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An appreciation of the relevance of leadership to public organizations using theoretical

insights; the Jamaican case

By: Aneisha Lancaster


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Introduction
The world is inevitably trapped into an interconnected web of geopolitical, economic, social and

cultural relevance. Global populations has ballooned to over 7 billion people as at October 31,

2011 and this has been equated by unprecedented advances and catastrophes in the natural and

manmade worlds. The phenomenon, most argued to be at fault, is globalization; the irrefutable

feature and form of the global village. Friedman (1999) stated that there are four main tenets of

globalization, namely: "democratization, the "golden straightjacket", the "electric herd"


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(McAnany, 2002, 4); and the inevitability of the process. Whilst all the features of globalization

affect the world in significant ways; it is process inevitability which has rendered innovation and

reform the new watch words of global business and governance. In response, most countries,

especially developing countries have been integrating innovative elements of new public

management (NPM) in their governance practices. Significantly, a number of countries started

experimenting with UK-style executive agencies, including Jamaica, Singapore, Ghana and

Tanzania. The most common initiative apart from privatization and retrenchmentindeed,

perhaps the most common, given the patchy implementation of these other two elementsis that

of corporatization (converting civil service departments into free-standing agencies or

enterprises.2

The intent of new public sector reform (PSR) in Jamaica has been articulated in the GoJs

Managing for Results (MfR), Ministry Paper 56/02 entitled Government at your Service:

Public Sector Modernization Vision and Strategy 2002-2012 which envisioned 100% of public

1
McAnany, Emile G. "Globalization and the media: The debate continues." Communication Research Trends 21, no. 4 (2002)., 4
2
Polidano, Charles. The new public management in developing countries. Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and
Management, University of Manchester, 1999., 6
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servants operating on the principles of executive agencies by the end of financial year

2011/20123. The objective of this government articulation is to integrate innovative principles in

the reform processes of the GoJ to create self-sufficient agencies. It is, by far, one of the most

ambitious articulations of the GoJs Public Sector Modernisation Programme (PSMP). But, what

are the primary components that will affect the programme outcomes? Is there any claim in

scholarly literature, documented cases or practices in other jurisdictions providing evidence to

strengthen the presumed realization of said vision strategy? Bass (1990) asserted that leadership

is often regarded as the single most important factor in the success or failure of institutions4.

Within this context, this paper will robustly interrogate leadership in public organizations, the

impact different leadership styles has on organizational outcomes and assess the extent to which

a focus on leadership is vital to public sector entities. This is within the wider framework of

relevant theoretical understandings that the attempt will be made to clarify any misconceptions

about new public leadership and localize the discussion on the impact of different leadership

styles on public sector reform activities.

Defining public sector and organizations


The public sector is the base of most countries. In many instances, it accounts for a large percent

of the labour force and the creation and management of public good and services. Depending on

the governing political ideology, there is varying layers of bureaucracy, private interest and

public regulations. To this end, Macionis and Plummer defined formal organizations as large,

secondary groups that are organized to achieve their goals efficiently5. Some theorists distinguish

between organizations, the institutions and organization, the process. However, both micro and

3
Cabinet Office, Government at Your Service: Public Sector Modernisation Vision and Strategy 2002-2012, Government of
Jamaica, Kingston (2002), 30
4
Pingle, Timothy. "Leadership practices of elementary school principals." Academic Leadership: The Online Journal 4, no. 2
(2006): 4., 7.
5
Macionis, J., and Ken Plummer. "Sociology: A Global Introduction, Harlow." (2005). , 169
4

macro theorists agree that there is some merit in organizational structures, which create

surrounding cultures and involve varying number of people for profit or public trust. A

simplified appreciation of organization as a process is in the example of occupational groups in

Western society which plan, organize and coordinate the activities of the working class to

achieve some results6. Functionalist theories averred that such organization naturally involves

centralization and differentiation of leadership and authority; so that those who take

responsibility for coordinating the actions of many others must have a different status from those

who are in the role of carrying out specifications7.

However, in the general organization of people, resources and processes comes the creation of

public sector organizations for planned efficiency and collective goals and, of more importance

recently, managing for results (MfR). According to Drucker (1954), managing for results is a

tool of planning and control which relies on the idea that to get results, one needs to previously

clarify the organizations business and to define the objectives it intends to achieve8. This is a

core feature of present public sector organizations, irrespective of the level of organization.

There are four categories of public organizations, namely: international (or multistate entities or

partnerships); national entities owned by an independent state; regional bodies such as the South

East Regional Health Authorities (SERHA), that is, a province, actor of entity within a national

state and local organizations (a municipal-level body)9.

6
Michael Haralambos et al. Sociology: Themes and perspectives. HarperCollins Publishers, 2004, 21
7
Parsons, Talcott. The theory of social and economic organization. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1964.,
327
8
De Arajo, et al. "Implementing performancebased management in the traditional bureaucracy of Portugal." Public
Administration 87, no. 3 (2009): 557-573., 559/ Drucker, 1954.
9
Public Sector Definition, The Institute of Internal Auditors, December, 2011 https://na.theiia.org/standards-
guidance/Public%20Documents/Public%20Sector%20Definition.pdf.
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As stated earlier the objective of the PSMP in Jamaica is to have, at least, the majority of public

servants operating within the principles of innovative corporatisation. Campbell stated that the

current administration is committed to enabling the long-awaited public-sector transformation

exercises necessary to overhaul the public sector 10(Campbell, 2017). The GoJ has been

criticized for reports of poor service, inefficiencies, waste and gross mismanagement. The

privatisation and corporatisation of some civil service departments therefore has been hoped to

be the leader of changes in the public sector11, to advance sector outcomes through self-

financing, quality standards of output through bonuses, and maintaining quality staff by hiring

capable staff (Chand and Moene 1999). This process has been both criticized and complemented

in some circles for overall impact, that is, either above or below expectation. In almost all

instances, the impact of leadership has been central to the discussion.

Understanding leadership
Certainly, a good understanding of leadership is important to the appreciation of the impact of

PSR, and its impact on organizational performance. In their review of literature on leadership,

Stogdill (1974) and Bass (1990) concluded that there are almost as many definitions of

leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept 12(Stogdill 1974, p.

259; Bass, 1990, 11; Yukl, 2002, 21). Several studies suggest that leadership must be defined in

relations to traits, behaviours, influence, span of control, interaction patterns, role relationships,

and occupation of an administrative position, etc (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 2002; Kayworth and

Leidner, 2002; Craig Higgins, 2008). Therefore, leadership has broadly been defined as the

10 Campbell Edmond. Holness To Rightsize Public Sector The Jamaica Gleaner (2017, January 6) http://jamaica-
gleaner.com/article/lead-stories/20170106/holness-rightsize-public-sector
11 Polidano, Charles. The new public management in developing countries. Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and

Management, University of Manchester, 1999. p.8


12 Yukl, 2002, 21
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creation and management of organizational culture13. It has been noted that it is an ambiguous

concept to define and measure as a scientific construct. In attempting to resolve the definition of

leadership, Yukl (2002, 21) noted that the definition must reflect the assumption that it involves

a process whereby intentional influence is exerted over other people to guide, structure, and

facilitate activities and relationships in a group or organization14. In public administration,

leadership and management are used synonymously to refer to the persons at the helm of an

organization, and particularly those with the distinguished aura of respect and authority for

charting the course of change for the organization.

The core principles underlying successful public administration include transparency,

accountability, code of ethics, professionalism, and most importantly, leadership. It is widely

argued that the goal of any public organization is to serve its citizenry to the best of their ability,

engendering trust and confidence and producing results. Therefore, all managers are accountable

to the public as to how they steward public funds and information. Henceforth, these principles

both define and are defined in the art of good public leadership. One writer concluded then that

leaders must have the ability to recognize the value of human capital and allow those talents to

be utilized for the betterment of the organization. Admittedly, leadership can become a balancing

act between becoming an active team member and taking charge of overall operations 15.

Theories of leadership
Without question, the claim can be made that leadership is critical to organizational outcomes,

even in public entities. Researchers including Yukl (2002) claimed that leadership style is the

process of communication designed by a leader to influence his or her followers to produce the

13 (Schein, 1992, 1)
14
Yukl, Gary A. Leadership in organizations,2002, 21
15 Michael DeRosia, The Five Core Values Of Public Administration?, Gov Loop (blog), March 9, 2010,

https://www.govloop.com/community/blog/the-five-core-values-of-public-administration/
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changes needed to achieve the organizations goals. The literature further contends that among

the primary roles of leadership, especially in product-service led sector, is to create an

environment that can affect outcome (Pahi and Hamid, 2015). Typically, leadership styles from

the behavioural perspective include democratic, autocratic and laissez-fair (Yukl, 2002) but new

leadership theorists have upgraded this list to examine leadership as transactional or

transformational (Bass 1985; Yukl, 2002; Pahi and Hamid, 2015). Furthermore, a well-known

Situational Leadership Model was developed which demarcated four styles of leadership:

autocratic (telling), democratic (selling), encouraging and social (participating), and laissez-faire

style (delegating)16. Overall, Kayworth, and Leidner. (2002) asserted that there are

approximately six central research approaches to studying leadership.

The theories of leadership are numerous, and perhaps as dynamic as the definitions of leadership.

Contemporary writers summed leadership into six categories. These include Trait Theory, Skills

Theory, Situational Theory, Contingency Theory, Path-Goal Theory, Transformational Theory,

Transactional Theory and Servant Leadership Theory. Another articulation expressed the

categories of leadership as being inclusive trait theory, behavioural theory, contingency theory,

power and influence theory, cognitive theory, and symbolic and cultural theory (Bensimon,

Neuman & Birnbaum, 1989). Using this grouping, behavioural theory seeks to explain leadership

in terms of what they do, while Trait Theory explains leadership from the position of what

leaders are. Yukl (1998, 2002), indicated that the most popular contingency theories include

Path-Goal Theory, Situational Leadership Theory, Multiple Linkage Model, LPC Contingency

Model, Cognitive Resource Theory, and Normative Decision Theory. Contingency theories

provided insights into effective leadership in differing situations by noting that leadership

16
Tatlah, Ijaz Ahmad, and Muhammad Zafar Iqbal. "Leadership styles and school effectiveness: empirical evidence
from secondary level." Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 69 (2012): 790-797., 792
8

effectiveness is dependent on a match between leadership style and the situation (or

contingency). According to Yukl, power and influence theory seeks to explain leadership

effectiveness based on the amount and kind of power and influence possessed by a leader and

how that power is exerted.

Transformational Leadership

In this analysis, the emphasis goes beyond simple traditional perspectives to understand

contingent and situational leadership. The emergence of contingency or situational approach in

leadership discourse largely displaced the dominant trait and behaviour approach17. This focus

on MfR, or results-based management -sometimes differs among private and public entities- but

is the single most critical tenet in organizational outcomes. In fact, it is important to recall that

the management of resources and organizational operations is synonymous with leadership.

Burns is responsible for coining the phrase transformational leadership as a modern approach

to creating organizational excellence. In certain sectors, there is sufficient evidence to contend

that transformational leadership can transform employees attitude towards the organization and

their collective performance.18 Clark et al. (2009) in a study in the service sector found that

transformational leadership is most significant in the improvement of employees attitude

towards quality outcome.19 The transformational leader is known for generating a strong sense of

commitment among their employees. This has resulted in the increase of productivity and is,

thus, tantamount to organizational performance. Transformational leaders are often described as

encouraging and social and thus seen as agents actively participating in and owning the

17
Lo et al. "The relationship between leadership styles and organizational commitment in Malaysia: role of leadermember
exchange." Asia Pacific business review 16, no. 1-2 (2010): 79-103, 94)
18
Pahi, M. H., K. A. Hamid, U. Ahmed, and W. A. Umrani. "The unresolved dilemma of leadership-commitment relationship: A
proposed framework." Business and Economics Journal 7, no. 1 (2015): 2-7.
19
Ibid 18
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process of change.20 The effectiveness of transformational leaders is affected by the extent to

which the leader is participative in organizational life and adopts democratic leadership

principles.

Key theorists defined transformational leadership as more than simple charisma or ensuring

followers compliance, but rather a relationship of mutual simulation and elevation that

converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents21. Of significance is

the general notion that transformational leaders can enhance employees organizational

commitment which in turn create loyalty, maintain low levels of staff turnover. In the public

sector, this has major implications for Results Based Budgeting, priority planning and human

capital development, at the level of both the individual entity and the national level. Further, a

study by Dunn, Dastoor, & Sims in 2012 revealed that transformational leadership has

considerable impact on organization commitment. Another study concluded that transformational

leadership is positively associated with customer service quality (CSQ). From the findings it is

clear that transformational leadership has potential ability to influence the attitudes of

subordinates; that ultimately leads them towards becoming committed to quality of service. 22

Transactional Leadership
On the other hand, transactional leadership has as its strength, the emphasis on implementing

decisions, quality of performance, and goal achievement by exchanging rewards for

performance. It was asserted that transactional leaders give importance to exchange relationship

between followers and leaders whereby leader are willing to satisfy the followers needs in

exchange for their performance, that is, meeting organizational goals. This form of leadership

20
Tatlah and Iqbal, 2012
21
Burns, James M. "Leadership. NY." (1978)., 4
22 Pahi and Hamid, 2015, 290
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works best in a supportive and bureaucratic culture which inspires their followers towards

commitment to the organization23. Several researchers suggested that this type of leadership has

the capacity to inspire organizational commitment among employees.

Based on almost entirely on bureaucratic authority and legitimacy within an organization,

transactional leadership relies on human relations to lubricate human interactions 24(Emery and

Barker, 2007; Homkes, 2014). Thus, it is theorized that transactional leaders highlight work

standards, and task-oriented goals largely focus on task completion and employee compliance. 25

This type of leadership relates with employees through rewards resulting in improvements in

productivity. It supports structures and systems that maximize efficiency, and guarantee short-

term profits through relational environment, and commitment to performance.

Integrative and visionary leadership


However, further analysis of public sector operations is indicative of the fact that successful

piloting of governmental bodies goes beyond encouragement and transactions. In these cases

where leadership with the capacity to make lasting impact and mobilize innovative reforms is

required, the appropriate form of leadership is that which is both integrative and visionary. It is

automatic that for public mangers to be successful, they must have a vision of what they want to

achieve, and effectively convey this to the group that they lead. Cheryl Mabey in her Making of

the Citizen Leader (1992) leads the crusade for visionary leadership. The emphasis here is on the

capacity of the leader to formulate the future direction of the organization and to effectively

communicate this vision to others. This integrative approach to leadership goes beyond normal

leadership concerns to build environments which improve performance through enabling critical

23 Pahi and Hamid, 2015, 284)


24 Charles E
mery,
et al. "The effect of transactional and transformational leadership styles on the organizational commitment and
job satisfaction of customer contact personnel." Journal of organizational culture, communications and conflict 11, no. 1 (2007):
77.
25 Burns (1978)
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organizational capacities26. Without question, integrative leadership has to be strategic and

tactical in their operations in order to effectively manage national resources efficiently. Studies

in OECD countries show that this sort of management represents a paradigm shift in the public

sector impacting organizational structures, operational and the overall way of thinking of

employees. Naturally, an encouraging leader with vision has the charisma to create a positive

attitude towards performance in the group that they lead. Therefore, integrative leadership

surrounds leaders who conceptualize and articulate their vision by focusing on the use of the

correct management systems and identifying all the potential leaders in the public sector to

empower as owners of the organizational performance.

Using the Triple bottomline (TBL) as the new baseline for organization planning and

performance, the success of any entity or the failure thereof is usually wrapped up in discussion

of leadership effectiveness. Bass (1990) asserted that leadership is often regarded as the single

most important factor in the success or failure of institutions. The globe is now focusing on the

sustainable agenda. This is underscored by the 1994 assertion by Elkington that entities should

be accountable to the three baselines of: Profit, planet and people. Consequently, the sustainable

business model is, in many respects, the new benchmark for global industries, multinational

corporations and other players in the global market place who are increasingly challenged to

craft business models which meet the triple bottle line.

Importance of leadership to organizational outcome


Kayworth and Leidner (2002) found that effective leadership is essential for firm success. The

study concluded that

26Moynihan, Donald P., and Patricia Wallace Ingraham. "Integrative leadership in the public sector: A model of performance-
information use." Administration & Society 36, no. 4 (2004): 427-453., 428
12

effective leaders demonstrate the capability to deal with paradox and contradiction by
performing multiple leadership roles simultaneously (behavioral complexity)... act in a
mentoring role and exhibit a high degree of understanding (empathy) [and] are also able
to assert their authority without being perceived as overbearing or inflexible. Finally,
effective leaders are found to be extremely effective at providing regular, detailed, and
prompt communication with their peers and in articulating role relationships
(responsibilities)27

At the core of this discussion on global competitiveness, sustainable innovation and PSR is the

role of leadership. The emphasis on NPM in OECD countries has been observed to include some

common realities, namely: a great concern for results, more flexible organization, clearly defined

objectives and performance indicators, the influence of market conditions on government

functions, and a trend to reduce government functions through privatization28. It involves a

detailed set of observable activities that can then be used as a basis of comparison for leadership

effectiveness. In many instances, governments are now using frameworks for performance

measurement which means that different sets of performance measures, related to the different

activities and goals, are developed and applied at each level of the organization for it to perform

effectively as a whole29. There is a consensus for a whole of government approach 30to

performance measurement led by public mangers. However, the presence of varying layers of

bureaucratic characteristics in the public sector can sometimes reduce the efficiency of

transformational leadership in this arrangement.

27 Kayworth, et al. "Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams." Journal of management information systems 18, no. 3
(2002): 7-40.
28 De Arajo, et al. "Implementing performancebased management in the traditional bureaucracy of Portugal." Public

Administration 87, no. 3 (2009): 557-573., 558.


29
Bale, Public sector reform in New Zealand and its relevance to developing countries." The World Bank Research Observer 13,
no. 1 (1998): 103-121, 106
30
Christensen,et al. "The wholeofgovernment approach to public sector reform." Public administration review 67, no. 6 (2007):
1059-1066.
13

The literature confirms a growing consensus in managerial discussions that reflect the true

source of successes of public organizations. It is underscored by a need for flexibility, influence

and effective monitoring of the process for desired outcome. Hence, Bass described idealized

influence as a style of transformational leadership where the leader behaviour results in the

subordinate identifying with the leader, their vision and involvement in the organizational

growth. Ideally, the leadership style that will be most effective should integrate certain personal

traits, understanding of situational and contextualizing of vision by intentional influence over

employees actions to guide, structure, and facilitate activities and relationships in an

organization for increased productivity and organizational performance.

Effective leadership gives credence to total quality management (TQM). Important to the

discussion of organizational management is this process of achieving excellence, a management

culture, or hierarchical structure created by the management of an organization to manage quality

related to its output31. It is an ongoing processing, monitoring and adopting which proper an

automated continuous response to global best practices in governance and administration. The

underlying tenets of TQM and leadership are synonymous to include quality planning, quality

control and quality improvement32. In public entities in Jamaica, this is demonstrated in the

introduction of strategic business and operational plans, results-based based and performance

management appraisal systems (PMAS) along with internationally accepted regulations.

Therefore, ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) engage in rigorous planning sections to

ensure that organizational objectives are defined and resources are organized in the process of

results based management. Unfortunately, this third wave of NPM remains somewhat infantile in

31 Westcott, Russell T., ed. The certified manager of quality/organizational excellence handbook. ASQ Quality Press, 2013.
32 Kaynak, Hale. "The relationship between total quality management practices and their effects on firm performance." Journal
of operations management 21, no. 4 (2003): 405-435.
14

Jamaica, therefore, the true extent of its success or failure cannot be rigorously interrogated as

yet.

As a consequence, the type and quality of leadership will invariably affect the organizational

culture that is formed and the resulting legacy. Roberto Goizueta, renowned chairman and chief

executive of Coco-Cola understood this principle and it allowed him to make his lifelong quest

of making Coco-cola the best company in the world. Upon his sudden death, the vision

continued and observers noted that perhaps no other corporate leader in modern times has so

beautifully exemplified the American dream. He believed that in America, all things are

possible... And because of his extraordinary leadership skills, he helped thousands of others

realize their dreams as well.33

Upon his death, the extent of his influence was demonstrated in the fact that when he took over

the company in 1981, it was valued at $4 billion but he transformed it into a $150 billion

enterprise through leadership that bought the idea of TQM and effectively sold it to all the

stakeholders. Goizuetta in his expert exemplification of the Law of Legacy, trained and

strengthened individuals with talents, nurtured their creativity and engendered a climate wherein

the innovative principles of transformational leaders could produce exceptional results. The

secret to his success rested in the fact that he believed in human resources, groomed their

potentials and equipped them to manage leadership. In principle, his approach to leadership

created a legacy through the creation of a leadership culture on one hand, and the creation of a

pathway for succession on the other hand.

33
Maxwell, John C. The 21 irrefutable laws of leadership: Follow them and people will follow you. Thomas Nelson Inc, 2007.,
216).
15

Conclusion
Conclusively, the evidence overwhelmingly points to the fact that leadership and management

can be used interchangeably to refer to those who manage the process of organization. There are

essentially six theories of leadership, with each questioning the robustness of the predecessor. In

the global village, the role of leadership is central to the understanding of organization and more

importantly to the organizational outcomes of public entities. With the focus on total quality, it

goes without saying therefore that public management has been transformed into a world of

public measurement. The new paradigm for the administration of public affairs, in Jamaica along

with numerous other countries, includes MDAs which now subscribe to principles of

corporatization including performance monitoring and results-based management.

In such instances, transformational leaders, more than transactional leaders, actively influence

organizational culture and by strengthening or changing the culture of the organization are able

to achieve better results. These leaders take responsibility for TQM and output, and are therefore

keen regulators of the influences on employees motivation and performance. At the heart of

public sector reform and modernization in this country, is considerable attention being placed on

the most crucial element, that is, the role of leadership as the rudder and the flagship that lead the

new paradigm of administration in public affairs.

The resounding conclusion is that the style of leadership differs from one circumstance to

another, but in most instances in developing countries embraces an integration of various

leadership traits, presumed to best fit the situation, varying degree of power and . It is also well

argued that the management style that brings more logical, rational yet innovative approach to

the organization is most likely to be effective. In the general public sector, this is a type of

integrative leadership that is both encouraging and transactional. The relevance and importance
16

of leadership cannot be overemphasized -in a geopolitical climate that involve scarce resources,

tightening fiscal space, international scrutiny and persistent calls for public efficiency,

transparency and accountably- in the managing of public assets. The future of competitiveness

for developing countries is no longer defined as the struggle to remain competitive in current

markets, but primarily as the struggle to be innovative leaders and the creation of new markets,

underpinned by sustainable agenda. It is at this leader that the focus on leadership is most critical

to public bodies, especially in countries like Jamaica where there is renewed focus on sustainable

economic growth and debt reduction, macro-economic stability and fiscal prudence.
17

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