NAVAIR 00-EOT-88

ATC MANUAL 51-2

HELICOPTER

HISTORY AND AERODYNAMICS

MANUAL

plSTFtlBylloN STATF- Distribution authorized to U.S. Government agencies and

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0800LP0443000
4 JANUARY 1961
NATEC ELECTRONIC MANUAL
 HEADQUARTERS AIR TRAINING COMMAND
UNITED STATES AIR FORCE
RANDOLPH AFB, TEXAS
4 JANUARY ,961

FOREWORD
This manual has been designed for
gram, primarily for fixed-wing aircraft
serve as an introductory history for Air
its flight characteristics, limitations, and
use as a text by Air Force pilots in the helicopter training pro-
pilots making the transition to rotary wing aircraft. It will also
Force personnel interested in the development of the helicopter,
potential uses.

This manual traces the development of the rotary wing aircraft and discusses rotary wing aerody-
namics and significant flight considerations. The instructions for flying rotary wing aircraft, as contained
in this manual, are based on the assumption that the trainee is versed in the basic fundamentals of piloting
aircraft.

Air Force organizations may reprint noncopyright articles contained in this publication without
further authorization. Before extracting or reprinting any item, non-Air Force organizations or activities
are requested to communicate with Headquarters, Air Training Command, Randolph Air Force Base,
Texas, indicating the intended use of the material.

Information contained in this manual used for training. purposes does not take precedence over di-
rectives such as technical order instructions. When such conflict or need for improvement is noted, com-
ments and recommendations should be forwarded through channels to this Headquarters, attenrion DCS/
Flying Training.

This manual is organizational rather than personal property, and is authorized to remain in the
possession of individuals to whom it is issued so long as it is required in the performance of the duties for
which it is designed.

OFFICIAL: JAMES E. BRIGGS

Lieutenant Genrrol, USAF
Commander

ROBERT A. SCHAAF
Lieulenanf Colonel, USAF
AdjIll&

*This manual supersedes ATC Manual 51-2, September 1952

OPI: ATFTM
DISTRIBUTION: F
 CONTENTS

Chapter
History and Development of Rotary-Wing Aircmft~. ............................ 1
1
DoVinci, Father of the Helicopter~L.. ........................................... 2
Steam Powered Early Helicopter Models.. .......................................... 3
Eftkient Power Plant Need Met by lnternol Combustion Engine..~ ..... 5
Advent of the
Autogyro.. ................................................................. 8
Helicopters Directional Control Obtained.. .................................... 10
1942 -The Helicopter Emerges or a Full-Fledged Flying Croft.~......l2
Airlift in Korea.. ................................................................................ 14
Romiet Rotor Tip Propulsion.. ............................................................ 19
Foldable Rotorcycle~~~. ........................................................................ 19
Airborne Fire Fighters and Equipment~~.~. ........................................... 20
Continuing Experiments Produce a Variety of Functional Models......~ 21
The Pinwheel. ................................................................................ 23
Gas Turbine Engine Development.. ................................................... 23
Convertiplone DevelopmentL.. ........................................................... 26
One Man Stand-On Platform.. ...................................................... 28
General Purpose Vehicle Combines Jeep Utility
with Helicopter Traits~~.~..~~ .............................................................. 29

iii
Chapter 2 continued

Chapter

Flying the Helicop&..~.~ ................................................................. 51

Stroight and Level Flight ................................................................. 52

Hovering ............................................................................................ 53
Climbs and Descents .......................................................................... 54
Normal Takeoff .................................................................................. 54
Normal Landings ........................................................................... 56
Sideways and Backward Flight ........................................................ ~~~58
Autorotation Londingr ...................................................................... 58
Running Landings .............................................................................. 58
Flare-Type Landing ............................................................................ 60
Steep Approach ................................................................................ 61
Maximum Performonce Takeoffs ........................................................ 62
Fast Shallow Approach ...................................................................... 63
Crosswind Considerations ................................................................ 63
Running Landings and Takeoffs ....................................................... 64
Hovering Turn .................................................................................... 64
Rapid Deceleration .......................................................................... 65

iv

HISTORY
ANDDEVEhQPNlEMT
OF ROTARY-WING-
The Korean war and recent advancements
in h&copter design have combined to disprove
a former belief that the helicopter was merely
a scientific plaything. It is now recognized as
a highly useful piece of military equipment
which can perform a wide variety of duties,
from quick transport of assault troops to
equally quick rescue of personnel downed or
cut off in and beyond battle areas. Because
the helicopter can land and takeoff from small
unprepared areas, at safe speeds, it seems cer-
tain that the aircraft of tomorrow must com-
bine these features with the high speed of the
conventional airplane.
This manual traces the development of
rotary-wing aircraft from Da Vincis first con-
ception of the direct-lift principle to the present
day. It presents in nontechnical language the
basic concepts of rotary-wing aerodynamics. It
tells the pilot how to fly the helicopter, adjust
to its characteristics, recognize its limitations,
and take full advantage of its capabilities.
This chapter is not a complete and detailed
chronological history listing all helicopters and
all of those who experimented with a rotary-
wing aircraft. Instead, it traces the develop-
ment of rotary-wing aircraft, naming the men
who made significant contributions to that
development, and describing the contribution
of each.
Anthropologists indicate that at one time
man moved about on all fours. Sometime dur-
ing hi development, prehistoric man balanced
awkwardly on his hind feet. He did this for
CHAPTER
AIRCRAFT
two reasons: first, to give him free use of his
front appendages, his arms; and secondly, to
raise his eye level so he could see farther. Hi
increased range of vision naturally added an
element of protection from surprise attack.
From his beginning, man has displayed a funda-
mental desire to see what was going on about
him. For centuries man climbed the highest
hills and mountain peaks because height meant
increased observation, and increased observa-
tion meant safety.
As civilization advanced, man dreamed of a
device that would carry him high above the
surrounding land. It is reported that as far
back as 3,000 B. C. an intrepid Persian mon-
arch sought flight by harnessing a flock of
trained eagles. Mythologies and early Greek and
Roman legends enrich our understanding of
mans desire to soar to great altitudes. An early
Greek mythology described the attempted
escape of Icarus from the Island of Crete by
the use of wax wings. He attached the wings
to his shoulders, then jumped off a high moun-
tain peak and soared beautifully. Thrilled and
overjoyed with the experience of flying, Icarus
forgot about escaping. He soared too high, too
near the sun, and the suns heat melted the
wings causing him to plunge earthward, and
he drowned near Samos in the Icarian Sea,
named after him.
Years passed, but man continued to dream
of soaring high into the heavens. Perhaps of
all dreamers, one in particular pointed the way
for aviation with uncanny wisdom. He was the
1
famous Venician artist, scientist, and inventor
of the fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci. He
actually designed and built flying machines and
was, without doubt, the designer of the fore-
runner of the present-day helicopter.
Do Vinci, Father of the Helicopter
Da Vinci, who is recognized as the Father
of the Helicopter, made a series of drawings,
with proper notations, which introduced the
direct-lift principle of flight. The da Vinci
Helix, here illustrated, was a spiral wing on a
vertical shaft. It embodied the basic principles
of the present-day helicopter. Da Vinci claimed
that air had substance (we call it density), and
that a spiral wing device, if turned at a suffi-
ciently high speed, would bore up into the air
much in the same fashion as an auger bit bores
into wood.
Early in the development of rotary-wing
aircraft, a need arose for a new word to desig
nate this direct-lift flying device, and a resource-
ful Frenchman seized upon the two words,
Helix which means screw or Spiral, and
Pteron which means wing. Combining these
two words, he fashioned the word helicopter,
which should be pronounced hell-i-cop-ter.
A helicopter employs one or more power-
driven horizontal air screws or rotors from
which it derives lift and propulsion. If a single
rotor is used, it is necessary to empioy a means
to counteract torque. If more than one rotor is
used, torque can be washed out effectively by
turning a combination of rotors in opposite
directions.
The fundamental advantage the helicopter
has over the conventional airplane is that lift
and control are relatively independent of for-
ward speed. A helicopter can fly forward, back-
ward, or sideways, or remain in stationary flight
above the ground. No runway is required for a
helicopter to takeoff or land. The roof of an
office building is an adequate landing area. The
helicopter is considered a safe aircraft because
the takeoff and landing speed is practically zero.
Early efforts to fly were based primarily on
the use of rotary-wing type aircraft, but mans
first successful flight was made in a fixed-wing
aircraft. This feat was performed. by Orville
Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903.
From then on, marked advancement was made
in the field of fixed-wing aircraft. Helicopters,
however, did nor demonstrate practical, suc-
cessful flight until more than thirty years later,
in 1937, when the Focke-Achaelis helicopter
remained in flight for more than an hour.
The first production-line helicopter was built
by the Sikorsky facfory at Bridgeport, Connecti-
cut, in 1943. This helicopter, the H-4, was used
in World War II. The remainder of this chapter
traces the development of rotary-wing aircraft
from the early experimental models to present-
day helicopters.
In 1784, two Frenchmen, Launoy and Bien-
venu, demonstrated a mechanism embracing
the principle of two air-screws rotating in
opposite directions. This device, as illustrated,
was a scientific toy helicopter employing turkey
feathers for rotor blades. The original device
employed a bent bow for motive power; later,
rubber bands were used for motive power with
greater success.
The Launoy-Bienvenu feathered toy was
demonstrated at a Worlds Fair in Paris in
1784, and rose to a height of 60 or 70 feet on
numerous occasions. Today, this feat would
attract little or no attention, but in 1784 it
was startling to witness a man-made device in
free flight. Representatives of various countries
attended the Fair, and their official reports to
their respective governments fired the imagina-
tion of inventors in many countries. These
inventors reasoned that, if a man-made toy
Leonardo do Vincis Helix
1500 A.D.

Lonnoy-Bienvenu
toy 1789
DAmencourt Model Coaxial
Helicopter 1862
could fly, then why would it not
build a large flying device which
man? For the next 125 years
countries applied themselves to
Steam Powered Early Helicopter Models
In 1843, Sir George Cayley, the famous Eng
lish inventor, demonstrated the helicopter here
illustrated, which featured lateral twin booms,
each mounted with one set of rotors to provide
feathered
lift. The fuselage (which was decorated with
a birds head) housed a small steam engine,
which delivered power to the rotor systems as
well as to twin four-bladed propellers for hori-
zontal propulsion. The Cayley helicopter dem-
onstrated little or no lift; however, it did
stimulate the imagination of other inventors,
who in turn built model helicopters.
In 1862 Ponton DAmecourt, a Frenchman,
demonstrated a model of a steam-powered
helicopter. As can be seen in the related illus-
tration, the rotary wings on this model were
contra-rotating, meaning they turn in opposite
directions; and coaxial, meaning they had the
same axis or axle. The total weight of this
model, including an aluminum two-cylindered
engine, was four pounds. It was reported by
reliable eye witnesses that the DAmecourt
helicopter bobbed very lightly on its base when
the coaxial rotor systems were turning at maxi-
be possible to mum revolutions per tiinute. This model defi-
would carry a nitely demonstrated lift, and served to encourage
men in many others to continue experiments utilizing the
this task. coaxial principle.

Enrico Forlanini, an Italian engineer, con-
structed a contra-rotating, coaxial, steam-
powered helicopter in 1877. Its total weight
was six and one-half pounds, and its steam
engine developed one-fifth of a horsepower. It
is said that this helicopter model ascended ap-
proximately 40 feet in the air and stayed there
for nearly 20 minutes. Note, in the illustration,
this helicopters unique design. The upper rotor
svstem was smaller than the lower system. The
&-foil surface of the lower system, however,
was located on the outer half of the lower
systems diameter. .,As you can see, the inner
half of the diameter was open, thus permitting
a flow of clean air to both the upper and lower
system, particularly during power-off flight,
which is known as autorotation.
By the beginning of the twentieth century,
contributions toward building a successful fly-
ing machine had been made by men of many
countries among them France, Spain, England,
Italy, Germany, Russia, and the United States.
It is true that the greatest achievement was
brief, uncontrollable flight by small models of
helicopters which weighed less than ten pounds.
However, there is no doubt that real progress
had been made.
It was now common knowledge that the turn-
ing of a single overhead rotor system intro-
duced forces that made the fuselage react
A
uncontrollably. To add stability to the fuselage,
the early inventors employed either a coaxial,
contra-rotating configuration (design), or a
twin-rotor configuration in which the two rotor
systems turned in opposite directions. Further-
more, through thz study of airfoil area and
shape by Enrico Forlanini, inventors had made
progress in the design of the rotor blades
themselves.
The commonly recognized limitations con-
fronting all early inventors was the lack of an
eficient power plant. It was realized that a
need existed for a powerful engine of light
weight and small size. Much experimentation
was carried on in an effort to perfect the steam
engine of that day. Pneumatic engines fired the
imaginations of many early inventors, but with
little success. Attempts were made to use steam
pressure escaping from the aft tip portion of the
rotor blades to drive the rotor system. This was
actually a forerunner of the present-day jet
principle.
Thomas A. Edison experimented with a light,
small engine employing ticker tape impregnated
with guncotton, which was fed into the cylin-
ders and exploded by an electrical charge. Thii
engine was not successful because the magazine
roll of guncotton tape absorbed heat and
exploded.
Other limitations confronting the early in-
ventors were numerous, and in many cases
were not recognized as problems. Apparently no
consideration was given to the possibility of
unequal lift forces acting on the rotors, or the
effects of coriolis force induced by the earths
rotation. Apparently no one considered a prac-
Paul Cornvr First M m Carrying
Helicopter 1907
 lgor Sikorrkyl Coaxial Helicopfer 1910

tical method for controlling the flight path of

the helicopter.

Efficient Power Plant Need Met

By Internal Combustion Engine
In 1907, Paul Cornu, a Frenchman,
structed the first large helicopter which showed
signs of success. In the illustration you can see
that Cornus helicopter had dual rotors, located
fore and aft. Each rotor was 20 feet in diameter.
Tilted vanes were employed below the roton for
control purposes. This helicopter was powered
by a 24-horsepower engine. Wide belts extended
upward from the engine and outward to the
rotors. These belts slipped considerably. How-
ever, Cornu succeeded in rising vertically from
the ground to a height of one or two feet. Thus,
Corm was the first man to succeed in actual
helicopter flight even though his flight
lasted only a matter of seconds.
The need for an efficient power plant was
met by the appearance of the internal combus-
tion (gasoline) engine. We now realize that the
invention of a power plant with a high degree
of efficiency (weight vs. horsepower) had to be
the forerunner to mans successful flight in a
power-driven aircraft.
Also in 1907, Louis Charles Breguet, another
Frenchman, introduced a new configuration
the direct-lift type aircraft, which he called a
Helicoplane. This machine, which was quite
large, was the first to have four rotors. As
shown, each rotor consisted of four biplane
blades. The Breguet helicoplane attracted much
attention, not so much because of its ability
con-
to develop sufficient lift to momentarily rise
from the ground, but because of its four-rotor
configuration. The four-rotor design captured
the imagination of inventors for the next 15
~GUY.
In 1909 and 1910, Igor I. Sikorsky, then of
Russia, built two helicopters, the second of
which was capable of lifting its own weight. It
was powered by a 25-horsepower engine, which
drove two 16-foot rotors on concentric shafts -
one shaft revolving inside the other. Note in the
of relared illustration, that the vanes are mounted
below the rotors for control. Neither model
proved capable of lifting the weight of the
machine plus the weight of the operator. In
1910, Sikorsky discontinued work on helicop-
ters and turned his efforts to find-wing air-
craft.

Breguet large Four Rotor

Helicopter 1907

5
 In 1916, Lt. Petroczy and Professor van
Karma of Austria constructed the contra-
rotating, coaxial helicopter here illustrated.
This helicopter had 20-foot rotors powered by
three 40.horsepower engines. It was designed
to serve as an observation platform rather than
for transportation. Attached to the craft were
three cables intended to unreel from a ground
control unit as the craft climbed vertically. The Pefroczy-Von Kormon
tub-like structure mounted above the contra- Cable Controlled
rotating blades served as the observers corn- Helicopter 1916
partmcnt. On takeoff, before the cables were
suflicientl~- taut, the craft displayed much in-
stability. However, numerous flights wcrc nladc
to a satisfactory altitude, for a duration of
nearly one hour. It is reported that this craft
never carried a human load.
The Petroczy-van Karman helicopter demon-
strated beyond all reasonable doubt that a@-
quate lift was available in a rotary-wing aircraft.
Now, the principal unsolved problem confront-
ing the engineers was the satisfactory flight
control of the helicopter.
Emile Berliner, a Washington inventor, at-
tracted considerable attention with his experi-
mental helicopter models. After his death, his
son Henry continued the elder Berliners work.
Between 1920 and 1922, Henry Berliner built
and tested two entirely different helicopters.
The first of these, shown in the associated illus-
tration, was a twin-rotor coaxial configuration
with 13-foot rotors and vanes in the slipstream in diameter, were mounted at four points,
for flight control. following the configuration introduced by Bre-
The second Berliner helicopter was a dual- guet in 1907. The sketch appearing on page 30
rotor design powered by an 80-horsepower en- shows the arrangement of these rotors. The
gine. .4s you can see in the related illustration, overall dimension of the de Bothezat aircraft
the rotors were mounted on booms extending (length and breadth) was 65 feet. This machine
from each side of the aircraft. Each of the weighed 3,400 pounds empty, and de Bothezat
Berliner helicopters flew several minutes on claimed it could carry a load of 1,000 pounds.
occasions, but in general they were very Auxiliary propellers and variable-pitch main
unstable. rotor blades were employed for control.
Between 1920 and 1923, Dr. George de
Bothezat built a helicopter under the auspices Structurally, this aircraft was very compli-
of the United States Signal Corps at McCook cated, but it did display encouraging stability
Field in Da)-ton, Ohio. This helicopter, shown as well as potentially good control characteris-
in the accompanying sketch, was the first tics. This aircraft made numerous flights of less
helicopter designed and built under government than one minute, never at an altitude of more
contract. Four six-bladed rotors, each 25 feet than six feet.

6
 Oehmichen
Four Rofor Helicopter
1924

Etienne Oehmichen, of France, built two
helicopters between 1920 and 1924. The first
craft used a gas-filled balloon, mounted longi-
tudinally, as well as two lifting rotors located
at the front and rear. This craft was very
unstable and uncontrollable, but it did lift the
weight of the machine and operator.
The second Oehmichen helicopter, as illus-
trated, had four main rotors, 21 to 25 feet in
diameter, and five small horizontal propellers.
In addition, there were two propulsive propel-
lers and one steering propeller. It had 13 sepa-
rate transmission systems, and was powered by
a 120-horsepower engine. This craft made more
than one thousand flights of several minutes
duration each, but the complexity of structure
made it impractical.
Marquis de Pescara, a Spaniard, built several
different man-carrying helicopters between 1920
and 1926, which performed well. The most
successful Pescara helicopter is shown in the
referenced sketch. It had a streamlined fuselage
similar to the body of a modern racing auto-
mobile. The rotor system was a coaxial, contra-
rotating, biplane type with a diameter of 21
feet. The two rotor systems were each corn.
posed of six pairs of strutted blades mounted
one above the other. Horizontal flight was
achieved by changing the pitch of the rotor
blades during the cycle of rotation. This heli-
copter was powered by a 120-horsepower His.
pano-Suiza engine, and demonstrated note-
worthy flight characteristics.

7

Advent of the Autogyro
Juan dc la Cienx. a young Spanish -invmnr,
built a number of fixed-wing aircraft between
1920 and 1924. After one of his friends was
killed in landing a fixed-wing aircraft, Cierva
decided tc explore the rotary-wing field with
the thought of developing an aircraft which
could land at a low speed. He combined then
features of the conventional airplane with that
of a freely rotating overhead rctcr system. He
called this type of aircraft an autogyro.
As you can see in the illustration, the auto-
gyro employed a conventional propeller in the
nose of the aircraft to supply thrust, and a
large overhead rotcr system tc provide lift. The
overhead rctor was not driven by engine power
but by air flowing over the rctcTs, causing them
to wmdmill. .A forward speed of 30 miles per
hour would cause enough air tc flow ever the
rotor blades tc turn the blades at a sufficiently
high rpm tc support the aircraft in flight. This
is called autorotation.
Ciervas early autogyros demonstrated a
tendency tc roll over on their sides. It became
evident that his machine suffered from unequal
lift forces. He employed the commonly used
rigid rotor system - one in which rigid rotor
blades were secured to a solid hub. After
considerable experimenting, he realized that the
advancing half of the rotor was traveling at a
higher airspeed than the retreating half of the
rotor when the craft was in forward flight.
This is called diqmmetry of liff today.
It became evident that forward speed of the
aircraft was being added tc the rotational
speed of the advancing half of the rotor system,
de IO Cienas Autogyro 1928
and subtracted from the rotational speed of the
retreating half of the rotor system. Cierva
corrected this unsatisfactory condition by em-
ploying flexible blades attached to the hub by
means of hinges. The hinge action permitted
the advancing blade which had mere lift to
rise, thus reducing the effective lift area.
Juan de la Ciervas explanation of dissym-
metry of lift and how to correct it was a
significant contrihut~ion to rotary-wing .dwdop-
ment. He solved a problem. that had confused
engineers for years. In addition, his use of
autorotation - the free rotation of rctcrs when
their power supply is cut off - pointed the
way tc the solution of the problem of how tc
make an emergency landing in case of engine,
failure. Cierva also demonstrated rctcr pitch
change perfectly in his autogyro. Thus, the
autogyro laid much of the foundation for a
successful helicopter.
In 1928, Cierva flew the English Channel in
an autogyro, taking off from England and land-
ing at LeBourget Field, Paris, France. His
average speed was nearly 100 mph. Wide pub-
licity was given to this epic flight, and the
autcgyro was declared tc he extremely safe and
foolproof because it could land at a low air-
speed in a small area. These reports stirred the
American public, and Cierva was invited to
demonstrate his autcgyrc in this country.
An Italian named dAscanio, in 1930, devel-
oped the coaxial-type helicopter shown here.
d Armnio Coaxial Helicopter 1930
 Focke Dwl Rotor Helicopter 1937

This helicopter incorporated trim tabs on the

main rotor blades. It was powered by a 95-
horsepower engine. This helicopter set many
records, including a flight duration record of
eight minutes 45 seconds.
In 1930, a Dutchman named vcn Baunhauer
was the first to build a heliccprer which in-
corporated a single main rotor and a vertical
tail rotor to compensate for torque. The main
rotor was driven by a 200-horsepower engine
and the tail rotor was powered by a separate
80-horsepower engine. This helicopter did fly,
but it was damaged before satisfactory tests
were completed.
In 1935, Louis Charles Breguet of France,
designer of the original four-rotor configuration,
constructed the coaxial-rctored aircraft shown
in the accompanying sketch. This helicopter,
powered by a 350-horsepower engine, demcn-
strated promising flight characteristics. It dis-
played notable control and stability, but was
extremely heavy and there was possibility of
trouble from interference of the twc rotors.
Many prominent rotary-wing enthusiasts
thought that the Breguet machine was the first
successful helicopter ever built. Before the
actual test data could be completed, however,
the aircraft was damaged beyond repair.
Breguet had great confidence in the future
of the helicopter. He also worked cut the
fundamentals of a huge, high-speed, transatlan-
tic flying boat, which would carry heavy loads.
Breguef Coaxial Helicopler 1937
In 1937, Heinrick Fccke - later to become
Germanys foremost designer of fighter aircraft
during World War II - developed the Fccke-
Achgelii helicopter. This aircraft had two large
rotors mounted on lateral booms, as shown.
The main rotors turned in opposite directions
to compensate for torque. The aircraft was
controlled by changing rctcr blade pitch. This
helicopter was powered by a 160-horsepower
radial engine, cooled by a small wooden prc-
p&r mounted on the nose section of the
engine. The craft weighed 2,400 pounds.
Hanna Reitsch, a woman test pilot, demcn-
strated the Focke-Achgelis helicopter in the
Deutschland Halle in Berlin. This auditorium
measured but 250 feet in length and was only
100 feet wide. She demonstrated backward and
sideward flight, hovering (remaining stationary
in flight), and 360-degree hovering turns
(remaining stationary above a fixed point).
Between 1937 and 1939, the Focke helicop-
ter, designated as the FM-61, broke all existing
international records by a wide margin. It was
later recognized as the first practical, success-
ful helicopter. A few of the records it established
are listed.

Duration : 1 hour, 20 minutes,

49 seconds

Distance: 143.069 miles-

in straight-line flight

Altitude: 11,243 feet

Speed: 76 miles per hour.

9
 Y T-
Ploff-la Page Duol Rotor Helicopter 1940

lgor Sikorskys VS-300 Helicopfer 1947 1

In 1940 the .4ir Force accepted for testing

rotor compensated for torque, and the horizcn-
the Platt-LePage helicopter. This aircraft was
tal rotors were used for directional control.
a dual-rotor, contra-rotating configuration with
the large rctcr systems mounted on lateral The diagrams show how Sikorsky obtained
booms on each side of the fuselage, as shown. directional control. Resultant lift is always
The Platt-LePage helicopter was designated perpendicular to the plane described by the
XH=1, being the first helicopter to be accepted tips cf. the blades as they. rotate. When, the. plane
by the .4ir Force for testing. The XH-1 demcn- of rotation of the VS-300 main rotor system
strated encouraging flight characteristics, but was horizontal the resultant lift was vertical,
lacked lateral stability, tending to roll on its as shown in the first diagram. When the plane
side. On several occasions it was damaged, and of rotation was tilted, as shown in the second
in the final analysis was not accepted by the diagram, the resultant lift was tilted from the
Air Force. vertical and thrust was introduced. The rctcr
system moved in the direction of thrust and the
In 1939, Igor Sikorsky resumed the study of
fuselage followed.
the helicopter which he had started in 1909.
This time, however, he turned his efforts To tilt the plane of rotation of the rotor
toward a single main rotor and tail rotor ccn- blades forward and get his helicopter into fcr-
figuration - the configuration attempted by ward flight, Sikorsky increased the pitch on the
vcn Baunhauer in 1930. The Sikorsky design horizontal boom rotor+ thus causing the tail
was contrary to the popular design of the day, section to rise. This tilted the entire helicopter
which called for coaxial rotor systems with
rotors turning in opposite directions to ccmpen-
sate for torque.

Helicopters Directional Control Obtained

On May 6, 1941, Sikorsky broke the worlds
helicopter endurance record held by the Fccke
FW-61. Sikorskys helicopter, the VS-300, re-
mained in flight 1 hour, 32 minutes, and 26
seconds. This was almost 12 minutes better
than the FW-61s record.
The VS-300, as here illustrated, had the fol-
lowing design characteristics - one main rotor,
one tail rctcr, and two horizontal rotors mount-
ed on booms extending laterally from the tail
section. The main rotor produced lift, the tail

10
in a nose-low attitude. For rearward flight, he
reduced the pitch on both horizontal tail rotors,
causing the tail section to lower and tilt the
plane of rotation of the main rotor blades to
the rear.
For sideways flight, Sikorsky increased the
pitch on the horizontal rotor on one side and
decreased the pitch on the horizontal rotor on
the opposite side. This caused the helicopter to
tilt sideways, thus inclining the plane of rota-
tion of the main rotor blades to the side.
This configuration provided sufficient con-
trol to keep the VS-300 in flight for more
than an hour and a half, but it was a complex
system. Sikorsky sought to reduce the number
of rotors, if possible; and to simplify controls
and make more power available for the main
rotor.
To do this, he introduced a laterally mounted
one-star plate which could be tilted on a gimbal
ring. This one-star plate controlled the plane of
rotation of an upper three-star plate. The one-
star plate, the gimbal ring, and the three-star
plate were mounted just below the main rotor
system. From each of the three points of the
upper star plate, a linkage was connected to a
main rotor blade. When the one-star plate was
tilted to the left, the three-star plate would tilt
to the left. This changed the pirch on the main
rotor blades during Ihe cycle of rotation, caus-
ing the lift forces of the main rotor to tilt to the
left. Tilting the one-star plate to the right had
the opposite effect. Thus, the pilot could cause
the helicopter to fly to the left or right by tilting
the one-star plate to the left or right.
Forward and backward flight was controlled
by a single horizontal rotor mounted on a ver-
tical outrigger at the rear of the fuselage. When
the pitch of the horizontal rotor was increased,
the tail section rose, thus tilting the plane of
rotation of the main rotor forward. This in-
troduced forward thrust and caused the heli-
copter to move in a forward direction. Reduc-
ing the pitch of the horizontal rotor permitted
the tail section to settle, tilting the plane of
rotation of the main rotor to the rear. This
caused the aircraft to move in rearward flight.
The device described above, called azimuth
control of 180, worked very satisfactorily.
Sikorsky decided to extend the principle further
by utilizing a two-star lower plate - one point
to the rear and the other point to the left side.
The gimbal ring and three-star upper plate
were similar to those of the previous device.
This full azimuth control permitted the
operator to tilt the control plates - and hence
the main rotors plane of rotation - in any
desired direction. This device not only simpli-
fied the controls but also made more power
available to the main rotor, because the pre-
viously used horizontal rotors were no longer
necessary. The azimuth control, or cyclic
pitch control as it is commonly called, is used
in practically all present-day helicopters.
 Sikorsky H-5 194.5
1942 - The Helicopter Emerges
As a Full-Fledged Flying Craft
The year 1942 saw the helicopter emerge
from the status of an experimental development
to the status of a full-fledged flying craft. On
May 13, 1942, the Sikorsky-built XR-4 com-
pleted a flight from Stratford, Connecticut, to
Dayton, Ohio, a distance of 761 airline miles.
The H-4, as illustrated, was a two-place,
side-by-side helicopter powered by a Warner
17%horsepower engine. The fuselage was of
welded steel tubing covered with fabric. The
approximate gross weight of the H-4 was 2,400
pounds. It was 48 feet long and its main rotor
di.ameter was 38 feet.
In 1945, the Sikorsky H-5 followed the H-4
into production. In the limited experience of
the helicopter industry, the H-5 was considered
a large helicopter. 1% gross weight was 5,100
pounds, its maximum leng!h from the tip of the
forward main rotor blade to the tip of the aft
tail rotor blade was 57 feet 1 inch, and its
main rotor diameter was 48 feet. The H-5 is
shown in the accompanying sketch.
The H-5 was designed to carry a pilot and
two passengers internally and had attachments
for external litters. It carried a fuel load of 100
12
Sikorsky H-6 1945
Sikorsky H-4 1943
gallons in two tanks, had an endurance of three
hours, and a range of 250 miles.
The Air Force and Navy have both wed the
H-5. The H-5 (Air Force designation) is
equipped with a hydraulic hoist for rescue pur-
poses. The Navy version, designated the H02S-
1, serves as a rescue helicopter, as a plane guard,
and for innumerable ship-to-shore purposes.
The Sikorsky H-6, as shown in the illustra-
tion, went into production in 1945 at the same
time as the H-5. The H-6 was built by Nash-
Kelvinator under license from Sikorsky. It was
a two-place, side-by-side helicopter powered by
a Franklin 245-horsepower engine. Its gross
weight was 2,600 pounds, its fuselage length
was about 34 feet, and the main rotor diameter
38 feet. With attachments provided for the
installation of two external litters, one on each
side, the H-6 performed many rescue missions.
Numerous H-6s were used by the Armed
Forces from 1945 through 1949. They were
replaced gradually by the more efficient H-5.
In 1948, the Sikorsky S-52 helicopter, de-
veloped for commercial purposes, received Civil
 Sikorsky H-19 1949

Sikorsky S-52 1948

longer range and greater payload than the

existing models. On 1 May 1949, the Sikorsky
engineers were given an assignment to design a
Aeronautics Authority type certification. (It new helicopter capable of carrying a crew of
was later adopted by the Air Force and desig- two and ten passengers. On 4 November 1949
nated the H-18.) The S-52, here illustrated, the H-19, as here shown, was successfully
is of aluminum and magnesium construction, demonstrated. The Sikorsky H-19 series heli-
with all-metal main and tail rotor blades. It is copters proved to be successful and dependable
a two-place, side-by-side helicopter powered by aircraft.
a 245-horsepower Franklin engine. The S-52 The H-19 was designed primarily for rescue,
held the following worlds records: but because of its versatility it is used for
observation, liaison, cargo transport, assault
Altitude: 21,220 feet operations, and as a primary trainer for heli-
Speed : 129.6 mph. copter pilot trainees. It is 62 feet 2% inches
long, 11 feet 7 inches wide (main rotor blades
Despite its encouraging performance, the folded), and the height is 15 feet 3 inches. The
S-52 was limited in its potential utility because H-19B is powered by a Wright R-1300-3
it could carry only a pilot and one passenger. engine that develops from 700- to EOO-horse-
To meet the demand for greater utility, the power. The pilot and co-pilot seats are above
S-52 was modified to carry a pilot and three the cargo space.
passengers; or a pilot, two internally-stowed The large cargo cabin can accommodate 10
litten, and an attendant. This modification sitting passengers on canva+webb troop seats
was adopted by the Air Force and designated or six pole-type litters. The cargo cabin is
the YH-18A. A limited number of YH-I8As is located directly under the main lifting rotor at
now being used by the Army and Marines. the center of gravity, thus allowing the pay
For several years the military repeatedly load to be increased or decreased without
established a requirement for a helicopter with affecting aircraft balance. The ability to vary

13
 Sikorsky H-37 1953

Sikorsky H-34 1954

the payload without exceeding the permissible
center of gravity range is of primary importance
to a troop carrier transport. Its normal range
is 325 nautical miles, and the cruising speed is
81 knots.
Air!ift in Korea
During the next three years, H-19s rolled off
the production line in quantity and were de-
livered to all branches of the Armed Forces.
Many of these helicopters were pressed into
service in Korea carrying cargo and military
units to inaccessible combat positions behind
enemy lines. The largest helicopter airlift in
history was reported when a fleet of Marine
HRSs (H-19) helicopters carried 1,000 Leath-
ernecks from rear areas in Korea to front line
positions.
During the latter part of 1953, Sikorsky
Aircraft announced production of a giant
twin-engine transport helicopter for the United
States Marines. The H-37, as shown in the
illustration, has a large, single five-blade main
rotor, and a four-blade tail rotor. It is 64 feet
2 inches in length, 27 feet 5 inches wide, and
22 feet high. The H-37 is powered by two Pratt
and Whitney R-2800-54 engines having a com-
bined output of more than 4,000.horsepower.
It has a service ceiling of 9,400 feet, a cruise
speed of 95 knots, and a range of 120 nautical
miles. The cargo cabin can carry 26 fully
equipped troops or 21 litters. The Army and
Marines are the major users of the H-37, and
the typical missions are combat zone resupply,
transportation of troops within the combat
zone, emergency aero-medical evacuation, and
medium transport.
The Navy in 1953 established a requirement
for ah~ antisufb&u& h&copter. In June of
1954, the Sikorsky Aircraft introduced the
HSS-1 or H-34 helicopter. It was equipped
with sonar gear, including an electrical device
which may be lowered into the water while the
helicopter hovers at low altitude. The Sikorsky
H-34 helicopter, shown in the accompanying
illustration, is basically a larger version of the
H-19 helicopter. Its design and production is
solidly based on many years of engineering ex-
perience, manufacturing, and operational in-
sight. The H-34 is 44 feet 2 inches in length, 12
feet wide (main rotor blades folded), and 15
feet 8 inches high. It has a 4-bladed main rotor
and 4-bladed tail rotor. The grass weight is
12,700 pounds; useful load 5,140 pounds;
and, the empty weight wth standard equip-
ment 7,560 pounds. The seating capacity is
pilot and co-pilot, and 12 sitting passengers or
8 litters. The normal range is 196 nautical
miles, and its cruising speed is 88 knots. The
H-34 is powered by a Wright R-1820-84 en-
gine which can develop 1525-horsepower. The
primary mission of the H-34 is light transport,
and the typical missions are combat zone re-
supply, transportation of troops within combat
zone, emergency aero-evacuation and submarine
detection.
At the same time Sikorsky was perfecting his
H-4 helicopter, Arthur Young designed a

14

Bell H-12 Faf Boy 1949
helicopter for the Bell Aircraft Corporation.
This helicopter has a semirigid rotor head, a
two-bladed tail rotor with stabilizer bar, and
a two-bladed tail rotor. Designated as the H-13,
it is a twc+place side-by-side aircraft with four-
wheel landing gear and is powered by a 17%
horsepower Franklin engine. The H-l 3 is used
by the Army for reconnaissance, artillery spot-
ting, wire laying, and transportation. It made
Army history with thousands of rapid evacua-
tions of wounded troops in Korea. A later
model, the H13D, here shown, incorporates a
skid-type landing gear, a ZOO-horsepower
Franklin engine, and suitable mounting sup-
ports for two external litters.
The H-13 proved itself from a design
standpoint, so the Bell Aircraft Corporation
developed a large helicopter incorporating many
of the H-13s features. This helicopter, as
illustrated, was designated the H-12. It has a
semirigid rotor head, a two-bladed rotor with
stabilizer bar, a two-bladed tail rotor, and a
four-wheel !anding gear. Commonly called the
Fat Boy, the H-12 can stow six litters in-
ternally, or can transport eight fully equipped
combat personnel or 10 passengers. Powered by
Piarecki HRP-I 1946
Bell H-13 7943
a Pratt and Whitney engine delivering 500-
to 600-horsepower, the H-12 is reported to have
a top speed of 120 mph and a range of 500
miles.
In 1943, Frank Piasecki designed a small,
one-place helicopter with a single main rotor
and an antitorque tail rotor. It was purely an
experimental aircraft, but it did fly. Shortl)
thereafter, Piasecki turned his attention to the
tandem dtial rotor design. This configvation
incorporates two large horizontal rotors, one
mounted on the front of the fuselage and the
other mounted on the rear, as shown in the
sketch of the HRP-1. The rotors turn in
opposite directions, thus washing out torque.
An advantage of the tandem rotor design is
that the center of gravity travel is not critical,
since the lifting rotors are mounted on the
longitudinal axis of the fuselage at each end.
If a tendency toward a nose-heavy or tail-
heavy condition develops, the rotor at the
heavy end of the fuselage does more work,
thus correcting this condition.
Piarecki IMP-2 1946
In 1946, the Piasecki Helicopter Corporation
developed the HRP-1 and the HRP-2. Essen-
tially, the two aircraft are the same; the HRP-2
having a stronger structure. The HRP-2, as
here illustrated, is a lo-place helicopter pow-
ered by a 600-horsepower Pratt and Whitney
engine. The HRP-2s basic mission is rescue,
troop carrying, and utility transport. Its useful
load is 1,920 pounds, with a cruising range of
285 miles. The HRP-2 has a maximum for-
ward speed of 105 mph and a service ceiling
of 9,840 feet.
The Piasecki HUP-1, shown in the illustra-
tion, is a four- to seven-place, single-engine,
\\\\\\ -!- Piosecki H-25
Piasecki
Arctic Rescue Work-Horse
H-21
rescue and utility helicopter. It is powered by
a 525-horsepower Continental engine. The mis-
sion of the HUP-1 is shipbased rescue, observa-
tion, and the transport of utility penonnel and
cargo. The HUP-ls maximum speed is 120
mph, its maximum range is 360 miles, and its
service ceiling is 12,000 feet. Upon acceptance
by the USAF it was designated the H-25.
The Piasecki H-21, note sketch, is an Air
Force 16- to 22-place tandem-rotored, single-
engine rescue and utility helicopter. It is
powered by a 1,425-horsepower Wright engine.
The cabin, which is 20 feet long, 5 feet 6
inches wide, and 5 feet 6 inches high, can
 accommodate 12 litters or 20 troop seats. The
H-21s mission is rescue and utility transport
in the Arctic regions. Its useful load is 4,700
pounds, its range is 300 miles, with a maximum
forward speed of 120 mph, and a service ceiling
of 10,000 feet.
The Piasecki XH-16 is a twin-engine, twin-
rotor, transport-type helicopter. Its rotors are
arranged in a tandem overlapping configura-
tion, which means that the rotors describe
I7 overlapping arcs. An engine is located under
each rotor. By means of an interconnected Piorecki HX-16
shaft, either engine can drive both rotors.
The tandem configuration of this machine,
with a rotor at each end of the 77-foot fuselage,
as shown in the illustration, permits full use of
the central portion of the fuselage for cargo or
passengers, and eliminates the balance problem
encountered in single-rotor helicopters. Ap-
proximately 2,250 cubic feet of cabin space is
available for the disposable load of up to 40
seated personnel, or 32 litter patients, or 6,000
to 8,000 pounds of cargo.
The general tactical mission of this helicop- Performance characteristics of the XH-16,
ter is to provide air transport for personnel and without capsule.
cargo within the combat area and to partici-
pate in air rescue operations. The XH-16 is Gross weight : 30,840 pounds
capable of flying 300 miles with a crew of four, Pay load : 6,000 pounds
can pick up a many as 27 passengers, and
return to the point of origin. Cruising
By employing a high landing gear, the XH-16 speed: 87 knots
can transport a detachable capsule which is Endurance at
used mostly to carry the equipment of troops cruising speed: 2.6 hours
riding in the main fuselage. In this way, both
Service ceiling: 19,300 feet
troops and their equipment can be landed at
the same place at the same time. Hovering ceiling, in
ground effect : 12,400 feet
Hovering ceiling, out
of ground effect: 7,700 feet.
 Hiller H-23D 1957

Hiller Hornet
Romjet Helicopter 1951
Hilfer H-23 1949

During the period of the Sikorsky and Bell ignated the H-23, which is shown in the illus-
developments, Stanley Hiller built a small, tration.
single-seated, coaxial helicopter designated the During the past seven years the Hiller H-23
XH-44. Thii helicopter flew, but lacked satis- series have undergone numerous model changes
factory stability. During the next few years, to meet military and commercial requirements.
Hiller built three different coaxial helicopters, Hillers 1957 model H-23D incorporates the
calling the most successful model the Com- most radical advance in the history of the H-23
muter. This was a streamlined, two-place, series helicopters. The wheel-type landing gear
personal helicopter. was replaced by a skid-type gear, and signifi-
In 1949, engineering and production design cant performance increases over its predecessors
was completed on the single main-rotor Hiller resulted from the installation of the 250-horse-
360. This ai;craft incorporated a ratormat- power Lycoming VO-435 engine. The H-23D
ic device, an airfoil surface by which the pilot is now considered a multimission helicopter. Its
aerodynamically controlled the main rotor greater power, rugged construction, high pay-
system. It was powered by a 178-horsepower load, and spacious cabin increase the helicop-
engine and was capable of carrying three people ters capacity for such functions as recon-
seated side-by-side. In 1951 the Hiller 360 was naissance, observation, utility, training, and
accepted by the Services, modified, and des- evacuation.
Hiller H-32 1956
Hiller XROE-I Rofocycle 1957
Ramjet Rotor Tip Propulsion
In 1951, the Hiller Corporation announced
a new jet helicopter called the Hiller Hornet.
This two-place helicopter, as here illustrated,
has two ramjet engines, weighing only 10 pounds
each, mounted on the tips of the two main
rotor blades. Rotor tip propulsion does not
induce fuselage torque reaction so no tail rotor
is required. The original Hiller Hornet demon-
strated encouraging flight characteristics, so
during the past seven years numerous modifica-
tions and design changes have been incorpo-
rated.
Today, the Hiller Hornet is designated the
H-32. The H-32, as shown here, has a skid-type
landing gear, utilizes two 45-horsepower ramjet
engines, and employs rotormatic control. It is
two-place; its empty weight is 544 pounds, and
gross weight 1,080 pounds. The service ceiling
is 6,000 feet, cruise speed 61 knots, and maxi-
mum range 24 nautical miles. The typical
missions are combat reconnaissance, courier and
liaison operations.
Foldable Roforcycle
In 1954, Hiller Helicopters were awarded a
contract by the United States Navy Bureau of
Aeronautics to design and build a one-man
helicopter for the Marines. By July 1957, the
XROE-1 Rotorcycle, illustrated herewith, repre-
sents the smallest practical size for an aircraft
with full helicopter flight capabilities. Weighing
but 290 pounds, it achieves a gross-to-empty
weight ratio unprecedented in mechanically
driven helicopters. The Rotorcycles perform-
ance is notable: Maximum speed 70 mph,
maximum rate of climb 1,160 fpm, service
ceiling 13,200 feet, range with 170-pound pilot
and auxiliary fuel 166 miles. A unique feature
of the Rotorcycle is its complete foldability, and
when stowed in a streamlined pod it can be
dropped from light aircraft as a. rescue or evacu-
ation vehicle.
19
 Koman H-436 1959
In 1956 the Air Force established a require-
ment for a base crash rescue helicopter. Early
m 1~957 eight helicopter companies pariicipaicd
in an open competition, accomplishing simulat-
ed local rescue and aircraft crash fire control.
The Kaman Aircraft Corporation won the
competition with the H-43 helicopter. Subse-
quently, the Air Force placed a contract with
the Kaman Corporation for a limited number
of H-43.4 helicopters which utilize a piston type
engine. A much larger contract was placed for
the H-43B helicopter which employs a gas tur-
bine powerplant.
Airboma Fire Fighters and Equipment
The primary mission of the H-43 helicopter
is base crash rescue and aircraft crash fire con-
trol. A pilot and rescue crew of three utilize
fire fighting equipment slung on an external
cargo hook. The helicopter hovers close to the
fire nnd the downwash of air from the main
rotor blades subdues the flames as the crew
discharges smothering chemicals on the blazing
aircraft.
The Kaman H-43 helicopter employs a basic
synchropter configuration which features side-
by-side intermeshing, counter-rotating main
rotors, which are controlled by aerodynamic
servo flaps located on the main rotor blades.
The pilots seat is forward and on the right
side of the cabin; the co-pilots seat is situated
to the left of the pilot. Two or three seats for
passengers or rescue crew members are located
aft of the pilot seats. Two litters may be
20
stowed, one above the other, within the cabin.
The dimensions of the H-43 fuselage are: length
25 feei; width 7 feet, .and height i5~ feet 7
inches. The rotor disk diameter is 47 feet.
The Kaman H-43A is powered by a Pratt
and Whitney Model R-1340-48 aircraft engine.
Its maximum airspeed is 100 knots, and normal
range is 150 miles. The service ceiling is 21,900
feet. The normal gross weight is 5,460 pounds,
and useful load 1,439 pounds.
The Kaman H-43B, shown in the illustra-
tion, is basically identical to the H-43A except
that it is powered by a T-53 Lycoming gas tur-
bine engine. Replacing the 870-pound recipro-
cating powerplant with a 460-pound turbine
engine having greater power characteristics,
resulted in improved performance and greater
load carrying capabilities. The maximum sea
level speed of the H-43B is 105 knots, its
service ceiling is 27,000 feet, and its range is
150 nautical miles.
The T-53 turbine uses more fuel than the
R1340, but the lighter engine permits an addi-
tional fuel load of 360 pounds, making the
range of the H-43B comparable to that of the
H-43A.
In 1948, Charles Seibel of Wichita, Kansas,
constructed a single main rotor helicopter,
utilizing automobile parts and inexpensive
standard parts wherever possible. This two-
place aircraft, powered by a 125-horsepower
engine, demonstrated reasonable speed and
performance. The Seibel helicopter was certified
by CAA in January 195 1. In 1952 Cessna Air-
 McDonnell H-20

McDonnell XHJD-1

craft Company acquired the assets of the Seibel Continuing Experiments Produce
Helicopter Company, and Charles Seibel joined A Variety of Functional Models
the Cessna organization as Chief Engineer of
the Helicopter Division. There are numerous helicopters not men-
tioned in this brief history which are worthy of
Design of a completely new helicopter, the
Cessna YH-41, was initiated. This new aircraft note. Some are in or ready for production, or in
the experimental stage. The McDonnell Cor-
was all-metal construction, including the two-
bladed main rotor and antitorque rotor. The poration of St. Louis built a IO-passenger,
Cessna YH-41 has a gross weight of 3,000 dual-rotor side-by-side, twin engine helicopter
under a Navy contract. The McDonnell
pounds. It is 27 feet long, 5 feet 3 inches wide,
XHJD-1, here illustrated, was entered in the
and 8 feet 6 inches high. Tbe YH-41, shown in
Arctic Rescue Contest in 1950, and it proved
the accompanying illustration, is powered by a
to be a worthy aircraft.
Continental O-470A engine which deliven 270-
horsepower. Cruising speed is 112 knots and The McDonnell Corporation also developed
maximum range is 252 nautical miles. Cargo- the first small single-place ramjet helicopter
passenger capacity is 235 pounds plus 3 pas- which demonstrated outstanding flight charac-
sengers. On December 28, 1957, the Cessna teristics. This helicopter, shown here, is official-
YH-41 set a new world helicopter altitude ly designated the H-20, but affectionately
record of 30,335 feet. known as Little Henry.

21
 Hugher 269-A 1958

Hughes XH-17 1952

During the period of 1947 to 1952 the with a pay load of 890 pounds. The Hughes
Howard Hughes Aircraft Division designed, 269A, as here illustrated, is powered by a
built, and successfully flew a giant, crane-type 180-horsepower Lycoming engine which has a
helicopter which is potentially capable of lifting top speed of 90 miles per hour, and a cruising
4 tons. The height of the XH-17 is 40 feet and range of 150 miles. The rotor is composed of
the rotor diameter is 130 feet. It is powered three fully-articulated blades of unusually
by two modified J-35 General Electric turbines simple all-metal design. The 269A was created
which supply gas pressure through ducts lead- to add new mobility to Army observation,
ing up the rotor shaft and out to tip burners liaison and training activities.
on the rotor blades. During 1957-1958, the Brantly B-2 under-
The XH-17 has flown in excess of 70 miles went flight tests on a two-place single main
per hour at a gross weight of more than 46,000 rotor helicopter powered with a vertically
pounds. It is designed for short-range haul of mounted 170-horsepower Model 340 Al A
heavy equipment including tanks, large trucks, Lycoming engine. The gross weight is 1,600
155mm howitzers, bulldozer including tractor pounds, and the useful load is 477 pounds.
and blade, completed sections of bridges, and The Brantly B-2, as shown, is 21 feet long, 4
if equipped with a pod it could transport 75 feet wide, and 7 feet high. It is equipped with
troops with full combat equipment. a skid-type landing gear. The Brantly B-2 has
flown at an indicated speed of 120 mph at
During 1958, Hughes Tool Company, Air- 4,000 feet altitude. Flight test reports disclosed
craft Division, submitted for Army test a small that its performance was encouragingly satis-
two-place helicopter weighing 660 pounds factory.

22
 1
1
Omega BS-12 7958
//

Rotor-Craft Pinwheel

The Pinwheel Cargo can be carried in a detachable pod, in a

Within the past two years, the Rotor-Craft
Corporation of Glendale, California, has suc-
cessfully developed and test flown a rocket-
powered one-man helicopter called the Pin-
wheel. A small rocket about thumb size,
weighing less than one pound, is mounted on
the tips of the two rotor blades. This is the
smallest and lightest engine for a given power
devised by man. Since the power is generated
at the blade-tips, fuselage torque is not present.
The Pinwheel, see illustration, is a twin-
engine aircraft which can fly on a single engine
if necessary. One of the principal objectives of
project Pinwheel was to have the pilot use
his own feet as a landing gear. This aircraft
weighs less than the pilot, yet it can lift more
than double its own weight. Its rate of climb
exceeds 2,000 feet per minute straight up. Its
stability is reported as excellent because the tip
weight of the rockets act gyroscopically
stabilize the rotor. Its speed is considered satis-
factory, and the. Pinwheel has a maximum
range of about 25 miles.
During 1958, the Omega Aircraft Corpora-
tion, New Bedford, Massachusetts, test flew for
CAA approval, the Omega BS-12. This is a
rugged utility-type helicopter designed for a
wide variety of commercial applications.
embodies a five-place cabin forward, and a large
cargo area directly beneath the rotor centerline.
net sling, or suspended from the surrounding
fuselage structure as a separate unit.
The BS-12, shown here, is powered by two
supercharged Franklin 6A-335A engines, rated
at 225-horsepower each. Its gross weight is
4,565 pounds, and the useful load is 1,440
pounds. The maximum speed is 95 mph, rate
of climb is 1,000 feet per minute, and service
ceiling is 12,400 feet.
Gas Turbine Engine Development
Since 1950 the helicopter manufacturers, the
engine companies, and the military have shown
more than usual interest in the gas turbine
engine. For example, since 1952 military con-
tracts for the development of the Lycoming
T-53 turbine have amounted to more than 25
million dollars. Progress with this particular
engine has been slower than normal due to the
to power increases made during development.
However, the T-53 helicopter version has been
flying since September 1956 and Lycoming
reports encouraging results on the qualification
tests.
Practically all helicopters in military and
commercial use through 1958 were powered by
reciprocating engines. Helicopter engines oper-
It ate at a relatively high pm which results in
short service life. The piston-type engine is
comparatively heavy which reduces the pay

23
 Vehl XH-16 1956

Verfol107 1958

load of the helicopter. Furthermore, vibrations modifications for engine mount rather than
and problems of mounting the modified, con- design change. In general, all flight tests indi-
ventional aircraft engine in a ,helicopter -have cat& greater speed, -with greater loading
resulted in excessive maintenance and, in some capacity, and with a much lower noise level
cases, low performance. than the reciprocating engine version.
During the developmental period of the Ly- The Vertol Aircraft Corporation tested both
coming T-53, General Electric worked on the Lycoming T-53 and the General Electric
Navy-sponsored contracts for the T-58 turbine T-58 in several different types of helicopters.
engine. The T-58 served as a back-up if the During 1958 the Vertol 107 introduced a new
T-53 failed to live up to expectations. The generation of multi-turbine, all-weather trans-
specific fuel consumption of the T-53 is higher port helicopters. The 107, shown here, is a dual
than the T-58, hut a two-hour type mission is rotor fore-and-aft configuration, and the fuse-
considered adequate for military purposes. lage is similar to that of the Vertol H-25
The simplicity of the T-53 should make it helicopter. Its length is 44 feet 6 inches, height
cheaper to manufacture than the T-58. 16 feet 10 inches, and it has provisions for 20
Gas turbine engines are very expensive, in troop seats, or 15 litters and two seats. The
fact, the first 18 production models of the revolutionary change is in power plant flexibil-
T-53 cost $125,000 each. However, the Lycom- ity to meet performance criteria. The Vertol
ing officials say the company hopes to bring the 107 prototype is designed to accommodate
cost down to $30,000 per engine in mass pro- either a T-53 or T-58 type turbine. Further-
duction ( 1,000 or more). There are several more, provisions are made for the installation
other gas turbine engines in development for for as many as three T-53s, or twin T-58s, or
helicopter use, for example, the Lycoming T-55 even two T-55s.
which develops nearly twice the power of the The Vertol Corporation in 1957 installed
smaller T-53. The T-53 is rated 825~shp while two General Electric T-58 turbines in the H-21
the T-58 is rated 875-shp. type helicopter, and it is now designated the
During 1958 all major helicopter companies YH-21D. Also, during 1955 and 1956, the
had experimental turbine engine helicopters in Vat01 Corporation replaced the two reciprc-
operation, and some companies had production eating engines in the XH-16 transport helicop-
models available for immediate delivery. In ter with two Allison T-38 type shaft turbines.
most cases, the model conversion from recipro- Flight tests with the turbine power plants
cating engine to turbine engine required only proved successful.

24
Sikorsky XH-39 1954
Sikorsky S-62 1958
During the summer of 1958, Sikorsky Air-
craft introduced two models of the new S-62
helicopter. One model is a land version, and
the other is an amphibious helicopter capable
of operating on land, water, snow, ice, tundra
and swamps. The S-62, as shown, weights about
7,500 pounds, and both versions have either a
Lycoming T-53 or a General Electric T-58
turbine power plant.
In January 1957, the Sikonky Aircraft in-
troduced a flight test program employing twin
General Electric T-58 turbines in the H-34
type helicopter. From the unofficial informa-
tion obtained, it was indicated that the test
program was successful.
The Sikorsky XH-39 set a new world speed
record of 156.005 miles per hour over a 3
kilometer course on 30 August 1954. The
XH-39, here illustrated, is a practical, depend-
able successor to the world-record-holding
Sikorsky H-18 helicopter. It is powered with a
Turbomeca Artouste II, 400-horsepower gas
engine. The landing gear of the XII-39 is
retractable, and the fuselage is smooth and
sleek thus minimizing fuselage drag.
The Alouette Helicopter is a five-place,
medium range (345 miles) rot*jet capable of
Bell H-40
122 miles per hour. It is powered by a 360-
horsepower Artouste llB-1 gas turbine pro-
duced by Turbomeca of France. During 1957-
1958, the Alouette logged more than 30,000
miles throughout the United States while on
demonstrations in more than 35 cities.
The Bell H-40, as shown in the illustration,
is powered by a Lycoming T-53 engine. Its
gross weight is 5,400 pounds, and the 825-
horsepower engine provides sufficient power for
outstanding performance. It has a service
ceiling of 21,600 feet, speed of 100 knots, rate
of climb of 2,000 feet a minute, maximum range
pay load of 911 pounds, and cargo-passenger
capacity of 111 pounds plus 4 passengers or 3
litters.
The turbine engine apparently meets every
requirement as the ideal power plant for the
helicopter. Although fuel consumption of the
gas turbine is greater than the fuel consump
tion of a comparable reciprocating engine,
consideration must be given to weight, vibra-
tion, and engine maintenance. Two limiting
factors still exist which retard the use of turbine
engines in helicopters - their cost and limited
life. However, quantity production and addi-
tional scientific research may combine to even-
tually overcome these objections.
25
 CONVERTIPLANE DEVELOPMENT
A Convertiplane is a type of aircraft designed
to combine the hovering and vertical flight
capabilities of the helicopter with the high
cruising speed and long range performance of
the conventional aircraft.
The National Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics and leading rotary wing and conven-
tional aircraft engineers studied the possibilities
of developing the Conveniplane. After exhaus-
tive evaluation and study, the following con-
figurations were recommended:
A. Rotor Pivots in Relation to Fuselage
The craft rises vertically with the
rotors ia the horizontal position, and upon
reaching the desired altitude the rotors
tilt forward and serve as conventional
propellers. Vertical lift and forward pro-
pulsion are introduced by the same sys-
tems.
B. Rotor in Fiied Position and Chven-
tional Fixed-Wigs Attached io Fuselage
The fixed main rotor develops vertical
lift and is usually driven by jet engines
attached to the tips of the rotor blades.
A conventional propeller introduces thrust
for high-speed forward flight and con-
ventional wings produce lift. Vertical lift
and forward propulsion are introduced by
separate systems.
C. Rotor and Fusekge Tilt as a Sin& Unit
This craft takes off with the nose xc-
tion pointed straight gp. When it reaches
the desired altitude it simply rolls for-
ward to a horizontal attitude. This craft
employs counter-rotating conventional
propellers.
Bell xv-3
 In 1951 the Air Force held a design compe- The McDonnell Aircraft Corporation built a
tition for Convertiplane development. Many prototype Convertiplane that fits into Category
companies, as well as individuals, entered this B. The XV-l uses a three-blade rotor system
contest. Three winners were declared by the with jet-power at the blade tips for vertical
Air Force Evaluation Board, namely, Bell Air- landing, takeoff and hovering operations. A
craft Corporation, McDonnell Aircraft Corpo- Continental R-975-19 piston engine delivering
ration, and Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation. Each 525-horsepower to a McCauley two-blade
of the winning companies was given a military metal pusher propeller is used for forward
contract to build a Convertiplane according to speed. The engine is mounted aft of the cabin
that companys particular specifications. and drives a blower that supplies air under
The Bell Aircraft Corporation built a protw pressure to the three jets located at each rotor
type Convertiplane that falls into Category A. tip. Note the illustration.
The XV-3, here illustrated, is equipped with The McDonnell XV-1 has a gross weight of
twin three-bladed rotor-propellers which are 5,505 pounds. It is 30 feet long, 10 feet high,
mounted near the tips of the stubby fixed- and has a wing span of 26 feet. The XV-l first
wings. They operate as helicopter lifting rotors flew on 14 July 1954, and it made the fint
luring takeoffs, landings and low-speed flight, conversion to airplane flight on 29 April 1955.
and as aircraft propellers for cruise and high- It attained a forward speed of 200 miles per
speed flight. The XV-~S rotor mast axis is hour.
vertical for helicopter operation. After basic The Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation was
speed is reached the masts are tilted forward awarded a contract in 1951 to build a proto-
through approximately 90 degrees, when they type Convertiplane utilizing a retractable,
become horizontal and the rota then act as counterbalanced single main rotor blade. At
propellers. During the converting process the the end of 1958, the engineers were still working
lift load is transferred from the rotors to the on the retractable rotor principle that allows
wings. After conversion, a transmission gear the rotor to be braked and retracted into the
main fuselage during forward flight. The
shift reduces rotor speed which results in im-
Sikorsky proposal has undergone several design
proved high-speed performance.
changes, which is believed to involve a two-
Measurements of the Bell XV-3 are: 30 feet blade retractable helicopter rotor, and gas
long, 13 feet high, and a 30-foot wing span. turbine power plants for forward speed. The
Power is supplied by a single 450-horsepower Sikorsky prototype probably will be designated
Pratt and Whitney engine located behind the xv-2.
pilot-passenger cabin in the aft section of the Category C includes a large variety of verti-
fuselage. An improved version of the Bell- cal takeoff and vertical landing aircraft that
originated skid landing gear is used on the craft. potentially can develop high forward speed
The Bell XV-3 has successfully entered low- by rolling the entire craft into a horizontal
speed forward flight, but full conversion from attitude. Consolidated Vultee and Lockheed
hovering to high-speed forward flight has not have each built such an aircraft and test flights
been attempted. have indicated encouraging results.

27
 There are a number of helicopter companies,
as well as a few conventional aircraft manufac-
turers, interested in designing and building
various types of vertical takeoff and landing
craft. The VTOLs, as they are commonly
called, employ ducted propellers, ducted jet
streams, and various types of rotors for vertical
lift with a means of introducing forward flight.
One Man Stcntd-on Platform
The Hiller Helicopters ha\fe experimented
with ducted propellers under the direction of
the Office of Naval Research and the US .4rmy
since 1954. Hiller was successful in designing
and test flying a one man stand-on plat-
form, as illustrated herewith, which utilized
the ducted fan principle. Since the successful
flights of the platform, comprehensive thee
Y Hiller Shd-On
retical studies and test programs have con-
tinued in both Engineering and ARD.
In 1957 the Navy sponsored preliminary de- equipped with a single Lycoming T-53 engine
sign study considering ducted propellers for. geared to two rotor-propellers mounted on the
specialized heavy weight lifter aircraft, which wing tips. In hovering flight the tiltable wing
introduced the rotable duct configuration is in the vertical position and the rotor-propel-
shown in the ilhxtration. Four other designs lers provide vertical thrust as in a heiicopter.
were analyzed during 1957 and 1958. In cruise and high-speed flight the wing is in
During June 1956, the Vat01 Aircraft the normal horizontal position. The transition
Corporation received a contract from the Office from vertical lift to forward flight is accom-
of Naval Research and the United States .4m1y plished by tilting the wing propeller combina-
for the design and development of a tilt-wing, tion forward. Thus, in forward flight, the
turbine-powered takeoff and landing (VTOL) tiltable wing provides t,he lift and the rotor
research aircraft. The Vertol VTOL is propeller produces the thrust.

28
 Piosecki 59K VT01

General Purpose Vehicle Combines or to fly under bridges and wires, or behind
Jeep Utility with Helicopter Traits low objects where concealment is desirable.
The Piasecki Aircraft Corporation has 6een Lift is derived from two horizontal 3-bladed
developing for the Army Transportation Re- rotors, one at the front and one at the rear of
search and Engineering Command, a general the machine, just 3 feet above the ground. The
purpose vehicle that combines the utility of the operators seat and passenger compartment are
ground jeep with the hovering and flying in the center section between the rotors. The
capabilities of a small helicopter. The Piasecki Piasecki 59K VTOL has successfully entered
59K VTOL, here illustrated, displays a low into free flight, and forward speeds of over 150
silhouette and is designed to hug the ground, miles per hour are ultimately expected.

This brief history of rotary-wing development

embraces only a few of the many creations con-
structed during the five-century-old &art to
produce and perfect a direct-lift-type flying
machine. Mans early experiments in the heli-
copter field were fruitless. It is only within the
last twenty-five years that encouraging progress
has been made, and it is within the past fifteen
years that production line helicopters have be-
come a reality. Today, helicopters are found
throughout the world, performing countless
tasks especially suited to the unique capabii-
ties of the modem-day version of the dream
envisioned centuria ago by Leonardo da Vinci.

29
 ----.
-~-_-. -_

r

ROTARY-WING
AERODYNAWCICS
Since this manual is intended primarily for
pilots making the transition from fixed-wing to
rotary-wing aircraft, this chapter will contain
no extended discussion of the basic principles
involved in the aerodynamics of flight. Instead,
there will be but brief mention of the principlea
themselves, with the major emphasis on their
application to the helicopter.
Although in many respects the helicopter
differs radically from the conventional aircraft,
rotary-wing aerodynamics is not something
entirely new and different from fixed-wing
aerodynamics. The same basic principles apply
to both aircraft. During flight, the two types of
aircraft are subjected to many of the same
forces and affected by many of the same reac-
tions. In short, the principles involved in rotary-
wing aerodynamics are those basic principles
with which the experienced fixed-wing pilot is
familiar.
BASIC AERODYNAMCS
In flight, both the conventional aircraft and
the helicopter are acted upon by four basic
forces - weighf, lift, thrusf, and drag. In
addition, both are affected by torque reaction.
lift
Weight and lift are closely related in that
weight tends to pull the aircraft - or helicop-
ter - down, and lift holds it up. Right here
is where the basic similarity between the
helicopter and the airplane begins; both air-
craft are heavier than air and both are
CHAPTER
supported by the reactions of airfoils to air
passing over them. This reaction, or lift, is a
result of pressure differential. The pressure on
the upper surface is less than atmospheric, while
the pressure on the lower surface is equal to,
or greater than, atmospheric.
The conventional aircrafts airfoils are, of
course, the wings. The helicopters airfoils are
the rotor blades. One aircraft has fixed wings
and the other rotary wings, but the same
basic principles of lift apply to both.
The length, width, and shape of an airfoil
all affect its lifting capacity. However, for any
one airfoil there are but two primary facton
affecting the amount of lift the airfoil will
develop. The relation between these two factors
- velocity of airflow and angle of attack - and
their effect on lift can be expressed as follows:
For a given angle of attack, the greater
the speed, the greater the lift.
For a given speed, the greater the angle
of attack (up to the stalling angle), the
greater the lift.
31
 Thus, lift can be varied by varying
either one of these two factors. Further-
more, increasing either speed or angle of
attack, or both, (up to certain limits)
increases lift.
VELOCITY OF AIRFLOW. Not only is velocity
of airflow a prima7 factor affecting lift, but a
certain minimum velocity is required in order
that the airfoils may develop sufficient lift to
get either an airplane or a helicopter into the
air and keep it there. This means that, for
either the airplane or the helicopter, the air-
foils must be moved through the air at a
relatively high speed.
In the conventional airplane the required
flow of air over the airfoils can be obtained
only by moving the entire airplane forward. If
the wings must move through the air at 100
miles per hour to produce sufficient lift to sup-
port the airplane in flight, then the fuselage and
all other parts of the airplane must move for-
ward at that same speed. This means that the
airplane must take&I, fly, and land at r&tively
high speeds. Furthermore, it means that the
airplane is limited to forward flight; it cannot
fly backward or sideways.
The helicopters airfoils must move through
the air at comparatively high speed, too, to
32
produce sufficient lift to raise the aircraft off
the ground or keep it in the air. But here the
required speed is obtained by rotating the air-
foils. Furthermore, the rotor can turn at the
required takeoff speed while the fuselage speed
remains at zero.
Thus the speed of the airfoils (rotor blades),
and the resultant velocity of airflow over them
is independent of fuselage speed. As a result,
the helicopter does not require high forward
speeds of the entire aircraft for takeoff, flight,
and landing. Nor is it limited to forward flight.
It can rise vertically. It can fly forward, back-
ward, or sideways as the pilot desires. It can
even remain stationary in the air (hover) while
the rotating airfoils develop sufficient lift to
support the aircraft. In fact, all of these kinds
of flight are normai for the helicopter.
ANGLE OF ATTACK. Velocity of airflow
around an airfoil is but one of the factors affect-
ing lift. The other factor is angle of attack. For
either an airplane wing or a helicopter rotor
blade, the angle of attack is the jangle formed by
the chord of the airfoil and the relative wind,
as shown in the sketch.
With the conventional airplane, the angle of
attack can be varied only by changing the atti-
tude of the entire airplane. When, for example,
Cords of .,n Airfoil

Angles of Incidence
the pilot wishes to climb, he pulls back on the
control stick or column so that the airplane
will take a nose-high attitude, thereby increas-
ing angle of attack and lift. When he reaches
the desired altitude, he levels off to decrease
the angle of attack. When he wishes to descend,
he pushes forward on the stick or column,
causing the airplalie to take a nose-low attitude.
The pilot can increase or decrease the heli-
copters angle of attack without changing the
attitude of the fuselage. He does this by
changing the pitch of the rotor blades by
means of a cockpit control provided for this
purpose. In fact, under certain flight conditions,
the angle of attack continually changes as the
rotor blade tums through 360.. This occurs
whenever the rotor plane of rotation is tilted,
as it is during forward, backward, and side-
ways flight. This tilting of the plane of rotation
of the main rotor and the aerodynamics of the
various kinds of flight will be discussed later.
VARIABLE ANGLE
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. For the airplane, the
final value of the angle of attack depends on
the attitude of the airplane and one other fac-
tor - the angle of incidence. The i.ngle of
incidence, for either an airplane or a helicop-
ter, is the angle formed by the chord of the
airfoil and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
The longitudinal axis of a helicopter is a line
at right angles to the main rotor drive shaft.
The conventional airplanes angle of inci-
dence is determined by the designer and is built
into the aircraft. The angle of incidence cannot
be changed by the pilot.
The helicopters angle of incidence can be
changed at will by the pilot - by changing the
pitch of the rotor blades. Like the angle of
attack, the angle of incidence continually
changes as the rotor revolves whenever the
control stick is moved from the neutral position
and the rotor plane of rotation is tilted. Note the
comparative angles of incidence, as sketched.
33
 Airfoil Section
;\irfoil sections used for airplane wings vary
considerably - each being selected to meet
specific requirements. The airfoil may be sym-
metrical or unsymmetrical, like the one shown
here.
An unsymmetrical airfoil may be efficient for
an airplane wing, but it has one disadvantage
that makes it unsatisfactory for use as a rotor
blade. The center of pressure walks forward
and rearward as the angle of attack changes.
The center of pressure is an imaginary point
on the airfoil where all of the aerodynamic
forces are considered as being concentrated.
On an unsymmetrical airfoil the center of pres-
sure is toward the rear of the wing at small
DRlNG VERTICAL ASCENT,
THRUST AC% IN THE SAME
DlRECTlON AND IN LINE
0
angles of attack, and moves forward as the WITH LIFT.
angle of attack is increased. This forward move-
ment continues until the angle of attack is
approximately the same as the angle of maxi-
mum lift coefficient.
The center of pressure cannot be permitted
to walk back and forth on a helicopter rotor WEIGHT
blade, since shifting of the center of pressure
would introduce pitch-changing forces. This
would be undesirable - and dangerous. There- Thrust and Drag
fore, the center of pressure travel is controlled Like weight and lift, thrust and drag are
by airfoil design and is usually at a point 25% closely related. Thrust moves the aircraft in the
back from the leading edge of the rotor blade. desired direction; drag tends to hold it back.
A symmetrical airfoil has the desirable charac- The conventional airplanes thrust is, in gen-
teristic of limiting center of pressure travel. eral, forward, and drag to the rear. These
forces always act in opposite directions and are
usually horizontal, or only slightly inclined
from the horizontal. Seldom, if ever, do these
forces approach the vertical. Furthermore, the
conventional airplanes thrust can be separated
and considered apart from lift. The propeller
(or jet) is responsible for thrust; the wings are
responsible for lift.
The helicopter gets both its lift and thrust
\ J
Y from the main rotor. In vertical ascent, thrust
CENTER OF
PRESSURE TRAVEL
acts upward in a vertical direction, while drag,
the opposing force, acts vertically downward.
In forward flight, thrust is forward and drag
to the rear. In rearward flight, the two are
reversed. In short, thrust acts in the direction
of flight and drag acts in the opposite direc-
tion.
,-CENTER OF
PRESSURE
WIND FIXED Center of Presrure
 0 0
THE
REswrANi
UFr 0
AS IHE HELlCOPTER PASSES
FUGliT.
FROM HOWI INTO FORWARD
FORCE
TILTS
The thrust and drag forces are two of these
conditions - vertical flight and forward flight
- and are discussed in the following para-
graphs. These discussions deal with the thrust
and drag forces acting on the fuselage, not with
the forces within t~he rotor system.
During vertical ascent, thrust acts vertically
upward while drag acts vertically downward.
Here the drag opposing the upward motion of
the helicopter is increased by the down-wash of
air from the main rotor. Thrust must be suf-
ficient to overcome both of these forces which
make up the total drag. In the illustration,
note that thrust acts in the same direction and
in line with lift. Furthermore, the main rotor is
responsible for both thrust and lift. Therefore,
the force representing the total reaction of
the airfoils to the air may be considered as being
divided into two components. One component,
lift, is the force required to support the weight
of the helicopter. The other component, thrust,
is the force required to overcome the drag on
the fuselage. But drag is a separate force from
weight, as is indicated in the sketch.
Now let us examine the thrust and drag
forces acting on the fuselage during forward
flight.
In any kind of flight - vertical, forward,
backward, sideways, or hovering - the result-
ant lift forces of a rotor system are perpendlcu-
lar to the tip path plane (plane or rotation).
DRAG
FORWARD AND NOW ACT.5
BOTH UPWARD ,l,FT, AND
FORWARD cmwsn.
0
WEIGHT
The tip path plane is the imaginary plane de-
scribed by the tips of the blades in making a
cycle of rotation. During vertical ascent or
hovering, the tip path plane is horizontal and
this resultant force acts vertically upward, as
shown in the associated diagram. To accomplish
forward flight, the pilot tilts the tip path plane
forward. The resultant force tilts forward with
the rotor as shown in the referenced illustra-
tion. The total force, now being inclined from
the vertical, acts both upward and forward;
therefore, it can he resolved into two compo-
nents as shown in the illustration. One compo-
nent is lift, which is equal to and opposite
weight. The other component, thrust, acts in
the direction of flight to move the helicopter
forward.
Although this discussion covers only two
flight conditions, it should point the way to a
basic understanding of thrust and drag forces
acting on the helicopter fuselage during flight.
In rearward flight, the thrust and drag forces
are similar to those in forward flight but are
revened. The tip path plane is tilted to the
rear, the thrust component acts to the rear, and
drag opposes the rearward motion of the air-
craft. In sideways flight, the pilot tilts the tip
path plane in the desired direction of flight,
thrust is to the right or left in the direction of
flight, and drag acts in the opposite direction.
35
Torque
As a helicopter rotor turns in one direction,
the fuselage tends to rotate in the opposite
direction. This torque effect is in accord with
Newtons third law of motion which states
that, To every action there is an opposite and
equal reaction. In the helicopter, the reiction
is in a direction opposite to that in which the
rotor is driven by the engine and is proportional
in magnitude to the power being delivered by
the engine.
Torque is of real concern to both the designer
and the pilot. There must be provisions for
counteracting torque and for positive control
over its effect during flight. On dual-rotor and
coaxial-rotor helicopters, the rotors turn in
opposite directions, thus washing out torque DlRECON
TAN
ROTOR
THRUST TO
OF TOROUE COMPENSATE
reaction. In jet helicopters with engines mounted
on the main rotor blade tips, the power is Bl) FOR TOROVE

initiated at the rotor blade; therefore, the

reaction is between the blade and the air, with
no torque reaction between the rotor and the
.Since the torque effect on the fuselage is a
fuselage. Therefore, it is in helicopters of the
r&t of the engine power supplied to ihe main.
single main rotor configuration that torque
rotor, any change in engine power brings about
presents a problem to the pilot during flight.
a corresponding change in the torque effect.
Furthermore, power requirements vary with
flight conditions. Therefore, the torque effect is
In any helicopter - including the sin- not constant but varies during Right. Thii
gle main rotor type - there is no torque means that there must be some provision for
varying tail rotor thrust. Usually, a variable-
for<, there is no torque reaction during pitch tail rotor is employed and rudder pedals
are linked by cables with the pitch change
mechanism in the tail rotor gear box. This per-
The usual way of counteracting torque in a mits the pilot to increase or decrease tail rotor
single omin rotor helicopter is by means of an thrust, as required, to neutralize the torque
antitorque rotor. This auxiliary rotor is effect.
mounted vertically on the outer portion of the The tail rotor and its controls serve as both
tail boom. Turning at a constant rpm, usually a means of counteracting torque effect and a
slightly higher than one-half engine speed, the means of heading the helicopter in the desired
tail rotor produces thrust in a horizontal plane, direction of flight. Therefore, the tail rotor
opposite in direction to the torque reaction control pedals serve as rudder pedals. The
developed by the main rotor. The illustration effect of the tail rotor controls is shown in the
shows the direction of the torque reaction and illustration. Applying left rudder causes the
the direction of tail rotor thrust for a heli- nose of the helicopter to turn to the left; apply-
copter in which the main rotor turns from ing right rudder causes the nose to swing to
the pilots right, to his front, to his left, and the right. When the pilot wishes to maintain a
then to his rear. Most single rotor systems turn constant heading, he keeps just enough pitch
in this direction. in the tail rotor to neutralize torque effect.

36
 Although the tail rotor is the primary means
of counteracting and controlling torque, the
tail rotor alone doesnt quite do the job. This
is true because torque cannot be compensated
for by a single force. The tail rotor alone
would prevent rotation of the fuselage, but
would cause translation of the helicopter, dur-
ing hovering, in the direction of tail rotor thrust.
Complete compensation for torque requires a
couple - a pair of equal forces acting in
opposite directions. Tail rotor thrust constitutes
one of the forces. The second force is intro-
duced by rigging the helicopter with the tip
path plane tilted from 1 to 2% degrees to the
left, depending on the helicopter. The related
illustration shows the balance of forces on a
helicopter employing a single right-to-left main
rotor. Note that the slight tilt of the tip path
plane to the left results in a thrust force to the
left. This force and tail rotor thrust form the
couple required to completely compensate for
torque.
Tail Rotor Failure
Tail rotor failure in a helicopter is the most
difficult in-flight emergency with which a pilot
will be required to cope. The first indication of
MAIN ROTOR
TOROUE TAN ROTOR
REACTlON THRUST
@N
the tail rotor failure is a loss of directional con-
trol. When tail rotor failure is experienced, the
main rotor torque will turn the helicopter to
the right. The rate of turn will be governed
by the amount of power being used at the time
failure occurred. The only means of reducing
this turning tendency is to establish an autoro-
tative glide. (Autorotation will be discussed
later.) This will be accomplished by reducing
collective pitch and closing the throttle.
In autorotation the helicopter will turn to the
left, due to hearing and gear friction in the
transmission system. The friction drag induced
by the main transmission system, however, is
less than the torque induced by the engine and
can be corrected for by maintaining adequate
gliding air speed and making appropriate cor-
rection with the cyclic control stick.
37
Hovering
Hovering is the maintaining of a position
above a fixed spot on the ground, usually at
an altitude of about eight feet. Helicopters
normally hover on takeoffs and landings.
For the helicopter to hover, its main rotor
must supply lift equal to the helicopters
weight. Lift is controlled by controlling the
pitch of the rotor blades.
As the blades rotate, air flows acrcw the
leading edge of each blade in the direction
indicated in the accompanying illu5ratioh: The
air flow crosses the leading edge of each blade
throughout the complete rotational cycle of
360. At the same time the blades have a
tendency to screw apward- into~ the, air, and air
flows down through the rotor system from
above, as shown in the composite illustration.
The pitch and pm of the rotor blades is
controlled by the collective pitch. The normal
location of this control is shown in the related
illustration. By raising or lowering the collec-
tive pitch stick you can change the coNecfiue
pitch - the pitch on all of the main rotor
blades. Raising the stick increaser the pitch;
lowering it decreases the pitch. If the rotor rpm
remains constant, increasing or decreasing the
blade pitch causes the helicopter to climb or
descend.
To maintain constant rotor rpm during pitch
change, a built-in synchronization unit is
linked from the bottom of the collective pitch
stick to the carburetor by a series of push-pull
rods. As you increase blade pitch, calling for
more engine power to maintain a constant rotor
rpm, the synchronization unit opens the throt-
tle. The opposite is also true, of course. If you
decrease blade pitch, less engine power is
required for the same rotor rpm so the synchro-
nization unit act~ to reduce engine power.
On the upper end of the collective pitch stick
is a motorcycle-grip-type throttle, with which
you can roll on or roll off throttle if the
synchronization unit does not maintain exact
engine rpm. This hand throttle permits you to
override the synchronization unit in making
the final adjustments to obtain the specified
Air Now engine pm,

38
 DIRECTIONAL FLIGHT

Vertical Flight
Vertical Right is controlled exactly the same
way as hovering, since hovering is an element
of vertical flight. To climb, raise the collective
pitch stick, using the throttle on the pitch stick
to make any pm adjustments not made auto-
matically. At the same time, you hold the cyclic
control (which we will consider next) in a
vertical position, so that lift will be vertical. The
flow of air is still over the leading edge of each
blade, hut the helicopter is now moving upward
as shown in the illustration.
When the helicopter is climbing vertically
the main rotor supplies not only the lift neces-
sary to support the helicopters weight, but also
the thrust necessary to cause the helicopter to
rise vertically. To descend, lower the collective
pitch stick to decrease main rotor pitch and
resultant lift.
Horizontal Flight
Horizontal flight is controlled by tilting the
tip path plane in the direction of desired flight
- forward, backward, to the left, or to the
right. As detailed in the associated il!ustration,
the helicopter moves in the direction the cyclic
control stick and tip path plane are tilted.
The pilot tilts the tip path plane by means
of the cyclic pitch control. This control provides
a. mechanical means of changing the pitch of the
main rotor blades throughout their cycle of
rotation. Cyclic pitch change is equal and op-
posite, as the illustration shows. If the blade system, at a point 180 around the cycle of
pitch is increased 3 on one side of the rotor rotation, the blade pitch is decreased 3.
For every pitch change there will be a result-
ing flapping action of the individual blades,
as they constantly change pitch during rota-
tion. As is shown, maximum Rapping will take
place 90 around the cycle of rotation from
the place where the pitch change was applied.
The equal and opposite pitch change and the
resulting flapping of the individual blades
causes the tip path plane to tilt in the same
direction as the pilot moves the cyclic control
stick. Thus you can fly forward, backward, or
sideways by tilting the cyclic control stick in
the direction you want to go.

Fomord Flight 39
Combination Changer of Direction
To climb or descend while moving forward,
backward, or to either side is merely a matter
of coordinating the movements of the collective
pitch control, which governs vertical flight; and
the cycle control, which governs horizontal
flight.
Takeoffs
Helicopter takeoffs are similar to vertical
climbs which, of course, they are. For normal
takeoff, run the engine up to the stipulated
takeoff rpm, then raise the collective pitch
stick gradually to increase the rotor blade pitch
until the helicopter rises into the air. Hold the
cyclic control stick in a vertical position so that
the helicopter will rise vertically.
At a height of about six feet, adjust the col-
1ectix.e pitch stick to maintain this position,
hovering above the takeoff spot in preparation
for movement in the desired direction of travel.
Ground Cushion
As the helicopter rises from the.ground in a
hovering attitude to a height of 6 or 8 feet, it
may be noticed that a cushion effect is built
up under the helicopter. This is commonly called
ground cushion or ground effect. The ground
cushion develops because air is packed between
the main rotor blades and the ground. The
downward flow of air strikes the ground and
is partially trapped under the main rotor sys-
tern which the sketch illustrates. The air packs
because it cannot escape as rapidly as the
downward flow of air which is established by
the main rotor blades; therefore, a cushion of
slightly compressed air is built up.
Boyles Law stattx that the density of any gas
varies directly as to its pressure. The greater the
density of air, the greater the efficiency of both
the engine and the rotor system. The ground
cushion is established to a height equal to the
rotor diameter, but it is effective only to a
height of approximately one-half the rotor
diameter. Correspondingly, there is more power
available for hovering near the ground, that is,
within a height of one-half rotor diameter. The
ground cushion effect is lost at airspeeds in ex-
cess of 10 miles per hour.
Tmnslational Lift
Translational lift is the additional lift de-
veloped as the helicopter accelerates into for-
ward flight. Translational lift becomes effective
at an airspeed of approximately 15 miles per
hour;and it continues to incteaSe Gth-foF*ard
speed. However, at high values of forward
speed parasite drag increases more rapidly than
translational lift.
Since vertical lift increases and then de-
creases with changing values of forward speed,
at some airspeed it must reach a point of
maximum. This speed is known as the mosl
eficient airrpeed, and it will remain approxi-
 mately constant for a particular type of heli-
copter. For example, the most efficient airspeed
for the Sikorsky H-19 helicopter is 60 knots. At
its most efficient airspeed a helicopter will have
its best rate to climb, least rate of descent for a
given power setting, and maximum endurance.
When hovering 6 to 8 feet above the ground
in a no-wind condition, the helicopter is aided
by the ground cushion effect. As the helicopter
enters forward flight it slides off the ground
cushion, and reduced lift will cause the craft
to settle. The pilot increases pitch and power to
prevent contact with the ground. However,
when a forward speed of approximately 15
mph is reached, translational lift becomes effec-
tive and the helicopter will gradually climb. As
forward speed is increased, lift is increased and
less power will be required to maintain straight
and level flight.
From the hovering position, 6 to 8 feet above
the ground, the pilot prepares to move into
forward flight. As he moves the cyclic stick
slightly forward, cawing the tip path plane to
tilt forward, the helicopter settles toward the
ground for two reasons. First, the helicopter
nmves off its ground cushion, lzing the sup-
port of the denser air. Second, the power of
the main rotor system is no longer devoted
completely to lift, but is now divided between
lift and thrust.
At 3 mph the helicopter has left its ground
cushion and has a shorter lift vector, so it
settles slightly toward the ground. At 10 mph
it is still settling. But at 15 mph there is a
noticeab!e increase in lift, which will continue
as forward speed is increased. This additional
lift, which becomes available at about 15 mph,
is called transLztiona[ lift.
Many efforts have been made to explain
translation lift. Perhaps the most plausible
explanation is that a helicopter must travel
about the distance covered in reaching a 15
mph speed to enter a clear air region. Whatever
the explanation, a helicopter definitely will
have greater efficiency and greater lift when it
reaches a forward speed of 15 mph and beyond.
Helicopters usually takeoff into the wind;
hence, the greater the velocity of the wind, the
sooner a helicopter will enter into translational
lift. In a 15 mph wind, for example, a helicopter
will hover in translational lift following takeoff.
It will not settle as it moves forward, providing
the takeoff is into the wind.
Translational liff
41
 ROTARY-WING AERODYNAMIC EFFECTS
A helicopter is subject to several rotary-wing
aerodynamic effects, which we will now con-
sider.
Autorotation
Autorotation, often called windmilling, is
the process of producing lift with airfoils which
rotate freely as the air passes from the bottom
up through the rotor system. Under power-off
conditions, the helicopter will descend, thus
the airflow will be established from the bottom
upward through the rotor system. The rotor is
automatically disengaged from the engine, and
the necessary power required to overcome para-
site and induced drag of the rotor blades is
obtained from the potential energy due to the
helicopters weight and height above the
ground. This potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy which is used to rotate the over-
head rotor system during descent.
Autorotation is the principle used in the
flight of the autogyro to provide lift. A helicop-
ter uses autorotation for emergency landings in
case of engine failure.
During autorotation, the rotor blades turn
in the same direction as when engine-driven,
but the air passes upward through the rotor
system, causing a slightly greater upward flex-
ing or coning of the rotor blades. Since the
engine is not running, there is no torque effect
on the fuselage during autorotation.
While in autorotation, it is essential that
the pitch of the rotor blades be reduced ma-
ferially to minimize drag thus permitting
high rotor rpm to build up. When the pitch
angle of the main rotor blades is low (as shown
in diagram .4) the resultant lift force iics ahead
of the axis of rotation, tending to keep the
blade turning in its normal direction of rota-
tion.
Diagram B shows a condition in which the
blade pitch angle is too high for satisfactory
autorotation. Note that drag is increased and
the resultant lift force lies behind the axis of
rotation, slowing the rotor.
The pilot must reduce the pitch in order to
keep the rotor blades turning at sufficient speed
to maintain the required centrifugal force.
Otherwise, the blades will fold up and the
helicopter will tumble out of control.
In the event of engine failure during flight,
a safe autorotation can be accomplished, pro-
vided the helicopter is being flown at a safe
altitude-airspeed combination and the inflight
altitude is sufficient to permit selection of a
suitable landing area. When altitude permits,
an air restart should be attempted. If the en-
-&e fails to start, a normal power-off landing
should be accomplished. Reduce collective pitch
to autorotation and establish a glide at the
most efficient airspeed (H-19 is 60 knot?)
with the stipulated autorotativc rotor rpm.
(The H-19 helicopter requires 210 to 225
rpm). At approximately 50 to 75 feet, execute
a partial flare by moving the cyclic control stick
back with no change in collective pitch. This
will reduce airspeed and rate of descent, and
will cause an increase in rotor rpm. Level the
a helicopter as it settles, and gradually increase
collective pitch.

AuTOROT*TlON ANGLE
A B RESULTANT UF,

LIFT AND DRAG NTI-AUTOROTATION

RESULTANT LIFT LIFT AND DRAG
FORCES AT LOW FORCES AT HGH
BLADE PITCH BLADE PITCH

RELATIVE WND XIS OF ROTATION RELATIVE WIND

42
Dissymmetry of Lift
Dissymmetry of lift is the difference in lift HOVERING
which exists between the advancing half of the
disk area and its retreating half when in hori- t
zontal flight. (The disk area is that swept by
the rotating blades.)
When the helicopter is hovering motionless
in still air, the lift created by the advancing
and retreating halves of the disk area is equal.
But when the helicopter is moving forward, the
forward speed of the aircraft is added to the
rotational speed of the advancing blade and
subtracted from the rotational speed of the
retreating blade.
TO compare the lift of the advancing half of
the disk area to the lift of the retreating half,
lets analyze the basic formula for lift, which is:
L=G,xDxVXA
2
In this formula:
L equals lift
CL equals the coefficient of lift
D equals density of the air Zero Airspeed-Symmetry
V equals velocity
A equals the blade area in square feet.
FORWARLl FLIGHT
The coefficient of lift (CL) is determined
by airfoil shape. Most helicopters use symmetri- t
cal rotor blades, because symmetrical blades
perform well whether the flow of air is from the
top downward through the rotor system, as in
powered flight - or from the bottom upward,
as in autorotative flight. Also, a symmetrical
airfoil limits the travel of the center of pressure,
which is very important because center of pres-
sure travel would introduce pitch-changing
moments on the blades.
Density of the air depends, of course, on
temperature, moisture, altitude, and so forth.
Velocity, as we have seen, is the product of
two factors; the speed of the blades, and the
speed of the helicopter itself.
It is obvious that three factors of the basic
lift formula are the same for both advancing
and retreating blades. These are CL, D, and
A. The only variable is V, velocity. Therefore,
lift varies according to the square of the
velocity. Forword Speed-Dissymmetry

43
 90.000
40.000 160.000
0 90.000
K)RWARD SPEED 100 MPH
40,000
Elki
Now let us consider some specific values. The
tip speed of most helicopter rotors is about 350
mph at normal takeoff rpm. In these examples,
however, we will use a tip speed of 300 mph
to simplify arithmetic. Also, we will consider
only the tip speed although the rotational speed
vanes from about 350 mph at the tip of the
blade to zero at the hub.
When the helicopter is hovering, the velocity
of the advancing blade is 300 mph. The velocity
of the retreating blade is the same, 300 mph.
Therefore, the lift created by the advancing
blade is the same as that of the retreating
blade.
Now consider the velocity of the blades when
the helicopter is moving forward, as in the
associated illustration, at a speed of 100 mph.
The advancing blade has a tip speed of 300
mph plus the helicopter speed of 100 mph, or
400 mph. V is 160,000.
44
HORIZONTAL
of Flapping Hinges
The retreating blade has a tip speed of 300
mph minus the helicopter speed of 100 mph,
or 200 mph. V* is 40,000.
The lift created at the blade tip is in the
ratio of 160,000/40,000, or four times as
much for the advancing blade than for the re-
treating blade. If such dissymmetry of lift
were aliowed to go uncorrected, the helicopter
would turn over.
The normal correction for dissymmetry of
lift is to incorporate a flapping hinge in the
rotor head. The diagram shows how this device
equalizes lift on the advancing and retreating
blades. As you can see, the hinge permits an
advancing blade to rise, thus reducing its efIec-
tive lift area. The hinge also allows a retreating
blade to settle, increasing its effective lift area.
Thus, the blades position themselves aerody-
namically to equalize lift on the advancing and
retreating halves of the disk area.
Pendular Action
It is normal for the fuselage of a helicopter
to act like a pendulum, that is, to swing lateral-
ly and longitudinally. This pendular action can
be exaggerated by over-controlling, therefore,
control stick movements should be decidedly
moderate. Also, because of this normal pendu-
lous action, it is wise to keep the wheels of a
helicopter at least five feet above the ground
while hovering, especially during the early
stages of helicopter flight training.
It is also normal for the helicopter to take a
nose-low attitude in forward flight, and a nose-
high attitude in rearward flight. This is caused
by the fact that the drive shaft lines up in the
same straight line as the resultant lift vector.
A helicopter is subject to two types of re.-
~nance - sympathetic resonance and ground
reronance.
Sympathetic resonance is a harmonic beat
between main rotor and tail rotor systems,
which could shake the helicopter to pieces.
This unsatisfactory condition has been engi-
neered out of helicopters by designing the main
and tail gear boxes in odd decimal ratios.
Thus, the beat of the main rotor cannot har-
monize with the beat of the tail rotor. There is
no known case of helicopter destruction caused
by sympathetic resonance.
Ground resonance may develop whenever the
center of mass of the rotor system becomes un-
seated. This usually occurs during landings,
when the helicopter is 87 to 95 per cent air-
borne. Ground resonance develops when the
aircraft is light on its wheels, and one wheel of
the main landing gear hits the ground and
then the other wheel hits. Such successive
shocks tend to cause the blades straddling the
wheel hitting the ground to move down and to
change their angular relationship. If a similar
reaction takes place when the opposite wheel
hits the ground, resonance may develop. This
sets up a pendulum-like oscillation of the fuse-
lage, which continua when once establishe?
until some force shocks the system sufficientl:
to interrupt the beat. This oscillation usuall.
leads to structural failure.
Pendulcw Action
45

Effect of Ground Resonance
If ground resonance should occur with high
power, immediately increase power and takeoff.
The resonance will stop when the helicopter
becomes airborne. If ground resonance should
occur with low power, immediately decrease
rotor rpm further by decreasing throttle and
apply both the rotor brake and the wheel
brakes. If ground resonance should occur on a
landing, increase throttle and collective pitch
and hover. Seek a softer spot to make a landing
because a shock strut or dal..per may be mal-
functioning.
To prevent the possibility of ground reson-
ance occurring during takeoff, steadily increase
main rotor pitch until the wheels are clear of
the ground. During landings, steadily decrease
Gyroscopic
Principles
collective pitch as the wheels contact the
ground.
Gyrorcopic Precession
Gyroscopic precession is an innate quality of
all rotating bodies, in which an applied force is
manifested approximately 90 in the direction
of rotation from the point where the force is
applied. Thus, if a downward force is applied
to the right of the disk area, gyroscopic preces-
sion will cause the disk area to tilt down in
front, provided that the rotor system is turning
from right to left. The applied force is pitch
change on the main rotor blades, which is regu-
lated by the cyclic control.
To simplify directional control, helicopters
employ a mechanical linkage which actually
places cyclic pitch change of the main rotor
blades 90 ahead in the cyclic of rotation.
Thus, if the cyclic control is moved forward (in
case of a rotor system turning from right to
left), high pitch is applied to the blade on the
pilots left and low pitch is applied to the blade
on his right. Since every pitch change causez
a flap, reaching its maximum approximately
.90 around in the cycle of rotation, this
flapping will cause the diik area to tilt forward.
As you can see, if this offset linkage were not
employed. the pilot would be required to move
the cyclic stick 90 out of phase, or to the
right when he wanted to tilt the disk area for-
ward, and forward when he wanted to tilt the
disk area to the left, and so on.
Mechanical Linkage
62 A
CYCLIC PITCH
CHANGE HERE
Weight Limitations
There is no single answer to the maximum
weight at which a helicopter can be operated.
The maximum permissible weight of a helicop-
ter varies within broad limits, depending upon
certain weight controlling criteria. The maxi-
mum weight of a helicopter becomes a variable
quantity to produce optimums under different
conditions. The weight limitation charts for a
particular type helicopter provide flight person-
nel with operational gross weight information.
However, it is readily understandable that as a
structure is loaded to higher weights, its ability
to withstand shocks or additional loads result-
ing from manewax becomes increasingly less.
The margin of safety is the amount of shock
or additional load that the structure will sus-
tain before failure occurs. In planning
helicopter mission, the fact must be recognized
that the maximum permissible weight may de-
pend on the margin of safety desired for the
various supporting structures, such as the main
rotor, fuselage, landing gear, flooring,
Should the mission require excessive maneuver-
ing or flight through turbulent air, it would be
advisable to maintain a larger margin of safety
than if smooth, level flight were contemplated.
In regard to helicopters, load factors are used
as an indication of the margin of safety that is
available. At any particular moment of opera-
tion the structural margin of safety, for example.
will be equal to the difference between the load
factor the helicopter is designed for, and the
load factor the helicopter is sustaining at that
given moment. For any specific helicopter, the
weight limitations are based on the basic oper-
ating weight as determined by structural engi-
neers and flight test data. The helicopter pilot
should make certain that he thoroughly under-
stands the weight limitations prior to flight.
Just because a helicopter can takeoff with a
heavy load is no assurance of a safe flight.
Weight and Balance
The permissible center of gravity (CG)
travel is very critical in many helicopters. In
fact, some helicopters have only a 4-inch maxi-
mum travel. If a helicopter is improperly
loaded, not only does the fuselage tilt off the
horizontal, but the rotor maSt which is attached
to the fuselage tilts the entire rotor system.
The cyclic stick controls the amount and
direction of tilt of the rotor system, but the
travel on the cyclic control stick is limited.
The amount of back-stick the pilot can apply
to the cyclic control to level the rotor system is
limited by the manner in which the helicopter
is rigged. If the helicopter is dangerously nose-
low, the pilot may find that when he pulls the
cyclic control back as far as it will go, the
helicopters attitude remains nose-low, and the
rotor system still tilts forward. The pilot can-
not slow the helicopter, nor can he raise the
nose to land. Needless to say, he then finds
himself in a dangerous predicament.
any
etc.
In newer helicopter designs, efforts have been
made to locate the loading compariment direct-
ly under the drive shaft to minimize CG travel.
For the same reason, the gasoline supply may be
located at or near the balance point, which is
normally on the main drive shaft. However,
the fact remains that the pilot must at all times
balance his load so as to remain within CG
travel limits. He should be well informed as to
the CG travel limits of his particular helicopter
and should exercise great care in taking on
loads.

47
 Power
Stalling, as applied to a fixed-wing aircraft,
will not occur in a helicopter. However,
power settling may occur in low-speed flight,
and blade stall may occur in high-speed flight.
Power Settling
Power settling is the tincontrollable loss of
altitude. This condition is aggravated by heavy
gross weight, unfavorable density conditions,
and low forward speed. When the rate of de-
scent approaches 200 feet per minute with an
air speed of lo-15 knots, roughness and partial
loss of control may occur. At this high rate of
descent and low airspeed, the downwash from
the rotor begins to recirculate - up, around,
and back down through the effective outer
rim of the rotor disk. The velocity of this re-
circulating mass of air may become so high
that full high-collective pitch will not produce
sufficient lift to retard or control the rate of
descent.
48
Sefflillg
To recover from this condition, increase for-
ward speed and reduce pitch. An altitude loss
a of 400 to 700 feet may occur before the condi-
tion is recognized and recovery is complete.
During approach for landings, and descent or
takeoff above congested areas, the pilot should
avoid the conditions causing power settling.
Blade Stall
A flight characteristic that has caused a num-
ber of helicopter accidents is the blade stall or
blade tip stall. The stall usually occurs at the
tip of the retreating blade due to high angle
of attack and slow airspeed of the retreating
blade. The stalled blade sections are localized
and exist throughout only a small portion of
the rotor disk, as shown in the related sketch.
During flight conditions with high values of
forward speed, gross weight, and altitude, the
retreating blade has an excessive angle of attack
and low airspeed. These conditions aggravate
 blade stall. Mild blade stall will cawe a rough-
ness in both the helicopter and flight controls.
Severe blade stall will cause an abrupt pitch-up
of the nose of the helicopter. Although the re-
treating blades stall on the pilots left the loss
of lift is manifested at a point 90 later, there-
by causing the tip-path plane to tilt downward
toward the rear. The uncontrolled pitch-up
will last only for a very short period as full
control is restored automatically when airspeed
decreases in the nose-high attitude and the
excessively high angle of attack no longer exists.
When blade stall occurs, the controllability
of the helicopter will diminish. If such vibra-
tions and control kicks are noticed, the stall
may easily be eliminated by accomplishing any
one or a combination of the following:
1. Reduce collective pitch
2. Increase rotor *pm
3. Decrease severity of the maneuver
4. Gradually decrease air speed.
To stop the nose pitch-up, especially during
turns at critical airspeeds and altitudes, gradu-
ally reduce collective pitch and/or rapidly
increase rotor rpm, and gently ease the nose of
the helicopter down with smooth, forward ap
plication of the cyclic control stick. Level off
by use of bottom tail rotor pedal and lateral
movement of the cylic control stick.
Critical Weather
The flight characteristics of a helicopter are
noticeably affected by the existing density
conditions. For example, at sea level on a cool
day the average helicopter demonstrates ample
power and lift. However, on a very hot day at
sea level the same helicopter is apt to be un-
derpowered, and flight may become critical be-
cause of the less dense air conditions. The alert
helicopter pilot shrewdly evaluates the existing
density conditions, for experience has taught
him to alter technique for landings, takeoffs, or
autorotation, if such an emergency should
arise.
Variation in density conditions will not only
affect the efficiency of the main rotor blades as
they bite into the air, but engine efficiency also
will be altered. As the fuel-air ratio varies, so
will the available engine power.
Blade Stall
49
 The air surrounding the earth extends up
ward for about 500 miles. The air at sea level
is subject to pressure due to the weight of air
above it. Air at sea level is subject to a pressure
of 14.7 pounds per square inch and has a den-
sity corresponding to that pressure.
The air at an altitude of one mile above sea
level has a pressure of 12.1 pounds per
square inch, and the pressure at a two-mile
altitude is 9.9 pounds per square inch. The
higher the altitude, the lower the pressure and,
consequently, the less the density. Altitude is
an important factor affecting density, but it is
not the only factor.
Another major factor affecting density is
temperature. Charles law states that the den-
sity of any gas will vary inversely with the
temperature. As air becomes warm, it expands;
and as it expands, it becomes thinner because
there are fewer particles (molecules) per cubic
foot. Therefore, on a warm day the air will be
50
less dense than on a cold day. A definite rela-
tionship exists between density and helicopter
flight efficiency.
Standard air is designated as air at 59 F
sea level conditions (29.92Hg). In general,
the density of air will decrease equivalent to
1,000 feet of altitude for each 15 rise in
temperature. The presence of moisture in the
air will also decrease density, as saturated
moist air weighs approximately 5/a as much as
pure, dry air. However, the presence of mois-
ture in the average climate is not too significant.
It should be remembered that wind is a
great help in helicopter flight and may com-
pensate for the loss of efficiency caused by
density. The pilot should take into considera-
tion all the factors affecting operation, as each
has a direct bearing on the performance of the
helicopter. Only by careful analysis can the
pilot obtain the maximum functional capacity
from his helicopter.

FLYING
THE HELICOPTER
The fundamentals of fixed-wing and rotary-
wing flying are not totally unrelated. Many of
the subjects and principles you must know as a
fixed-wing pilot are also applicable to rotary-
wing flying. These include navigation, weather,
radio communications, and air regulations.
Drift correction, instrument interpretation, and
air judgment, to mention only a few, are in-
valuable to you as a h&copter pilot. The heli-
copter is flown by attitude much the same as
fixed-wing aircraft. Having already learned
many of these fundamentals, the student heli-
copter pilot can spend more time concentrating
on such techniques as pitch and throttle coordi-
nation, and sensitivity of controls, which are
peculiar to rotary-wing flying.
Although the helicopter is used for many
different types of missions, it is probably used
most for rescue operations. In rescue operations,
a great responsibility rests on you, the pilot,
because in many instances your skill will deter-
mine the succec~ of the mission. When the
evacuation of sick and wounded personnel is
involved there is no place for error in the
pilots.judgment.
The helicopter was designed for the specific
purpose of eliminating the takeoff and landing
roll required by fixed-wing aircraft. As a result,
the helicopter pilot is often called on to per-
form in areas not accessible to fixed-wing air-
craft. Thii means operating in and out of small
areas. 1 many cases full power must be used
CHAPTER
to accomplish this feat. Therefore, it is extreme-
ly important that you have a full understand-
ing of the capabilities and limitations of your
equipment.
One of the most important principles you
must learn before undertaking rotary-wing
flying is pitch and throttle coordination. This
is the key to becoming a skilled helicopter pilot.
The throttle is coordinated with and located
on the end of the collective pitch stick, which
permits maintaining a constant operating rpm.
The altitude is also controlled with the collec-
tive pitch stick. Most helicopters have a certain
amount of built-in synchronization between the
collective pitch and throttle controls, but the
pilot is primarily responsible for throttle control.
Make all rpm corrections with reference to
the dual tachometer. Make all collective pitch
corrections with reference to the manifold
pressure gauge. In effect, the rpm is controlled
by the throttle, and the manifold pressure is
controlled by the collective pitch. (See the ac-
companying illustration.) However, any correc-
tion on either control will result in a change of
both rpm and manifold pressure. This requires
coordination of the collective pitch and throttle
controls to obtain the desired power setting of
manifold pressure and rpm. All corrections on
these controls should be small and smooth,
otherwise, over-controlling will result. Keep in
mind that the throttle usually is highly sensi-
tive.

When you raise the collective pitch control,
an increase in manifold pressure and, normally,
a decrease in pm result. Conversely, when you
lower the collective pitch control, a decrease in
manifold pressure and, normally, an increase in
rpm result. An increase in throttle results in an
increase in rpm and manifold pressure. With a
decrease in throttle the opposite holds true.
Therefore, to hold a constant power setting,
you must coordinate pitch and throttle controls
simultaneously when making correctmns.
Remember, that if you are already utilizing
full throttle, any further raising of the collec-
tive pitch control will result in a decrease in
rpm. Use the minimum amount of collective
pitch and throttle to get the job done. The
closer the pcwer being utilized is to the maxi-
mum power output, the less the safety factor.
Straight and Level Flight
In straight and level flight the airspeed is
determined by the attitude of the aircraft,
which is controlled by the cyclic control stick.
Maintain the desired altitude by use of the
collective pitch and throttle.
52
Throttle
If you increase the collective pitch and
maintain the same airspeed while in straight
and level flight, a climb will result. If you de-
crease the collective pitch and maintain air-
speed, the helicopter will descend. Remember,
that any correction on the collective pitch
control will require a coordinated correction on
the throttle to maintain a constant rpm.
To increase airspeed in straight and level
flight increase the collective pitch to get mcxe
power, and tilt the cyclic control stick forward
to pick up the desired airspeed. To decrease
airspeed in straight and level flight, -decrease
the collective pitch to reduce power and come
back on the cyclic control stick to reduce air-
speed.
.4lthough the cyclic control stick is sensitive,
there will be a slight delay in control reaction.
Therefore, in making cyclic control corrections
to control the airspeed or attitude, use care to
avoid over-controlling. If the nose of the heli-
copter goes above the level-flight attitude, tilt
the cyclic control stick forward to bring the
nose down. However, you should not hold this
correction too long or the nose will drop below
the level-flight attitude. In other words, it will
be necessary to anticipate a continued move-
ment of the aircraft after you return the
controls to neutral. Therefore, when changing
the attitude of the helicopter, return the con-
trols to neutral slightly before you reach the
desired attitude, because the helicopter will
continue to change attitude for a moment after
the controls are neutralized. This principle
holds true for any cyclic control correction.
The helicopter is inherently unstable. If the
nose drops because of gusts or turbulence, it
will tend to continue dropping rather than
return to a straight and level attitude, as a
fixed-wing aircraft will. This results in the pilot
having to be alert and /[yin& the helicopter at
all times.
Remember, then, that the attitude and air-
speed of the helicopter are controlled by the
cyclic control stick and that the attitude is
controlled by the collective pitch control.
Hovering
One of the major advantages of the helicop-
ter over the fixed-wing aircraft is its ability to
fly at extremely low airspeeds and to hover.
Hovering, as we have said, isremaining motion-
less over a spot on the ground while maintain-
ing a constant heading and altitude.
This maneuver requires a high degree of
concentration and coordination. When hover-
ing, you keep the helicopter over a spot by
using the cyclic control stick, and govern alti-
tude by the use of the collective pitch control.
A constant heading is kept by using the rudder
pedals. Only by the proper coordination of all
controls can you achieve successful hovering
flight. If you do not apply sufficient rudder
when hovering, engine torque will cause single-
rotor helicopters to turn in a direction opposite
to the rotation of the main rotor system.
All control corrections should be pressure
movements rather than abrupt movements.
This is necessary to prevent over-controlling,
which is the most common fault of the new
helicopter pilot when learning to hover.
If you exert definite movements on the rud-
der pedals rather than maintain a constant
pressure, there will be a tendency for the nose
CONTRO!.S DIRECTON OF FLIGHT
CONTROLS THE RPM
CONTROLS ALTITUDE
MAINTAINS A HEADING
Controls
53
 of the helicopter to jerk around, rather than to
continue in a smooth turn. If the helicopter
starts to move forward, apply a slight amount
of back pressure to the cyclic control stick to
stop this forward movement. Once the forward
movement stops, release the back pressure, or
the helicopter will start into backward flight.
Do not wait until the helicopter moves too
far, but make all corrections immediately. If
the helicopter moves too far, it will be neces-
sary to make a number of small corrections to
stop the movement without over-controlling.
In hovering, as in straight and level flight,
the attitude of the helicopter is again the
governing factor which determines the aircrafts
movement over the ground. While the attitude
required to hover varies with the wind condi-
tions and the balance, there is still an attitude
(both pitch and bank) that will keep the air-
craft hovering over a spot. You can find this
attitude by experimentation. Once you have
determined the attitude, it is possible to notice
deviations and make the necessary corrections
before the aircraft starts to move off the spot.
cychc control stick to maintain the desired air-
speed.
To establish a climb, increase the collective
pitch to get the desired rate of climb or mani-
fold pressure. At the same time, control the
climbing airspeed by using the cyclic control
stick. During the climb you must apply a slight
amount of rudder pressure to prevent the nose
from yawing with the increased torque. If the
airspeed is less than the cruising airspeed when
you level off, do not reduce the collective
pitch until the airspeed has reached the desired
figure.
To descend, decrease the collective pitch
while coordinating throttle until the desired rate
of descent is established. Control the airspeed
by the use of cyclic control. Since torque is
now reduced, you must again coordinate the
rudder control to hold a heading.
Remember, that any power change requires
coordination of collective pitch, throttle, and
rudder.
Normal Takeoff

Hovering altitude is maintained by the use Under most conditions, make a normal
of the collective pitch control, coordinated with takeoff and hover before you leave the takeoff
the throttle to maintain a constant pm. The spot. A normal takeoff is similar to hovering
amount of collective pitch needed to maintain because, in effect, you are hovering the helicop-
hovering altitude will vary under different con- ter from the ground up to hovering altitude.
ditions of wind, air density, and gross weight.
IThen a steady wind is blowing, it is not
necessary to manipulate the collective pitch
stick a great deal to hold the desired altitude.
Only under variable and gusty wind conditions
must you use the collective pitch control to a
great extent.
The cool-din&w of all controls when houer-
ing cannot be overemphasized. Any change
on one control will almost always require a
coordinated correction on one or more of the
other controls. Hovering can be accomplished
with precision only when corrections are small,
smooth, and coordinated.

Climbs and Descents

To climb or descend, increase or decrease the

collective pitch control while coordinating the
throttle to maintain a constant rpm, and the

54
Therefore, think of a normal takeoff as another
form of hovering. The same is true of a normal
landing. All you are doing when landing is
reducing hovering altitude until the helicopter
is finally on the ground. You can see then that
you use the controls in the same manner to
takeoff and land as you do to hover. All
control corrections should be small, smooth,
and coordinated.
Whenever possible, you should make a nor-
mal takeoff into the wind. Before takeoff, pick
out a point 15 to 20 feet in front of the heli-
copter. Use this point as a reference to keep the
nose of the helicopter straight ahead. The cyclic
control stick should be in approximately the
neutral position, and the collective pitch stick
in the full low position. The rudders should be
approximately neutral.
Increase the throttle until you reach the
desired takeoff rpm. Then increase the collec-
tive pitch slowly and at the same time coordi-
nate the throttle to maintain the required pm.
While increasing the collective pitch you must
make minor cyclic control stick corrections to
prevent the helicopter from moving away from
the spot as it becomes airborne. Just before the
helicopter becomes airborne, you will find it
necessary to increase rudder pressure to corn-
pensate for engine torque. As you apply still
more power, you must further increase rudder
pressure to compensate for more torque.
Once the aircraft becomes airborne, fly it
vertically to the hovering position. As the pilot
of a helicopter which has an articulated rotor
system, and thus is subject to ground reson-
ance, you must be careful of your takeoff and
landing technique to avoid the dangerous
vibration ground resonance sets up. Ground
resonance is the direct result of poor landing
and takeoff technique.
Normof Takeoff
55

Normal Landings
When you are ready to make a landing from
the hovering position, decrease the collective
pitch to set up a vertical descent. However,
you should never.lower the collective pitch stick
so far that you have to raise the stick to pre-
vent a hard landing.
The helicopter should not be allowed to
touch down while drifting. If it is allowed to
land in a drift, there is a possibility of tipping
over. Do not try to touch down all of the
landing gear at once, because in most landings
this would result in the helicopter drifting just
at touchdown. The cyclic control stick is held
in whatever position is necessary to stop all
drift, regardless of which gear touches first,
.4s soou as the landing gear touches the ground,
lower the collective pitch stick smoothly to the
full low position, decrease the th:ottle to idle,
and decrease the rudder pressure as torque
decreases.
The normal approach is the basic approach
taught to the new helicopter pilot. From this
approach you learn the fundamentals of power
glide control. LVe can look on rhis power glide
approach as being comparable to the power
approach of the fixed-wing aircraft. Normally,
this approach is rather shallow. However, this
may vary depending upon the type of helicopter
being flown.
56
The normal approach is initially established
at traffic pattern altitude and into the wind. At
this point, while maintaining a constant alti-
tude, slow the helicopter down to the desired
groundspeed. (As a guide for students, about
45-50 mph indicated airspeed will give the
desired groundspeed.) Establijh the desired
groundspeed by decreasing the collective pitch
and coordinating the throttle. At the same time
apply rudder to compensate for decrease in
engine torque, and to keep the nose of the
helicopter lined up with the intended landing
spot. Once you have established the desired
groundspeed check the rate of movement of the
helicopter over the ground. Then try to main-
tain the same rate of movement over the ground
all the way down the approach by the use of
cyclic control.
Once you have atablished the desired
groundspeed, further decrease collective pitch
to set up the desired rate of descent and angle
of glide. Remember, that the angle of glide and
rate of descent are primarily controlled by the
collective pitch control, and that groundspeed
is primarily controlled by the cyclic control.
However, any correction on either of the two
wilI affect the other; therefore, all corrections
for angle of glide, rate of descent, and ground-
speed, mat be coordinated to produce the
desired result.
 For example, if the angle of glide is toa steep,
raise the collective pitch control to shallow the
approach. Since this will affect the ground-
speed, you must make a coordinated forward
correction on the cyclic control stick to main-
tain the desired groundspeed. If you see that
the groundspeed is too slow, tilt the cyclic
control stick forward to increase it and, at the
same time, make a coordinated lifting correc-
tion on the collective pitch control to maintain
the desired angle of glide and rate of descent.
Again you must concentrate on coordinating
all controls - cyclic, collective pitch, throttle,
and rudder.
Probably the most important part of the
approach is the last 75 feet, because beyond this
point you begin the transition from the ap-
proach to the hover. However, 75 feet should
not be construed as a fixed point, for this
altitude will vary depending upon existing wind
conditions and other factors affecting perform-
During the approach you have, by use of
cyclic control, gradually dissipated airspeed at
an apparent constant rate with reference to the
ground. At approximately 75 feet, it ~becomes
necessary to start an increase in collective pitch
to check the rate of descent, therefore, you
begin to release the back cyclic control pressure
that you have been holding to slow your for-
ward movement. By doing this, you are allowing
the helicopter to assume a level attitude rather
than a tail-low attitude. If a tail-low attitude
were held as the helicopter came to a hover,
the tail rotor might strike the ground. There-
fore, you should have the helicopter in a level
attitude when it comes to a hover.
When collective pitch is increased, throttle
is added to maintain a constant rpm. It also
becomes necessary to increase rudder, since
torque is now having more effect as the heli-
copter comes to a hover. The rudder used to
hover will be just the reverse of the rudder used
when making the approach.
The rate of descent should be completely
stopped as the helicopter approaches the hover,
but there should be a slight forward movc-
ment. Slight forward movement is needed to
prevent the new helicopter pilot from getting
the tail too low while trying to obtain zero
groundspeed when coming to a hover. The
helicopter has a tendency to balloon slightly as
it picks up the ground cushion, but a slight
decrease in collective pitch will prevent a gain
in altitude.
Closely cross-check groundspeed with air-
speed on the approach for the following reasons:
First, the initial indication of a downwind ap-
proach will be noted when the airspeed needle
is on zero and a forward speed still exists. Sec-
ond, an approximate estimate of the wind can
be made in the same manner; the higher the
initial airspeed after the approach groundspeed
has been established, the stronger the existing
wind. Or, the lower the initial airspeed after
the groundspeed has been established, the weak-
er the wind. From this observation, we can
see that the airspeed indicator is a valuable
source of inform&ion. However, the majority
of control on the approach should be exercised
by reference to the ground.
57
 Sideways and Backward Flight
Sideways and backward flight is accom-
plished much like hovering, and places a
premium on your concentration and coordina-
tion. These maneuvers should be made at a
constant groundspeed, but not !+st enough to
lose lift afforded by the ground cushion. As in
hovering, you control groundspeed and direc-
tion by the use of the cyclic control stick,
altitude by the collective pitch, and heading b!
the use of the rudder.
Prior to accomplishing sideways and back-
ward Right, make some clearing turns to make
sure that the area is clear. Once you have com-
pleted these turns, pick out some reference
points to guide you on a straight ground track
as you accomplish sideways or backward flight.
When doing sideways flight, pick a reference
point 90 out from the cockpit in the direction
of flight. By using this point as a reference, you
are better able to maintain a straight ground
track. This also applies to backward flight,
except that the reference point will be directlv
in front of the aircraft.
To start sideways or backward flight, you
need onlv to tilt the cyclic control stick in the
desired direction of flight and hold a constant
pressure to insure a constant groundspeed.
By coordinating this movement with the other
controls, you will be able to accomplish the
maneuver in a precision manner.
Autorotation landings
An autorotation in a helicopter is comparable
to a forced landing in a fixed-wing aircraft.
This maneuver is considered as an emergency
procedure and should be treated as such. You
must understand the proper execution of this
tnaneuver because, as in any emergency proce-
dure, a small error in judgment or technique
can be extremely costly.
There are two general types of autorotative
landings - the running landing, and the Aare-
type. We will first discuss the running landing.
Running Landings
Normally, sim&ted autorotations are initi-
ated above 300 feet and usually completed
within 5 to 10 feet of the ground. When
making the initial entry, lower the collective
pitch stick smoothly to the full low position.
Usually, cruising rpm is maintained until the
collective pitch stick is in the full low position.
As th e pitch decreases, apply sufficient rudder
to keep the nose straight. Once the collective
pitch stick is completely down, reduce throttle.
This reduces the engine rpm to a speed at which
the engine no longer drives the rotor, and puts
the helicopter into autorotation. This is corn-
manly called splitting the needles, because
the engine needle drops below the rotor needle
on the dual tachometer.
During the glide, the desired airspeed is
maintained by the cyclic control stick, usually
until the level-off is started. In the running
landing type of autorotation, a gradual dissipa-
tion of airspeed is desired until the helicopter
is approximately 20 feet above the ground. At
this point, the helicopter should still have a
forward speed of approximately 15 mph.
Neuer get the attitude of the helicopter so
nose-high that the.tail .,rotor would strike the
ground if this attitude was held on an actual
touch-down.
.4t approximately 20 feet above the ground,
place the helicopter in a level attitude by using
the cyclic control. In simulated autorotations,
you make a power recovery by the use of
collective pitch and throttle to stop the rate of
descent at a safe altitude above the ground.
Power should not be brought in too abruptly
or an extreme yawing of the nose of the heli-
copter will result from the sudden increase in
torque.
If an actual touchdown autorotation is to be
made, the same technique is used except, of
course, that no power recovery is made. One
very important point to remember in an actual
autorotation is that the helicopter should touch
down with the gear in a level attitude. Any
deviation from this will result in an extremely
dangerous situation.
You must evaluate the situation prior to
accomplishing an autorotation, especially if you
are going to make an actual tguchdown. The
factors to be considered are altitude, airspeed,
CG location, gross weight, and wind velocity.
Each factor will have a bearing on the use of
the collective pitch and cyclic controls. The
more critical the conditions, the faster the col-
lective pitch must be used to cushion the
helicopter on touchdown. Normally, on a run-
ning landing autorotation the collective pitch
will be used 5 to 10 feet above the ground. The
faster the rate of descent, the faster the collec-
tive pitch must be used.
A running landing autorotation wilI result
in the helicopter touching down at approxi-
mately 10 mph. Therefore, it should only be
used when a relatively smooth landing area is
available.
59
 MAINTAIN CRUISING AIRSPEED BY CYCLIC CONTROL

START FLARE OUT BY BACK CYCLIC CONTROL

Flare Type
Landing

INCREASE COttECE PITCH AND

6 THROITLE TO STOP RATE OF DESCENT
0

Flare-Type landing feet altitude, and to continue to slow the

The flare-type autorotation is initiated in groundspeed while paralleling the ground at
the same manner as the running landing type. this altitude. While a slight forward speed still
This type of autorotation is more difficult to exists, roll the helicopter in a level attitude with
perform and requires even greater skill in the cyclic control stick. On simulated flare-outs,
making an actual touchdown. When the flare- a power recovery is then made in the same
type autorotation is being made, the cruising manner as for the running landing autorota-
airspeed is usually maintained on the glide tion. If an actual flare-out touchdown is to be
until the helicopter is approximately 75 feet made, the collective pitch must be applied more
above the ground. At this point, start the quickly than on a running landing type auto-
flare-out by smooth application of back cyclic rotation to cushion the helicopter on landing.
control. The more critical the existing condi- The flare-type of autorotation will result in
tions, the quicker and sharper the flare-out a touchdown at a low groundspeed with very
must be. little forward ground roll; therefore, it is suit-
The purpose of the flare-out is to completely able for landing in rough terrain where a run-
stop the rate of descent at approximately 25 ning landing would not be practical.

60
 OOY
Steep Approach
BRNG HELlCOPTER TO A HOVER WITH
4 NO FORWARD MOVEMENT OVER SPOT
Steep Approach
The steep approach is designed to enable you
to fly the helicopter into a tight spot surround-
ed by high obstacles. This is a precision power-
glide approach to a spot. The steep approach
is made in the same basic manner as the normal
approach, except that the angle of glide is
steeper and is controlled more closely to hit the
intended landing spot. (When we speak of
power-glide control, we mean the controlling
of the angle of glide and groundspeed by the
collective pitch and cyclic control respectively.)
AU major corrections on this approach
should he made in the first one-third of the
approach. Only minor corrections should be
made in the last two-thirds of the approach.
This is necessary to prevent you from dragging
the helicopter in low over high obstacle or
coming down vertically from too high an alti-
tude to hit a spot.
CONTROL GROUND SPEED PRIMARILY BY CYCUC CONTROL
As previously pointed out, the angle of glide
and rate of descent are primarily controlled by
collective pitch, and the groundspeed is pri-
marily controlled by the cyclic control. Do not
forget, however, that only by the coordination
of all controls can the approach be accom-
plished successfully.
Since the rate of descent on the steep ap-
proach is much higher than for a normal
approach, the collective pitch must be used
much sooner at the bottom of the approach. As
the helicopter approaches the landing spot, the
groundspeed should be slowed to zero.
The steep approach gives you a basic ap-
proach for getting into small areas. Since it is
much steeper than a normal approach and has
a higher rate of descent, more power is re-
quired when coming to a hover at the bottom
of the approach. Keep this in mind.
61
Maximum Performance Take&r This maneuver will result in .a steep climb,
The maximum performance takeoff is de- affording maximum altitude gain in a minimum
signed to be used when raking off from small distance forward. The angle of climb will de-
fields surrounded by high obstacles. Before pend on existing conditions. The more critical
attempting a takeoff of this type you must the weather - the less favorable air pressure,
know thoroughly the capabilities and limita- density, etc., - the shallower the angle of
tions of your equipment. You must also take climb will be. Use caution in climbing steeply.
into consideration wind velocity, temperature, If the airspeed is allowed to get too low, the
gross weight, CG location, and other factors helicopter may settle back to the ground. Furth-
affecting your technique and the performance ermore, an engine failure at low altitude and
of your helicopter. airspeed would place the helicopter in a danger-
When making a maximum performance ous position, requiring a high degree of skill
takeoff, increase the collective pitch and chrot- in making a safe autorotation landing.
tle until the maximum red-line engine rpm is
obtained and the helicopter becomes light on
the gear. Then increase the collective pitch ROLLNOSE OVER
and add full throttle as the helicopter becomes
5 AND PICK UP DESIRED
airborne. When the helicopter leaves the
ground, it should be going up and forward.
Once the climbing airspeed is reached, it will
be necessary to come back on the cyclic stick
slightly to prevent the helicopter from picking
up too much forward speed. Utilize full-power
until the helicopter is clear of all obstacles,
after which the power can be reduced and a
normal climb established.

Maximum Performance
Takeoff
0 MAlNTAlN
FVLL
POWER
AND
CONTlNUE
TO
CLIMB

START BACK ON CYCLIC CONTROL STICK

TO MAINTAIN CLlMBlNG AIRSPEED

0
,NCREASE
COLLEcnE
2 GOING PITCH
AND
ADD
FLL
THROTTLE AS HELICOPTER BECOMES AIRBORNE
VP AND FORWARD
0
NCREASE COMCWE PlTCH AND THROTTLE UNTIL
HELICOPTER IS UGHT ON THE GEAR
Fast Shallow Approach
The fast shallow approach is used when you
believe that critical weather conditions exist
at the intended landing spot and sufficient
space is available to make a running landing.
The angle of glide for this approach is much
shallower and the groundspeed is much faster
than on the normal approach.
Establish this approach so the helicopter will
he at a point approximately 5 feet high and 75
yards short of the intended landing spot by the
time the groundspeed has dissipated to 30
mph. At this point place the helicopter in a
level attitude. As it approaches the touchdown
point, use sufficient collective pitch to prevent
the helicopter from making a hard, running
landing.
The fast shallow approach depends on trans-
lational lift. Therefore, it is extremely important
that you do not allow the groundspeed to get
too slow when close to the landing spot. The
slower the groundspeed, the more collective
pitch is required to prevent the helicopter from
settling. If it is neceswy to use all available
collective pitch prior to actually touching down,
there is a goal chance that the helicopter will
continue to settle and make a hard landing.
DECREASECOLLEcTl"E PlTCH
1 OF
AND OBTAIN DESIRED RATE
DESCENT, ANGLE OF
GLIDE, AND GROUND SPEED
GROUND SPEED
Crosswind Considerations
Maneuvering crosswind wI& taking off,
landing, hovering, or making approaches re-
quires precise coordination of all controls, with
primary consideration to drift correction. Dur-
ing crosswind hovering, landing, or takeoff,
compensate for drift by cyclic control.
When attempting a crosswind landing, you
should kill all drift by use of the cyclic control.
No attempt should be made to land while
drifting, as this is inviting an accident. The
same principle of drift correction applies to a
crosswind takeoff.
If it becomes necessary to make a crosswind
approach, control drift by a combination of
cyclic and rudder control. If possible, turn the
helicopter into the wind near the bottom of the
approach. This turn should be started high
enough to prevent a possibility of dragging the
landing gear on the ground.
During any crosswind maneuver, you should
know the wind velocity and anticipate the
proper cyclic corrections. Furthermore, never
attempt crosswind work if you have any doubt
about the control limitations of the helicopter
you are flying.
Fart Shallow
Approach
63
Running landings and Tokeaffs hovering turn and maintaining a constant alti-
When you are unable to hover the helicopter tude, rate of turn, and rpm. Initiate this
at full power because of critical weather or a maneuver by starting a smooth application of
heavy load, it becomes necessary to make a rudder in the desired direction of turn. You
running takeoff to become airborne. .4lthough control the altitude by the use of the collec-
this is not the only method of getting the heli- tive pitch, hold the aircraft over the spot by the
copter airborne under these conditions, it is by cyclic control, and maintain a constant rate of
far the safest. turn by rudder control.
.4 relativelv smooth surface is needed for a There is a tendency for the helicopter to
running landing. Having selected a suitable whip at the 180 point, but this can be
area, increase collective pitch and throttle until compensated for by anticipating rudder control.
the helicopter becomes light on its gear. You This whipping action is more noticeable in
then tilt the cyclic control stick forward to start winds above 10 mph. Hovering turns should
the helicopter rolling. Keep it rolling straight not be attempted in winds so strong that there
ahead by using the rudder pedals. is insuficient back cyclic control to hold the
Do not attempt to get the helicopter airborne helicopter over the spot when it is headed
until you have sufficient forward speed to downwind.
utilize translational lift. At this time, you use a During hovering turns, there is a normal
slight amount of back cyclic control and the tendency to over-control on the cyclic control
rest of the collective pitch and throttle to make stick. You can avoid over-controlling by holding
the helicopter airborne. Then utilize full power
until you have reached climbing airspeed, mak-
ing no attempt to climb until this speed
been reached. .4ttempting
has
to climb without
sufficient airspeed may cause the helicopter to
settle back to the ground.
RESULTANT FORCE
:\s mentioned before, the running landing is
used with the fast shallow approach. A heli-
copter with landing wheels should touch down
in a level attitude at approximately 30 mph
groundspeed. After landing, lower collective
pitch smoothI,- while maintaining rpm. If you
reduce rpm immediately after landing, you may
lose directional control. Helicopters with skid
gears should be landed at a much slower rate,
to prevent nosing over, and the collective pitch
should not be reduced until the aircraft has
come to a complete stop.
Hovering Turn
The hovering turn is primarily a maneuver

trols. It is performed at hawing

to teach you smooth coordination of all con-
altitude.
The object of this maneuver is to keep the
helicopter over a spot while making a 360

64
 a constant pressure on the cyclic control stick
rather than making abrupt movements. In fact,
hovering turns can be accomplished in a pre-
cise manner only by smooth application - and
coordination - of all controls.
Rapid deceleration could be useful in the
event a quick stop in the air is needed. HOW-
ever, it is primarily a maneuver used to prac-
tice coordination. Rapid deceleration is per-
formed at an altitude of approximately 50 feet.
The purpose of the maneuver is to maintain a
constant altitude, heading, and rpm while
slowing the helicopter down to the desired
gmundspeed.
To accomplish the maneuver, decrease col-
lective pitch and coordinate the throttle to
maintain a constant pm, while coming hack
on the cyclic control to maintain a constant
altitude. At the same time, use sufficient rudder
to hold a constant heading.
The attitude of the helicopter will he nose-
high until the desired groundspeed is reache$
At this time start your recovery. The recovery
is accomplished by leveling the helicopter with
the cyclic control, and coming in with collec-
tive pitch and throttle to maintain altitude.
Opposite rudder is then used to keep the nose
from yawing off the point.
The helicopter should never be slowed to
zero groundspeed in a nose-high attitude dur-
ing this maneuver. Such a condition would
result in the helicopter settling and the tail
cone striking the ground.
Rapid deceleration is a maneuver which tests
the pilots ability to coordinate control aqtion.
If all controls are not coordinated simultaw+s-
ly, a loss or gain in altitude will result and pm
will vary erratically.

DECREASECOLLECWE PITCH WHILE CooRD,NATlNG ROLL HELlCOP,ER

MLCONTROLS4 ATTITUDE INA LEVEL
1 CYCLIC
AND COME BACK ON THE 2-3 DOWN
CONTlNUE TO SLOW THE HELICOPTER
UNTIL DESIRED GROUND SPEED
AND INCREASE
COLtEcE mcn TO
CONTROL STICK TO
MAINTAIN ALTITUDE IS OBTAINED MAINTAIN ALTITUDE

Ropid Deceleration
 GLOSSARY
Airfoil Any surface that develops a useful
dynamic reaction from the air.
Angle of Attack The acute angle formed by
the chord line of the airfoil and the relative
wind. The advancing and retreating main
rotor blades of the helicopter vary their
angle of attack in making a cycle of rotation
during horizontal flight.
Angle of Incidence The acute angle formed
by the chord of the airfoil and the longitudi-
nal axis of the aircraft. In most helicopters,
this angle continually changes while the
helicopter is in horizontal flight, each blade
varies its angle of incidence in making a
complete cycle of rotation.
Articulated Rotor A rotor system whose in-
dividual or collective main rotor blades are
free to flap, feather, and drag individually or
collectively.
Autogym An aircraft having rotary airfoils
which act only as a means of lift and sup
port. Autogyro is a trade name for the
Cierva type aircraft. The main rotor system
of an autogyro is not engine driven while in
flight. Lift is developed by the air passing
up through the rotor blades causing them to
rotate at a sufficiently high rpm to support
the aircraft. Power is delivered to a conven-
tional-type propeller, which is located on the
nose of the autogyro, and provides forward
thrust. Normally a minimum of a thirty miles
an hour airspeed is required to sustain the
aircraft in flight.
Autorotation The process of producing lift
with airfoils which rotate freely and are not
engine driven. When a helicopter enters
into autorotation, the flow of air is upward
through the main rotor system, rather than
downward, as is the case when the rotors are
engine driven.
Blade One airfoil of a rotary-wing system
used for lift, and directional control.
Center of Gravity (CC) An imaginary point
in a body where the resultant of all forces
of gravity is considered to be concentrated.
Center of Pressure An imaginary point where
the resultant of all aerodynamic forces of an
airfoil is considered to be concentrated.
Centrifugal Force A force created by revolv-
ing a system which tends to pull away from
the axis of rotation. More specifically, in a
helicopter the rotating rotor system tends to
pull the blades away from the rotor head,
causing them to form a flat disk area.
Coaxial Configuration Two rotor systems that
are mounted on the same vertical drive shaft,
one above the other. These systems turn in
opposite directions to compensate for torque.
Collective Pitch Change A mechanical means
of simultaneously increasing or decreasing
the pitch of all main rotor blades. This an-
gular change is equal on all the main rotor
blades.
Coning The upward flexing of the rotor blades
resulting from the vectorially combined ef-
fects of centrifugal force and.lift.
Cyclic Pitch Change A mechanical means em-
ployed to change the pitch of the main rotor
blades when the rotor system makes a cycle
of rotation. The angular change of the main
rotor blades is equal and opposite.
Density Altitude The altitude under NACA
standard air conditions. True altitude under
field air conditions may be converted to the
density altitude by correcting for barometric
pressure and air temperature. Conversion of
pressure altitude to density is based upon
correcting for temperature only.
67
Disk Area The area swept by the rotating
blades, which is practically a circle, having a
radius of one-half the rotor diameter.
Disk Loadii The ratio of gross weight to disk
area (gross weight divided by disk area).
Dissymmetry of Lift The unequal lift across
a rotor disk that occurs in horizontal flight
as a result of the difference in velocity of the
air over the advancing half of the disk area,
and the air passing over the retreating half
of disk area.
Drag The force which tends to resist an air-
foils passage through the air. Drag is par-
allel to the relative wind and varies as the
square of the velociry. In a helico$zr, the
term dragging is used to describe the move-
ment of the rotor blade in a horizontal plane
about a vertical axis.
Flapping The movement of a blade vertically
about a horizontal axis. There are several
reasons for this action, one being the dissym-
metry of lift that exists between the advanc-
ing and retreating halves of the disk area
during horizontal flight.
Ground Cushion or Ground Effect Additional
lift obtained when the helicopter is hovering
close to the ground caused by the packing of
the air between the main rotor and the
ground. Such air has greater density. It is
effective to a height of one-half the rotor
diameter.
Gyroscopic Precession A characteristic of all
rotating bodies. Such bodies will be uniform-
ly displaced 90 in the directi-m of rotation
from where a force is applied.
Hovering Maintaining a fixed position in
space over a spot on the ground. While hov-
ering, lift equals gross weight.
Hovering in Ground Effect The flight of a
helicopter with zero ground speed near
enough to the ground or water sl:rface to
compress a cushion of high density air be-
tween the main rotor and the ground or
water surface, thereby increasing the lift pro-
duced by the main rotor.
68
Hovering Without Ground Effect The. flight
of a helicopt)r with zero ground speed not
near enough to the ground or water surface
to gain additional lift by compressing an air
cushion between the main rotor and the
ground or water surface.
Rigid Rotor A rotor whose blades and hub
are rigid to the mast, and can feather only,
but cannot flap or drag.
Rotational Velocity The velocity of any speci-
fied section of a rotor blade resulting from
rotation of the blade.
Semirigid Rotor A rotor system whose blades
are fired to a hub, but are free to flap and
feather.
Tail Rotor All the blades and attachments
which make up the torque compensating sys-
tem.
Tip Path Plane The imaginary circular sur-
face formed by a plane passed through ~the
average tip path of the rotor blades.
Torque A force or combination of forces that
produce a rotating or twisting motion. In a
helicopter, the initiating force (engine) ro-
tates the main rotor system in one direction,
and the fuselage tends to rotate in the oppo-
site direction. A helicopter with a single main
rotor driven by a conventional engine em-
ploys a tail rotor to compensate for torque.
Tracking A term denoting the satisfactory
relationship of the rotor blades to each other
under dynamic flight conditions. This rela-
tionship is established whenever the blade
tips rotate in the same place. (The word
tracking has come to mean also the me-
chanical procedure used to bring the blades
to the above satisfactory flight condition.)
Translational Lift The additional lift obtained
when leaving the ground cushion and enter-
ing horizontal flight.