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This is the first of a series of articles that I shall write about the strategies to solve
olympiad-style problems. Strategies are best learnt through problems and this approach
has been followed here. In this article I focus on number theoretic problems.
How should one read this article? Well, this article is just a collection of problems and
thoughts. You should learn the basics from standard texts and only then can read this
article smoothly. After each example, I have included some similar problems as exercises,
which you should do before moving to the next example. The reader is suggested
to keep a pen and a paper ready whlie reading this or any other article on Mathematics.
Problem 1. Prove that a 20-digit number starting with 11 ones cant be a perfect square.
Discussion: Assume to the contrary that there exist such number. Suppose the number
is 11 . . . 1x = k 2 where there are 11 ones at the front and x is a string of 9 digits. For this
type of problems the general strategies are (1) checking the above equation modulo 3,4,5
etc. But here that does not work, since the the number ends with an unknown string of 9
digits. (2) Our second approach is squeezing the number between two succesive squares
11
or something like that. Note that, 11 . . . 1(11 ones)= 10 9 1 , and since x has atmost 9
digits, so 0 x < 109 . Hence,
1011 1 1011 1
109 k 2 < 109 + 109 , which implies,
9 9
(1010 1)2 < (1011 1) 109 9k 2 < (1011 1) 109 + 9 109 < (1010 + 1)2
So we must have 9k 2 = (1010 )2 = 1020 , but this is impossible since right-hand-side is not
divisible by 9. Hence proved.
Exercise 1.1. Find all integers n for which n2 + 19 + 92 is a square.
Exercise 1.2. Find all pairs of non-negative integers (x, y) which satisfies the
equation x3 + 8x2 6x + 8 = y 3 .
Problem 2. A number n has distinct digits and the digits are in increasing order from
left to right. Prove that the sum of the digits of the number 9n will always be 9.
Solution: This belongs to the class of problems which require only some basic logic and
some simple algebraic calculations.
1
In this problem, let our number n be a k-digited number. We write n = a1 a2 a3 . . . ak
where 1 a1 < a2 < a3 < . . . < ak 9. Now,
Now, 1 a1 < a2 < a3 < . . . < ak 9 implies that, a1 , (a1 a2 ), (a2 a3 ), . . . (ak1
ak2 ), (10 ak ) all are integers between 1 and 9, and 0 ak ak1 1 < 9. Since base
10 representations are unique, so precisely these numbers are the digits of n. Hence sum
of the digits of n is a1 + (a1 a2 ) + (a2 a3 ) + . . . + (ak ak1 1) + (10 ak ) = 9.
(Proved)
Exercise 2.1. If 1/a + 1/b = 1/c where a, b, c are positive integers with no common
factor, prove that (a + b) is a perfect square.(Note: a, b, c have no common facter does
not imply that a, b, c are pairwisely coprime)
Exercise 2.2. A natural number n is chosen strictly between two consecutive perfect
squares. The smaller of these two squares is k less that n and the larger one is l more
than n. Prove that, n kl is a perfect square.
2
f (2) f (k) k f (k + 1)
f (1) + + ... + f (k + 1) = f (k + 1)
2 k k+1 k+1
f (2) f (k) f (k + 1)
Therefore, f (1) + + ... + + f (k + 1).
2 k k+1
This closes our induction.
Exercise 3.1. Suppose x1 x2 x3 . . . is an infinite sequence of positive real
numbers such that,
x1 x4 x9 xk 2
+ + + ... + 1 holds for all k 1.
1 2 3 k
x1 x2 x3 xk
Show that, + + + ... + 3 holds for all k 1.
1 2 3 k
nP
Exercise 3.2. Show that, k
= Fm+1 where the sum is over all n k 0 such that
n + k = m and Fm is the m-th Fibonacci number starting with F1 = F2 = 1 and satisfying
Fm+2 = Fm+1 + Fm .
Problem 4: Let a0 = a1 = 1 and an+1 = 7an an1 2 for all n N. Prove that, an is a
perfect square for all n 0.
Discussion: For such problems, we should check the values of an for small values of n to
see if there is some pattern. In this problem, we look at the numbers whose squares make
the sequence an .
Note that, a1 = 12 , a2 = 22 , a3 = 52 . Can you already see any pattern ?
If not, lets go a little further...find that a4 = 132 . Now can you relate the numbers?
2
Looking at the Fibonacci series, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . . a clever guess would be an = F2n1
(Where Fn is the n-th Fibonacci number). Let us now proceed for a proof. Obviously,
induction is the key here. Watching the recursive relation, we can understand that strong
of induction is required. Now, the induction step is proving the identity
2 2 2
an+1 = 7F2n1 F2n3 2 = F2n+1
But its quite difficult to prove it in this form. So we modify it by subtracting an from
an+1 . (The 2 term is what we want to get rid of)
Next, note that, F2k+1 = F2k1 + F2k = 2F2k1 + F2k2 = 3F2k1 F2k3 .
2 2
So, an+1 = 8F2n1 8F2n3 + (3F2n3 F2n1 )2 = (3F2n1 F2n3 )2 = F2n+1
2
.
3
Exercise 4.1. Suppose a1 = 3 and an+1 = an (an + 2) for all n 1. Find a general
formula for an . Also, show that, for any two natural numbers m and n, the numbers
am + 2 and an + 2 are coprime.
Exercise 4.2. Suppose a1 , a2 , . . . is a sequence of positive integers satisfying
n n
!2
a3k
X X
= ak
k=1 k=1
Problem 5: {xn } sequence of real numbers starting with x1 = 1/2 and satisfying
xk+1 = x2k + xk for all k 1. Determine the greatest integer less than
1 1 1
+ + ... + .
x1 + 1 x2 + 1 x2017 + 1
Discussion: For such problems, we should first try to see if any general form of an can
be found (or, guessed by examining the values of an for small values of n.) However, for
this problem, we fail to find any simple formula. Then our next approach is to find if the
sum telescopes. If this fails, we would then try to bound an in terms of n.
Fortunately, the second approach (telescoping) works here. Before giving the solution,
I give some other examples to exploit the idea of telescoping a sum (or a product).
#1. Evaluate nk=1 (k+1)!
k
P
n n
" #
X k X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= = + + . . .+ = 1 .
k=1 (k + 1)! k=1 k! (k + 1)! 1! 2! 2! 3! 3! n! (n + 1)! (n + 1)!
Here all terms except the 1st and the last one, get cancelled.
#2. Find nk=1 k!(k 2 + k + 1).
P
n n n
k!(k 2 + k + 1) = [(k + 1)2 k]k! =
X X X
(k + 1)(k + 1)! k k! = (n + 1)(n + 1)! 1.
k=1 k=1 k=1
Y n3 1 2
#5. Prove that, 3
=
n=2 n + 1 3
N N N
(n 1)(n2 + n + 1)
Y Y (n 1) Y n2 + n + 1 2 N2 + N + 1
2
= 2
=
n=2 (n + 1)(n n + 1) n=2 (n + 1) n=2 (n 1) + (n 1) + 1 3 N (N + 1)
N
Y n3 1 Y n3 1 2 N2 + N + 1 2
So, 3
= lim 3
= lim 2
= .(Proved)
n=2 n + 1 n=2 n + 1
N N 3 N +N 3
Let us return to the main problem now.
4
Solution to the main problem:
1 1 1 1
xk+1 = x2k + xk = =
xk+1 xk (xk + 1) xk xk + 1
2017 2017
1 X 1 1 1 1 1
X
Hence, = = < =2
k=1 xk + 1 k=1 xk xk+1 x1 x2018 x1
2017
X 1 1 1 2 4 2 4
and, > + = + > + =1
k=1 xk + 1 x1 + 1 x2 + 1 3 7 3 12
Therefore, the greatest integer less than the given sum, is 1.
Exercise 5.1. Evaluate the following two sums involving Fibonacci numbers:
N N
X Fn X 1
, .
n=2 Fn1 Fn+1 n=2 Fn1 Fn+1
n + 20 n + 21 n + 22
Exercise 5.2. Prove that, b c + b c + b c + ... = n
21 22 23
Discussion: Such kind of problems should be first attacked by checking modulo 4, 8 etc.
You should know the following facts :
Now, in this problem, first we note that x must be odd. Because, if x were even, then
y was odd and hence, 1 y 2 x3 + 7 7(mod 8), contradiction !
Now, rewrite the equation as y 2 + 1 = x3 + 23 = (x + 2)(x2 2x + 4). Note that,
as x is odd, x2 2x + 4 = (x 1)2 + 3 3(mod 4), hence by (3) above there exists a
prime p 3(mod 4) which divides (x2 2x + 4). Hence this p divides y 2 + 1 which is
contradictory as per (4) above. To see why this is contradictory, let p = 4k + 3. Then,
p1
y 2 1(mod p) y p1 (1) 2 (1)2k+1 1(mod p)
and it contradicts y p1 1(mod p) (Fermats theorem). Thus the given equation has no
solution in integers.
Exercise 6.1. Solve in positive integers the equation x2 + 5 = y 3 .
5
Problem 7. Solve in integers the following system of equations :
x2 + 6y 2 = u2 , 6x2 + y 2 = v 2
Solution: Here we shall use the following principle named Well ordering principle:
This simple-looking principle is very useful for certain type of problems. (It is in fact
equivalent to the principle of mathematical induction.)
Let us assume to the contrary that the set S = {n : n > 1, n | 2n 1} is non-empty.
Then by the aforesaid principle, S has a least element, say m.
Now, since m | 2m 1 . . . (1) (and m 2) so m must be odd. Hence, by Eulers
theorem, m | 2(m) 1 . . . (2). Now, (1) and (2) imply that m | gcd(2m 1, 2(m) 1). And
a well-known problem says that, gcd(2a 1, 2b 1) = 2gcd(a,b) 1. So, if gcd(m, (m)) = d
then,
m | gcd(2m 1, 2(m) 1) m | 2d 1 d | 2d 1 (since d | m)
Now, if d = 1, then, m | 2d 1 = 1 m = 1 which contradicts m > 1. Hence d > 1
and d | 2d 1 and d (m) < m. This contradicts that m is the minimal element of S.
Thus there must not exist any n > 1 for which 2n 1 is divisible by n.
Problem 9: Suppose is an irrational number, 0 < < 1. Prove that, there exist
infinitely many n such that bnc is even and b2nc is odd.
6
To write it mathematically, say = 21 a1 + 22 a2 + . . . (each ak {0, 1}) and the
aforesaid fact can be stated as:
an infinite sequence,{in }n1 such that, aik = 0, aik +1 = 1 holds for all k 1.
Next, just note that, b2m c = 2m1 a1 + 2m2 a2 + . . . + 2am1 + am . So, for each k 1,
binary representation of b2ik c ends in aik = 0 and that of b2ik +1 c ends in aik +1 = 1.
Thus, for every k 1, b2ik c is even while b2ik +1 c is odd.
Exercise 9.1. Let p be a prime number greater than 5. Suppose the decimal represen-
tation of 1/p looks like 0.a1 a2 . . . ar where the line denotes a recurring decimal. Prove
that, 10r leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by p.
2n
Problem 10. Find all n N such that n
is divisible by 4.
(strict inequality holds because b 2nk c = 2nk cant hold for large enough ks) Now we have to
find those n for which f (n) = 1. (Only those ns fail to satisty.) Next, note the suprizing
fact that, f (n) is equal to the number of ones in the binary representation of n. Proof:
Say n = 2k ak + . . . + 2a1 + a0 is the binary represenation of n (ak = 1), then,
k
n
c = (a1 + 2a2 + . . . + 2k1 ak ) + (a2 + . . . + 2k2 ak ) + . . . + ak
X
v2 (n!) = b
j=1 2j
Now, since ak = 1, so kj=1 aj = 1 is possible if and only if aj = 0 for all other js.
P
Problem 11: Let n be a positive integer greater than 1. For how many numbers a in
S = {2, 3, . . . , n2 1} is a2 a divisible by n2 ?
7
that x, y are coprime and x | a and y | a 1. Now, fixing two coprime integers x, y such
that xy = n2 , let us find all a S for which x | a and y | a 1 holds. Here we need the
help of Chinese Remainder Theorem:
Suppose m1 , m2 , . . . mr are pairwisely coprime integers and a1 , a2 , . . . ar are any r
integers. Then the system of congruences x ai (mod mi ) for i = 1, 2, . . . r has solution
for x Z and any two solutions are congruent modulo m1 m2 . . . mr .
By this theorem, the system of congruences a 0 (mod x ), a 1 (mod y ) admit
solution which is unique modulo xy = n2 . Thus for every ordered pair (x, y) of coprime
natural numbers satisfying xy = n2 , there is a unique element a S {1, n2 } for which
x | a and y | a 1 holds. In fact a = 1 only when (x, y) = (1, n2 ) and a = n2 only when
(x, y) = (n2 , 1). Except these two cases, the solution a falls into S. Hence number of a S
for which n2 | a2 a holds, is 2 less than the number of ordered pairs (x, y) of coprime
positive integers such that xy = n2 holds.
And the number of such ordered pairs (x, y) is equal to the number of ways we can
2ek
partition the set P = {p2e 2e2 k
1 , p2 , . . . , pk } into two disjoint sets, which is nothing but 2 .
1
(Because every such partition is of the form {A, P A} where A P. So the number of
such partitions is same as the number of subsets of P, which is 2k . )
Thus, the number of elements of S having the given property is 2k 2 where k is the
number of distinct prime factors of n.
Exercise 11.1. A number a is called auto-morphic if a2 ends in a. (e.g. 252 = 625)
Show that, for every k 2, there are exactly two k-digited auto-morphic numbers. Further
show that, for every k 2, sum of these two numbers is 10k + 1.
Exercise 11.2. A natural number n is called square-free if for every prime p that divides
n, p2 does not divide n. Prove that, for every k 2, there is a sequence of k-consecutive
numbers, none of which is square-free.
Additional Exercise
1 1 1 n+1
1 . Prove that, 1 1 ... 1 2 = .
4 9 n 2n
2. Suppose a, b N such that a | b. Show that, the integers 1 + (a + m)b and 1 + mb
are coprime for every positive integer m.
3. Show that, the equation 15x2 7y 2 = 9 has no integer solutions.
4. Show that, among any 5 integers, there are 3 of them whose sum is divisible by 3.
5. Let an = n2 + 20 for all n N. And define dn = gcd(an , an+1 ) for all n.
Show that, dn | 81 for every n N.
6. If 2n + 1 and 3n + 1 are squares, show that (a) 40 | n and (b) 5n + 3 cannot be a
prime number.
7. If n > 1 is a positive integers such that, 3n + 1 is a perfect square, then prove that,
n + 1 can be written as the sum of three perfect squares.
8. Prove that, 1 + 13 + 51 + . . . + 2n+1
1
is not an integer n N. In general, for any
1 1 1
d N, show that, 1 + d+1 + 2d+1 + . . . + nd+1 is not an integer for all n N.
9. Suppose N is a four-digit perfect square with each digit less than seven such that if
we increase each digit by 3 then we get another four-digit perfect square. Determine N.
10. Show that, a perfect square cannot end in a string of k equal and non-zero digits,
if k 4.
8
11. Let p, q, r, s be four integers such that, s is not divisible by 5. If there exists some
integer a such that, pa3 + qa2 + ra + s is divisible by 5, then show that there exists some
integer b such that sb3 + rb2 + qb + p is divisible by 5.
12. Suppose the 64 squares of a chessboard are filled with positive integers in such a
way that each integer is the average of the integers on the neighbouring squares. (Two
squares are called neighbouring if they share a common vertex) Show that all the 64
integers are in fact equal.
13. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 . . .} be the set of all positive integers which
do not contain the digit 9. Prove that,
X 1
< 90.
nS
n
14. Find the smallest value of a + b where a, b are positive integers such that, 11
divides a + 13b and 13 divides a + 11b.
15. Let n be a positive integer. If k = 2 + 2 28n2 + 1 is a positive integer, then show
that, k must be a perfect square.
16. Let a, b, c N such that, a | b2 , b | c2 , c | a2 . Prove that, abc | (a + b + c)7 .
17. Compute the sum
r r r
1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ 2 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 2 + ... + 1+ 2
+ .
1 2 2 3 2016 20172
18. For positive integers n and r, find the gcd of the numbers:
! ! ! !
n n+1 n+2 n+r
, , , ... .
r r r r
19. There are two non-empty boxes with arbitrary number of balls. We can do two
types of operations: (a) remove equal number of balls from both boxes, and, (b) double the
number of balls in any one of them. (We have an infinite supply of balls.) Show that by
performing these two operations
finitely many times, both of them can be made empty.
n n
20. Prove that 2017 b 2017 c is divisible by 2017.
21. In a book with page numbers from 1 to 100, some pages are torn off. The sum of
the page numbers on the remaining pages is 4949. How many pages are torn off ?
22. Show that there are infinitely many positive integers a such that, for any n, the
number n4 + a is not prime.
23. Find all primes p.q for which p2 + 7pq + q 2 is a perfect square.
24. Solve the following system of equations :
x + byc + {z} = 1.1, y + bzc + {x} = 2.2, z + bxc + {y} = 3.3
(where { } is the fractional part function, satisfying x = bxc + {x})
j k j k
n n
25. Find the number of positive integers n which satisfy 99
= 101
.
+ 2n 2n1
26. For n Z , prove that an = 2 + 2 + 1 has atleast n different prime factors.
27. Find all triples of positive integer (x, y, z) for which the this expression is a perfect
square: x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2x(z 1) + 2y(z + 1).
28. For any d N, show that the set {2, 5, 13, d} contains two integers (distinct) a
and b such that ab 1 is NOT a perfect square.
29. Determine all triples (a, b, c) of positive integers such that, a b c and
a + b + c + ab + bc + ca = abc + 1.
9
30. Let a, b, c be natural numbers such that, a < b < c and gcd(c a, c b) = 1.
Suppose there exists an integer d such that, a + d, b + d, c + d form the sides of a right-
angled triangle. Prove that, there exist integers l, m such that c + d = l2 + m2 .
31. Let xn be the n-th non-square integer. For example,
x1 = 2, x2 = 3, x3 = 5 and
so on. Now, let us denote by hni the integer nearest to n. Prove that, (a) xn = n + hni
and (b) if m2n < xn < (mn + 1)2 then mn = hni.
32. Prove that the equation x2 + y 2 + 1 = z 2 has infinitely many integral solutions.
33. Show that the equation x2 + y 2 + z 2 = (x y)(y z)(z x) has infinitely many
solutions in integers x, y, z.
34. Prove that the number of 5 tuples of positive integers (a, b, c, d, e) satisfying
abcde = 5(bcde + acde + abde + abce + abcd) is an odd integer.
35. For every m N, show that there exist n N such that m + n + 1 is a perfect
square and mn + 1 is a perfect cube.
n
X 1
36. Evaluate .(Fn is n-th Fibonacci number, as in exercise 3.2.)
k=0 F2k
10