in Hindu control, for to the Muslim
invader from Central Asia, the complex Hindu banking system would be unfamiliar and
unworkable. The Hindu merchant might be heavily assessed, or, during a war have his movable
goods confiscated, but he was too much a part of the intricate commercial structure to be easily
replaced. The money-lender thrived under the new, as under the old, dispensation. We hear, for
example, about the large incomes of the Muslim grandees and the splendor of their households,
but Barani leaves us in no doubt that most, if not all, borrowed from the Hindu money lenders.
"The maliks and the khans and the nobles of those days were constantly in debt, owing to their
excessive generosity, expenditures, and beneficence. Except in their public halls no gold or silver
could be found, and they had no savings on account of their excessive liberality. The wealth and
riches of the Multani merchants and the shahs [money lenders] were from the interest realized
from the old maliks and nobles of Delhi, who borrowed money from them to the maximum limit,
and repaid their debts along with additional gifts from their [lands]. Whenever a malik or a khan
held a banquet and invited notables, his agents would rush to the Multanis and shahs, sign
documents, and borrow money with interest."/1/ That the money lenders recovered their money
along with interest (forbidden under Islamic law), is an [[110]] indication of how vital they were
to the system. Even the powerful Ala-ud-din Khalji who, seeing the danger to his government
from the power of the Hindu rural chiefs, made a determined attempt to curb their power and
reduce their wealth, found it necessary to make Hindu traders the main instrument of his price
control measures./2/

Industry and Trade

Hindus occupied an important role in foreign, as in domestic, trade, although foreign

Muslim merchants, known as khurasani, also had a large share of it. The rulers of the coastal
kingdoms in the Deccan accorded to foreign merchants certain extra-territorial rights and special
concessions, in consideration of the heavy taxes which they paid to the treasury. An organized
class of brokers handled the business on the coast and inside the country. The imports consisted
mainly of certain luxury items for the upper classes, and a general supply of all kinds of horses
and mules, in which India was deficient. Hindus had never attached any importance to cavalry,
but seeing the success of the Muslim horsemen, they started to substitute horses for elephants.
The exports included large quantities of food-grains and cloth. Among the agricultural products
were wheat, millet, rice, pulses, oilseeds, scents, medicinal herbs, and sugar. Some of the
countries around the Persian Gulf depended on the subcontinent for their entire food supply.
Cotton cloth and other textiles were especially important items of export, particularly to
Southeast Asia and East Africa, although some reached Europe. They were carried by the Arabs
to the Red Sea and from there found their way to Damascus and Alexandria, from where they
were distributed to the Mediterranean countries and beyond.

Many industries of considerable size and importance developed during this period, the most
important of which were textiles, various items of metal work, sugar, indigo, and in certain
localities, paper. The Indian textile industry is very old, but the variety of cloth produced was
originally limited. Taking advantage of the local talent, the [[111]] Muslims introduced a number
of fine varieties of textiles, most of which had Persian or Arabic origin. Bengal was the main
center of this industry, but Gujarat rivaled it as a supplier of the export trade during the sultanate
period.

Next in importance were a number of industries connected with metal work: the
manufacture of swords, guns, and knives, as well as household needs such as trays and basins.
Manufacture of sugar was also carried on on a fairly large scale, and in Bengal enough was
produced to leave a surplus for export after meeting the local demand. Paper-making was a
minor industry, of which little is known except that Delhi was the center of a considerable
market.

These industries were mainly privately owned, but the government equipped and managed
large-scale karkhanas, or factories, for supplying its requirements. The royal factories at Delhi
sometimes employed as many as four thousand weavers for silk alone. The example of the sultan
of Delhi was followed by the rulers of the regional kingdoms, and the contribution of the state to
the development of the industry was not a minor one.

In certain aspects of social life, the Hindus had virtual autonomy during the sultanate. This
was in accordance with the established axiom of Islamic law that while Muslims are governed by
the Shariat, non-Muslim zimmis are subject to their own laws and social organization, but it was
also a product of the Indian situation. The Muslim rulers from the days of the Arab occupation of
Sind accepted the right of the village and caste panchayats to settle the affairs of their
community. This meant that the Hindu villages remained small autonomous republics, as they
had been since ancient times, and in commerce and industry the Hindu guilds were supreme.
This position continued throughout the Muslim rule, but during the sultanate, when the
provincial administration had not been properly organized, Hindu autonomy outside the principal
towns was particularly effective.

It is often forgottenand Muslim court chroniclers were not anxious to mention itthat a
large number of independent or quasi-independent Hindu chiefs remained after the establishment
of the sultanate. Some of them were rajas, or kings; others were only petty chieftains, controlling
a few villages. Many of them belonged to old [[112]] families, but new principalities grew up
even after the establishment of Muslim power at Delhi. Rajputs often found new kingdoms for
themselves in remote, easily defended areas in Rajputana and the Himalayas. From such
movements during the sultanate come also some of the large landed estates still held by Rajputs
in Oudh and in Bihar. In these predominantly Hindu areas the old religion was fostered, and its
cultural expressions kept alive even in the periods of greatest Islamic power.