TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work

This article was published in ASHRAE Journal, February 2015. Copyright 2015 ASHRAE. Posted at www.ashrae.org. This article may not be copied and/or
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Part One
Radiant Heating and
Cooling Systems
BY KWANG WOO KIM, ARCH.D., MEMBER ASHRAE; BJARNE W. OLESEN, PH.D., FELLOW ASHRAE

The use of radiant heating systems has several thousand years of history.1,2 The early
stage of radiant system application was for heating purposes, where hot air from flue gas
(cooking, fires) was circulated under floors or in walls. After the introduction of plastic
piping water-based radiant heating and cooling with pipes embedded in room surfaces
(floor, wall, and ceiling), the application increased significantly worldwide. Earlier
application of radiant heating systems was mainly for residential buildings because of
its comfort and free use of floor space without any obstruction from installations. For
similar reasons, as well as possible peak load reduction and energy savings, radiant
systems are being widely applied in commercial and industrial buildings.
This two-part article describes basic knowledge of cooling. The water temperatures are operated at very
radiant heating and cooling systems to give a principle close to room temperature, and, depending on the
understanding of the design and operation of this position of the piping, the system can take advan-
advantageous system including comfort, system load, tage of the thermal storage capacity of the building
heating/cooling capacity, installation and application of structure.
the system with examples. Figure 1 shows the available types of embedded
hydronic radiant systems. The embedded radiant sys-
Embedded Radiant Heating and Cooling System tems, except thermally active building systems (TABS),
Embedded radiant systems are used in all types of are usually insulated from the main building structure
buildings. Due to the large surfaces needed for heat (floor, wall and ceiling), and the actual operation mode
transfer, the systems work with low water tempera- (heating/cooling) of the systems depends on the heat
ture for heating and high water temperature for transfer between the water and the space.

Kwang Woo Kim, Arch.D., is a professor of architecture at Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, and president of Architectural Institute of Korea. Bjarne W. Olesen, Ph.D., is
director, professor, International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Technical University of Denmark in Lyngby, Denmark, and vice president of ASHRAE.

28 A S H R A E J O U R N A L ashrae.org FEBRUARY 2015

 TECHNICAL FEATURE

Floor Ceiling Wall TABS

FIGURE 1 Examples of water based radiant systems.3

The radiant system is defined as a system where at

least 50% of the heat transfer takes place by radiation. Btu/hft2F
Figure 2 shows the total heat transfer coefficients between 2.03
a heated-cooled surface and a room. The radiant heat 1.85 1.94 1.94 1.41
transfer is, in all cases, 5.5 W/mK (0.97 Btu/hftF). 1.67
1.50
The convective heat transfer then varies between 0.5 1.41
1.32 1.06
and 5.5 W/mK (0.09 and 0.97 Btu/hftF), depend-
1.14
ing on the surface type and on heating or cooling mode. Wall
0.97 1.23
This shows that the radiant heat transfer varies between Heating Ceiling
Cooling Floor
50% and 90% of the total heat transfer. The heat trans-
fer coefficient for cold ceiling and warm floor will vary FIGURE 2 Heat transfer coefficients between heated/cooled surface and room.4,5
between 9 and 11 W/mK (1.59 and 1.94 Btu/hftF),
depending on the temperature difference between sur-
face and room. Part 5: Installation; and
The radiant heat transfer does not directly affect the Part 6: Control.
room air temperature. The long wave radiation heats or
cools the surrounding surfaces, which then indirectly Comfort
heats or cools the room air. Occupants thermal comfort is the primary objec-
tive in radiantly heated or cooled space. To provide an
Standard for Radiant Heating and Cooling Systems acceptable thermal environment for the occupants, the
As the heat transfer process between water and room requirements for general thermal comfort shall be taken
is quite different from conventional air systems, an into account by using the index of predicted mean vote
international standard on radiant heating and cooling (PMV) or operative temperature, to, and local thermal
systems has been developed based on system design and comfort, e.g., surface temperature, vertical air tempera-
existing standards from different countries and was ture differences, radiant temperature asymmetry, draft,
published in 2012. etc.
ISO 11855, Building Environment DesignDesign, For radiant or convective systems the comfort require-
Dimensioning, Installation and Control of the Embedded Radiant ments are the same when expressed by the PMV-PPD
611
Heating And Cooling Systems, consists of six parts: index (0.5 < PMV <+0.5) or expressed as an operative
Part 1: Definition, symbols, and comfort criteria; temperature range corresponding to: 20C to 24C (68F
Part 2: Determination of the design and heating and to 75.2F) for heating season and 23C to 26C (73.4F
cooling capacity; to 78.8F) for cooling season in spaces with sedentary
12,13
Part 3: Design and dimensioning; activity.
14,15
Part 4: Dimensioning and calculation of the dynamic The operative temperature is the combined influ-
heating and cooling capacity of thermo active building ence of air temperature and mean radiant temperature.
systems; The operative temperature can be approximated with

FEBRUARY 2015 ashrae.org A S H R A E J O U R N A L 29

TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work

0F 3.6F 7.2F 10.8F 14.4F 18F 0F 9F 18F 27F 36F 45F 54F 63F
Y Y
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
1 2
20% 20%

10% 10%
8% 8% 3 4
6% 6%
4% 4%

2% 2%

1% X 1% X
X=Air Temperature Difference Between Head and Feet Y=Dissatisfied X=Radiant Temperature Asymmetry Y=Dissatisfied 1=Warm Ceiling
FIGURE 3Local thermal discomfort caused by vertical air temperature difference.6 2=Cool Wall 3=Cool Ceiling 4=Warm Wall
FIGURE 4 Local thermal discomfort caused by radiant temperature asymmetry.6

the simple average of air and mean radiant temperature

in spaces with low air velocities (<0.2 m/s [39 fpm]), or 100 1
with a small difference between mean radiant tempera-
ture and air temperature (<4K, 7F). 80 0.3
The operative temperature (to) is in spaces with low air 0.2
60 50.4F
velocities determined from the following expression: 0.1
Dissatisfied (%)

Acceptability
0.0
to = 0.5(ta + tr) 40
41.4F 0.1
Where 0.2
20 32.4F
ta = air temperature F (C) 0.3
tr = mean radiant temperature F (C)
0 1.0
The occupants can maintain the same comfort level 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
with a lower air temperature in a radiantly heated Relative Humidity (%)
space, and the same comfort level with a higher air FIGURE 5 Human satisfaction with the IAQ depending on relative humidity and air
temperature.3
temperature in a radiantly cooled space in comparison
to convective heating and cooling systems. Therefore,
reduction of the energy loss due to ventilation and infil- system and vice-versa in summer. With air systems the
tration is possible while maintaining the same comfort colder window temperatures in winter will be com-
level compared with conventional heating and cooling pensated by a higher air temperature, which will result
systems. in an air temperature higher than the mean radiant
As the reference temperature for the transmission heat temperature.
loss is closer to the operative temperature than to the air For rooms with sedentary and/or standing occupants,
temperature, there will not be any significant difference the maximum permissible floor temperature for heating
of transmission heat loss between radiantly heated or is 29C (84F), and the minimum floor temperature for
cooled spaces. cooling is 19C (66F). For spaces with occupants in bare
Interestingly enough, the difference between air- and feet (bathrooms, swimming pools, dressing rooms, etc.),
mean radiant temperature is normally smaller in radi- the optimal floor temperature for comfort also depends
antly heated or cooled spaces. This is due to the fact on the floor covering material.
that in winter the windows will have a lower surface For wall heating, a maximum surface temperature
temperature than the air temperature, which is com- range of 35C to 45C (95F to 113F) is recommended.
pensated by a higher surface temperature of the radiant The maximum may depend on whether the occupants

30 A S H R A E J O U R N A L ashrae.org FEBRUARY 2015

TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work
Type A and C
1 1
2 2
5 Flooring Material
3 3
3
4 4
1=Floor Covering 2=Weight Bearing and Thermal Diffusion Layer (Cement Screed, Anhydrite Screed, Asphalt Screed or Wood)
3=Thermal Insulation 4=Structural Base 5=Heat Diffusion Device
FIGURE 6 Embedded radiant system types.7
may easily get contact with the surface or whether occu-
pants are more sensitive persons such as children or the
elderly. Wall cooling is limited by the risk of condensa-
tion and the development of a downdraft of cold air.
A vertical air temperature difference between head
and feet of less than 3K (5.4F) is recommended. Most
heating and cooling systems will, in modern buildings,
normally have vertical air temperature differences
within this limit. In high ceiling spaces it is, for energy
reasons, important to avoid large vertical temperature
differences. This is why floor heating is especially rec-
ommended here (atrium, foyer, industrial space, etc.)
People are very sensitive to radiant temperature
asymmetry from a cold window and a warm ceiling.
Occupants may feel discomfort caused by a temperature
asymmetry of 5K (9F) for warm ceiling, and a tempera-
ture asymmetry of 10K (18F) for walls or windows (Figure
4, Page 30). The critical factor at cold surfaces (windows,
walls) is, however, the risk of downdraft that may cause
discomfort.
The radiant heating and cooling system operates with
less dust transportation, as it is not a convective system,
and does not require the cleaning of heat emitters or
filters. With the radiant floor heating systems, carpets
are not necessary. Thus, the possible allergen sources of
emitting pollutants and a sink source can be eliminated.
The higher mean radiant temperature in radiantly
heated space means that the air temperature can be
kept lower than in convectively heated space. This has
the advantage that the relative humidity in winter may
be a little higher. Studies show that lower air tempera-
ture and lower air humidity have a significant effect
3
on perceived air quality (Figure 5 ). Due to the higher
heating surface temperatures, there is less chance
32 A S H R A E J O U R N A L ashrae.org FEBRUARY 2015
Type B Type D Type G
1
2
Joist
4
for condensation and mold growth. The relationship
between air temperature and humidity is one of impor-
tant comfort issues in radiantly cooled spaces. Where
the humidity is not controlled by the air system, as in
naturally ventilated spaces, radiant cooling capacity will
be limited to avoid the forming of condensation on the
radiant surface (see section on control in Part 2 of this
article in next months Journal).
With air heating or cooling system more air has to
be circulated than the amount needed for providing
acceptable air quality. This may increase the noise level
in a space and also increase the risk for complaints
related to draft. When a part of sensible heating and/
or cooling load is taken care of by a water-based radi-
ant system, the ventilation system may have reduced
duct size and lower air velocity because it will only
treat the air renewal for required IAQ and, if needed,
dehumidification.
In buildings with thermally active building systems
(TABS) you will normally prefer to have free access to
the concrete surface to increase the heat transfer with
the room. This may require special solutions for the
acoustics. Acoustic panels on the ceilings and suspended
ceiling panels will reduce heat transfer. It will be more
16
efficient to hang down vertical acoustical panels. The
application of the raised floor or the thermal/acoustic
insulation in floor will decrease the upper heat flow
from the TABS, which normally is much less than the
heat exchange from the ceiling.
Load Calculations and Heating/Cooling Capacity
At a given average surface temperature and indoor
temperature (operative temperature, to), a surface
will deliver the same amount of heat flux to a space
TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work
Structure S4
q=0 q=0
Material
Floor Covering
=0.08 Btuin/hft2F
s=0.6 in.
Screed
=0.40 Btuin/hft2F
s=2.4 in.
Thermal Insulation
=0.01 Btuin/hft2F
s=1.2 in.
Concrete
=0.70 Btuin/hft2F
s=7.1 in.
FIGURE 7 Temperature distribution and cooling effect up and down for a floor system calculated by FEM software for a floor cooling system with 19C (66.2F) water tem-
peratures and 26C (78.8F) room temperature.
regardless of the embedded radiant system type.
Therefore, it is possible to establish basic formulas or
characteristic curves of heating and cooling for the all
heating and cooling surfaces independent of the embed-
ded system types. The heat transfer between the surface
and the space do, however, depend on the different sur-
face heat transfer coefficients (Figure 2).
The heat transfer between the water and surface is differ-
ent for each system configuration. Therefore, the estima-
tion of heating/cooling capacity of systems is very important
for the proper system design. Two calculation methods
7
included in ISO 11855-2 are simplified calculation meth-
ods depending on the type of system, and finite element
method (FEM) or finite difference method (FDM). Given
system types are Types A and C, Type B, Types D and G.
The simplified calculation methods are specific for the
given system types within boundary conditions. Based
on the calculated average surface temperature at given
heat transfer medium temperature and space tempera-
ture, it is possible to determine the steady state heating
and cooling capacity. In case a simplified calculation
method is not applicable for the considered system,
either two- or three-dimensional finite element or finite
difference method, or laboratory testing may be applied.
The temperature distribution in floor cooling system,
calculated using FEM software, is shown in Figure 7.
Heat exchange coefficient is the parameter that
determines the amount of heat transferred between
34 A S H R A E J O U R N A L ashrae.org FEBRUARY 2015
qup=112.6 Btu/h
Temperature (F)
78.8
77
75.2
73.4
71.6
69.8
68
66.2
64.4
qdown=22.3 Btu/h
surface and the space in relation with the system type.
Acceptable surface temperature is determined based on
comfort considerations and the risk of condensation.
7
Heating/cooling capacity of the systems is:
Floor heating and ceiling cooling, q = 8.92 (to tS,m )1.1;
Wall heating and wall cooling, q = 8 (|to tS,m |);
Ceiling heating, q = 6 (|to tS,m |);
Floor cooling, q = 7 (|to tS,m |).
Where
to (C) is the operative temperature in the space
tS,m (C) is the average surface temperature
The ceiling has the capacity up to 100 W/m (31.7
Btu/hft) for sensible cooling and 40 to 50 W/m (12.7
to 15.9 Btu/hft) for heating. The floor has the capac-
ity up to 100 W/m (31.7 Btu/hft) for heating and
40 W/m (12.7 Btu/hft) for sensible cooling. When
direct sunlight strikes on the floor, the sensible cooling
capacity of the floor may be more than 100 W/m (31.7
Btu/hft). This is why floor cooling is often adopted in
spaces with large window area like airports, atria and
lobby halls.
For the thermally active building systems (TABS), the
steady-state heating/cooling capacity calculation is not
sufficient, and analysis with a dynamic computational
program that can predict the dynamic behavior and
performance of the system together with the building
 TECHNICAL FEATURE

17,1
is needed. Several programs exist such
Energy Plus, TRNSYS and IDA-ICE.
One of the main advantages of TABS are
4

Cooling Power (Btu/h)

reduced building height. For each story, you 2
may save 500 to 600 mm (1.8 to 2 ft) of build-
1 3
ing height, which for a seven-story build-
ing amounts to an entire story and related
building materials. As no suspended ceiling
is needed to cover air ducts, significant sav-
ing of building materials is possible. It is also
possible to operate the system at 30% to 50%
lowered peak loads allowing reduced plants
1=Heat Gain 2=Power Needed for Conditioning the Ventilation Air
sizes and possible operation of heating/cool-
3=Power Needed on Water Side 4=Peak Heat Gain Reduction
ing systems with temperatures close to room
FIGURE 8 Example of peak-shaving (reducing the peak load) effect (time vs. cooling power).17
temperature, allowing increased plants effi-
ciency and use of renewable energy sources
(ground heat exchanger, evaporative cool- over 24 hours and by an air system normally over 8 to
ing, etc.). 10 hours. After the water circulation in the slab may
Thermally active building systems exploit the high have been stopped during the day and will be started
thermal inertia of the slab to perform peak shaving. The again in the evening, there will be a high peak cool-
peak shaving reduces the peak in the required cooling ing load between the heated slab and the cool water;
7
power, so that it is possible to cool the structures of the but this should not be used to size the chiller as it is a
building during a period in which the occupants are very short peak and the capacity needed will after some
absent (during nighttime in office premises). This way, minutes decrease significantly. It can be somewhat com-
the cooling can be delayed and lower nighttime electric- plicated to calculate the needed capacity on the water
ity rates can be used. At the same time, a reduction in side (chiller, heat pump); therefore, a dynamic building
the size of heating/cooling system components (includ- simulation is recommended.
ing the chiller) is possible.
During daytime, the heat is extracted from the occu- System Design
pied space by the ventilation system and stored in the Radiant system design requires determining heat-
concrete slabs. Then, during nighttime, the level of ven- ing/cooling surface area, type, pipe size, pipe spacing,
tilation is reduced and the circulation of cool water in supply temperature of the heat transfer medium, and
the slabs will remove the stored heat. design medium flow rate. The design steps are as follows
8
For the conventional air system, the space load will (ISO 11855-3 ):
be the instantaneous system load, because all the heat 1. Calculate the design heating and sensible cooling
delivered to the space is immediately removed by the load in accordance with a standard for heating and cool-
air system. For the radiant system and especially for ing load calculation based on operative temperature.
a TABS the calculated design space load should not be 2. Determine the minimum supply air quantity
used as system load. For both an air system and a TABS, needed for ventilation and dehumidification. In cooling
it is important that the room load over a 24-hour day application, calculate latent cooling and sensible cooling
(Curve 1 in Figure 8) is removed within the 24 hours, else available from supply air. Determine remaining sen-
the room will get warmer and warmer day by day if the sible cooling load to be satisfied by radiant system. Also,
weather stays the same. The difference is that with a designate or calculate the relative humidity and dew
TABS this load is removed from the space in three ways: point, because the cooling system should operate within
absorption in the concrete slab, removed by the ventila- a surface temperature range above the dew point, which
tion system and removed by the water circulating in the shall be specified depending on the respective climate
slabs. Therefore, the load is removed by a slab system conditions in the country. By limiting supply water

FEBRUARY 2015 ashrae.org A S H R A E J O U R N A L 35

TECHNICAL FEATURE|Fundamentals at Work
temperature to be maintained above
dew point, the risk of condensation
can be easily avoided.
3. Determine the surface area for
radiant system, excluding any area
covered by objects immovable or
fixed to the building structure.
4. Establish a maximum permis-
sible surface temperature and a mini-
mum permissible surface tempera-
ture in consideration of the dew point.
5. Determine the design heat flux,
including the design heat flux of pe-
ripheral area and the design heat flux
of occupied area. For the design of the
cooling systems, determine the room
with the maximum design heat flux.
6. Determine the radiant system
such as the pipe spacing and the cov-
ering type, and design heating and
cooling medium differential temper-
ature based on the maximum design
heat flux and the maximum and
minimum surface temperature from
the field of characteristic curves.
7. If the design heat flux cannot
be obtained by any pipe spacing
alternatives for the room of design, it
is recommended to provide supple-
mentary heating/cooling equipment.
In this case, the maximum design
heat flux for the embedded system
may now occur in another room.
8. Determine the thermal resis-
tance of backside insulating layer
and the design heating/cooling
medium flow rate.
9. Estimate the total length of
circuit.
Hydronic radiant surface systems
are very often coupled with an air-
handling system. The air-handling
system usually operates only with
the amount of air needed for accept-
able indoor air quality, the required
IAQ standard, or amount of air
needed to remove latent heat from
36 A S H R A E J O U R N A L ashrae.org FEBRUARY 2015
TABLE 1 
System design example for panel cooling.
STEP FIND
0 A = 10 m2 (108 ft2), V = 30 m3 (1,059
ft3) Room is Given to be Installed with
Radiant System and HVAC System
1 Calculate Cooling Load Based on Opera-
tive Temperature
Cooling Load (Latent)
Cooling Load (Sensible)
2 Determine Minimum Supply Air Quantity
Calculate Latent Cooling Available From
Supply Air
Sensible Cooling Available From Supply
Air
Design the Relative Humidity
And Dew Point
Determine Remaining Sensible Cooling
Load to be Satisfied by Radiant System Remaining Qc,sensible = Qc,sensible - QHVAC,sensible
3 Determine the Available Surface Area
4 Establish a Minimum Permissible
Surface Temperature
5 Determine Maximum Design Heat Flux
6 Determine Radiant System
Pipe Spacing
Covering Type
Design Cooling Medium Differential
Temperature
Design heating capacity of radiant
system,
7 Select Supplementary
Cooling Equipment
8 Determine Thermal Resistance of
Backside Insulating Layer
Cooling Medium Flow Rate
9 Estimate Total Length Of Circuit
*ISO 11855-2: Building environment design Design, dimensioning, installation and control of embedded radiant
heating and cooling systems Part 2: Determination of the design heating and cooling capacity.
EXAMPLE
Qc,latent = 150 W (512 Btu/h)
Qc,sensible = 1,000 W (3,416 Btu/h)
VHVAC,min = 0.7 ACH = 21 CMH (12.4 CFM)
QHVAC,latent = Qc,latent = 150 W (512 Btu/h)
Assuming the SHF (Sensible Heat Factor) of HVAC, SHF =
(QHVAC,sensible / QHVAC,total) = 0.7
QHVAC,total = QHVAC,latent / (1 - SHF)
= QHVAC,latent / 0.7 = 500 W (1,708 Btu/h)
Then, QHVAC,sensible = QHVAC,total QHVAC,latent
= 500 W 150 W = 350 W
(1,196 Btu/h) is available from
supply air of HVAC
RH = 50 %, Tdew = 14.8C (58.6F)
= 1,000W 350 W
= 650 W (2,220 Btu/h)
Aavailable = 5 m2 (53.8 ft2), 50% of ceiling area is available
for radiant system
Tsurf,min = 17C (62.6F) is acceptable for cooled ceiling*
(which is higher than dew point temperature)
Qc,max = 99 W/m2 (31.4 Btu/hft2) is allowed for cooled
ceiling*
Selected Radiant System has cooling capacity of 80 W/m2
(25.4 Btu/hft2).
mT = 0.2 m (8 in.)
punched aluminum sheet
Tm = 2C (3.6F)
5 m2 = 400 W (1,366 Btu/h)
Required cooling capacity of Supplementary
Cooling Equipment
Qout = Remaining Qc,sensible Qdes
= 650 W 400 W = 250 W (854 Btu/h)
Rcover = 0.021 m2K/W (0.12 hft2F/Btu)
m = 0.0478 kg/s (6.3 lb/min),
ensured of fully developed flow in pipe
If the resistance of backside insulation is high, the cooling
medium flow rate could be lowered.
Lcir = Aavailable / mT = 5 m2 / 0.2 m = 25 m (82 ft)

the space and control air humidity level, while the hydronic
system supplies or removes the sensible heat depending on
the seasonal conditions. In the cooling mode, the air system
can play a key role in avoiding surface condensation.
Part 2 of this article will cover control, operation,
installation and application of the system.
Acknowledgments
This article was supported by VELUX guest professorship, and a grant
from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the
Korean government (MEST) (No. 2014-050381).
References
1. Bean, R., Olesen, B.W., Kim, K. W. 2010. History of Radiant
Heating & Cooling Systems, Part 1. ASHRAE Journal (1):4046.
2. Bean, R., Olesen, B.W., Kim, K. W. 2010. History of Radiant
Heating & Cooling Systems, Part 2. ASHRAE Journal (2):5055.
3. REHVA. 2007. Guidebook No 7: Low Temperature Heating and
High Temperature Cooling.
4. Olesen, B.W. 1997. Possibilities and limitations of radiant floor
cooling. ASHRAE Transactions 103(1):4248.
5. Olesen, B.W., Michel, E., Bonnefoi, F., De Carli, M. 2000. Heat
exchange coefficient between floor surface and space by floor cool-
ing: theory or a question of definition. ASHRAE Transactions, Part I.
6. ISO 11855-1:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
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TECHNICAL FEATURE
systems Part 1: Definition, symbols, and comfort criteria.
7. ISO 11855-2:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling sys-
tems Part 2: Determination of the design and heating and cooling capacity.
8. 8. ISO 11855-3:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimen-
sioning, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 3: Design and dimensioning.
9. ISO 11855-4:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 4: Dimensioning and calculation of the dynamic heating and
cooling capacity of Thermo Active Building Systems (TABS).
10. ISO 11855-5:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 5: Installation.
11. ISO 11855-6:2012, Building environment design - Design, dimension-
ing, installation and control of the embedded radiant heating and cooling
systems Part 6: Control.
12. ASHRAE Standard 55-2010, Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupancy.
13. ISO EN 7730-2005, Moderate thermal environmentsdetermination of
the PMV and PPD indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort.
14. 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment.
15. ISO EN 7726-1998, Ergonomics of the thermal environment- Instru-
ments for measuring physical quantities.
16. Weitzmann, P., Pittarello, E., Olesen, B.W. 2008. The cooling
capacity of the thermo active building system combined with acous-
tic ceiling. Presented at Nordic Symposium on Building Physics.
17. Olesen, B.W. 2012. Thermo active building systems using
building mass to heat and cool. ASHRAE Journal 54(2):4452.
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