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Introduction to Radar Systems

The Radar Equation


Introduction The Radar Range Equation

Propagation Waveform
Transmitter
Medium Generator

Signal Processor
Target
Cross
Section Pulse Doppler
Antenna Receiver A/D
Compression Processing

Main Computer
Console /
Tracking & Display
Detection Parameter
Estimation
Recording

The Radar Range Equation Connects:


1. Target Properties - e.g. Target Reflectivity (radar cross section)
2. Radar Characteristics - e.g. Transmitter Power, Antenna Aperture
3. Distance between Target and Radar - e.g. Range
4. Properties of the Medium - e.g. Atmospheric Attenuation.
Outline

Introduction
Introduction to Radar Equation
Surveillance Form of Radar Equation
Radar Losses
Example
Summary
Radar Range Equation

Power density from Pt Pt = peak transmitter


uniformly radiating antenna power
transmitting spherical wave 4 R2 R = distance from radar

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Radar Range Equation (continued)

Power density from Pt Pt = peak transmitter


isotropic antenna 4 R2 power
R = distance from radar
Power density from Pt Gt
directive antenna Gt = transmit gain
4 R2

Gain is the radiation intensity of


the antenna in a given direction
over that of an isotropic
(uniformly radiating) source .
Gain = 4 A / 2

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Definition of Radar Cross Section (RCS or )

R
Incident Energy
Radar
Antenna Target
Reflected Energy

Radar Cross Section (RCS or ) is a measure of the


energy that a radar target intercepts and scatters
back toward the radar

= radar cross section


Power of reflected Pt Gt
units (meters)2
signal at target 4 R2
Power density of
Power density of reflected Pt Gt reflected signal falls
signal at the radar 4 R 2 4 R2 off as (1/R2 )

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Radar Range Equation (continued)

Power density of reflected Pt Gt


signal at radar 4 R 2 4 R2
R

Radar
Antenna Target
Reflected Energy

The received power = the power density at the radar times the
area of the receiving antenna
Power of reflected Pt Gt Ae Pr = power received
signal from target and Pr =
received by radar 4 R2 4 R2 Ae = effective area of
receiving antenna
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Sources of Noise Received by Radar

The total effect of these Galactic Noise


noise sources is
Solar Noise
represented by a single
noise source at the
antenna output terminal.
Atmospheric
Noise
The noise power at the
receiver is given by:
N = k B n Ts

Man Made Courtesy of Lockheed Martin.


Receiver Interference Used with permission.
Ground Noise
( Radars, Radio Stations, etc)

Transmitter k = Boltzmans constant


(Receiver, waveguide, and duplexer noise) = 1.38 x 10-23 joules / deg oK
Ts= System Noise
Noise from Many Sources Competes Temperature
Bn = Noise bandwidth of
with the Target Echo receiver

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Radar Range Equation (continued)

Signal Power reflected Pt Gt Ae


Pr =
from target and 4 R2 4 R2
received by radar

Average Noise Power N = k Ts Bn

Signal to Noise Ratio S / N = Pr / N Assumptions :


Gt = Gr
L = Total System Losses
Pt G2 2 To = 290o K
S / N=
(4 )3 R4 k Ts Bn L

Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N or SNR) is the standard measure of a


radars ability to detect a given target at a given range from the radar

S/N = 13 dB on a 1 m2 target at a range of 1000 km


radar cross section
of target
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System Noise Temperature

The System Noise Temperature, TS , is divided into 3


components :

Ts = Ta + Tr + Lr Te

Ta is the contribution from the antenna


Apparent temperature of sky (from graph)
Loss within antenna
Tr is the contribution from the RF components between the
antenna and the receiver
Temperature of RF components
Lr is the loss of input RF components
Te is the temperature of the receiver
Noise factor of receiver
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Outline

Introduction
Introduction to Radar Equation
Surveillance Form of Radar Equation
Radar Losses
Example
Summary

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Track Radar Range Equation

Track Radar Equation

Pt G2 2
S / N=
(4 )3 R4 k Ts Bn L

When the location of a


target is known and the
antenna is pointed toward
the target.

Track Example

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Track & Search Radar Range Equations

Search Radar Equation


Track Radar Equation

Pt G2 2 Pav Ae ts
S / N= S / N=
(4 )3 R4 k Ts Bn L 4 R4 k Ts L

When the location of a When the targets location is


target is known and the unknown, and the radar has to
antenna is pointed toward search a large angular region
the target. to find it.
Search Volume
Track Example
Where:
Pav = average power
= solid angle searched
ts = scan time for
e = antenna area

Search Example

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Search Radar Range Equation

Pav Ae ts
S / N=
4 R4 k Ts L

Re-write as:

f (design parameters) = g (performance parameters)


Angular coverage
Range coverage
Measurement quality

Pav Ae = 4 R4 (S/N)
kTs L ts Time required

Target size

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Scaling of Radar Equation

S = Pav Ae ts
Pav = 4 R k Ts L (S/N)
4
N 4 R4 k T L Ae ts
s

Power required is:


Independent of wavelength
A very strong function of R
A linear function of everything else

Example Radar Can Perform Search at 1000 km Range


How Might It Be Modified to Work at 2000 km ?

Solutions Increasing R by 3 dB (x 2) Can Be Achieved by:

1. Increasing Pav by 12 dB (x 16)


or 2. Increasing Diameter by 6 dB (A by 12 dB)
or 3. Increasing ts by 12 dB
or 4. Decreasing by 12 dB
or 5. Increasing by 12 dB
or 6. An Appropriate Combination of the Above
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Search Radar Performance

100 K
R = 3000 km
R = 300 km R = 1000 km
ASR- 9
10 K Airport Surveillance Radar
ARSR- 4
Average Power (W)

WSR-88D/NEXRAD
R = 100 km
1K
ASR- 9
TDWR
Search 1 sr
100 In 10 sec for
1 sq m Target
R = 30 km S/N = 15 dB
Loss = 10 dB
10 T = 500 deg
Courtesy of Northrop Grumman.
ASDE- 3 Used with permission.

R = 10 km
1
0.1 1 10 100
(Equivalent) Antenna Diameter (m)
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Search Radar Performance

100 K ASDE- 3
R = 3000 km Airport Surface Detection
R = 300 km R = 1000 km Equipment
10 K
ARSR- 4
Average Power (W)

WSR-88D/NEXRAD
R = 100 km
1K
ASR- 9
TDWR
Search 1 sr
100 In 10 sec for
1 sq m Target
R = 30 km S/N = 15 dB
Loss = 10 dB
10 T = 500 deg
Courtesy Lincoln Laboratory
ASDE- 3

R = 10 km
1
0.1 1 10 100
(Equivalent) Antenna Diameter (m)
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Search Radar Performance

ARSR- 4
100 K Air Route Surveillance Radar
R = 3000 km
R = 300 km R = 1000 km

10 K
ARSR- 4
Average Power (W)

WSR-88D/NEXRAD
R = 100 km
1K
ASR- 9
TDWR
Search 1 sr ARSR- 4 Antenna
100 In 10 sec for
1 sq m Target (without Radome)
R = 30 km S/N = 15 dB
Loss = 10 dB
10 T = 500 deg
ASDE- 3

R = 10 km
1
0.1 1 10 100
(Equivalent) Antenna Diameter (m) Courtesy of Northrop Grumman.
Used with permission.
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Search Radar Performance

100 K
R = 3000 km WSR-88D / NEXRAD
R = 300 km R = 1000 km

10 K
ARSR- 4
Average Power (W)

WSR-88D/NEXRAD
R = 100 km
1K
ASR- 9
TDWR
Search 1 sr
100 In 10 sec for
1 sq m Target
R = 30 km S/N = 15 dB
Loss = 10 dB
10 T = 500 deg
ASDE- 3
Courtesy of NOAA.
R = 10 km
1
0.1 1 10 100
(Equivalent) Antenna Diameter (m)
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Search Radar Performance

100 K TDWR
R = 3000 km Terminal Doppler Weather Radar
R = 300 km R = 1000 km

10 K
ARSR- 4
Average Power (W)

WSR-88D/NEXRAD
R = 100 km
1K
ASR- 9
TDWR
Search 1 sr
100 In 10 sec for
1 sq m Target
R = 30 km S/N = 15 dB
Loss = 10 dB
10 T = 500 deg
ASDE- 3

R = 10 km
1 Courtesy of Raytheon.
0.1 1 10 100
Used with permission.
(Equivalent) Antenna Diameter (m)
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Outline

Introduction
Introduction to Radar Equqtion
Surveillance Form of Radar Equation
Radar Losses
Example
Summary

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Loss Terms for Radar Equation

Transmit Losses Receive Losses


Radome Radome
Waveguide Feed Waveguide Feed
Waveguide Waveguide
Circulator Combiner
Low Pass Filters Rotary Joints
Rotary Joints Receiver Protector
Antenna Efficiency Transmit / Receive Switch
Beam Shape Antenna Efficiency
Scanning Beam Shape
Quantization Scanning
Atmospheric Quantization
Field Degradation Weighting
Non-Ideal Filter
Doppler Straddling
Range Straddling
CFAR
Atmospheric
Field Degradation

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Examples of Losses in Radar Equation

Beam Shape Loss


Radar return from target with scanning radar is modulated by
shape of antenna beam as it scans across target. Can be 2 to 4
dB
Scanning Antenna Loss
For phased array antenna, gain of beam off boresight less than
that on boresight
Plumbing Losses
Transmit waveguide losses
Rotary joints, circulator, duplexer
Signal Processing Loss
A /D Quantization Losses
Adaptive thresholding (CFAR) Loss
Range straddling Loss
Range and Doppler Weighting
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Examples of Losses in Radar Equation

Atmospheric Attenuation Loss


Radar beam attenuates as it travels through atmosphere
(2 way loss)

Integration Loss
Non coherent integration of pulses not as efficient as
coherent integration
Margin (Field Degradation) Loss
Characteristics of radar deteriorates over time.(3 dB not
unreasonable
Water in transmission lines
Deterioration in receiver noise figure
Weak or poorly tuned transmitter tubes

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Outline

Introduction
Introduction to Radar Equqtion
Surveillance Form of Radar Equation
Radar Losses
Example
Summary

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Example - Airport Surveillance Radar

Problem : Show that a radar with the parameters listed


below, will get a reasonable S / N on an small aircraft at
60 nmi.
Radar Parameters

Range 60 nmi
= c / f = .103 m
Aircraft cross section 1 m2
Peak Power 1.4 Megawatts
G = 4 A / 2 = 15670 m2
Duty Cycle 0.000525
= 42 dB, (actually 33 dB
Pulsewidth .6 microseconds
with beam shaping losses)
Bandwidth 1.67 MHz
Frequency 2800 MHz
Number of pulses per beamwidth
Antenna Rotation Rare 12.8 RPM
= 21
Pulse Repetition Rate 1200 Hz
Antenna Size 4.9 m wide by
Assume Losses = 8dB
2.7 m high
Azimuth Beamwidth 1.35 o
System Noise Temp. 950 o K

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Example - Airport Surveillance Radar
P t G 2 2
S / N=
(4 )3 R4 k Ts Bn L

Pt = 1.4 Megawatts R = 111, 000 m


G = 33 dB = 2000 Ts = 950 o K
= .1 m Bn = 1.67 MHz
= 1 m2 L = 8dB = 6.3
k = 1.38 x 10 -23 w / Hz o K (4 )3 = 1984

(1.4 x 106 w )(2000)(2000)(.1m)(.1m)(1m2)

(1984 ) (1.11 X 105 m)4 (1.38 x 10 -23 w / Hz o K) (950 o K ) (6.3) (1.67 x 106 Hz)

5.6 x 10+6+3+3-1-1 5.6 x 10+10 5.6 x 10+10


= = = 1.35 = 1.3 dB
415 x 10+3+20-23+2+6 4.15 x 10+2+3+20-23+2+6 4.15 x 10+10

S / N = 1.3 dB per pulse (21 pulses integrated) => S / N per dwell = 14.5 dB
+ 13.2 dB
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Example - Airport Surveillance Radar
dB Method
(+) (-)
Peak Power 1.4 MW 61.5
( Gain ) 2 33 db 66
(Wavelength ) 2 .1 m 20
Cross section 1 m2 0
(4 )3 1984 33
( Range )4 111 km 201.8
k 1.38 x 10 -23 w / Hz o K 228.6
System temp 950 29.8
Losses 8 dB 8
Bandwidth 1.67 MHz 62.2
+ 356.1 - 354.8
+ 1.3 dB
S / N = 1.3 dB per pulse (21 pulses integrated) => S / N per dwell = 14.5 dB
( + 13.2 dB)
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Outline

Introduction
Introduction to Radar Equqtion
Surveillance Form of Radar Equation
Radar Losses
Example
Summary

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Cautions in Using the Radar Equation (1)

The radar equation is simple enough that everybody


can learn to use it

The radar equation is complicated enough that anybody


can mess it up if you are not careful (see next VG)

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Cautions in Using the Radar Equation (2)
The Sanity Check

4 R4 (S/N)
Take a Candidate Radar Equation 2
PA =
Check it Dimensionally
kTs L
2 tt
- P is energy/time
- kTs is energy
- A and are distance squared
- and R are distance
- tt is time
- S/N, L and 4 are dimensionless

Check if Dependencies Make Sense

Increasing Range and S/N make requirements tougher


Decreasing and tt makes requirements tougher
Increasing P and A make radar more capable
Decreasing Noise Temp and Loss make radar more capable
Decreasing makes radar more capable

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Radar Equation and Detection Process

Radar Parameters
Target Fluctuation Statistics
Transmitter Power
Swerling Model 1, 2, 3, or 4
Antanna Gain
Other
Frequency
Pulse Width
Waveform

Probability
Target Characteristics
Of
Cross Section vs Signal to Noise Detecting Target
Angle and Frequency Ratio (S/N)
Radar Detection
Equation Process
Probability
Range Of
Radar to Target Detecting Noise

Properties of Noise Statistics


Propagation Medium Gaussian
Attenuation vs Frequency Other
Rain Requirements Detection Threshold
Constant
Adaptive
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Summary

The radar equation provides a simple connection between


radar performance parameters and radar design parameters

There are different radar equations for different radar functions

Scaling of the radar equation lets you get a feeling for how the
radar design might change to accommodate changing requirements

Combination of the radar equation with cost or other constraints


permits quick identification of critical radar design issues

Be careful if the radar equation leads to unexpected results

Do a sanity check

Look for hidden variables or constraints

Try to compare parameters with those of a real radar

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References

Skolnik, M., Introduction to Radar Systems, New York,


McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, 2001
Barton, D. K., Modern radar System Analysis, Norwood,
Mass., Artech House, 1988

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