FRACTURE

2. FRACTURE OF METALS

The mechanical behaviour of a material can be described largely in
terms of the materials properties that govern plastic deformation and
fracture

Knowledge and understanding of the relevant properties is the first

first
step toward improving these properties and/or developing new
materials with superior properties.

Plastic deformation occurs by shear, and at much lower shear stresses

stresses
(or tensile yield stresses) than the theoretical shear stress as a result
of dislocation slip.
slip.

Fortunately, a number of strengthening mechanisms exist, whereby

the yield strength of ductile materials can be enhanced considerably
considerably

The mechanical behaviour of a material can be described largely in
Fracture is the catastrophic break-
break-up of the structure into two or more
terms of the materials properties that govern plastic deformation and pieces, usually caused by a structural defect or a crack.
fracture

Due to service loading the crack may develop and grow slowly in size,
WHY MATERIALS FRACTURE? reducing the strength of the material.

Examples:
As the crack grows in length, the strength decreases until it becomes
becomes
1. Liberty ships produced during WW2: steel became brittle in north so low that the service loads cannot be carried any more, and fracture
Atlantic sea occurs.
occurs.

2. Titanic: ductile brittle transition in cold water

We need to understand how materials fail

FRACTURE

THE PROCESS OF FRACTURE

Three stages of fracture:
1. Crack initiation. Crack will initiate at the point of stress
concentration (scratches, fillets, threads, dents) when the
internal stress cannot cope with the applied stress.
2. Crack propagation. The applied force will propagate the crack.
Stage I: propagates very slowly along crystallographic
planes of high shear stress and may constitute either a
large or small fraction of the fatigue life of a specimen.
Stage II: the crack growth rate increases and changes
direction, moving perpendicular to the applied stress.
3. Fracture. Crack that exceeds a critical size will cause fracture
to occur.

Common causes of fracture are:
 Incorrect material selection
 Poor design
 Holes. Either incorporated in the design for aesthetic purposes or
otherwise. Could also be due to macroscopic defect within the
materials.
 Use of new design or material, which produces unexpected results
 surface damage. Due to mechanical load such as scratching or surface
roughness.
 Environment. High temperature and pressure, as well as corrosive
environment increase the cause of fracture.

There are two fracture modes: Ductile fracture Brittle fracture

1. Ductile failure (high energy): occurs with plastic deformation.
Often the crack will only propagate with additional applied
stress (stable
(stable crack).
crack).

2. Brittle failure (low energy): no plastic deformation. (crack

(crack is
unstable)
unstable)
Catastrophic
FRACTURE

DUCTILE VS BRITTLE FAILURE EX: FAILURE OF A PIPE

Classification:

Fracture Very Moderately Ductile failure:

Brittle --one piece
behavior: Ductile Ductile
--large deformation

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 6e.
Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
%AR or %EL: Large Moderate Small
Ductile Ductile: Brittle: Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical
fracture is warning before No Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b),
p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987.
desirable! fracture warning Used with permission.

2 3

MODERATELY DUCTILE FAILURE Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

Evolution to failure:

void void growth shearing

necking fracture
nucleation and linkage at surface

Resulting
fracture
50m
50 m
surfaces
(steel)
cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture
100 m
Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
(2nd ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Roehrig, CC Technologies,
nucleation Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. Dublin, OH. Used with
sites. source: P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., permission.
Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 347-56.) 4
FRACTURE

Brittle Failure BRITTLE FRACTURE SURFACES

Intergranular Intragranular
(between grains) (within grains)
304 S. Steel
316 S. Steel
Arrows indicate point at which failure (metal)
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
originated from "Metals
Handbook", 9th ed, Fig.
Reprinted w/
permission from
633, p. 650. Copyright "Metals Handbook", 9th
1985, ASM ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph International, Materials
by J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph
Olsen, Oak Ridge
160m
4 mm by D.R. Diercks,
National Lab.) Argonne National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ Reprinted w/
permission from R.W. permission from
Hertzberg, "Defor- "Failure Analysis of
mation and Fracture Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering American Ceramic
Materials", (4th ed.) Society, Westerville,
Fig. 7.35(d), p. 303, OH. (Micrograph by
John Wiley and Sons, R.M. Gruver and H. 3m
1 mm Inc., 1996. Kirchner.)
Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister 7e. (Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977,
5
Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)

In order to prevent fracture, we must know how and under what Residual strength curve
conditions materials fail. Crack growth curve
Failure Stress

Designing a fracture control plan requires knowledge of the structural

structural Design Stress
strength as it is affected by cracks, and the time involved for cracks to ap Highest service stress
grow to a dangerous size.
Crack Size

Stress

Typical Stress in Service

Meaning that cracks must be prevented from growing to a size at which
the strength would drop below the acceptable limit. limit. In order to
determine which size of cracks is admissible one must be able to:
to: t Crack size
Time or Load Cycles
1. Calculate the structural strength affected by cracks
2. Calculate the time in which a crack grows to a permissible size. No Failure Failure Failure will occur
possible

Fracture mechanics should be able to provide answers to such Crack growth in service will reduce the strength of
questions. engineering structures
FRACTURE

FRACTURE MECHANICS
Only tensile stress in one direction
1. Effect of Cracks and Notches (stress concentration)
Load Load
Biaxial stress: x and y

Flaws or defects such as: notches and cracks give rise to a stress
stress
concentration (local region where the stresses are higher than the
the
nominal or average stress).

Consider Figure 1a, there is no crack (or notch), the flow lines are
straight and the load is uniform (load is evenly distributed).

If the load path is interrupted by a cut (notch or crack), the flow

flow
lines must go around this cut within a short distance as shown in in
Figure 3b. (b) (c)
(a)

At the tip of the cut the flow lines are closely spaced: more load
load is
Load Load
flowing through a smaller area which means higher stress: there is
Figure 1: load-
load-flow line
STRESS CONCENTRATION AT THE CRACK TIP

Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

2. Stress Concentration factor

At the region near the notch or crack tip, the stress is higher than
the average value and is called stress raiser or stress concentrator

The stress concentration is expressed by a theoretical stress

concentration factor, Kt, described as the ratio of the maximum
stress to the nominal or applied stress:

Kt = max/nom
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.
FRACTURE

As a general rule, blunt notches, e.g:

e.g: a round hole, produce lower stress,
sharp notches cause higher stresses. By analysing a plate containing
containing an
Crack Propagation elliptical hole, Inglis was able to show that the stress concentration factor is:

Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip Kt = max

nom
= 1+2 ab 1.1
load
A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting
the crack.
Where a and b are as defined in
deformed Figure 2. The radius of curvature, ,
of the ellipse is: = b2/a, so that
region
plastic equation (1-
(1-1) can also be written 2b
brittle as: 2a

Energy balance on the crack Kt = max = 1+2 a

1.2
nom
Elastic strain energy-
load
 energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
or
 this energy is released when the crack propagates Figure 2: high stress
 creation of new surfaces requires energy (
max = 1+2 a
) 1.3 concentration in elliptical notch

load 2. Stress Concentration factor (cont.)

For a circle, a = b = , So that the stress concentration factor of a

circular hole is equal to Kt = 3

Equation (1-
(1-2) is a more or less general form for the stress
concentration factor. The equation shows the large effect of the
2b notch radius , the sharper the notch (smaller ) the larger Kt

2a

For ellipse, for example, with a/b = 3 (
( = a/9), K = 1+2(3/1) = 7

For an ellipse with b/a = 3 (
( = 9/a), K = 1+2(1/3) = 1.67
2b

When a >> b, equation
2a (1-
(1-3) becomes:
load
a 1.4
max = 2
FRACTURE

Theoretical Cohesive Strength

Strength is due to cohesive forces In the most basic terms, the strength is due to the cohesive forces
between atoms. High cohesive forces between atoms.
are related to large elastic modulus
High cohesive forces are related to
Cohesive force,

and high melting points.

 Large elastic constants
max  High melting points

In Figure 3, the is the resultant of  Small coefficient of thermal expansion
the attractive and repulsive forces
ao The cohesive force-separation curve is the resultant of the attractive
between the atoms. (a0 is the
equilibrium separation) and repulsive forces between the atoms.
/2
The interatomic spacing of the atoms in the unstrained condition is
indicated by a0.

If a tensile load is applied, r
increases. The maximum in the curve If the crystal is subjected to a tensile load, the separation between
is equal to the cohesive strength of the Figure 3: Cohesive force as atoms will be increased.
material where both the repulsive function of atomic separation
and attractive forces are decreased.

It can be estimated as: (theoretical cohesive strength can be
Substituting for we have (eliminate x):
obtained if assumed that the cohesive force curve can be
represented by a sine curve E
c = 2 a0
1.8

= c sin 2x 1.5

If we assume that a0 = /2, then

c (or max) is the theoretical cohesive strength, x = a
aa0 is the atomic
displacement with a wave length .
E

For small displacements, sin x = x, then:
then: c =
1.9

= c 2x 1.6

When fracture occurs, all the work goes into the creation of two new
surfaces; each has a surface energy s. This work done is equal to

Hookes law is
For brittle elastic solid, Hooke the energy required to create the two new fracture surfaces, that
that is:

= E = Ex
a0
1.7 U o = 2 s 1.10
FRACTURE

The work done per unit area of surface in creating the fracture is the
area under the stress-
stress-displacement curve.
The presence of flaws or cracks is responsible for the lower than ideal
fracture strength of engineering materials.
/2 c
U0 = c sin 2x
dx = 1.11
0

But this energy is equal to the energy required to create the two
two
In Figure 2, the maximum stress at the crack tip max is given by
new fracture surfaces, equation (1.4) as (for a>>b):
U o = 2 s
a
max = 2 nom

So,
s =
2
c

The equation predicts an infinite stress at the tip of a sharp crack

crack

or
= 2c s 1.12 where = 0.

However, no material can withstand an infinite stress. This motivated

motivated
Griffith to develop a fracture theory based on energy rather than local

Substituting 1.12 into eq.
eq. 1.8 E s stress.
gives
c = ao
1.13

Griffith's criterion/theory

Metals deform plastically which causes an initially sharp crack to blunt.
blunt.
In the absence of plastic deformation (brittle fracture), the minimum
minimum
radius a crack tip can have is on the order of the atomic radius Fracture mechanics was invented during World War I by English
aeronautical engineer, A. A. Griffith, to explain the failure of brittle

The sharpest possible crack should be when = a0 (atomic displacement) materials.[1] Griffith's work was motivated by two contradictory facts:

Hence,  The stress needed to fracture bulk glass is around 100 MPa (15,000 psi).
a a
max = 2 nom = 2 nom a0
1.14  The theoretical stress needed for breaking atomic bonds is approximately
10,000 MPa (1,500,000 psi).
A theory was needed to reconcile these conflicting observations. Also,

Assuming max = c experiments on glass fibers that Griffith himself conducted suggested that
the fracture stress increases as the fiber diameter decreases. Hence the
a E s
2 nom a0 = a0 1.15 uniaxial tensile strength, which had been used extensively to predict
material failure before Griffith, could not be a specimen-independent
material property. Griffith suggested that the low fracture strength observed

Solving for fracture in experiments, as well as the size-dependence of strength, was due to the
E s presence of microscopic flaws (cracks) in the bulk material.
a= half crack length
fr = 4a
1.16
FRACTURE

GRIFFITH THEORY FOR BRITTLE FRACTURE

The first explanation of the discrepancy between the observed Griffith established the following criterion for
fracture strength of crystals and the theoretical cohesive strength the propagation of a crack:
was proposed by Griffith.

A crack will propagate when the
Griffiths theory in its original form is applicable only to a perfectly decrease in elastic strain energy is at
brittle material such as glass. However, the Griffiths ideas have had least equal to the energy required to
great influence on the thinking about the fracture of metals. create the new crack surface.
Griffiths proposed that a brittle material contains a population of fine  The crack must be energetically favourable
cracks which produce a stress concentration of sufficient magnitude  A mechanism for crack propagation must be
so that the theoretical cohesive strength is reached in localized available
regions at a nominal stress which is well below the theoretical value. 2a

When one of the cracks spreads into a brittle fracture, it produces an
Energy is required to create fracture
increase in the surface area of the sides of the crack. This requires surfaces,
surfaces, which is provided by the
energy to overcome the cohesive force of the atoms (increase in release of elastic strain energy due to
surface energy. crack growth.

Consider the crack model as shown in the figure. Energy is required to create fracture surfaces, U or can be written
The stress distribution for an elliptical crack was Load, as Us ( by considering 2a crack length)
determined by Inglis.
A decrease in strain energy results from the
formation of crack. U = 4 a s
Energy released due to crack growth or the elastic
strain energy per unit of plate thickness is equal to 2a According to Griffith,
Griffith, the crack will propagate under a constant
Ue (also can be written as Ua): stress if a small increase in crack length produces no change in the
total energy of the system; the increase surface energy is
2 compensated by a decrease in elastic strain energy.
Load,

Substituting s in 1.13 Ue = a 2
The total energy is:
E
into 1.10, gives U = U

U Ue
Negative sign is used because growth of the crack
releases elastic strain energy.
FRACTURE

Example 1
Fracture stress for a brittle material with the following
properties:
Surface Energy

The total energy is a function of
Energy, U
E= 100 Gpa, s = 1 J/m2, ao=0.25 nm,
crack length Given , half crack length, a=104ao
Critical Crack Length
dU/da=0
Solution:
a* 1/ 2
Crack Length, a E s 100 x109 x1
f = = = 108 Pa = 100Mpa

dU
At the critical
da = da (4a s
a* 2 a 2
d crack length,
E ) 4a 4 x 2 . 5 x10 6

Total Note that the fracture stress is E/1000 while the theoretical cohesive
Strain Energy Energy
dU strength is E/5. Thus, we see that a small crack produces a very
da
=0 U = U-Ua
great decrease in the stress of fracture.
dU a
therefore, dUda = da
1/ 2
f = ( 2Ea s )
2
2 s = E a

Example 3
Example 2 What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the tip of an internal
crack having a radius of curvature of 1.9x10-4mm and a crack length of 3.8x10-2
Determine the cohesive strength of a silica fiber, if E = 95 GPa, s=1 J/m2 mm. When a tensile stress of 140 MPa is applied?
and ao=1.6 .
Solution:
This problem asks that we compute the magnitude of the maximum stress that
exists at the tip of an internal crack.
Solution:
3.8 x10 2 mm
a
1/ 2
E
1/ 2
95 x109 x1
1/ 2
max = 2 o = ( 2)(140MPa) 2
max = s = = 24.4GPa t 1.9 x10 mm
4

10
ao 1.6 x10
= 2800 MPa
FRACTURE

Example 4
If the specific surface energy for Al-oxide is 0.9 J/m2, compute
the critical stress required for the propagation of an internal crack
of length 0.4mm. (Given , modulus of elasticity for Al-oxide =
393 Gpa)
Solution:
We may determine the critical stress required for the
propagation of an internal crack in aluminum oxide by taking
the value of 393 GPa as the modulus of elasticity, we get

1/ 2
2 E s
c = = 33.6 MPa
a