AircraftPerformance and FlightMechanics-LectureNotes

Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Aircraft Performance and Flight Mechanics
Lecture Notes
Lectured by: Dr Nicholas Raske

Notes Originally Prepared by: Dr Osvaldo M. Querin
Contents
Chapter 1 .............................................................................................................................. 1
The Wing .............................................................................................................................. 1
............................................................................................................................................. 1
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
2.1 Planform Geometry ................................................................................................. 1
2.1.1 Wing Span ....................................................................................................... 1
2.1.2 Taper Ratio ...................................................................................................... 2
2.1.3 Wing Area ........................................................................................................ 2
2.1.3.1 Areas of Different Geometrical Shapes ........................................................ 2
2.1.4 Mean Chords ................................................................................................... 3
2.1.5 Aspect Ratio .................................................................................................... 3
2.1.6 Sweep-back ..................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Aerofoil Section Geometry ...................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 The camber line Camber............................................................................... 5
2.2.2 The symmetrical fairing Thickness distribution .............................................. 5
2.3 Dihedral Angle ........................................................................................................ 6
2.4 Incidence, twist, wash-out and wash-in ................................................................... 6
2.5 Equations Summary................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 3 .............................................................................................................................. 9
Aerodynamics ....................................................................................................................... 9
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9
3.1 Aerodynamic Forces ............................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Lift (L, -z) ....................................................................................................... 10
3.1.2 Drag (D, -x) .................................................................................................... 10
3.1.3 Cross-wind Force (Y) ..................................................................................... 10
3.1.4 Pitching Moment (M) ...................................................................................... 10
3.1.5 Rolling Moment (LR) ....................................................................................... 10
3.1.6 Yawing Moment (N) ....................................................................................... 11
3.2 Forces on a Body Moving Through a Fluid ............................................................ 11
3.3 The Atmosphere ................................................................................................... 12
3.3.1 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)................................................ 12
3.3.2 Properties of the Troposphere ....................................................................... 12
3.3.3 Properties of the Stratosphere ....................................................................... 14
3.3.4 Relative Density ............................................................................................. 14
3.4 Determining Aircraft Airspeed (Subsonic non-compressible flow) ......................... 14
3.4.1 Pressure Coefficient....................................................................................... 17
3.5 Force and Moment Coefficients ............................................................................ 17
3.6 Pressure Distribution on an Aerofoil ...................................................................... 18
3.7 Pitching Moment at different points along the chord .............................................. 19
3.7.1 The Aerodynamic Centre ............................................................................... 20
3.7.2 The Centre of Pressure .................................................................................. 21
3.8 Drag ...................................................................................................................... 21
3.9 Lift, Drag and Pitching Moment Characteristic Curves .......................................... 22
3.9.1 Calculating Total Drag Equation .................................................................... 22
3.9.2 Calculating the Lift Curve Slope and CL ..................................................... 26
max
3.9.3 Calculating the Pitching Moment Coefficient .................................................. 26

3.10 Equations Summary.............................................................................................. 27
Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................ 29
Aircraft Performance in Steady Flight .................................................................................. 29
4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 29
4.1 Straight and Level Flight ....................................................................................... 29
Page ii
4.1.1 Stall Speed .................................................................................................... 30

4.2 Drag Polar Equation............................................................................................. 30
4.2.1 Minimum Drag ............................................................................................... 31
4.2.1 Lift/drag ratio at other speeds ........................................................................ 32
4.3 Thrust for Straight Level Flight .............................................................................. 33
4.3.1 Generation of the Thrust Required Curve ...................................................... 34
4.4 Thrust Available .................................................................................................... 35
4.5 Power Required for Straight Level Flight ............................................................... 35
4.5.1 Minimum Power for Straight and Level Flight ................................................. 36
4.6 Performance Curves for Straight and Level Flight (Thrust and Power) .................. 38
4.6.1 Thrust Curves ................................................................................................ 38
4.6.2 Power Curves ................................................................................................ 40
Chapter 5 ............................................................................................................................ 42
Gliding Flight ....................................................................................................................... 42
5.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 42
5.1 Gliding Flight ......................................................................................................... 42
5.1.1 Shallow Glide Angle ....................................................................................... 43
5.1.2 Steep Glide Angle .......................................................................................... 44
5.2 Time of Descent .................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................................ 48
Climbing Flight .................................................................................................................... 48
6.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 48
6.1 Climbing Flight ...................................................................................................... 48
6.2 Engine Performance in Terms of Thrust................................................................ 49
6.2.1 Climb at Shallow Angles ................................................................................ 49
6.2.1.1 Maximum Rate of Climb ............................................................................. 49
6.2.2 Climbing at Steep Angles ............................................................................... 50
6.3 Engine Performance in Terms of Power ................................................................ 51
6.3.1 Rate of Climb Calculation............................................................................... 51
6.4 Absolute and Service Ceilings .............................................................................. 53
6.5 Time to Climb........................................................................................................ 55
Chapter 7 ............................................................................................................................ 57
Range and Endurance ........................................................................................................ 57
7.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 57
7.1 Propeller Driven Aircraft ........................................................................................ 57
7.1.1 General Endurance and Range Equations ..................................................... 58
7.1.2 Breguet Endurance and Range Equations ..................................................... 59
7.2 Jet Propelled Aircraft............................................................................................. 60
7.2.1 General Endurance and Range Equations ..................................................... 60
7.2.2 Breguet Endurance and Range Equations ..................................................... 61
Chapter 8 ............................................................................................................................ 65
Accelerated Flight ............................................................................................................... 65
8.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 65
8.1 Take-off Performance ........................................................................................... 65
8.1.1 Take-off Speeds ............................................................................................ 65
8.1.2 Ground-Roll Distance (Phase 1) .................................................................... 68
8.1.3 Rotation Distance (Phase 2) .......................................................................... 70
8.1.4 Climb to Clear 35ft Obstacle (Phase 3) .......................................................... 70
8.2 Landing Performance............................................................................................ 71
8.2.1 Descent in Steady Level Flight ....................................................................... 71
8.2.2 Landing .......................................................................................................... 71
Page iii
8.2.3 Airborne Distance .......................................................................................... 71

8.2.4 Ground Roll ................................................................................................... 73
8.3 Turning Flight ........................................................................................................ 74
8.3.1 Level Horizontal Turn ..................................................................................... 74
8.3.2 Time to turn through a given angle ............................................................ 76
8.3.3 Minimum time to turn through a given angle .............................................. 77
8.4 Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method) ......................................................... 77
Chapter 9 ............................................................................................................................ 86
Equations of Motion for a Rigid Aircraft ............................................................................... 86
9.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 86
9.1 Axis System .......................................................................................................... 86
9.2 Loads on an Aircraft .............................................................................................. 87
9.3 Derivation of the Rigid Body Equations of Motion ................................................. 88
9.4 Orientation and Position of the Aircraft .................................................................. 92
9.4.1 The Flight Path Relative to Earth Fixed Coordinates ...................................... 94
9.5 Gravitational and Thrust Loads ............................................................................. 97
9.6 Aerodynamic Loads .............................................................................................. 98
9.7 General Rigid Aircraft Equations of Motion ........................................................... 99
9.7.1 Effect of Spinning Rotors ............................................................................. 100
9.8 Steady and Perturbed State Flight Conditions..................................................... 100
9.8.1 Steady State Flight ...................................................................................... 101
9.8.2 Perturbed State Flight .................................................................................. 102
9.9 Steady State Equations of Motion ....................................................................... 103
9.9.1 Steady State Rectilinear Flight ..................................................................... 103
9.9.2 Steady State Turning Flight.......................................................................... 104
9.9.3 Steady Symmetrical Pull-Up ........................................................................ 105
9.10 Perturbed State Equations of Motion .................................................................. 106
9.11 Equations Summary............................................................................................ 109
Chapter 10 ........................................................................................................................ 113
Aerodynamic and Thrust ................................................................................................... 113
Forces and Moments ........................................................................................................ 113
10.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 113
10.1 The Stability Axis System of Coordinates ............................................................ 113
10.2 Steady State Forces and Moments ..................................................................... 114
10.2.1 Control Surface Deflection Definition ........................................................... 116
10.2.2 Longitudinal Forces and Moments ............................................................... 116
10.2.3 The Total Aircraft Drag ................................................................................. 117
10.2.4 The Total Aircraft Lift.................................................................................... 118
10.2.5 The Total Aircraft Pitching Moment .............................................................. 124
10.2.6 Assembling the Steady State Longitudinal Forces and Moments ................. 126
10.2.7 Lateral-Directional Forces and Moments...................................................... 126
10.2.8 The Total Aircraft Side Force ....................................................................... 127
10.2.9 The Total Aircraft Rolling Moment ................................................................ 130
10.2.10 The Total Aircraft Yawing Moment .......................................................... 137
10.2.11 Assembling the Steady State Lateral-Directional Forces and Moments ... 142
10.3 Perturbed State Forces and Moments................................................................. 143
10.3.1 Longitudinal Stability Derivatives.................................................................. 146
10.3.2 Lateral Directional Derivatives................................................................... 154
10.3.3 Summary of Perturbed Aerodynamic Forces and Moments ......................... 165
10.3.4 Perturbed Thrust Forces and Moments ........................................................ 166
10.3.5 Summary of Perturbed Aerodynamic Forces and Moments ......................... 171
Chapter 11 ........................................................................................................................ 180
Page iv
Steady State Stability and Control..................................................................................... 180

11.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 180
11.1 Static (Steady State) Stability Criteria ................................................................. 180
11.2 Static Stability Criteria for Speed Disturbance ..................................................... 182
11.2.1 Forward Speed Disturbance ........................................................................ 182
11.2.2 Side Speed Disturbance .............................................................................. 183
11.2.3 Vertical Speed Disturbance.......................................................................... 183
11.3 Weathercock ( and ) Stability Criteria ........................................................... 183
11.3.1 Static Directional Stability............................................................................. 183
11.3.2 Static Longitudinal Stability .......................................................................... 184
11.4 Static Stability Criteria for Rotational Velocity Disturbances ................................ 184
11.4.1 Roll Rate Disturbance .................................................................................. 184
11.4.2 Pitch Rate Disturbance ................................................................................ 184
11.4.3 Yaw Rate Disturbance ................................................................................. 185
11.5 Discussions of Cmu and C l ................................................................................. 185
11.5.1 Pitching Moment due to Forward Speed, Cmu .............................................. 185
11.5.2 Dihedral Effect (Lateral Stability), C l .......................................................... 186
11.6 Summary of the Stability Criteria ......................................................................... 186
11.7 Stability and Control Characteristics for Steady State: Straight and Level Flight . 186
11.7.1 Longitudinal Stability and Control: Straight and Level Flight ......................... 188
11.7.2 Lateral Directional Stability and Control: Straight and Level Flight ............ 192
11.8 Stability and Control Characteristics for Steady State: Manoeuvre Flight ............ 193
Chapter 13 ........................................................................................................................ 196
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 196
13.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 196
Page v
Chapter 1
The Wing
2.0 Introduction
One of the most important components of an aircraft is the wing. This chapter looks at the
geometry of the wing and at aerofoil sections.
2.1 Planform Geometry
The planform of a wing is the shape of the wing seen on a plan view of the aircraft. Figure 2.1
illustrates this and gives the names and symbols of the various parameters of the planform
geometry.
Figure 2.1: Wing planform geometry
2.1.1 Wing Span
The wing span is the dimension b , the distance between the extreme wing tips. The
dimension from each tip to the centre-line s of the fuselage is the semi-span.
Page 1
2.1.2 Taper Ratio
The two dimensions CT and C 0 are the tip and root chords respectively. The taper ratio is
given by 2.1. For most wings, the taper ratio is less than or equal to 1, ie 1 .
CT
(2.1)
C0
Sometimes the reciprocal of this is used as the taper ratio, namely C0 CT is the taper ratio.
2.1.3 Wing Area
The plan-area of the wing including the continuation within the fuselage is the gross wing area,
SG . The unqualified term wing area S is usually intended to mean the gross wing area. The
plan-form area of the exposed wing, i.e. excluding the continuation within the fuselage, is the
net wing area, SN .
2.1.3.1 Areas of Different Geometrical Shapes
The following are some equations for regular geometric shapes used in aircraft.
Rectangle A ab (2.2)
Parallelogram A bh (2.3)
b1 b2
h
Trapezoid A (2.4)
2
1
Triangle A bh (2.5)
2
Page 2
2.1.4 Mean Chords
A useful parameter, the standard mean chord or the geometric mean chord, is denoted by c .
The definition of c is given by (2.6).
S SG S
c or N (2.6)
b b b
It should be stated whether SG or SN is used, although normally the gross wing area is used.
This definition may also be written as (2.7).
c
cdys
(2.7)
s
dy s
Where y is the distance measured from the centre-line towards the starboard (right-hand to
the pilot) tip. This standard mean chord is often abbreviated to SMC.
Another mean chord is the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), denoted by c A or c and is
defined by (2.8).
s
c dy 2
2 b

s
cA s
2
c 2dy (2.8)
cdy S
0
s
2.1.5 Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is a measure of the narrowness of the wing planform. It is denoted by A, or
sometimes by (AR), and is given by (2.9).
span b
AR (2.9)
SMC c
If both the top and bottom of (2.9) are multiplied by the wing span b, the equation becomes
(2.10).
b 2 span
2
AR (2.10)
bc area
The form of aspect ratio given by (2.10) is the most common.
2.1.6 Sweep-back
The sweep-back angle of a wing is the angle between a line drawn along the span at a
constant fraction of the chord from the leading edge, and a line perpendicular to the centre-
line. It is usually denoted by either or . Sweep-back is commonly measured on the leading
edge ( LE or LE ), on the quarter-chord, i.e. the line of the chord behind the leading edge (
1 or 1 ), or the trailing edge ( TE or TE ).
4 4
Page 3
2.2 Aerofoil Section Geometry
Figure 2.4: Aircraft wing with cutting plane showing aerofoil shape of wing
If the wing of Figure 2.4 is cut in a plane parallel to the wing root, the shape that can be seen
is called an aerofoil section.
Figure 2.5: Aerofoil showing chord length, leading edge circle and camber line
For subsonic use, the aerofoil section has a rounded leading edge. The depth increases
smoothly to a maximum which usually occurs between and way along the profile, and
thereafter tapers off towards the rear section.
If the leading edge is rounded, it has a definite radius of curvature. It is therefore possible to
draw a circle of this radius which coincides with a very short arc of the section where the
curvature is greatest.
The trailing edge may be sharp, or it too, may have a radius of curvature, though this is
normally much smaller than for the leading edge.
A line drawn to intersect the sections at each of an aerofoil is called the chord line. The length
of the chord line is the aerofoil chord and it is denoted by c .
The point where the chord line intersects the front (nose) of the section is used as the origin
of a pair of axes, the x-axis being the chord line and the y-axis being perpendicular to the
chord line, positive in the upwards direction.
Page 4
The shape of the section is then usually given as a table of values of x and the corresponding
value of y . These section coordinates are usually expresses as a percentage of the chord,
100 x c % and 100 y c % .
Figure 2.6: Wing section geometry
2.2.1 The camber line Camber
At any point along the chord from the nose (leading edge) to the tail (trailing edge), a point
can be marked mid-way between the upper and lower surfaces. The locus of all such points,
usually curved, is the median line of the section. This line is called the camber line.
The maximum height of the camber line above the chord line is denoted by and the quantity
100 c % . This is called the percentage camber of the section.
Airfoil sections have cambers which are usually in the range from zero (a symmetrical section)
to 5 %, though much larger cambers are used in cascades, e.g. turbine blades.
2.2.2 The symmetrical fairing Thickness distribution
Having found the median, or camber line, the distances from this line to the upper and lower
surfaces are measured at any value of x . These are equal (by the definition of the camber
line). These distances may be measured at all points along the chord and then plotted against
x from a straight line. The result is a symmetrical shape called the symmetrical fairing or
thickness distribution.
The maximum thickness or depth is defined by t .

It is expressed as a fraction of the chord and is called the thickness/chord ratio 100 t c % .
Page 5
Current values in use range from 13% to 18% for civil aircraft down to 3% for supersonic
aircraft.
The position along the chord of maximum thickness is another important parameter of the
symmetrical fairing. Values range from 30% to 60% of the chord from the leading edge. Older
sections had maximum thickness at 25% chord, while some extreme sections have the
maximum thickness more than 60% of the chord behind the leading edge.
2.3 Dihedral Angle
Figure 2.7: Aircraft illustrating the dihedral angle
If you look at an aircraft from the front, the wings are not generally straight; instead they are
inclined to the horizontal by a small angle .
As shown in Figure 2.7, the angle 2 which is the angle the wings are away from being straight
(180 from each other) is called the dihedral angle.
If the wings are inclined upwards 2 0 , they have dihedral. If they are inclined downwards
2 0 they have anhedral.
2.4 Incidence, twist, wash-out and wash-in
When an aeroplane is in flight, the chord lines of the various wing sections are not normally
parallel to the direction of flight. The angle between the chord line of an aerofoil section and
the direction of flight or the undisturbed stream is called the geometric angle of incidence
or angle of attack (AOA) Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Aerofoil section at an incidence angle , with respect to

the direction of flight or wind direction
Page 6
The geometric incidence angle of aerofoil section along the span of the wing is not always the
same, in fact in most aircraft wings, the incidence angle changes. Such a change is referred
to as the twist of the wing, Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Wing section showing twist angle with positive twist about the quarter cord
If the incidence of the angle of twist increases towards the tip, the wing has wash-in, if the
incidence decreases towards the tip; the wing has wash-out.
Figure 2.10: Wings showing wash-in and wash-out
Page 7
2.5 Equations Summary
Table 2.1: Summary of symbols, terms and equations related to the aircraft wing
Angle of attack
b b2
Aspect ratio (AR) AR
c S
Chord length c
Dihedral angle
s
c dy 2
2 b
Mean aerodynamic
s
cA s
2
c 2dy
cdy S
chord (MAC) 0
s
Planform shape of the wing seen on a plan view of the aircraft

Semi-span s
s
Standard mean chord S

c
cdy
s
s
dy
(SMC) b
s
Sweep-back angle
leading edge ( LE or LE )
chord ( 1 or 1 )
4 4
trailing edge ( TE or TE )
CT
Taper ratio
C0
twist of the wing where the angle of incidence increases towards the
Wash-in
wing tip
twist of the wing where the angle of incidence decreases towards
Wash-out
the wing tip
Wing area S
Wing span b
Page 8
Chapter 3
Aerodynamics
3.0 Introduction
Aeroplanes fly though the atmosphere. This process generates loads that allow them to
remain airborne. This chapter looks at the name and definition of the loads that allow aircraft
to fly; it also looks at the atmosphere and at the method for measuring the speed of aircraft.
3.1 Aerodynamic Forces

As air passes an aeroplane or any body, it must be diverted from musts original path. Such
deflections lead to changes in the speed of the air.
Bernoullis equation (3.1) shows that the pressure exerted by the air on an aeroplane is altered
from the undisturbed stream.
1 2
pstatic v gh constant (3.1)
2
Also the viscosity of the air leads to the existence of frictional forces tending to resist its flow.
As a result of these processes, the aeroplane experiences resultant aerodynamic forces and
moments. There are in total 3 forces and 3 moments.
Figure 3.1: The system of forces and moments for aeronautical engineering. Note that all
moments are positive using the right hand rule about the positive axis system
Page 9
3.1.1 Lift (L, -z)
This is the component of force acting upwards and it is perpendicular to the direction of the
undisturbed stream. Where upwards is in reference to the upper side of the aircraft.
(a) High speed level flight (b) Climbing flight
(c) Low speed level flight (d) Banked circling flight

Figure 3.2: The direction of the lift force
3.1.2 Drag (D, -x)
This is the component of force acting in the opposite direction to the line of flight, or in the
same direction as the motion of the undisturbed stream. It is the force which resists the motion
of the aircraft.
3.1.3 Cross-wind Force (Y)
This is the component of force mutually perpendicular to the lift and the drag, i.e. in the
spanwise direction. It is positive when acting towards starboard (right-hand to the pilot) wing-
tip.
3.1.4 Pitching Moment (M)
This is the moment acting in the plane containing the lift and drag, i.e. in the vertical plane
when the aircraft if flying horizontally. It is positive if it tends to increase the incidence or raise
the nose of the aircraft upwards.
3.1.5 Rolling Moment (LR)
This is the moment tending to make the aircraft roll about the flight direction, i.e. tending to
depress one of the wing-tips and to raise the other. It is positive when it tends to depress the
starboard wing-tip.
Page 10
3.1.6 Yawing Moment (N)
This is the moment that tends to rotate the aircraft about the lift direction, i.e. to swing the nose
to one side or the other of the flight direction. It is positive when it swings or tends to swing
the nose to the starboard (right) side.
Note that for more advanced stability and control studies it is more convenient to use is a
slightly different system of forces. Well see that later in this module.
3.2 Forces on a Body Moving Through a Fluid

The force F acting on a body that arise from its motion through a fluid depends on the
following factors:
1. Properties of the body
a) size l
b) shape
c) orientation;
2. Properties of the fluid;
a) density ;
b) viscosity ;
c) elasticity (determined by density and speed of sound a )
3. Relative velocity between body and fluid V
For a body of given shape and orientation moving through a flow at speed V , the force F may
be written in the functional form of :
g F , ,V , l , , a 0 (3.2)
Using Dimensional Analysis, equation (3.2) can be written in the form of (3.3).
F Vl V
f1 , , 0
a
(3.3)
V l
2 2
Equation (3.3) gives rise to three very important non-dimensional numbers used in
aerodynamic work:
1. Force Coefficient (3.4)
2. Reynolds number (3.5)
3. Mach Number (3.6)
F
CF (3.4)
V 2 l 2
Vl
Re (3.5)

V
M (3.6)
a
Which then requires the definition of a few other parameters like: density of air (3.7), viscosity
(3.8), kinematic viscosity (3.9) and speed of sound (3.10).
P
(3.7)
RT
Page 11
T 1.5
1.458 x10 6 (3.8)
T 110.4

(3.9)

a RT (3.10)
where:
T Temperature in Kelvin T o 273 TCo
K
Viscosity in kg/s.m
Kinematic viscosity m2/s
R Gas Constant 287.1 J/Kg/K
Ratio of Specific Heats 1.40
3.3 The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases of which oxygen and nitrogen are the main constituents,
although it has small amounts of other gases. Over the range of altitudes involved in
conventional aerodynamics, the proportion of the gases varies little, and the atmosphere may
be regarded as a homogeneous gas of uniform composition.
The atmosphere can be divided into two regions:

1. The lower region (below 11000 m) is called the troposphere, where the temperature
decreases linearly with height.
2. The upper region (above 11000 m) is called the stratosphere, where the temperature
remains (almost) constant with height.
The boundary between these two regions is called the tropopause. Although a sharp
distinction between the two regions doesnt really exist and the two merge gradually to each
other, for most general calculations they can be assumed to do so.
3.3.1 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
In order to perform aircraft comparisons, it is advantageous to do this using a standard

atmospheric condition.
To assist aircraft designers, agreement was reached on an International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA), which would approximate the atmospheric conditions for most of the year
in temperate conditions, e.g. Europe and North America.
The ISA is therefore defined by the pressure and temperature at mean sea level and the
variation of temperature with altitude.
3.3.2 Properties of the Troposphere
The properties of the troposphere are given by the following equations that relate the
temperature variation with height and the pressure and density variation with temperature
change. Remember that the troposphere goes up to an altitude of 11,000m, after which the
equations relating to the stratosphere need to be used.
The temperature drop with altitude is given by (3.11)

T T0 Lh (3.11)
Page 12
Table 3.1: International Standard Atmosphere values at sea level1

Property Symbol Metric value Imperial value
Pressure P0 101325 Pa 2116.7 lbf/ft2
Density 0 1.2256 Kg/m3 0.002378 slug/ft3
Temperature T0 15 oC, 288.15 K 59 F, 518 R
Speed of Sound a 340.3 m/s 1116.4 ft/s
0 3.737 x 10-7
Viscosity 1.789x10-5 Kg/m/s
slug/ft/s
Kinematic Viscosity 0 1.460x10-5 m2/s 1.5723x10-4 ft2/s
Thermal Conductivity 0.0253 J/m/s/K 3.165x10-3 lb/s/R
Gas Constant R 287.26 J/Kg/K 1715.7 ft lbf/slug/R
Specific Heat Cp 1005 J/Kg/K 6005 ft lbf/slug/R
Specific Heat Cv 717.98 J/Kg/K 4289 ft lbf/slug/R
Ratio of Specific Heats 1.40
Gravitational Acceleration g 9.80665 m/s2 32.174 ft/s2
Lapse Rate L 0.0065 C/m 3.56 F /1000 ft
where:
T0 is the absolute temperature at mean sea level
L is the lapse rate or the rate of descent of temperature with altitude in K per metre
h is the height above the mean sea level in metres
The equations that relate the pressure and density variation can be derived from the buoyancy
equation2 (3.12) and density equation (3.7).
p
g (3.12)
h
Substituting (3.11) into (3.7) and replacing density for temperature gives:
p g h
(3.13)
p R T0 Lh
Integrating (3.13) between two altitudes h1 and h2 (where h2 h1 ), with respective pressures
p1 and p 2 , gives (3.14).
ln ppp12 g lnT0 Lh hh12 (3.14)

LR
Substituting for (3.11) and rearranging to eliminate the natural logarithm term gives (3.15).
g
p2 T2 LR
(3.15)
p1 T1
Using (3.7), (3.15) can be re configured to give the equation relating density variation, (3.16).
g
1
2 T2 LR
(3.16)
1 T1
1 Values for the ISA are given in Appendix B

2 The buoyancy equation is derived in Appendix A
Page 13
3.3.3 Properties of the Stratosphere
The properties that govern the stratosphere can be calculated using exactly the same
equations that defined the troposphere, the only difference being that the temperature in the
stratosphere is a constant (i.e. does not vary with altitude).
It is necessary to now combine equations (3.7) and (3.12), giving (3.17) but as T is a constant
then it needs to be defined. Along the entire stratosphere, the temperature is the same (or
nearly the same) as on the tropopause, which is Ts 216 .15K 56.5C .
p g
h (3.17)
p RTs
Integrating (3.17) between the two altitudes h1 and h2 (where h2 h1 ) allows us to find the
corresponding pressures p1 and p 2 , gives (3.18).
ln ppp 2

g
hhh12 (3.18)
1
RTs
Rearranging:
p
ln 2
g
h2 h1
p1 RTs
Rearranging again:
g h1 h2
p2
RTs

g h1 h2
e exp (3.19)
p1 RTs
Since T Ts is a constant, then p is also a constant, therefore the variation of pressure

and density in the stratosphere are given by the same equation, (3.20).
g h1 h2
p2 2
RTs

g h1 h2
e exp (3.20)
p1 1 RTs
3.3.4 Relative Density
A very important aerodynamic quantity is the relative density , which is defined by (3.21).
density at relevant altitude

(3.21)
0 density at sea level in ISA
3.4 Determining Aircraft Airspeed (Subsonic non-compressible flow)
The Pitot-static tube and the venturi tube are two devices that use Bernoullis equation to
measure the flow speed of a fluid. These devices are used for the measurement of the speed
of an aircraft.
The tube, Figure 3.3, is of cylindrical cross section and the U tube manometer attached to it
measures the difference between the stagnation pressure p 0 and the static pressure p of the
undisturbed flow.
Page 14
Figure 3.3: Pitot-static tube
1
p0 p p l gh V 2 (3.22)
2
where:
h is the height difference in the fluid of the manometer
p is the pressure difference
l is the density of the manometer liquid
is density of the air
Which when rearranged gives:
2 l gh 2p
V (3.23)

The Pitot-static tube is used to measure the speed of aircraft. There are however differences
between systems used in aircraft and those in the laboratory.
In the laboratory liquid manometers are used, however for aircraft usage, this type of
manometers are unusable, so mechanical devices are used.
These consist of an aneroid barometric capsule or a pressure transducer. The former is a

corrugated capsule with static pressure applied to the casing surrounding the capsule, and
the total pressure is admitted to the interior of the capsule, Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: The aneroid barometer, a closed sealed capsule with flexible sides.
A change in pressure alters the thickness of the capsule
The pressure difference causes the capsule to expand. A mechanism is then used to point to
the air speed indicator. The dial is calibrates and gives the Indicated Air Speed (IAS), Figure
3.5.
Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the airspeed read directly from the airspeed indicator on an aircraft,
driven by the pitot-static system. IAS is directly related to calibrated airspeed (CAS), but
includes instrument errors and position error.
Page 15
Figure 3.5: Levers magnify these changes, causing a pointer to move on a dial,
or numbers to change on a digital read-out device
An aircraft's indicated airspeed in knots is typically abbreviated KIAS for "Knots-Indicated Air
Speed" (vs. KCAS for calibrated airspeed and KTAS for true airspeed).
Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is the speed shown by a conventional airspeed indicator after
correction for instrument error and position error.
When flying at sea level under International Standard Atmosphere conditions (15C, 1013
hPa, 0% humidity) calibrated airspeed is the same as equivalent airspeed and true airspeed
(TAS). If there is no wind it is also the same as ground speed (GS). Under any other conditions,
CAS differs from the aircraft's TAS and GS.
Calibrated airspeed in knots is usually abbreviated as KCAS, while indicated airspeed is

abbreviated as KIAS.
Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is the airspeed at sea level which represents the same dynamic
pressure as that flying at the true airspeed (TAS) at altitude. It is useful for predicting aircraft
handling, aerodynamic loads, stalling etc.
True airspeed (TAS) is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air mass in which it flies,
To calculate TAS we need to do the following:
If an aircraft is flying at a true air speed of VTAS , with surrounding air density , then the
pressure difference is given by (3.22)
1
p VTAS
2
(3.22)
2
Now suppose that the pressure difference is measured by an instrument calculated at ISA,
hence 0 = 1.2256 kg/m3, hence giving an equivalent air speed of VEAS .
1
p 0VEAS
2
(3.23)
2
But since these two pressures are the same, then
1 1
0VEAS
2
VTAS
2
2 2
which simplifies to:

VEAS VTAS
0

but since which is the relative density, then this gives equation (3.24).
0
Page 16
VEAS
VEAS VTAS so VTAS (3.24)

So the definitions again:
Indicated Air Speed: IAS The speed shown by an air-speed indicator

Equivalent Air EAS The speed that would be shown by an error-free air-speed
Speed: indicator calibrated at ISA
True Air Speed: TAS The actual speed of an aircraft relative to the air
Note that only when 1 , will True Air Speed (TAS) and Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) be
equal.
3.4.1 Pressure Coefficient
It is often convenient to express variables non-dimensionally, one such variable is pressure.

The pressure coefficient is therefore defined as:
p1 p
Cp1 (3.25)
2 v
1 2
where:
C p1 = pressure coefficient
p1 = static pressure at some point in the flow where the velocity is some value v1
p = static pressure of the undisturbed stream
= density of the undisturbed stream
v = speed of the undisturbed stream
If the flow is incompressible, then from Bernoullis we have that:
1 2 1
p1 v1 p v 2
2 2
Then, the nominator of (3.25) becomes:

p1 p v 2 v 12
1
(3.25)
2
which then gives:
2
v
Cp1 1 1 (3.26)
v
Then:
1. if C p1 is positive, p1 p and v 1 v
2. if C p1 is zero p1 p and v 1 v
3. if C p1 is negative p1 p and v 1 v
4. if C p1 is 1, then we have the stagnation pressure coefficient
3.5 Force and Moment Coefficients
When looking at forces generated due to a body moving through a fluid in section 3.2, the
force coefficient was defined as:
Page 17
F
CF (3.4)
V 2 l 2
This equation is extensively used in aerodynamics, and as such is it slightly modified. Instead
of using V 2 , it is conventional to use 21 V 2 , and instead of using l 2 , it is customary to use
the wing planform area or the maximum area of the fuselage, S . So the conventional way of
representing (3.4) is given by (3.27).
F
CF (3.27)
1
2 V 2S
where: CF is the aerodynamic coefficient and it is non-dimensional.
The most important force coefficients are the lift and drag coefficients; these are defined by
equations (3.28) and (3.29).
L
CL 1 (3.28)
2 V S
2
D
CD 1 (3.29)
2 V S
2
If you are calculating the lift and drag coefficients of a wing, then S is the planform area of the
wing.
For the drag of a body such as a fuselage or cylinder, the area S is usually the projected frontal
area, the maximum cross-sectional area or the (volume)
The area used for defining the lift and drag coefficients of a body can be seen to change from
case to case, hence it needs to be stated for each case.
When calculating the moment coefficients, the area S is multiplied by the mean chord length
c , so the pitching moment coefficient if then given by (3.30).
M
CM (3.30)
1
2 V 2Sc
3.6 Pressure Distribution on an Aerofoil
The pressure on an aerofoil in flight is not uniform. In the distribution of Figure 3.6, there is a
small region in the nose and tail where the pressure coefficient Cp is positive, but over most
of the airfoil the coefficient of pressure is negative.
Page 18
Figure 3.6: Typical Pressure distribution for an aerofoil at an incidence angle = 0o
Figure 3.7: Typical Pressure distribution for an aerofoil at an incidence angle = 15o
As the angle of incidence is increased from zero the following happens:

1. The pressure distribution on the upper surface increases;
2. The stagnation point moves further back on the lower surface and the increased
pressure on the lower surface covers a greater proportion of the surface, Figure 3.7.
If the pressure distribution is integrated with respect to the X & Y-axis about a point a distance
' a' from the leading edge, three resultant terms would be generated. A Lift (L), Drag (D) and
Pitching Moment (M), Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8: Pressure distribution for an aerofoil with resultant generated loads
3.7 Pitching Moment at different points along the chord
The pitching moment on a wing may be estimated experimentally by two principal methods:
1. Direct measurement on a balance;
2. pressure plotting.
Page 19
In either case, the pitching moment coefficient is measured about some definite point on the
aerofoil chord. It may be desirable to know the pitching moment coefficient about some other
point on the chord.
In order to do this, suppose that you already know the Lift (L), Drag (D) and pitching Moment
Ma about a distance a from the leasing edge, Figure 3.9(a), and you want to find the pitching
moment Mx at a distance x from the leading edge, Figure 3.9 (b).
Figures 3.9 (a) and (b) represent exactly the same system, hence in both cases the lift and
drag components must be the same.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.9: Lift, drag and pitching moments on the same aerofoil at
two separate locations a & x from the LE
Taking moments about the leading edge:
M LE M a La cos Da sin M x Lx cos Dx sin
And rearranging to find Mx gives:

M x M a L cos D sin a x
Converting to pitching moment coefficient by using (3.30) gives (3.31).

a x
CM x CMa CL cos CD sin (3.31)
c c
3.7.1 The Aerodynamic Centre
If the pitching moment coefficient at each point along the chord is calculated for each of several
values of C L , one very special point would be found for which the C M is virtually constant and
independent of lift coefficient. This point is the aerodynamic centre. For incidences up to 10o
or so, it generally lies between 23% and 25% of the chord behind the leading edge. This is
therefore the reason why the measurement of lift, drag and pitching moment are always
measured about the quarter chord point
Page 20
3.7.2 The Centre of Pressure
The aerodynamic forces on an aerofoil section may be represented by a lift, drag and pitching
moment, Figure 3.8.
At each value of lift coefficient there will be a point about which the moment coefficient if zero,
and the aerodynamic effects on the aerofoil may be represented by the lift and drag alone
acting at that point. This special point is called the centre of pressure.
Note: Whereas the aerodynamic centre is a fixed point on the aerofoil, the centre of pressure
moves with change of lift coefficient and is not necessarily within the aerofoil profile.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.10: Determination of the centre of pressure position from the aerodynamic centre ac c
Taking moments about the leading edge:
M LE M ac L cos D sin xac L cos D sin k cp c
Dividing by 21 V 2Sc , it becomes:
CMAC CL cos CD sin CL cos CD sin kcp

xac
c
which then gives that:
x ac CM ac
k cp (3.32)
c CL cos CD sin
3.8 Drag
The total force which drags an aeroplane (body, aerofoil, etc.) in the direction of the
undisturbed stream or which resists the motion of the body through a bulk of fluid is called
Drag (D). The total drag experienced by an aeroplane can be separated into a number of items
contributing to the total.
Induced Drag The drag that results from the generation of a trailing vortex system
downstream of a lifting surface of finite aspect ratio is proportional to the lift
coefficient by kCL2 .
Parasite Drag The total drag of an aeroplane minus the induced drag. It is the drag not
directly associated with the production of lift. The parasite drag is composed
of many drag components, their definition is given below:
Page 21
Base Drag The specific contribution to the pressure drag attributed

to the blunt after-end of a body.
Form Drag The drag on a body resulting from the integrated effect
of the static pressure acting normal to its surface
resolved in the drag direction. (Sometimes called
Pressure Drag)
Interference Drag The increment in drag resulting from bringing two bodies
in close proximity to each other.
Profile Drag Usually taken to mean the total skin friction drag and the
form drag for a two-dimensional aerofoil section.
Skin Friction The drag on a body resulting from the viscous shearing
Drag stresses over its wetted surface
Trim Drag The increment in drag resulting from the aerodynamic
forces required to trim the aircraft about its centre of
gravity.
Wave Drag Limited to supersonic flow, this drag is a pressure drag
resulting from non-cancelling pressure components to
either side of a shock wave acting on the surface of the
body from which the wave is emanating.
The total drag coefficient of a complete aeroplane can then be taken as a good approximation
in most cases to be represented by (3.33).
CD CD0 kCL2 (3.33)

where:
CD0 is the drag coefficient at zero lift
2
kCL is the lift-dependent drag coefficient
3.9 Lift, Drag and Pitching Moment Characteristic Curves
If the lift, drag and pitching moments are measured for an aerofoil or an aircraft they are plotted
as in Figures 3.11 & 3.12.
Figure 3.11 shows the lift curve for an aerofoil, which together in the same graph has the
pitching moment diagram measured about the quarter chord.
Figure 3.12 shows the total drag curve, and as can be seen is in the shape of (3.33). This
diagram also has drawn the pitching moment about the aerodynamic centre.
A way of obtaining the drag polar equation (3.33) would be to plot the drag coefficient vs. the
lift coefficient squared ( CD vs. CL2 ). Then the intersection between the curve and the y-axis
gives the value of CD , and the slope of the curve the value of k .
0
3.9.1 Calculating Total Drag Equation
The graph of R 6 10 6 with standard roughness was read to obtain the data of the table
below. The values associated with positive lift were then plotted in the graph of Figure 3.13
to show how the coefficients of (3.33) could be obtained.
Page 22
Figure 3.11: CL and CM vs. angle of attack
Page 23
Figure 3.12: CD and C MAC vs. C L
Page 24
Table 3.2: Lift and drag coefficients for

the NACA1412 aerofoil of Figure 3.12
CL CL2 CD
-0.827 0.684 0.0238
-0.692 0.478 0.0166
-0.488 0.238 0.0131
-0.285 0.081 0.0107
-0.068 0.005 0.0101
0.136 0.018 0.0099
0.353 0.124 0.0103
0.569 0.324 0.0112
0.759 0.577 0.0135
0.936 0.875 0.0169
1.125 1.267 0.0222
0.025
y = 0.0099x + 0.0088
0.02
0.015
CD
0.01
0.005
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
CL2
Figure 3.13: CD0 vs. CL2 showing the drag polar equation line of best fit using only the
positive values of CL from Table 3.2.
From the graph of Figure 3.13, a line of best fit can be obtained and the coefficients CD0 and
k obtained. These were found to be:
CD0 0.0088
k 0.0099
Hence the total drag equation becomes:
CD 0.0088 0.0099CL2
Page 25
3.9.2 Calculating the Lift Curve Slope and CLmax
The maximum lift obtained by an aerofoil and aeroplane is called the stall lift coefficient CLmax,
and occur at the stall angle s . The value of CL , is a very important characteristic of the
max
aerofoil (aircraft) as it determines the minimum speed at which the aeroplane can fly.
To obtain the lift curve slope a , only the lift coefficients in the linear part of the curve are
plotted, and a line of best fit plotted through this, (3.34).
CL
a (3.34)

3.9.3 Calculating the Pitching Moment Coefficient
In a similar way to the lift curve slope, a line of best fit is fitted through the linear part of the
pitching moment coefficient about the quarter chord (Figure 3.11), and the constant pitching
moment coefficient can be found, (3.35).
CM
constant (3.35)
CL
Page 26
Table 3.3: Summary of symbols, terms and equations related to general aerodynamics
1 2
Bernoullis equation pstatic v gh constant
2
x CM
Centre of pressure k cp ac ac
c CL cos CD sin
Cross-wind force Y
P
Density of air
RT
Drag D
D
Drag coefficient CD
2 V S
1 2
Drag polar CD CD0 kCL2

EAS - The speed that would be shown by an error-free air-speed
Equivalent air speed:
indicator calibrated at ISA
Equivalent to True
VEAS VTAS VTAS
airspeed conversion 0
F
Force coefficient CF 1
2 V 2S
Gas constant R 287.1 J/Kg/K
Indicated air speed: IAS - The speed shown by an air-speed indicator

Kinematic viscosity

Lapse rate L
Lift L
L
Lift coefficient CL 1
2 V 2S
CL
Lift curve slope a CL

Lift induced drag kCL2
V
Mach number M
a
Parasite drag CD0
Pitching moment M
Pitching moment M
CM
coefficient 1
2 V 2Sc
a x
Pitching moment CM x CMa CL cos CD sin
variation along chord c c
2
p1 p v
Pressure coefficient Cp1 1 1
2 v
2
1
v
Page 27
density at relevant altitude

Relative density
0 density at sea level in ISA
Vl
Reynolds number Re

Rolling moment L
Specific heats ratio 1.40
Speed measured 2 l gh 2p
V
with pitot tube
Speed of sound a RT
g h1 h2
Stratosphere Density and pressure p2 2
RTs

g h1 h2
e exp
equation variation with altitude p1 1 RTs
Temperature in T o 273 TCo
Kelvin K
Troposphere equations
g
1
Density variation 2 T2 LR

with altitude 1 T1
g
Pressure variation p2 T2 LR

with altitude p1 T1
Temperature T T0 Lh
variation with altitude
True air speed: TAS - The actual speed of an aircraft relative to the air
T 1.5
Viscosity 1.458 x10 6
T 110.4
Yawing moment N
Page 28
Chapter 4
Aircraft Performance in Steady Flight
4.0 Introduction
The simplest case of flight is in a straight, horizontal path at constant speed. This chapter will
look at straight and level flight, the performance of an aircraft flying in the straight level flight
regime.
4.1 Straight and Level Flight
The forces acting on an aircraft in straight and level flight are the lift and its weight acting
vertically, and the thrust and drag acting horizontally, Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: The forces acting in steady, straight and level flight.
The forces of Figure 4.1 must all be in equilibrium. For equilibrium, the sum of the forces
about the horizontal and vertical axes give equations 4.1 and 4.2.
T D (4.1)
L W (4.2)
Using the equation for the lift coefficient (4.3), the equation relating lift coefficient and speed
is generated, (4.4).
L
CL 1 (4.3)
2 V S
2
W L 21 CLV 2S (4.4)
Page 29
4.1.1 Stall Speed
Equation (4.4) can be re-arranged to provide the speed of flight for a specific lift coefficient
value, (4.5).
2W
V (4.5)
SCL
If an aeroplane of given weight and wing area is flying at a given altitude (fixing the value of
the density ) and the lift coefficient is assumed to take its maximum value for the aeroplane
in question, CLmax , the corresponding flight speed is given by (4.6). This is the minimum speed
for which steady flight can be sustained, and it is called the stalling speed.
2W
Vs (4.6)
SCLmax
To convert between m/s, km/hr & knots, use the conversion factors of (4.7) and (4.8)
m km
3.6 (4.7)
s hr
m
1.944 knots (4.8)
s
4.2 Drag Polar Equation
A good approximation to the total drag coefficient of an aeroplane is given by the drag polar
equation (4.9).
1
CD CD0 kCL2 CD0 CL2 (4.9)
e AR
where:
CD0 is the zero-lift drag coefficient
2
kC L is the lift-dependent drag coefficient
e Oswalds efficiency factor
b2
AR Wing aspect ratio AR
S
The drag coefficient equation is given by (4.10).
D
CD (4.10)
1
2 V 2S
By rearranging (4.10) and incorporating (4.9) the total drag for an aircraft at a speed V in air
density can be calculated to be (1.11).
D 1
2
V 2SC D 21 V 2SC D 21 V 2S kCL2
0
(4.11)
Page 30
Using substituting (4.3) and (4.2) into (4.11) produces equation (4.12), which gives the total
drag of the aircraft as a function of weight and speed.
2
1 1 W 1 kW 2
D V 2SCD0 V 2Sk 1 2
V 2
SC (4.12)
2 V S 2 V S
D0 1 2
2 2 2
Equation (4.12) represents the sum of two terms. One is proportional to V 2 , and the other is
inversely proportional to V 2 . These terms separately and their sum is sketched in Figure 4.2.
4.2.1 Minimum Drag
The curve of total drag against speed, Figure 4.2, shows clearly a defined minimum, which is
of considerable interest. This can be located precisely as follows. Let the drag of the aircraft
be equal to the lift multiplied by the Drag to Lift ratio, (4.13).
D
D L (4.13)
L
But since L = W, in straight and level flight, equation (4.13), becomes (4.14)
D
D W (4.14)
L
For a given weight, the minimum drag can be found with the minimum value of (D/L) or the
maximum value of (L/D).
Figure 4.2: The variation of total drag with flight speed.

Now:
D 21 V 2SCD CD CD0 kCL
2
1 (4.15)
L 2 V 2SCL CL CL
Page 31
To find the minimum, differentiate equation (4.15) with respect to CL, and make it equal to
zero.
2

d CD0 kCL CL 2kCL CD0 kCL 1
2
0

(4.16)
dCL CL
C 2
L
Since CL, cant be infinite or zero, only the numerator of this equation can be equal to zero,
which simplifies to give (4.17).
CD0 kCL2 kCL2md (4.17)
Hence, for minimum drag, the zero-lift drag coefficient is equal to the lift dependent drag
coefficient. The lift coefficient for minimum drag is then given the notation CLmd , and its given
by (4.18).
C D0
CLmd (4.18)
k
The corresponding minimum drag is then given by (4.19).
CDmd CD0 kCL2 2CD0 (4.19)
The maximum lift/drag ratio is then given by (4.20).
L CLmd CL 1
md (4.20)
D CDmd 2CD0 2 kCD
0
Using equation (4.5), the minimum drag speed can then be calculated to be (4.21).
1
W k 4
W
Vmd (4.21)

2 SCLmd 2 S CD0
1 1

4.2.1 Lift/drag ratio at other speeds
Suppose an aircraft is flying at a multiple m of the minimum drag speed, (4.22)
V
m (4.22)
Vmd
Since the weight of the aeroplane is constant, and using (4.4), we have that:
W 21 V 2SC L 21 Vm2d SC Lmd
Substituting V using (4.22) and rearranging gives (4.23).
CLmd
CL (4.23)
m2
Substituting (4.23) into the total drag equation (4.9) gives (4.24):
Page 32
2
CL 1
CD CD0 k md2 CD0 4 kCL2md
(4.24)
m m
And substituting (4.17) gives, (4.25).
1
CD CD0 1 4 (4.25)
m
The lift/drag ratio is then calculated using (4.23) and (4.25).
CLmd
L CL m2 2m 2 CLmd

4
D CD C 1 1 m 1 2CD0

D0 4
m
Substituting (4.20) as the maximum lift/drag ratio L Dmax CLmd 2CD0 gives (4.26).
L D 2
L Dmax m2 m 2 (4.26)
4.3 Thrust for Straight Level Flight
Consider the aircraft of Figure 4.3 which is in steady level flight at a given altitude and
velocity.
Figure 4.3: Aircraft in steady level flight condition.
In order for the aircraft to fly at this velocity, its power plant must produce the necessary
thrust which must be equal to the drag.
T D 21 V 2SCD (4.27)
We also have that for steady level flight that the lift and weight are equal to each other, (4.4).
By dividing these two equations we obtain (4.28).
Page 33
T D C
D (4.28)
W L CL
If we then multiply both sides of this equation by W, we obtain an expression for the Thrust
required for an aircraft to fly in steady level flight (4.29).
W W
TR (4.29)
CL / CD L / D
From this equation we can then see that the thrust required at a given altitude varies with
velocity V.
The Thrust-Required curve is a plot of this variation and has the general shape of Figure 4.4.
4.3.1 Generation of the Thrust Required Curve
To calculate a point on this curve, the following steps must be followed:

1. Choose a value of V
2. For this V, calculate the lift coefficient for the aircraft from equation (4.3)
2W
CL (4.3)
V 2 S
Figure 4.4: Thrust-required curve.

Note: is known from the given altitude and S is known from the given aircraft. This
calculated value of CL, is that necessary for the lift to balance the known weight W of
the aircraft.
3. Calculate CD from the known drag polar for the aircraft.
1
CD CD0 kCL2 CD0 CL2 (4.9)
e AR
Page 34
4. Calculate the ratio CL CD

5. Calculate the equation for Thrust required (4.29).
The value obtained in step 5, is the thrust required to fly at the selected speed of step 1.
By following these 5 steps for all velocities in the flight range of the aircraft the T R vs. V
graph can then be generated.
Note that the thrust required is the sum of the lift induced and zero lift thrust required, Figure
4.5. And that the value for L/D max is obtained by the point on the curve where dTR dV 0
4.4 Thrust Available
Thrust required, TR is dictated by the aerodynamic and weight of the aeroplane; it is an

airframe-associated phenomenon.
The thrust-available TA, is strictly associated with the engine of the aircraft. It is the
propulsive thrust provided by the engine-propeller combination, a turbojet, rocket, etc.
Note: For Propeller driven aircraft, the TA decreases with forward velocity, whereas for
turbo-jet engines the TA is relatively constant with velocity.
Figure 4.5: Thrust-Required curves generated from zero-lift and lift induced drag
4.5 Power Required for Straight Level Flight

Power is energy per unit time. An aircraft flying in steady level flight at a given altitude and
velocity V. The power-required PR is given by equation (4.30) where the units are watts:
PR TRV (4.30)
And substituting the equation for TR we get:
Page 35
Figure 4.6: Thrust-Available curves for a) piston engine-propeller and (b) turbojet engines.
W
PR TRV V (4.31)
CL / CD
And substituting equation (4.5) gives, (4.32)
W 2W
PR (4.32)
CL / CD SCL
Rearranging this then gives that the power required is:

2W 3CD2 1
PR 3/2 (4.33)
SCL3
C L / CD
In contrast with Thrust with varies inversely as CL / CD , power requires varies inversely as
CL3 / 2 / CD .
4.5.1 Minimum Power for Straight and Level Flight
The equation for straight and level power required was defines in the previous section as
(4.33). Rearranging this then gives that:
W 3 CD
PR
1 3 (4.34)
S CL2
2
The drag coefficient term can now be replaced with the drag polar, and thereby making this
solely a function of CL, (4.35).

W 3 CD W 3 CD 0 kCL2
PR (4.35)
2 S 2 S
1 3 1 3
2

2
CL CL
Page 36
To find the minimum power, it is now necessary to differentiate (4.35) with respect to C L .
However since the term inside of the square root sign is a constant, it is therefore only
necessary to differentiate the terms that have C L and CD0 .

d CD 0 kCL2
3 0 (4.36)
dCL

2
CL
Differentiating by the quotient rule, we have:
dU
U CD 0 kCL2 2kCL
dCL
3 1
(4.37)
dV 3
V C 2
L CL2
dCL 2
and combining

dU dV 3
3
1
V U CL2 .2kCL CD 0 kCL2 . CL2
d U / V dCL dCL 2 (4.38)
2
3
0
dCL V CL
The only part of this equation which can be equal to zero is the numerator,
5 1 5
3 3
2kCL2 CD 0CL2 kCL2 0
2 2
(4.39)
1 3
CL1/ 2 kC L2 CD 0 0
2 2
Two solutions exist:
1. CL1/ 2 0 which is meaningless, as the aircraft is not flying and has no forward speed.
1 2 3
2. kC CD0 0 kCL2 3CD0
2 L 2
This equation then gives us the value of CL for minimum power for steady level flight (4.40).
3C D 0
CLmp (4.40)
k
When compared with the value of CL for minimum Drag or Required Thrust, which was
(4.18):
C D0
CLmd (4.18)
k
The minimum power value of CL is a factor of 3 greater than the minimum drag CL.
CLmp 3CLmd 1.732CLmd , 73% greater (4.41)
If we now look at the speed for minimum power, we have:
Page 37
W W
Vmp
1 1
SCLmp S 3CLmd
2 2
(4.42)
1 W 1
1
1
Vmd 0.76Vmd , 24% smaller
1
3 4 SCLmd 3 4
2
And finally we can now look at the Lift to Drag ratio for required for minimum power. Since
we have CL , we now need to calculate C D .
mp mp
CDmp CD0 kCL2mp CD0 3CD0 4CD0 (4.43)
The Lift to Drag ratio for minimum power is then given by (4.44)
L CL 3CD 0 1 3
(4.44)
D CD k 4CD 0 16kCD 0
The point on the Power-Required curve corresponding to the minimum TR is easily obtained
by drawing a line through the origin and tangent to the PR curve, Figure 4.7. The point of
tangency corresponds to the minimum TR (hence maximum L/D).
Figure 4.7: The tangent to the power-required curve locates the point of minimum thrust
required (and hence the point of maximum L/D).
4.6 Performance Curves for Straight and Level Flight (Thrust and Power)
4.6.1 Thrust Curves
The types of aircraft that produce thrust are those fitted with turbo-jet, ram-jet or rocket
engines.
Page 38
You can generate a curve of Required Thrust and also superimpose on the same diagram
the Thrust which is produced by the engine at the different altitudes, Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Performance Graph in terms of available and required thrust.
For steady level flight, T=D, therefore every point where the thrust available crosses the
thrust required curve, will generate a set of points that will allow you to define a diagram for
straight and level speed at the different altitudes, Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Variation of flight speed with altitude.
Note that the plot is of equivalent air speed (EAS), which is calculated using sea level
density. If these curve is corrected and the true air speed (TAS ) is calculated, the resulting
Page 39
curve no longer has the maximum flight speed for minimum thrust at sea level. Instead this
curve shows that it is more economical to fly at high altitude.
4.6.2 Power Curves
When an aircraft is flying at a Drag D and true air speed of V m/s, the power required is
given by (4.45)
2kW 2
PR DV 21 V 3SCD0 (4.45)
VS
The definition for True Air Speed (TAS) is
VEAS
VTAS (4.46)

So, substituting this into the power required equation gives, (1.47).
3
1 VE 2kW 2
PR SCD 0 (4.47)
2 VE S
Multiplying both sides by gives
1
PR VE3 SCD 0
2
2kW 2
/ VE S (4.48)
but since

(4.49)
0
then

1
P VE3 0SCD 0
2
2kW 2
0VE S
(4.50)
The right hand term is the power required at sea level.

Thus, for a given aircraft at a given weight, the quantity P is a function only of

equivalent air speed, and a graph of P against EAS is a unique curve, independent of
altitude.
Page 40
Table 4.3: Summary of symbols, terms and equations of aircraft performance in steady flight
Conversion factors
m/s to km/hr m s 3.6 km hr
m/s to knots m s 1.944 knots
1
Drag polar CD CD0 kCL2 CD0 CL2
e AR
Drag (as a function of kW 2
D 21 V 2SCD0
2 V S
2
weight) 1
Minimum drag conditions

Drag Coefficient CDmd 2CD0
C D0
Lift Coefficient CLmd
k
L CLmd CL 1
Lift to Drag ratio md
D CDmd 2CD0 2 kCD
0
Lift to Drag ratio at other L D 2

speeds L Dmax m2 m 2
Ratio of speed to V
m
minimum drag speed Vmd
1
W k 4
W
Speed Vmd

2 SCLmd 2 S CD0
1 1

Minimum power conditions
Drag Coefficient CDmp 4CD 0
3C D 0
Lift Coefficient CLmp
k
L 3
Lift to Drag ratio
D 16kCD 0
2W 1 2W 1
Speed Vmp 1 1 Vmd
SCLmp SCLmd
34 34
Oswalds efficiency factor e
Power at sea level

1
P VE3 0SCD 0
2
2kW 2
0VE S
W 2W 3CD2
Power required PR TRV V
CL CD SCL3
2W
Stall speed Vs
SCLmax
W W
Thrust required TR
CL / CD L / D
Page 41
Chapter 5
Gliding Flight
5.0 Introduction
This chapter will look at the gliding flight regime, which is synonymous to gliders or to aircrafts
that have lost engine power.
5.1 Gliding Flight
Suppose an aeroplane is flying straight and level at some altitude and the engines then shut
down. The drag force still exists and therefore, as the aircraft continues its flight path, power
will be expended in overcoming drag.
The only source of this power in still air is the potential of the aeroplane. To give up potential
energy, the aircraft must loose height, following a flight path inclined downwards from the
horizontal. Consider the aircraft of Figure 5.1, moving steadily under the influence of the lift,
drag and weight at a true air speed V along the path inclined at the angle to the horizon.
Figure 5.1: The forces on an aeroplane in steady gliding flight.
Resolving forces perpendicular to the flight path gives (5.1).
FL 0 L W cos 0 L W cos (5.1)
Page 42
Resolving forces along the flight path gives (5.2).
FD 0 D W sin 0 D W sin (5.2)
Rearranging these two equations and dividing, gives the equation for the tangent of the angle
, (5.3).
D C
tan D (5.3)
L CL
Equation (5.3) shows that the angle of glide, and therefore the distance covered in gliding
(dmax) from a given height (h), depends only on the lift/drag ratio during the glide and it is
independent of the weight of the aeroplane.
Figure 5.2, shows the relationship between, CD, CL, h and dmax, so that given a known height
it is possible to calculate the maximum glide distance.
Figure 5.2: The relationship between, CD, CL, h and dmax.
From Figure 5.2, it can be deduced that the maximum distance is given by (5.4)
C
dmax h L (5.4)
CD max
So, the greatest gliding distance is achieved by the maximum Lift/Drag ratio, which is given
for the minimum Thrust condition, (4.20).
L CLmd CL 1
md (4.20)
D CDmd 2CD0 2 kCD
0
Table 5.1 gives some representative values of Lift to Drag ratio for some commonly known
aircraft, also including glide angles and gliding distance per km of altitude.
Two cases of glide angle can now be considered: 1) Shallow (< 10) or 2) Steep.
5.1.1 Shallow Glide Angle
If the glide angle is less than about 10, it is said to be shallow. Therefore small angle
approximation can be used.
sin tan , and cos 1 (5.5)
Page 43
This then gives that equations (5.3) becomes (5.6).
Table 5.1: Typical L/D ratio

Flight article L/D ratio deg dmax/km altitude
Modern Sailplane ~60 0.95 60
Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer 37 1.55 37
Lockheed U-2 ~28 2.05 28
Rutan Voyager 27 2.12 27
Albatross 20 2.86 20
Boeing 747 17 3.37 17
Gimli glider ~12 4.76 12
Concorde 7.14 7.97 7.14
Cessna 150 7 8.13 7
Space Shuttle 4.5 12.5 4.5
Concorde 4.35 12.9 4.35
House sparrow 4 14.0 4
CD
sin (5.6)
CL
and the Lift is then equal to the weight (5.7).
L W (5.7)
So the rate of descent, which is given by (5.8), can then be calculated for the value of CL.
2W CD 2W CD
v V sin (5.8)
SCL CL S CL3 / 2
So, whereas the gliding angle is not dependent on the weight of the aircraft, the rate of
descent (or sinking speed) is. This means that one way to reduce the rate of descent is to
reduce the weight of the aircraft.
The other way to minimise the rate of descent is by minimising the CD CL3 / 2 term, which is
the condition for minimum power. Hence the attitude for the aircraft are found from the
minimum power values for CL and CD, i.e. equations (4.40 and 4.43)
3C D 0
CLmp (4.40)
k
CDmp 4CD 0 (4.43)
The reason for this is that as the aircraft glides, power is used to overcome drag at the flight
speed. However this power is obtained from the loss of potential energy. Now, the rate of
loss of potential energy is proportional to the rate of height loss (rate of descent). So the
value of v is a minimum when the power needed to overcome the drag is a minimum.
5.1.2 Steep Glide Angle
If the approximations for small angles are not considered, then the flight speed is given by
(5.9).
Page 44
2W cos
cos
2L 2W
V
1/ 2
(5.9)
SCL SCL SCL
From this equation, it can be seen that the glide speed is less than that for Straight and
Level Flight (SLF) at the same weight and incidence (relative to flight direction).
Figure 5.3: The relationship between, CD, CL, and .

This then gives the relationship of (5.10).
CD
sin
CD2 CL2
(5.10)
CL
cos
CD2 CL2
The rate of descent is then given by (5.11)

1/ 2

2W CL CD 2W CD
v V sin (5.11)
SCL CD2 CL2

C2 C2
D L

S CD2 CL2
3/ 4
5.2 Time of Descent
The rate of descent without relating it to the lift or drag coefficient is given by (5.12).
v V sin (5.12)
However the flight speed V, is at the altitude at which the aircraft if flying. This can be
related to the flight speed at sea level, by including the relative density term .
VSL sin v0
v (2.13)

where:
v 0 VSL sin , the rate of descent at sea level ISA (2.14)
The rate of descent v is the change in height over time. As this is a loss in height, then this
produces the negative sign in equation (5.15).
dh 1
v dt dh (5.15)
dt v
From Figure 5.4, the aircraft is at height h1 at time t1, and glides to a lower height h2 arriving
there at time t2. Integrating (5.15) between these two limits gives, (5.16).
Page 45
t2 1 h2
t1
dt
v0
h1
1/ 2dh (5.16)
The expression for relative density term in the troposphere is given by (5.17).
Figure 5.4: Gliding flight path showing rate of descent v
g LR g LR g LR
T LR T Lh LR L LR
0 1 h (5.17)
0 T0 T0 T0
where :
L: Lapse rate, for ISA = 0.0065 0K/m
T0: Sea level temperature for ISA = 288 0K
R: Gas constant = 287.26 J/kg/oK
Substituting into (5.16) and integrating between t1 and t2 gives (5.28).
T0 T0 Lh2
m m
T Lh1
t d t 2 t1 0 (5.18)
v 0 mL T0 T0

where:
g LR
m
2LR
and since the temperature at altitudes h1 and h2 can be calculated using (5.19), then
equation (5.18) becomes (5.20).
T T0 Lh (5.19)
T0 T2 T
m m
td 1 (5.20)
v 0 mL T0 T0

If this time is calculated for ISA and where the lower altitude h2 is sea level, (5.20) becomes
(5.21).
14,165 T1
3.128
td 1 (5.21)
v 0 288
Page 46
Table 5.2: Summary of symbols, terms and equations related to gliding flight
D CD
Glide angle tan
L CL
C
Glide distance (max) dmax h L
CD max
L/D for max glide L CLmd CL 1
md
distance D CDmd 2CD0 2 kCD
0
Shallow glide
CD
Angle sin
CL
Drag coefficient CDmp 4CD 0
3C D 0
Lift coefficient CLmp
k
2W CD 2W CD
Rate of descent v V sin
SCL CL S CL3 / 2
Steep glide
CD CL
Angle sin , cos
C C2
D
2
L C CL2
2
D
2W CD
v V sin

Rate of descent
S CD CL2
2 3/4
Time to descend
T0 T2 T
m m
g LR
General equation td 1 , m
v 0 mL T0 T0 2LR

14,165 T1
3.128
To sea level in ISA td 1

v 0 288
Page 47
Chapter 6
Climbing Flight
6.0 Introduction
This chapter will look at the climbing flight regime for both propeller driven aircraft (power) and
jet aircraft (thrust).
6.1 Climbing Flight
Consider the aircraft if Figure 6.1, climbing steadily with speed V (m/s) along a flight path at
an angle to the horizontal under the influence of the lift, drag, weight and thrust.
Figure 6.1: The forces on an aeroplane in steady climbing flight.
Resolving forces perpendicular to the flight path gives (6.1).
FL 0 L W cos 0 L W cos (6.1)
FD 0 T D W sin 0 T D W sin (6.2)
Rearranging equation (6.2) gives the equation for the climbing angle (6.3):
T D
sin (6.3)
W
Page 48
If the flight conditions are unchanged, the flight speed during the climb is then given by (6.4),
which shows that the flight speed is less than that for straight and level flight.
2L 2W cos
V VSLF cos (6.4)
SCL SCL
The Rate of Climb (R/C) is then given by (6.5).
R / C v V sin (6.5)
6.2 Engine Performance in Terms of Thrust
This sections deals with the calculation of the Rate of Climb (R/C) for aircraft propelled by
engines delivering Thrust (Jet engines or rockets).
6.2.1 Climb at Shallow Angles
If an aircraft is climbing at an angle less than approximately 13o, the small angle
approximations can be used. These are:
cos 1 (6.6)
L W (4.2)
2W
V (4.5)
SCL
These terms can now be used combined with equation (6.5) to calculate the maximum rate of
climb.
6.2.1.1 Maximum Rate of Climb
The expression for the rate of climb as given by (6.5) and substituting the three equation above
gives (6.7)
2W T 1/ 2 CD0 kCL
2
2W T D 1/ 2 T D
R /C
2W
CL CL (6.7)
SCL W S W W S W CL3 / 2
By observing the resulting equation (6.5), only one part of this equation can be modified in
order to maximise it, and it is the term inside the square brackets. Therefore to find the
maximum it is necessary to differentiate this term and equate it to zero.
d T 1/ 2 CD0 kCL2
CL 0
dCL W CL3 / 2
which gives:
d
.. 1 T CL3 / 2 L

C 3 / 2 2kCL CD0 kCL2 3
2 CL1/ 2
0
dCL 2W CL3
This simplifies to give (6.8) which is a simple quadratic equation which needs to be solved for
CL.
Page 49
T
kCL2 CL 3CD0 0 (6.8)
W
6.2.2 Climbing at Steep Angles
When the climb angle is greater than 13o, it is no longer acceptable to use the small angle
corrections. Referring back to equations (6.1 & 6.2), let LSLF, DSLF and TSLF denote the lift, drag
and thrust in straight and level flight at the same incidence and VSLF the corresponding level
flight speed. We then have that:
LSLF W , DSLF TSLF (6.9)

Hence:
L LSLF cos (6.10)
and
V VSLF cos
1/ 2
(6.11)
Since the aircraft is climbing in non-accelerated flight, then its climbing flight lift /drag ratio
should be the same as that for straight and level flight, producing equation (6.12)
L LSLF
(6.12)
D DSLF
So, combining these equations gives (6.13).
2
L D V
cos (6.13)
LSLF DSLF VSLF
To find a relationship to calculate the climb angle, we substitute these terms into (6.2) to give
(6.14).
L
T D W sin DSLF cos SLF sin (6.14)
DSLF
and by substituting (6.9) gives:
T L
cos SLF sin (6.15)
TSLF DSLF
Figure 6.2 is of a plot of equation (6.15). Two things can be seen from this diagram:
1. When = 90, T/TSLF = L/D. This is a reflection of the fact that for vertical flight at
constant speed the thrust must be equal to the weight plus Drag.
2. For any lift/drag ratio there is a maximum value for T/T SLF, which can be located by
differentiating (6.15) with respect to .
d L L L
cos SLF sin sin SLF cos 0 tan SLF (6.16)
d DSLF DSLF DSLF
and using trigonometric relationship between sec and tan, the max T/TSLF is then given by
(6.17).
Page 50
2
T L
1 SLF (6.17)
TSLF max DSLF
20
18 L/D = 9
L/D = 12
16
L/D = 15
14 L/D = 20
12
T/TSLF
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Climb Angle
Figure 6.2: Plot of equation (6.15) Thrust Ratio during climb for different L/D ratios
6.3 Engine Performance in Terms of Power
This sections deals with the calculation of the Rate of Climb (R/C) for propeller driven aircraft.
6.3.1 Rate of Climb Calculation

Using the equations of resultant force along the flight path equation (6.2) and multiplying it by
the flight speed V (calculated from (6.4)) results in a power equation (6.17).
TV DV
TV DV VW sin V sin (6.17)
W
If we examine this equation (6.17), the right hand side is the Rate of Climb (R/C) (6.5). From
the left hand side, TV is the power available, DV is the power required for level flight. For
climbing flight DV is not exactly correct as the power must also overcome a component of the
weight. However for small angles of climb (< 13 as for section 6.2.1), this is negligible.
The numerator of the left hand term is called the excess power (6.18).
excess power TV DV PA PR (6.18)
Where, excess power is the different between the power available and the power required.
Figure 6.3, demonstrates this for a propeller and jet driven aircraft. Combining (6.17) and
(6.18) gives the rate of climb equation (6.19).
Page 51
excess power
R /C (6.19)
W
Figure 6.3: Plot of excess power: (a) Propeller-driven aircraft; (b) Jet-propelled aircraft.
The power required curves (PR) are those for straight and level flight (SLF). Hence these
curves (Figure 6.3) are only an approximation to the rate of climb which is only good for small
angles of climb.
Note that the curves plotted in Figure 6.3 correspond to a given altitude and that the excess
power is different at different values of V. For both propeller and jet aircraft, there is a value
of V for which the excess power is a maximum. At this point the maximum rate of climb can
be found (6.20).
max. excess power

R / Cmax (6.20)
W
This situation is sketched in Figure 6.4, where the power available is that at full throttle (max
P). The maximum excess power gives the maximum rate of climb that can be generated by
the aircraft at the given altitude.
Figure 6.4: Determination of maximum R/C for a given altitude.
Page 52
A convenient graphical method of determining maximum R/C is to plot R/C vs. V, Figure 6.5.
The horizontal tangent defines the point of maximum R/C.
Figure 6.5: Determination of maximum R/C for a given altitude.
Another useful graph is the Hodograph Diagram, which is a plot of the aircrafts vertical
velocity (R/C = v) vs. horizontal velocity Vh, Figure 6.6
Figure 6.6: Hodograph for climb performance at a given altitude.
From the hodograph (Figure 6.6) four different values can be obtained:
1. The horizontal tangent defines the point of maximum R/C (point 1).
2. The length of a line from the origin that intersects the hodograph anywhere (say for
example point 2), gives the velocity of the aircraft in the climb V, and from the slope
of the line the climb angle can be found.
3. The tangent line to the hodograph which also goes through its origin defines the
maximum climb angle max , which does not occur at the maximum R/C speed.
4. The point where the hodograph intersects with the horizontal axis defines the
maximum straight and level flight speed for which the R/C = 0.
6.4 Absolute and Service Ceilings
As altitude increases, the maximum excess power decreases. This has the consequence
that as altitude increases the maximum R/C decreases, Figure 6.7. Note that although
Page 53
Figure 6.7 is typical for a propeller driven aircraft, for jet aircraft the same effect on excess
power will be seen.
Figure 6.7: Variation of excess power with altitude for propeller driven aircraft.
As an aircraft continues to climb, an altitude will be reached when the PA curve becomes the
tangent to the PR curve. The velocity at this point is the only value at which steady level flight
is possible. However there is no excess power and so the rate of climb is zero. The altitude
at which the maximum R/C = 0 is called the absolute ceiling.
However, a more useful altitude is the service ceiling, which is defined as the altitude at which
the maximum R/C = 100 ft/min = 30.48 m/min. The service ceiling represents the practical
upper limit for steady level flight.
Figure 6.8: Determination of absolute and service ceilings from R/C vs altitude data.
Page 54
The three step process to calculate the absolute and service ceiling is:
1. Using equations (6.8, 6.4 and 6.5) or (6.20) calculate values for the maximum R/C for
a number of different altitudes.
2. Plot a graph of Altitude vs maximum R/C.
3. Extrapolate the curve to 30.48 m/min and 0 m/min to find the service and absolute
ceilings, respectively, as shown by Figure 6.8.
When extrapolating the curve of Figure 6.8, use a low order polynomial to find an appropriate
equation in order to find these values. Alternatively you can plot the points and graphically
draw the curve and extrapolate using the same curve shape.
6.5 Time to Climb
The time it takes an aircraft to climb to a specific altitude is a very important factor. The Rate
of Climb (R/C) was defined in section 6.1 as the vertical velocity of an aeroplane. Since
velocity is the time rate of change of distance, then defining the altitude to be h, the rate of
climb becomes (6.21).
dh dh
R /C dt (6.21)
dt R /C
Integrating between two altitudes (h1 and h2) and two times (t1 and t2) the resulting equation
gives us the time t that it takes to climb from altitude h1 to h2, (6.22).
h2 dh
t t 2 t1 h1 R /C
(6.22)
Normally, the time to climb is considered from sea level, where h1 = 0. Hence the time to climb
to any given altitude h2 is given by (6.23).
h2 dh
t
0 R /C
(6.22)
In order to calculate this, generate a graph of 1 R C vs. altitude, Figure 6.9. The area under
the curve from h = 0 until h = h2 gives the time to climb to altitude h2.
Figure 6.9: Determination of time to climb from R/C vs. altitude data
Page 55
Table 6.1: Summary of symbols, terms and equations related to climbing flight
Absolute ceiling R/C = 0
T D
Climb angle sin
W
2W cos
Climb speed V VSLF cos
SCL
Excess power excess power TV DV PA PR
excess power
Rate of climb R /C
W
max. excess power
Rate of climb (max) R / Cmax
W
Rate of climb (R/C) R / C v V sin
Service ceiling R/C = 100 ft/min = 30.48 m/min
Shallow angles
T
Max R/C condition kCL2 CL 3CD0 0
W
Steep angles
T L
Climb angle cos SLF sin
TSLF DSLF
2
Lift, drag, velocity L D V
cos
ratios LSLF DSLF VSLF
h2 dh
Time to climb t
0 R /C
Page 56
Chapter 7
Range and Endurance
7.0 Introduction
Range is technically defined as the total distance (measured with respect to the ground)
travelled by the aircraft on a tank of fuel. Endurance is defined as the total time that an aircraft
stays in the air on a tank of fuel.
There are three generally accepted definitions of the range of an aircraft.
1. Safe Range: This is the maximum horizontal distance between two airports between
which the aircraft can fly a safe, reliable regular service. In calculating the safe range,
the aircraft is assumed to take off with the fuel tank full. It then carries out a normal
flight, consisting of take off, climb, cruise, descent and landing at the desired
destination. Allowances are made for extra fuel consumed during head-winds,
navigational error and deterioration of airframe and engine performance.
2. Still Air Range: The aircraft is assumed to take off with full fuel tanks. It then
climbs and flies in still air according to any cruise setting selected by the designer until
all the fuel is consumed. The horizontal distance covered, excluding the take-off
distance, is the Still Air Range (SAR).
3. Gross Still Air Range: It is a more artificial concept than SAR, where the aircraft runs
out of fuel whilst airborne. The aircraft is assumed to be at the selected altitude at
which cruise was started, with full flying speed and full fuel tanks. The take-off and
climb segments of the flight are ignored. The aircraft is then supposed to cruise in still
air in any pattern until all the fuel is consumed.
The parameters that maximise range are different from those for endurance; they are also
different for propeller-driven and jet-powered aircraft. The sections which follow will
individually calculate equations to calculate these terms.
7.1 Propeller Driven Aircraft
A critical parameter which influences range for propeller driven aircraft is the Specific Fuel
Consumption (SFC). For reciprocating engines, the SFC is defined as the weight of fuel
consumed per unit power per unit time (4.1).
lb of fuel lb of fuel N of fuel

SFC c
bhp h ft lb/s s J / s s (7.1)
where:
bhp: break horse power
lb: pounds
h: hour
J: Joules
Page 57
7.1.1 General Endurance and Range Equations
From equation (7.1), multiplying c by P and dt, gives the resultant weight of fuel spent in the
small time step dt, (7.2).
J / s s N of fuel
N of fuel
cPdt
J / s s (7.2)
Equation (7.2) therefore represents the differential change in weight due to fuel consumption
over the time step dt, (7.3). The negative sign of equation (7.3) comes from the fact that it
represents a weight loss rather than gain. Also, the loss in fuel weight is equal to the loss in
weight W of the aircraft.
dWf dW cPdt (7.3)
This equation can then be rearranged to give (7.4).
dW
dt (7.4)
cP
Integrating between an initial time t = 0 and weight W 0 and the final time t = E at the end of
the cruise stage with weight W 1, gives the general endurance equation (7.5) where E is in
seconds.
E W0
dW
E dt (7.5)
0 W1
cP
In order to obtain the range term, equation (7.4) is multiplied by the steady level flight speed
VSLF, to give (7.6).
V dW
VSLF dt SLF (7.6)
cP
The term on the left hand side of (7.4) VSLF dt = ds, which is the incremental distance travelled
in the time dt, therefore producing equation (7.7).
VSLF dW
ds (7.6)
cP
Integrating between an initial location s = 0 and weight W 0 and the final time s = R at the end
of the cruise stage with weight W 1, gives the general range equation (7.5) where R is in metres.
R W0
VSLF dW
R ds (7.7)
0 W1
cP
Equations (7.5 & 7.7) are accurate formulations for endurance and range. They can include
the entire flight: takeoff, climb, cruise and landing. This requires the ability to calculate the
instantaneous values of W, VSLF, c and P at each moment along the flight. Knowing this
information, one can then calculate the endurance and range graphically, by accurately
plotting graphs of 1/cP vs. W and VSLF/cP vs. W, and calculating the area under the curves
between the two weights W 1 and W 2, Figures 7.1(a) and 7.1(b) respectively.
Page 58
Figure 7.1: Determination of (a) Endurance and (b) Range
Although these equations are accurate, they are very long and tedious to calculate. So,
simpler but approximate analytical equations for R and E can be derived in the next section.
7.1.2 Breguet Endurance and Range Equations
For straight and level (unaccelerated) flight, the power required equation was given in section
4.5 to be (4.30).
PR TRV (4.30)
In order to maintain straight and level flight, the pilot would have set the throttle such that the
power available PA was equal to the power required PR (7.8).
PA PR (7.8)
However, the power available to propel the aircraft is that which the propeller transmits and a
propeller can never transmit 100% of the power produced by the engine, it instead transmits
a fraction of the engine power, given by equation (7.9).
PA P (7.9)
where:
: propeller efficiency
P: brake power output of the engine
Combining these three equations together gives, (7.10).
PA DVSLF
P (7.10)

7.1.2.1 Endurance
Substitute (7.10) into equation (7.5) and combining with the straight and level flight equations
(4.2), (4.4) and (4.5) gives (7.11).
W0 dW W0 dW W0 L dW W0 C SCL dW
E L
(7.11)
W1 cP W1 c DVSLF W1 c DVSLF W W1 c CD 2 W 3/2
Page 59
Assuming that CL, CD, , c and are all constant and integrating between W 0 and W 1 gives
the Breguet Endurance Formula (4.12), where E is in seconds.
3/2
1 1 (7.12)
= ( )
2 1 0
If one looks at equation (7.12), in order to maximise the endurance, the following is required:
1. The highest propeller efficiency .
2. The lowest specific fuel consumption (SFC) c.
3. The highest fuel weight Wf = W0 W1.
4. Fly at the maximum CL3 / 2 CD value. This is the same aircraft setting as for the minimum
power, which is given by equations (4.40, 4.42 to 4.44).
5. Fly at sea level because has the largest value at sea level.
7.1.2.2 Range
Substitute (7.10) into equation (7.7) and combining with the straight and level flight equation
(4.2) gives (7.13).
SLFdW
W0 VSLF dW W0 V W0 L dW
R (7.13)
W1 cP W1 cDV
SLF
W1 c D W
Assuming that L/D = CL/CD, , and c are all constant and integrating between W 0 and W 1 gives
the Breguet Range Formula (7.14), where R is in metres.
CL W
R ln 0 (7.14)
c CD W1
Looking at equation (7.14), in order to maximise the range the following is required:
1. The highest propeller efficiency .
2. The lowest specific fuel consumption (SFC) c.
3. The highest ratio of W 0/W1 which is obtained with the largest fuel weight W f.
4. Fly at the setting for maximum CL CD , which is the same as the setting for minimum
thrust, which is given by equations (4.18 to 4.21).
7.2 Jet Propelled Aircraft
For jet-propelled aircraft, the specific fuel consumption is defined as the weight of fuel
consumed per unit thrust per unit time. The Thrust-Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) is
defined by equation (4.15).
lb of fuel N of fuel
TSFC ct
lb of thrusth N of thrusts (7.15)
7.2.1 General Endurance and Range Equations
From equation (7.15), multiplying ct by T and dt, gives the resultant weight of fuel spent in the
small time step dt, (7.16).
dW ctTdt (7.16)
Page 60
This equation can then be rearranged to give (7.17).
dW
dt (7.17)
c tT
Integrating between an initial time t = 0 and weight W 0 and the final time t = E at the end of
the cruise stage with weight W 1, gives the general endurance equation (7.18) where E is in
seconds.
W0 dW
E (7.18)
W1 c T
t
In order to obtain the range term, equation (7.17) is multiplied by the steady level flight speed
VSLF, to give (7.19).
V dW
ds VSLF dt SLF (7.19)
c tT
Integrating between an initial location s = 0 and weight W 0 and the final time s = R at the end
of the cruise stage with weight W 1, gives the general range equation (7.20) where R is in
metres.
W0 V
SLF dW
R (7.20)
W1 c tT
In a similar way to equations (7.5 & 7.7) , equations (7.18 & 7.20) are accurate formulations
for endurance and range, which can include the entire flight: takeoff, climb, cruise and landing.
As for the previous two equations the endurance and range can be calculated graphically by
accurately plotting graphs of 1/ctT vs W and VSLF/ctT vs W, and calculating the area under the
curves between the two weights W 1 and W 2.
7.2.2 Breguet Endurance and Range Equations
For straight and level (no-accelerated) flight, the thrust available and required are equal to
each other (7.21).
TA TR T DSLF (7.21)
We are also assuming that L/D = CL/CD, and that CL, CD, ct and are all constant.
7.2.2.1 Endurance
Substituting (7.21) and the above mentioned conditions into (7.18), then integrating between
W0 and W 1 gives the Breguet Endurance Formula (7.22).
1 CL W0
E ln
ct CD W1
(7.22)
Observing this equation, in order to maximise the endurance the following is required:
1. The minimum TSFC ct.
2. The maximum fuel weight W f.
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3. Fly at the setting for maximum CL CD , which is the same as the setting for minimum
thrust, which is given by equations (4.18 to 4.21).
7.2.2.2 Range
Substituting (7.21) and the above mentioned conditions into (7.20), then integrating between
W0 and W 1 gives the Breguet Range Formula (7.23).
W
1
2 1 CL2
R2 W1 (7.23)
S ct CD
0
Observing this equation, in order to maximise the range the following is required:
1. The minimum TSFC ct.
2. The maximum fuel weight W f.
1
3. Fly at the setting for maximum CL CD , which will be calculated in section 7.2.2.3.
2
4. Fly at high altitudes where the air density has low values. Typical cruise values for
subsonic commercial jet aircraft are from 30,000 to 40,000 ft (~9000 to ~12000 m) and
for supersonic aircraft are from 50,000 to 60,000 ft (~15,000 to ~18,000 m).
The range equation for constant velocity and constant can be formed by multiplying (7.22)
by the aircraft velocity, .
1 0
= ( ) (7.23b)
1
7.2.2.3 Determining Flight Setting for Maximum Range
In order to determine the maximum range, and assuming that the only thing the pilot can do
is put the aircraft in the right flight condition to satisfy item 3 from the list above, then what is
required is to differentiate CL1/ 2 CD (7.24) with respect to CL to maximise it. In order to do this,
we need to substitute the drag polar equation (4.9)
1 1
CL2 CL2
(7.24)
CD CD0 kCL2
Differentiating gives:
C 1/ 2
L L
d L 1 C kC 2 C 1/ 2 2kC3 / 2
CD 2 D 0 L (7.25)
0
dCL
CD 0 kCL2
2

which means that only the numerator can be equal to zero, therefore the CL setting becomes
(7.26).
1
2
CD 0 kCL2 CL 2 2kCL 2 0 CL MaxR
1 3
T
CD0
3k
(7.26)
Substituting into the drag polar gives the CD to be (7.27).
CD0 4
CDMaxRT CD0 kCL2 CD0 k CD (7.26)
3k 3 0
Page 62
Substituting into equation (4.5) gives the velocity for maximum range of a thrust propelled
aircraft (7.27).
1/ 4
2W 2W 3k
VmaxRangeT (7.27)
SCL S CD0
Table 7.1: Summary of symbols, terms and equations related to range and endurance
Brake horse power bhp
Gross Still Air Range Aircraft starts at the cruise altitude and speed with full tank of fuel and
flies until all the fuel is consumed.
Jet Propelled Aircraft
1 CL W0
Breguet E ln
ct CD W1
Endurance W0 dW
General equation E
W1 c T
t
Maximum Minimum thrust setting, i.e. CL CD max
W
1
2 1 CL2
R2 W1 (Constant altitude)
S ct CD
0
Breguet
1
= ( 0 ) (Constant velocity)
1
Range W0 VSLF dW
General equation R
W1 c tT
Maximum C 1/ 2
L CD max
, i.e. CL MaxR
CD0
3k
, CDMaxR
4
CD
T T
3 0
Thrust-Specific Fuel lb of fuel N of fuel

TSFC ct
Consumption (TSFC) lb of thrusth N of thrusts
Propeller Driven Aircraft
3/2
1 1
Breguet equation = ( )
2 1 0
E W0
Endurance dW
General equation E dt
0 W1
cP
Maximum Minimum power setting, i.e. CL3 / 2 CD max
Power available PA P
Propeller efficiency
CL W
Range Breguet R ln 0
c CD W1
Page 63
R W0
VSLF dW
General equation R ds
0 W1
cP
Maximum Minimum thrust setting, i.e. CL CD max
Specific Fuel lb of fuel lb of fuel N of fuel

SFC c
Consumption (SFC) bhp h ft lb/s s J / s s
Safe Range Aircraft takes off with full tank of fuel, climbs, cruises, descends and
lands at the destination. Allowing extra fuel.
Still Air Range (SAR) Aircraft take off with full tank of fuel, climbs and cruises until all the
fuel is consumed.
Page 64
Chapter 8
Accelerated Flight
8.0 Introduction
All the flight regimes we have been considering thus far have assumes steady level flight,
meaning that there was no acceleration experienced by the aircraft. Although SLF governs a
significant proportion of the flight of an aircraft, there are also some instances when the aircraft
must accelerate. This occurs during take-off as the aircraft must go from a standing start to
the climb speed and climb angle. When the aircraft turns about in a circular path, a centripetal
acceleration is experienced and finally when it lands, it must decelerate from its landing speed
to zero. A further accelerated case to consider is climbing with acceleration.
8.1 Take-off Performance
The take-off performance of an aircraft is usually quoted as the distance which is required to
reach an altitude of 35 ft (10.7m) after starting from rest, on level ground, in still air, at sea
level, in ISA conditions, at the maximum all-up-weight with all engines operative. These
specific conditions give a nominal figure which serves as a useful measure of the take-off
performance.
The take-off of an aircraft consists of three phases:

1. Acceleration at constant attitude (constant CL and CD).
2. Rotation, and
3. Climb to clear 35ft (10.7m) obstacle.
From these three phases, two principal calculations are required in order to estimate take-off
performance, these are:
1. The all-engine take-off distance.
2. The balance field length.
Before deriving the equations to calculate these values, an explanation of the entire take-off
phase of an aircraft will be given with information on the various speeds that an aircraft must
go through.
8.1.1 Take-off Speeds
Commercial airliners are certified under the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Federal
Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 25 which specifies takeoff velocity requirements that must be
observed by transport aircraft. The progression of takeoff speeds dictated by these regulations
is illustrated in figure 5.1.
During Phase 1: acceleration; the aircraft will go though many speeds until it reaches the
rotational speed VR.
Page 65
Figure 8.1: Takeoff velocities for a multiengine aircraft
Looking at the diagram, the aircraft starts at rest, indicated by V=0. The first critical speed
encountered during the takeoff run is the stall speed, Vs. This speed is important as it dictates
the slowest speed at which an aircraft can travel and generate just enough lift to remain or
become airborne. This velocity is heavily dependent upon the configuration of the plane,
primarily the state of flaps, slats and other lift-control devices. The maximum lift coefficient in
the takeoff configuration (typically flaps down at 5 or 10) is represented by CLmax. Some
typical values are 2 to 2.5 for a traditional airliner layout and 1.6 to 1.8 for a supersonic design.
To determine the stall speed, equation (4.6) is used.
2W
Vs (4.6)
SCLmax
Even though the aircraft is capable of taking off as soon as the stall speed is reached, it is a
very unstable condition. Even the slightest change in the orientation of the plane or the
condition of its control surfaces will cause the wing to lose lift (i.e. the wing stalls, hence the
name "stall" speed) and the aircraft will drop back onto the runway.
Due to the danger of trying to takeoff at stall speed, a number of additional speed requirements
have been implemented for safety reasons. The first of these relates to multi-engine aircraft,
which covers all commercial airliners.
1. Should an engine fail during the takeoff run, there is usually a yawing moment since
the engine(s) on one side of the plane produce more thrust than those on the other
side. A yawing moment, which causes the nose to turn side-to-side, is counteracted by
a deflection of the rudder, which produces a yaw moment in the opposite direction. The
two moments will then cancel each other out and keep the plane headed straight down
the runway. Below a certain speed, there simply is not enough aerodynamic force
generated by the rudder to produce the correcting yaw. This velocity is called the
minimum control speed, Vmc.
2. The next critical speed, which must be at least as fast as Vmc, is also related to the
failure of an engine during the takeoff run. If the engine fails fairly far down the runway,
the plane might have enough speed to continue the takeoff safely. Conversely, if the
engine fails early in the takeoff, there should be enough runway left to abort the takeoff
and come to a stop. But what if the engine fails somewhere in between? To provide
the pilot with some definite criteria on which to make a decision, the FAR Part 25
specifies a critical engine-failure speed, V1. Below this speed, the pilot should abort
and bring the plane to a stop if an engine fails. If the engine fails after the aircraft has
exceeded V1, the pilot should continue the takeoff using the remaining engines. The
critical engine speed therefore defines the point on the runway at which the distance
needed to stop is exactly the same as that required to reach takeoff speed. The
resulting total takeoff distance is known as the balanced field length, Figure 8.2.
Page 66
Figure 8.2: Definition of critical engine-failure speed and balanced field length
The next velocity of interest is when the aircraft enter the second Phase of take-off and when
it can begin to rotate its nose into the air, called the rotation speed VR. While VR must be at
least 5% greater than Vmc, it need not be any greater than V1.
During the rotational phase, the aircraft is still accelerating, and a few seconds after reaching
VR it reaches the minimum unstick speed, Vmu. This is the speed at which the aircraft could
take off if the maximum incidence angle was reached (i.e. when the tail of the plane scrapes
the runway, which is highly non desirable). Since such a takeoff would be damaging to the
plane and most unnerving to passengers, the aircraft is allowed to accelerate further and lifts
off at a slightly greater velocity called the lift-off speed, Vlof. Lift-off speed must be at least 10%
greater than Vmu when all engines are operating and 5% greater when one engine has failed.
At this point the aircraft enters into the third phase and starts to climb, accelerating to the climb
speed V2. This speed must be reached at an altitude high enough to clear a given obstacle.
For FAR 25 aircraft, the obstacle clearance height is 35 ft (10.7 m). The takeoff climb speed
must be at least 20% greater than stall speed, Vs, and 10% greater than Vmc. These speeds
are summarized in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Take-off Speed Definitions

FAR 25
Speed Description
Requirements
Vs Stall speed in takeoff configuration -
Minimum control speed with one engine inoperative
Vmc -
(OEI)
V1 Critical engine-failure speed - OEI decision speed = or > Vmc
5% > Vmc or
VR Rotation speed
20% > VS
Vmu Minimum unstick speed for safe flight = or > Vs
10% > Vmu
Vlof Lift-off speed
5% > Vmu (OEI)
Takeoff at climb speed to clear 35 ft obstacle at end of 20% > Vs
V2
runway 10% > Vmc
Page 67
8.1.2 Ground-Roll Distance (Phase 1)
The acceleration at constant attitude can be calculated using Newtons second law, which
states that the change in velocity (acceleration) with which an object moves is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the force applied to the object and inversely proportional to
the mass of the object. This is equal to equation (8.1).
F ma (8.1)
In order to determine the ground-roll distance, equation (8.1) is applied to the aircraft in Figure
8.3.
Figure 8.3: Balance of forces during ground run.
Summing all forces which are acting horizontally gives (8.2).
F T D W L mV (8.2)
where:
: coefficient of friction for the tarmac, with average values of 0.02 for concrete and
0.05 for grass fields
The mass in terms of aircraft weight is given by (8.3)
W
m (8.3)
g
and
V
dV dV ds
V
dV 1 d V 2

(8.4)
dt ds dt ds 2 ds
Substituting into (8.2) generates (8.5).
W d V2
T D W L (8.5)
2g ds
which when rearranged gives (8.6).
ds
W
2g T D W L

d V2 (8.6)
Integrating between V = 0 and V = VR gives the distance S1 up to VR. This distance is then
given by (8.7).
Page 68
VR
S1
o
W
2g T D W L

d V2 (8.7)
W
To find the distance S1, its necessary to generate a plot of vs. V2. The
2g T D W L
area under this graph between V = 0 and VR will give the ground roll distance S1.
In order to set up the data to plot the graph mentions, the following five steps need to be be
followed:
1. Calculate the stall speed, VS.
2. Calculate the rotational speed VR.
3. For different speeds between V = 0 and VR, calculate values of L, V, V2 and then
W
2g T D W L
W
vs. V2, Figure 8.4.
2g T D W L
4. Plot diagram of
5. Calculate area under graph using trapezoidal rule
Figure 8.4: Graph used to calculate the ground run distance
As a first approximation you might consider just calculating values at V = 0 and V = VR, and
using these to calculate the ground roll distance. But this is just a first approximation; more
points will always be required.
During this phase, the aircraft has a constant value of CD and CL. As it is still on the ground,
the wing is also very close to the ground. This means that it is experiencing ground effect
which reduces the drag coefficient of the aircraft. This is explained in section 8.1.2.1.
8.1.2.1 Ground-Effect
Ground effect may reduce the induced drag from the drag polar equation significantly. Hence
CD as a function of CL is less during the ground roll than it is in the air.
A simple model can be used to predict the effect of the ground on the induced drag. Using
vortex theory and the Biot-Savart law, the correction factor for induced drag is given by (8.8).
Page 69

16h b
2
(8.8)
1 16h b
2
With the drag polar equation becoming (8.9).

CD CD kCL2
0
(8.9)
where:
h: height of wing about the ground
b: wing span
8.1.3 Rotation Distance (Phase 2)
The distance covered during this period can be calculated by the same process as phase 1,
using equation (8.7). However it is more convenient to evaluate this distance as a step-by-
step process calculating the distance travelled each second. This is because rotation is usually
fixed at 3 per second (for passenger aircraft), so 4 seconds should provide enough lift for the
aircraft to climb.
At the end of each second, incidence, speed, lift, drag and equation (8.7) are calculated.
Afterwards, plotting the results and calculating the areas underneath the graph to determine
the rotational distance S2.
The rotation comes to an end when the lift is equal to nW. Typically the load factor n is
between 1.01 and 1.25; the additional lift is required to put the aircraft into a circular path
before the steady climb begins.
8.1.4 Climb to Clear 35ft Obstacle (Phase 3)
The third climbing phase consists of two separate flight trajectories, the first consists of a
circular path with constant velocity, the second an accelerated straight trajectory passing over
the imaginary 35ft object, Figure 8.5
Figure 8.5: Distance travelled in third phase of lift-off.
The angle of climb , is calculated from the equations of Chapter 3. And although the aircraft
is leaving the ground, there must be no deceleration.
The radius, of the curved path is fixed by the speed and the normal acceleration factor n aimed
for at the end of the rotation. If n is the increment above n = 1.0, we then have that the
centripetal acceleration generated by the aircraft being in a circular path is given by (8.10).
mV 2 V2
nW R (8.10)
R ng
Page 70
The horizontal distance S3a is given by (8.11).

S3a R sin R (8.11)
The vertical distance h is given by (8.12).
S32a
h R 1 cos if one assumes h R and uses pythagoras (8.12)
2R
And the distance S3b can then be calculated using (8.13).
10.7 h
S3b (8.13)
tan
8.2 Landing Performance
8.2.1 Descent in Steady Level Flight
The relationship derived in Chapter 6 for a steady level climb can be applied for descent. If
the available thrust is less than the drag, equation (6.5) results in a negative R/C. In
magnitude this equals the rate of Descent R/D. The angle of descent, D , is then given by
(8.14).
D T
sin D D (8.13)
W
Civil aircraft rarely descend at angles greater than 10. The glide slope for an Instrument
Landing System (ILS) approach is only 3. Steeper slopes for noise abetment purposes are
only up to 6. Hence since we are talking of shallow angles of descent, sin D D , and
therefore (8,13) gives the angle of descent in radians.
8.2.2 Landing
The landing phase of an aircraft consists of three segments, the approach, the flare and the
ground roll. FAR Part 25 specifies the total landing distance to include that required to clear a
50 ft (15.2 m) obstacle. A sketch of the landing flight path for this type of approach is shown
in Figure 8.6. The ground roll is not shown as it is a continuous deceleration along the runway.
8.2.3 Airborne Distance
From Figure 8.6, since D is a small angle, the total airborne distance SA (in metres), is given
by:
15.2 R D
SA (8.14)
D 2
This assumes the flare to be a circular arc having a radius R. If VA is the approach velocity,
this velocity is assumed constant through the flare. The centripetal acceleration towards the
centre of the circle, an, is given by (8.15).
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Figure 8.6: Landing approach and flare.
VA2
an (8.15)
R
This means that the aircraft experiences inertia due to the centripetal acceleration equivalent
to a centrifugal acceleration. Figure 8.7, shows these forces and is used to determine the
balance of forces, (8.16).
W
FL 0 L W FI 0 L W FI an (8.16)
g
Substituting for the centripetal acceleration and solving for R give (8.17).
VA2
R
g L W 1
(8.17)
We now define CLA as the lift coefficient during the steady approach, and then during the flare,
we can state that the ratio lift coefficient during flare to that during steady descent is given by
(8.18).
L C
L (8.18)
W CLA
The flare radius is then given by (8.19).
VA2
R

g CL CL A 1 (8.19)
FAR Part 25 requires that the approach speed VA should exceed the stall speed in the landing
configuration by 30%. Thus:
CLmax
CL A
1.69
Page 72
Figure 8.7: Landing aircraft in the flare which has a circular path.
This means that the ratio of CL/CLA can vary anywhere from just above 1.0 to 1.69 or higher.
A typical value of this ratio for jet transport is 1.2. Using such a value, but remembering that it
can be higher, the total airborne distance (in metres) is then given by (8.20)
15.2 VA2 D
SA (8.20)
D 0.4g
After touchdown, approximately a 2 second delay is allowed while the pilot changes from the
landing to the braking configuration. During this period, the aircraft continues to roll at the
speed VA. Denoting this portion of the landing distance by the subscript tran for transition,
this distance is then given by (8.21).
Stran 2 VA (8.21)
8.2.4 Ground Roll
Consider an aircraft after it has touched down and the transition period has finished. The free
body diagram for the aircraft is then given in Figure 8.8.
Summing all forces which are acting horizontally gives (8.22).
F D W L mV (8.22)
where:
: is the breaking coefficient of friction which varies from approximately 0.4 to 0.6
on a hard dry surface to 0.2 on wet grass or 0.1 on snow.
Page 73
Figure 8.8: Balance of forces during ground roll.
Substituting equations (8.3) and (8.4) give (8.23)
D W L
W d V2 (8.23)
2g ds
which when rearranged gives (8.6).
ds
W
2g D W L

d V2 (8.24)
Integrating between V = VA and V = 0 gives the distance SL. This distance is then given by
(8.25).
SL
VA W
o 2g D W L
d V2 (8.25)
In a similar way to how the take-off ground roll distance was calculated it will be necessary to
generate a plot of W 2g D W L vs V2. The area under the graph between V = 0 and
VA will then give the ground roll distance SL.
Most jet transport utilise thrust reversal during the landing ground roll. Thrust reversal is
created by ducting air from the jet engines and blowing it in the upstream direction, opposite
to the usual downstream direction when normal thrust is produced. As a result, with thrust
reversal there will be an extra force acting in the same direction as the drag force, thus aiding
the deceleration and shortening the ground roll. If thrust reversal is defined by TR, then in the
same way as equation (8.25) was derived, the ground roll distance with thrust reversal is given
by equation (8.26)
SL
o
VA W
2gTR D W L
d V2 (8.26)
8.3 Turning Flight
8.3.1 Level Horizontal Turn
Consider the aircraft of Figure 8.9, which is flying steadily at the correct angle of bank around
a circle of radius R with a speed V. Correctly banked means that at any instant the aircraft
centre-line is aligned exactly along the direction of flight, there is no sideslip and there is no
component of aerodynamic forces on the aircraft in the spanwise direction.
Page 74
Figure 8.9: Forces acting on an aircraft in horizontal, correctly banked, circling flight.
Resolving forces horizontally gives equation (8.27).

W V2 W V2
Fy 0 L sin 0 L sin (8.27)
g R g R
Resolving forces vertically gives equation (8.28).
W
Fz 0 L cos W 0 L W sec nW (8.28)
cos
As can be seen from (8.28), the lift in the turn is higher than the steady level flight lift by the
amount of sec , which defined as the load factor in a turn n, where:
L
n sec (8.29)
W
A turn involving a particular value of n is known as an ng turn, ie a 4g turn is a turn where n =

4. This implies that the apparent weight of the aircraft and of the pilot is n times the weight in
straight and level flight where the acceleration experienced is of 1g. Table 8.2 gives some
values of bank angle and the associated load factor due to the angle.
Table 8.2: Load factor due to bank angle

Bank Angle Load Factor n
(degrees)
20 1.06
30 1.15
45 1.41
48.2 1.5
60 2
75.5 4
80.4 6
90
Substituting (8.29) and the steady level flight equation (4.2) into (8.28) gives (8.30).
L nLSLF (8.30)
and combining equations (8.27) and (8.28) give that :
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V2
tan (8.31)
gR
Since the incidence of the aircraft during the turn is the same as for straight and level flight,
the lift coefficient and the lift/drag ratio is also the same, this means that the following
relationships apply:
L LSLF
(8.32)
D DSLF
Since the turning flight is steady, it means that T = D, therefore, combining these equations
gives (8.33)
2
T D L V
sec n (8.33)
TSLF DSLF LSLF VSLF
and since Power P = TV, then,
sec n 3 / 2
P 3/2
(8.34)
PSLF
We can now substitute equation (8.33) into (8.31) to relate the banking angle and radius of
the turn with the steady level flight speed (8.35).
2
VSLF
sin (8.35)
gR
And by substituting (8.29) using trigonometry to eliminate the angle, we get that the turning
radius is given by (8.36).
2
nVSLF V2
R (8.36)
g n2 1 g n2 1
8.3.2 Time to turn through a given angle
Since the turning flight is steady with no acceleration, the calculation to determine the time to
turn through a given angle is relatively easy. We fist need to consider the time to turn a full
circle. Here we have that the circumference of the flight is given by (8.36).
C 2R (8.36)
and as there is no acceleration, the time to travel this circumference is (8.37).

2R
tC (8.37)
V
So, if the aircraft turns through radians, we have (8.38).
2R R
t (8.38)
2 V V
If we eliminate R from this equation, also relating it to the SLF speed, gives (8.39).
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V VSLF 2W n
t (8.39)
g tan g n n 1 g SCL n 1
2
8.3.3 Minimum time to turn through a given angle
The minimum time that it takes an aircraft to turn through a given angle is determined by two
factors:
1. The strength of the structure, or
2. The maximum power available.
If one looks at equation (8.39), if the strength of the aircraft is the limiting factor, then there is
a specific value of n which can not be exceeded without overstressing the structure. It then
follows that is the aircraft is put at this load factor (bank angle); the quickest turn will then be
made at the maximum value of CL, which is at the stall point.
If power available is the limiting case, then unfortunately there is no resulting algebraic
equation which can be derived to calculate this. However to calculate this, the following steps
should be followed:
1. Select a range of steady level flight speeds for the aircraft
2. Specify a number if intermediate speeds from the range of speeds of step 1.
3. Calculate CL, CD, DSLF, hence TSLF or PSLF.
4. Calculate the bank angle for the ratio of T/TSLF or P/PSLF.
5. Calculate the time to turn through an angle for each of the set speeds.
6. Plot a graph of time t vs. VSLF and determine the point of minimum t and the associated
SLF speed to achieve this minimum time to turn.
8.4 Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method)
Consider the aircraft of Figure 8.10 which has a mass m in flight at an altitude h and with
velocity V. Due to its altitude, the aircraft has Potential Energy (PE) equal to mgh. Due to its
velocity, it has Kinetic Energy (KE) equal to 21 mV 2 . The total energy of the aircraft is the sum
of these energies and is given by equation (8.40)
Total Aircraft Energy PE KE mgh 21 mV 2 (8.40)
Figure 8.10: Aircraft of mass m flying at altitude h
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The energy per unit weight of the aircraft is obtained by dividing equation. (8.40) by its weight,
W = mg. This produces the Specific Energy (He) given by (8.41).
PE KE mgh 21 mV 2
He
W mg
V2
He h (8.41)
2g
The specific energy He has units of height and is therefore also called the Energy Height of
the aircraft. The energy of an aircraft is therefore given in terms of the energy height He, which
is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of the aircraft per unit weight.
Contours of constant He are given in Figure (8.11) which is an Altitude vs. Mach number map.
The dashed curves are lines of constant energy height.
12000
10000
8000
Altitude h, metres
6000
4000
2000
0
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
Mach Number M
Figure 8.11: Altitude-Mach number map showing curves of constant energy height. These
are universal curves that represent variation in kinetic and potential energies per unit
weight. They do not depend on the specific design of an aircraft.
To understand how the concept of energy height works, consider two aircraft, one flying at an
altitude of 5,500 m at Mach 0.3 (point A in Figure 8.11) and the other flying at an altitude of
1,504 m at Mach 0.9 (point B). Both aircraft have the same energy height, 6,000 m. However,
aircraft A has more potential energy and less kinetic energy (per unit weight) than aircraft B.
If both aircraft maintain their same states of total energy, then both are capable of "zooming"
to an altitude of 6,000 m at zero velocity (point C) simply by trading all their kinetic energy for
potential energy.
Consider another aircraft, flying at an altitude of 9,280 m at Mach 0.7 (point D in Figure 8.11).
This aircraft has an energy height of 12,000 m and is capable of zooming to an actual altitude
of 12,000 m by trading all its kinetic energy for potential energy. Aircraft D is in a much higher
energy state (He = 12,000 m) than aircraft A and B (which have He = 6,000 m). Therefore,
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aircraft D has a much greater capability for speed and altitude performance than aircraft A and
B. In air combat, everything else being equal, it is advantageous to be in a higher energy state
(have a larger He) than the adversary.
It is now necessary to determine is how an aircraft change its energy state. Figure 8.12, show
the force diagram for an aircraft which is climbing at an angle at an instant with velocity V
and which is also being accelerated. The summation of forces along its path is equal to force
accelerating the aircraft (Newtons 2nd law which states: The net force on a particle is
proportional to the time rate of change of its linear momentum).
Figure 8.12: Force diagram of an accelerating aircraft climbing at an angle

dV
FFlight Path T D W sin m (8.42)
dt
Substituting for the mass as a function of weight m W g gives equation (8.43)
1 dV
T D W sin
g dt
(8.43)

Multiplying by V/W gives (8.44).
TV DV V dV
V sin (8.44)
W g dt
Where the Rate of Climb (R/C) was given by equation (6.5).
dh
R /C v V sin (6.5)
dt
And the excess power was give by (6.18).
excess power TV DV PA PR (6.18)
We now define the Specific Excess Power Ps as the excess power per unit weight, (8.45)
excess power TV DV
Ps (8.45)
W W
Substituting these into (8.44) give (8.46).
dh V dV
Ps (8.46)
dt g dt
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6.5
(a)
6.0
Sea Level
5.5 1000 m
2000 m
5.0
3000 m
4.5 4000 m
4.0
Ps (m/s)
3.5
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
VTAS (m/s)
5000
Ps = 0 m/s (b)
Ps = 1.0 m/s
4500
Ps = 2.0 m/s
Ps = 3.0 m/s
4000 Ps = 4.0 m/s
Ps = 5.0 m/s
3500 Ps = 6.0 m/s
Stall Speed
3000
Altitude (m)
2500
(c) (d)
2000
1500
(b) (e)
1000
500
(a) (f)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
VTAS (m/s)
Figure 8.13: Construction of the specific excess power contours in the

Altitude-VTAS number map for a subsonic aircraft.
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Equation (8.46) states that an aircraft with excess power can use this excess for rate of climb
(dh/dt) or to accelerate along its flight path (dV/dt) or for a combination of both.
If we now differentiate the Specific Energy He equation (8.41) with respect to time, it gives
(8.47), which is the Specific Excess Power (Ps) equation.
dH e dh V dV
Ps (8.47)
dt dt g dt
The time rate of change of energy height is then equal to the specific excess power. It therefore
means that an aircraft can increase its energy state simply by the application of excess power.
We now look at a curve specific excess power Ps for a subsonic aircraft, Figure 8.13, which is
also the rate of climb curve at different aircraft altitudes.
For progressively higher altitudes, such as h2 and h3, Ps becomes smaller, Figure 8.13a,
hence this Figure is simply a plot of Ps versus True Air Speed (VTAS) or Mach number with
altitude as a parameter. These results can be cross-plotted on an altitude-Mach number map
using Ps as a parameter, as illustrated by figure 8.13b.
Figure 8.14: Specific excess-power contours for a supersonic aircraft
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The process of plotting Figure 8.13b is as follows. Consider a horizontal line on Figure 8.13a
where Ps = 3.0. This line crosses the different specific excess power curves at points a, b, c,
d, e, and f in Figure 8.13a. Since each of these points correspond to a different altitude h,
these points can then be plotted on the Altitude-Mach number map in Figure 8.13b.
For a supersonic aircraft, the Ps vs Mach number curves at different altitudes will appear as
shown in Figure 8.14a. The dent in the U-shaped curve around M = 1 is due to the large
drag increase in the transonic flight regime. These curves can be plotted on to the altitude-
Mach number map, producing the Ps contours of Figure 8.14b, which is characteristic of
most supersonic aircraft.
By overlaying the altitude-Mach number map and the energy height curve, Figure 8.15, the
Ps contours correspond to a given aircraft at a given load factor, whereas the He lines are
universal physical curves which have nothing to do with the aircraft. Sustained flight for the
aircraft lies inside of the envelope formed by the Ps = 0 contour. Hence all values of He
inside this envelope are obtainable by the aircraft
Figure 8.15: Overlay of Ps contour and specific energy state on an altitude-Mach number
map.
Figure 8.15 is also useful for representing the proper flight path to achieve minimum time to
climb. For example considering two energy heights He,1 and He,2, where He,2 > He,1. The time
to move between these energy states can be obtained from (8.47), written as (8.48)
dH e
dt (8.48)
Ps
Integrating between He,1 and He,2, gives (8.49)
He , 2
dH e
t 2 t1
He ,1
Ps
(8.49)
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From equation (8.49), the time to climb will be a minimum when Ps is a maximum. Looking at
Figure 8.15, for each He curve, there is a point where Ps is a maximum, which corresponds
with the point where the Ps curve is a tangent to the He curve. Such plot is illustrated by points
A to I in Figure 8.15. The heavy curve through these points illustrates the variation in altitude
and Mach number along a flight path for minimum time to climb. The segment of the flight path
between points D and D represents a constant energy dive to accelerate through the drag-
divergence region near Mach 1.
For subsonic flight away, the same type of curve and flight path trajectory for minimum climb
to cruise altitude is given in Figure 8.16.
Figure 8.16: Overlay of Ps contour and specific energy state on an altitude-Mach

number map for a subsonic aircraft.
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Table 8.3: Summary of symbols, terms and equations related to accelerated flight
Climb speed V2
Critical engine-failure V1
speed
D T
Descent angle sin D D
W
CD CD0 kC 2
,
16h b
2
Ground-Effect
1 16h b
L 2
Kinetic energy Total Aircraft Energy KE PE KE mgh 21 mV 2

Landing Distance
15.2 R D VA2
SA , R
Airborne
D 2 g CL CL A 1
Ground-roll SL
VA
o
W
2g D W L
d V2
Ground-roll (with
thrust reversal)
SL
VA W
o 2g T D W L
d V2
R
Transition Stran 2 VA
Level Horizontal Turn
V2 V2
Bank angle tan , sin SLF
gR gR
2
T D L V
Load factor n sec
TSLF DSLF LSLF VSLF
sec n 3 / 2
P 3/2
Power
PSLF
V VSLF 2W n
Time to turn by t
g tan g nn 1 g SCL n 12
2
nVSLF V2
Turning radius R
g n2 1 g n2 1
Lift-off speed Vlof
Minimum control Vmc
speed,
Minimum unstick Vmu
speed
Rotation speed VR
V2
Specific Energy He h
2g
Specific Excess excess power TV DV dh V dV dH e
Ps
Power W W dt g dt dt
Page 84
2W
Stall Speed Vs
SCLmax
Take-off Distance
10.7 h
Climb to 35ft S3a R sin R , S3b
tan
Ground-Roll S1
VR
o
W
2g T D W L

d V2
Rotation 3 per second for ~4 seconds

He , 2
Time to climb dH e
between energy t 2 t1 Ps
heights He ,1
Page 85
Chapter 9
Equations of Motion for a Rigid Aircraft
9.0 Introduction
An aircraft needs to be both statically and dynamically stable. The definition of Static Stability
is the tendency for an aircraft to return to its equilibrium position after a disturbance. Dynamic
stability refers to the response of an aircraft after a disturbance from equilibrium flight and of
how the ensuing motion diminishes with time. The degree of dynamic stability is of
importance to a pilot and engineer. The degree of dynamic stability is specified as the time it
takes for the motion to damp to half of its initial amplitude or in the case of an unstable motion
the time it takes for the initial amplitude or disturbance to double. The frequency and period of
the oscillation of an aircraft are also of interest. An understanding the dynamic characteristics
of an aircraft is important in determining its handling or flying characteristics as well as for the
design of automatic pilot systems. In order to do this, it is necessary to have equations which
describe the motion of an aircraft. This chapter will then show the derivation of the equations
of motion for a rigid aircraft. It will present the axis systems, and all other relevant assumptions
required in their derivation.
9.1 Axis System

In order to describe the motion of an aircraft it is necessary to define a coordinate system.
Two systems are required:
1. One system is fixed to the earth and is called the Fixed System. It is used for aircraft
motion analysis and is also called the Inertia Coordinate System.
2. The second system is fixed to the aircraft and is called the Body Coordinate System.
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Figure 9.1: Body and inertia axis systems

Figure 9.1 shows the body axis system fixed to the aircraft and the inertia axis system that is
fixed to the Earth. Note that the x1-axis acts towards the front of the aircraft, the y1-axis points
towards the starboard wing and the z1-axis points downwards.
9.2 Loads on an Aircraft
The loads acting on an aircraft consist of aerodynamic, thrust and gravitational forces. These
forces can be resolved along an axis system fixed to the aircraft centre of gravity as shown in
Figure 9.2. The force components are denoted by X, Y, Z, for aerodynamic forces, XT, YT ZT
for thrust components; and Xg, Yg Zg for the gravitational components along x, y, z axes.
Figure 9.2: Definition of forces, moments and velocity components in a body fixed
coordinate
The aerodynamic forces are defined in terms of dimensionless coefficients, the flight dynamic
pressure q (9.1) and the reference wing planform area S.
q 21 V 2 (9.1)
The axial force X is given by (9.2), the side force Y is given by (9.3) and the normal force Z is
given by (9.4).
X C X qS (9.2)
Y CY qS (9.3)
Z CZ qS (9.4)
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In a similar manner, the moments on an aircraft are divided into moments generated by the
aerodynamic load distribution and thrust force not acting through the centre of gravity. The
components of the aerodynamic moments are also expressed in terms of dimensionless
coefficients, the flight dynamic pressure q, the wing planform area S. and the characteristic
length which is the wing span b for the rolling and yawing moments and the mean chord c for
the pitching moment.
The rolling moment L is then given by (9.5), the pitching moment M is given by (9.6) and the
he yawing moment N is given by (9.7).
L Cl qSb (9.5)
M Cm qS c (9.6)
N Cn qSc (9.7)
The aerodynamic coefficients CX, CY, CZ, Cl, Cm and Cn are primarily a function of the Mach
number, Reynolds number, angle of attack and sideslip angle; they are secondary functions
of the time rate of change of angle of attack and sideslip and the angular velocities of the
aircraft.
The aerodynamic forces and moments acting on an aircraft and its angular and translational
velocities are shown in Figure 9.2. The x and z axes are in the plane of symmetry, with the x
axis pointing along the fuselage and the positive y axis along the right (starboard) wing. The
resultant force and moment as well as the aircraft velocity can be resolved along these axes.
Table 9.1: Summary of forces, moments, velocities, rates and moments and
products of inertia of an aircraft
Roll Axis x Pitch Axis y Yaw Axis z
Angular rates P Q R
Velocity components U V W
Aerodynamic force components X Y Z
Aerodynamic moment components L M N
Moments of inertia about each axis Ix Iy Iz
Products of inertia Iyz Ixz Ixy
9.3 Derivation of the Rigid Body Equations of Motion
There are two sets of equations of motion that need to be found, those due to the applied
forces and those due to the applied moments. In order to derive these equations, it is
necessary to Newtons second law, which for the case of applied forces states that:
The summation of all external forces acting on a body is equal to the
time rate of change of the momentum of the body
In equation form this can be represented by equation (9.8).
F dt mV
d
(9.8)
where:
m is the aircraft mass
V is the aircraft velocity
For the case of applied moments Newtons second law, states that:
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The summation of all external moments acting on a body is equal to the time
rate of change of the moment of momentum (angular momentum) of the body
In equation form this can be represented by equation (9.9).
d
M dt H (9.9)
where:
H is the angular momentum of the aircraft mass m
These equations are in Vector format and can be written in scalar form. They then consist of
three force and three moment equations. The force equations can be expressed by (9.10,
9.11 and 9.12).
Fx mU
d
(9.10)
dt
Fy mV
d
(9.11)
dt
Fz mW
d
(9.12)
dt
where Fx, Fy, Fz and U, V, W are the components of force and velocity along the x, y and z
axes respectively. The force components are composed of contributions due to aerodynamic,
propulsive and gravitational forces acting on the aircraft.
The moment equations can be expressed by (9.13, 9.14 and 9.152).
d
L Hx (9.13)
dt
d
M Hy (9.14)
dt
d
N Hz (9.15)
dt
where L, M, N and Hx, Hy, Hz are the components of the moment and moment of momentum
along the x, y and z axes respectively.
Consider the aircraft of Figure 9.3. But instead of considering the entire aircraft, look at an
element of mass m with Vm the velocity of the element of mass relative to the Inertia Frame
(Earth), and F the resultant force acting on the elemental mass. Using Newtons second Law,
this produces (9.16).
dV
F m m (9.16)
dt
The total external force acting on the aircraft is found by summing all of the elements of the
aircraft, to give (9.17).
F F (9.17)
The velocity Vm of the differential mass m is equal to the velocity of the centre of gravity (VP)
together with the angular velocity of the aircraft () about its centre of gravity multiplied by the
vector distance (r), (9.18).
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dr
Vm VP V P r (9.18)
dt
In vector format, VP, r and are given by equations (9.19, 9.20 and 9.21).
Figure 9.3: An element of mass on an aircraft with resultant forces acting on that mass
VP Ui Vj Wk (9.19)
r xi yj zk (9.20)
Pi Qj Rk (9.21)
Substituting for Vm gives:
d dr
F F dt V P m
dt
By assuming that the mass of the aircraft is constant, the equation can be re-written in the
following form:
d VP d 2
Fm 2 rm
dt dt
But since the distance vector r is measured about the centre of mass, then the term on the
right rm 0 is equal to zero. This is equivalent the sum of the first product of the mass
about the centroid which is equal to zero. The Force equation then simplifies to (9.22).
dVP
Fm (9.22)
dt
This equation relates the external forces on the aircraft to the motion of the centre of mass.
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In a similar manner, the moment equation referred to a moving centre of mass can be derived.
For the differential element of mass m, the moment equation can be written in the form of
(9.23).
H r Vm m
d d
M (9.23)
dt dt
Substituting for the velocity vector (9.18), gives that the elemental momentum equation is
(9.24).
H r Vm m r VP r m (9.24)
The total moment of momentum is then found by taking the sum of (9.24) to give (9.25).
H H r VP m r r m (9.25)
The velocity VP is the velocity of the aircraft about its centre of gravity, and is a constant and
can be taken outside of the summation sign:
H rm v P r r m
As before, because r is measured about the centre of mass, the left hand term is also equal
to zero rm 0 .
The moment of momentum equation is then given by (9.26).
H r r m (9.26)
Substituting now for the distance r (9.20) and angular velocity (9.21) and carrying out the
double cross product, the total moment of momentum can then be written as:

H Pi Qj Rk x 2 y 2 z 2 m xi yj zk Px Qy Rz m
The scalar components of H are given by (9.27):

H x P y 2 z 2 m Q xy m R xz m

H y P xy m Q x 2 z 2 m R yzm (9.27)
H z P xz m Q yzm R x 2 y 2 m
The summation terms in these equations are the mass moment and products of inertia of the
aircraft about the x, y and z axis. They are defined as by (9.28).

I x y 2 z 2 dm I xy xydm
Iy x 2
z2 dm I xz xzdm (9.28)
Iz x 2
y2 dm I yz yzdm
Both the moments and the products of inertia depend on the shape of the body and the manner
in which the mass is distributed. The larger the moments of inertia, the greater will be the
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resistance to rotation. The scalar equations for the moments of momentum are then given by
(9.29).
H x PI x QIxy RIxz
H y PI xy QIy RIyz (9.29)
Hz PI xz QIyz RIz
Since the mass moment and products of inertia are about the Inertia axis, as the aircraft
rotates, these will change as well. To avoid this difficulty it is necessary to fix the axis system
to the aircraft (body axis system).
Looking back at equations (9.8) and (9.9) it is now necessary to calculate the derivative with
respect to time of the vectors V and H.
It can be shown that the derivative of a vector A about a fixed axis, can be converted to a
rotating body frame with an angular velocity by using (9.30).
dA dA
A (9.30)
dt I dt B
where:
I and B refer to the Inertia and Body axes
Applying this to the Force and Moment equations, gives expressions (9.31) and (9.32).
m VP
dv P dv
Fm m P (9.31)
dt I dt B
dH dH
M H (9.32)
dt I dt B
By proper positioning of the aircraft body axis in a plane of symmetry (about the centre of
gravity), the following two products of inertia are equal to zero I xy I yz 0 . With this
assumption, the scalar force and moment equations are given (9.33).

Fx m U QW RV L I x P I xzR QRI z I y I xzPQ
y
F m V RU PW M I Q RPI I I P 2 R 2
y x z xz (9.33)
Fy mV RU PW N I xzP I zR PQI y I x I xzQR
The right hand side of these equations relates linear and rotational accelerations experienced
by the rigid aircraft. The left hand sides are the summation of externally applied loads
generated by gravitational, thrust, or aerodynamics forces and moments.
9.4 Orientation and Position of the Aircraft
The equations of motion derived in the previous section, were derived for an axis system fixed
to the aircraft. This means that as the aircraft moves in 3D space, so too, will the axes. But
what is required is to be able to describe the position and orientation of the aircraft at any time.
This can not be done relative to a moving body axis.
What is now required is to define the orientation and position of the aircraft relative to a fixed
frame which coincides with the body rotating axis at a time of t = 0. This will allow the position
of a body-fixed coordinate system relative to the earth-fixed coordinate system to be
described.
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To describe the orientation of the aircraft relative to the earth, its necessary to describe the
orientation of the body-fixed coordinate system xyz relative to the earth fixed coordinate
system xyz. To accomplish this, consider a system xyz translated parallel to itself until its
origin coincides with the centre of mass P of the aircraft. Figure 9.4 shows how the translated
system xyz has been renamed x1y1z1.
Figure 9.4: Aircraft orientation relating the body and inertia axes systems
It is convenient to describe the relative orientation of xyz (which is the final body fixed axis
system) to x1y1z1 by means of 3 consecutive rotations. The emphasis is on consecutive,
because the order in which these orientations are carried out is important.
The following rotations are applied:
1. The coordinate system x1y1z1 is rotated about the z1 axis by a positive angle , Figure
9.5. This produces the coordinate system x2y2z2. The angle is called the heading or
yaw angle.
Figure 9.5: Rotation of x1y1z1 axis about the z1 axis by a positive angle
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2. The new coordinate system x2y2z2 is now rotated about the y2 axis by a positive angle
, Figure 9.6. This produces the coordinate system x3y3z3. The angle is called the
attitude or pitch angle.
Figure 9.6: Rotation of x2y2z2 axis about the y2 axis by a positive angle
3. The new coordinate system x3y3z3 is rotated about the x3 axis by a positive angle ,
Figure 9.7. This produces the coordinate system xyz. The angle is called the bank
or roll angle.
Figure 9.7: Rotation of x3y3z3 axis about the x3 axis by a positive angle
The angles: (psi) = yaw, (theta) = pitch, and (phi) = roll, are called Euler angles. It is
now possible to define the flight velocities components relative to the fixed frame.
9.4.1 The Flight Path Relative to Earth Fixed Coordinates
It is now possible to describe the way in which the flight path of an aircraft can be determined
from knowledge of the velocity components U, V and W. What is required is to establish a
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relationship between the velocities in the body axis system U, V, W and those of the inertia
axis system U, V, W. The velocities in the inertia axis are related to the inertia axis system
by (9.34).
U ' x ' , V ' y ' , W ' z ' (9.34)

Because the x1y1z1 axis is parallel to the inertia axis xyz, then the aircraft velocities about the
x1y1z1 axis are given by (9.35).
U1 x ' , V1 y ' , W1 z ' (9.35)
Figure 9.8: Rotation of aircraft x1y1z1 system about the z1 axis through the yaw angle

Now look at a rotating aircraft, one Euler angle at a time. Imagine the aircraft to be positioned
so that the body axis is parallel to the fixed frame, then apply the following rotations:
1. Rotate the x1y1z1 system about the z1 axis through the yaw angle (psi) to the
x2y2z2 coordinate system, Figure 9.8. The velocities U1, V1 and W1 are related to the
velocities U2, V2 and W 2 by the relationships of (9.36).
U1 U 2 cos V2 sin
V1 U 2 sin V2 cos (9.36)
W1 W2
2. Rotate the x2y2z2 coordinate system about the y2 axis through the pitch angle
(theta) to the x3y3z3 coordinate system, Figure 9.9. The velocities U2, V2 and W 2 can
be related to the velocities U3, V3 and W 3 by the relationships of (9.37).
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U 2 U 3 cos W3 sin
V2 V3 (9.37)
W2 U 3 sin W3 cos
Figure 9.9: Rotation of aircraft x2y2z2 system about the y2 axis through the pitch angle

3. Rotate the x3y3z3 coordinate system about the x3 axis through the roll angle (phi)
to the xyz coordinate system, Figure 9.10.The velocities U3, V3 and W 3 can be related
to the velocities U, V and W by the relationships of (9.38).
U3 U
V3 V cos W sin (9.38)
W3 V sin W cos
Figure 9.10: Rotation of aircraft x3y3z3 system about the x3 axis through the roll angle

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We now have three sets of equations that relate the three Euler angles to the velocities in the
fixed and body frame of reference. Arranging these in matrix form and multiplying them
together gives (9.39).
U1 cos sin 0 cos 0 sin 1 0 0 U

V1 sin cos 0 0 1 0 0 cos sin V (9.39)
W 0 0 1 sin 0 cos 0 sin cos
1 W
Multiplying this out, gives this (9.40).
x ' U1 c c s sc c s c sc s s U

y ' V1 c s s ss c c c s s s c V
z ' W s s c cc W
1 (9.40)
c cos
s sin
These equations provide the desired relationship between velocity components in the earth-
fixed system xyz, and the velocity components in the aircraft fixed-system xyz. The flight
path, x(t), y(t), z(t) can be found by integrating the velocity equation. This can not be done
explicitly because the Euler angles are complicated functions of time. Instead this integration
is carried out numerically.
It is now necessary to relate the Euler rates in terms of the aircraft angular velocities.
In a similar way to how the velocities were related to the Euler angles, the relationship between
the angular velocities in the body frame (P, Q and R) and the Euler rates are
given by (9.41). This equation can then be inverted to give the Euler rates in terms of body
angular velocities (9.42).
P 1 0 sin

Q 0 cos cos sin (9.41)
R 0 sin cos cos

1 sin tan cos tan P
0
cos sin Q (9.42)

0 sin sec cos sec
R
These equations can be integrated to give the time history of the Euler angles: (t), (t) and
(t).The time history of Euler angles combined with the velocity equations can provide the
capability to find the flight path x(t), y(t), z(t). Note from the equations for Euler rates in terms
of body angular velocities that in general P ,Q and R .
9.5 Gravitational and Thrust Loads
The gravitational forces acting on an aircraft act through its centre of gravity. Because the
body axis is fixed to the centre of gravity, the gravitational forces will not produce any
moments. They will, however, contribute to the external forces acting on an aircraft with
components along the respective body axes. The gravitational force components acting along
the body axis are a function of the aircraft's orientation in space, Figure 9.11 and 9.12.
The gravitational forces are given by (9.43).
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X g mg sin
Yg mg cos sin (9.43)
Zg mg cos cos
The thrust force due to the propulsion system can have components that act along each axis
of the body direction. Propulsive forces can also create moments if the thrust doesnt act
through the centre of gravity.
Figure 9.11: Component of gravitational force due to pitch angle rotation
Figure 9.12: Component of gravitational force due to pitch angle followed

by a roll angle rotation
The propulsive forces and moments acting along the boy axis system are represented by
(9.44). Figure 9.13 shows an example of moments created by the propulsive system.
Fx propulsive XT F
y propulsive YT Fz propulsive ZT
Lpropulsive LT M propulsive MT N propulsive NT (9.44)
9.6 Aerodynamic Loads

As the aircraft flies, the speed of the air going over it will generate aerodynamic forces and
moments. The aerodynamic forces generated are the drag, side-force and lift. The
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aerodynamic moments generated are the aerodynamic rolling moment, aerodynamic pitching
moment and aerodynamic yawing moment. These are represented by (9.45).
Fx Aerodynamic X A F Y
y Aerodynami c A Fz Aerodynamic Z A
LAerodynamic LA M Aerodynamic MA N Aerodynamic NA (9.45)
MT TzT
NT T1 T2 yT
Figure 9.13: Force and moments due to the propulsive system.
9.7 General Rigid Aircraft Equations of Motion
It is now possible to substitute the terms derived in sections 9.5 and 9.6 into the rigid aircraft
equations of motion (9.33) to produce the force and moment equations motion (9.46) and
(9.47) respectively.

m U VR WQ mg sin X A XT

m V UR WP mg sin cos Y Y A T (9.46)
mW UQ VP mg cos cos Z

A ZT
I x P I xzR I xzPQ I z I y RQ LA LT

I yQ I xz P 2 R 2 I x I z PR MA MT (9.47)
I R I P I QR I I PQ N N
z xz xz y x A T
These equations form 2 simultaneous non-linear differential equations. They are of the first
order in terms of the six variables: U, V, W, P, Q and R. However, these equations also contain
the variables Q and , which are related to the angular velocities in the body frame P, Q and
R by (9.48).
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P 1 0 sin

Q 0 cos cos sin (9.48)
R
0 sin cos cos

It is possible to write the force and moment equations (9.46 & 9.47) in terms of the motion
variables U, V, W, , and . In that case the resulting equations are 6 simultaneous non-
linear differential equations that are of the first order in U, V, W and of the second order in ,
and . Because of the nonlinearity of the equations of motion, solutions are only possible
through numerical integration.
Such solutions are useful in certain applications such as:

1. Aircraft simulations;
2. Accident investigations;
3. Analysis of aircrafts response to large disturbances.
Most aircraft motion of practical interest to a designer are steady state motions (equilibrium
flight) and perturbed state motions involving only small perturbations relative to some steady
state motion.
9.7.1 Effect of Spinning Rotors
Aircraft are generally equipped with propellers and/or jet engines which act as spinning rotors.
Such spinning rotors exert gyroscopic moments on the body to which they are attached.
Normally these gyroscopic moments are negligible, but this is not always the case.
These gyroscopic moments can be accounted for in the following way. The total angular
momentum of all spinning rotors in the aircraft is given by (9.49).
N
h hi (9.49)
i 1
where:
hi is the angular momentum of the ith rotor
N total number of rotors in the aircraft
For a rotor spinning about its own local axis of rotation R with rotational velocity R and
moment of inertia IR, its angular momentum is given by (9.50).
h i I R R (9.50)
Substituting equation (9.50) into (9.49) and rearranging into component form, gives (9.51).
hi hx i hy j hzk (9.51)
Assuming that all rotors have a constant angular velocity, then by substituting (9.51) into the
moment equation of motion (9.32) produces a new moment equations motion (9.52).
I x P I xzR I xzPQ I z I y RQ Qhz Rhy LA LT

I yQ I xz P 2 R 2 I x I z PR Rhx Phz MA MT (9.52)
I R I P I QR I I PQ Ph Qh N N
z xz xz y x y x A T
9.8 Steady and Perturbed State Flight Conditions
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Most aircraft motion of interest to the aerospace engineer is steady state motions (also called
equilibrium flight) and perturbed state motions involving only small perturbations relative to
some steady state motion. This section explains the definition of these two flight conditions,
after which the equations of motion applicable for these flight conditions will be given.
9.8.1 Steady State Flight
Steady State Flight is defined as a flight condition for which ALL motion variables remain
constant with time relative to a body fixed axis system.
This means that all linear and angular accelerations about the centre of gravity of the aircraft
are equal to zero, (9.53).

0, 0
V (9.53)
P
This in turn implies that the linear and angular velocities about the centre of gravity are
constant with respect to time relative to the body axes xyz, (9.54).

VP c, c (9.54)
Three important examples of steady state flight conditions are:

1. Rectilinear Flight, Figure 9.14;
2. Steady Level Turn, Figure 9.15, and
3. Steady Symmetrical Pull-up, Figure 9.16.
Figure 9.14: Rectilinear flight
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Figure 9.15: Steady state turn
9.8.2 Perturbed State Flight
Perturbed State Flight is defined as a flight condition for which ALL motion variables are
defined relative to a steady state flight condition. This can be described by considering ALL
motion variables as the sum of a steady state (or reference, or equilibrium) quantity and a
perturbed quantity.
All flight motion that is not steady state can be considered to be perturbed.
Two examples of perturbed state flight conditions are:

1. Rectilinear Flight, Figure 9.17, and
2. Curvilinear Flight, Figure 9.18.
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Figure 9.16: Steady symmetrical pull-up
Figure 9.17: Rectilinear perturbed state flight
Figure 9.18: Curvilinear perturbed state flight
9.9 Steady State Equations of Motion
In a Steady State Flight condition, all linear and angular accelerations about the cg are zero
and all velocities constant. The subscript 0 indicates steady flight condition. Substituting for
steady state values into the general equations (9.46) and (9.47) gives (9.55) and (9.56).
m V0R0 W0Q0 mg sin 0 X A0 XT0

mU0R0 W0P0 mg sin 0 cos 0 YA0 YT0 (9.55)
m U0Q0 V0P0 mg cos 0 cos 0 Z A0 ZT0
I xzP0Q0 I z I y R0Q0 LA0 LT0

I xz P02 R02 I x I z P0R0 M A0 MT0 (9.56)
I xzQ0R0 I y I x P0Q0 N A0 NT0
The Kinematic equations remain unchanged except for the subscript (9.57).
P0 1 0 sin 0
0

Q0 0 cos 0 cos 0 sin 0 0 (9.57)
R 0 sin 0 cos 0 cos 0

0 0
The three types of steady state flight conditions which are of special interest are:
1. Steady State Rectilinear Flight (straight line flight)
2. Steady State Turning flight (steady level turn), and
3. Steady Symmetrical Pull-up
9.9.1 Steady State Rectilinear Flight
Steady State Rectilinear Flight (straight line flight) is characterized by the condition that all
angular velocities are equal to zero, = 0. This means that P0= Q0 = R0 = 0, which simplifies
the equations (9.55 & 9.56) to (9.58) and (9.59).
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0 mg sin 0 X A0 XT0
0 mg sin 0 cos 0 YA0 YT0 (9.58)
0 mg cos 0 cos 0 Z A0 ZT0
0 LA0 LT0
0 M A0 MT0 (9.59)
0 N A0 NT0
Since P0= Q0 = R0 = 0, the Kinematic equations are not required.
These Steady State Rectilinear Flight Equations are used to study the equilibrium conditions
for an aircraft during:
1. Cruise;
2. Shallow climbs, dives and glides;
3. engine-out flight
9.9.2 Steady State Turning Flight
Steady State Turning Flight is characterised by the condition that the angular velocities is
vertical relative to the xyz axis system. Another way of saying this is by (9.60).
' k
k' (9.60)
1
This equation states that in a steady level turn the only heading change is the yaw angle .
The pitch (attitude) and bank angle remain constant, Figure 9.19.
Figure 9.19: Steady level turn

The Kinematic equations are then changed to (9.61).
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P0 0 0 sin 0
0

Q0 0 0 cos 0 sin 0 0 (9.61)
R
0 0 cos 0 cos 0 0

0
The steady state equations of motion remain unchanged and are therefore given by (9.55)
and (9.56). These equations are used to analyse the turning performance of aircraft.
9.9.3 Steady Symmetrical Pull-Up
Steady Symmetrical Pull-ups are characterised by the conditions of (9.62).
V0 P0 R0 0 0 (9.62)
The only non-zero rotational velocity component left is the steady state pitch rate Q, Figure
9.20. Making these substitutions gives that the Steady Symmetrical Pull-up Equations of
motion are given by (9.63) and (9.64).
mW0Q0 mg sin 0 X A0 XT0

0 YA0 YT0 (9.63)
mU0Q0 mg cos 0 Z A0 ZT0
0 LA0 LT0
0 M A0 MT0 (9.64)
0 N A0 NT0
The Kinematic equations are reduced to (9.65).

Q0 (9.65)
0
The equations for Steady Symmetrical Pull-ups equations are used to analyse the
manoeuvring capabilities of an aircraft.
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Figure 9.20: Steady symmetrical pull-up
9.10 Perturbed State Equations of Motion
To derive the Perturbed State Equations of Motion it is necessary to assume the motion of the
aircraft to be a small deviation about a steady flight condition (Perturbed State Flight). This
means that all variables in the equations of motion are replaced by a reference value plus a
perturbation or disturbance value. In equation form, the velocity, rate and angle variables are
then given by (9.66), (9.67) and (9.68) respectively.
Velocities: U U0 u V V0 v W W0 w (9.66)
Rates: P P0 p Q Q0 q R R0 r (9.67)
Angles: 0 0 0 (9.68)
Equations (9.66), (9.67) and (9.68) are called perturbation substitutions. Each variable is
considered to be the sum of a steady state quantity (subscript 0) and a perturbed stat
quantity (lower case). Similar substitutions are carried out for the aerodynamic and thrust
forces (9.69) and moments (9.70).
Forces: X A X A0 x A YA YA0 y A Z A Z A0 zA
(9.69)
XT XT0 xT YT YT0 yT ZT ZT0 zT
Moments: LA LA0 l A M A M A0 mA N A N A0 nA
(9.70)
LT LT0 lT MT MT0 mT NT NT0 nT
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All of these terms need to now be substituted into the Equations of motion and Kinematic
Equations. Starting with the first equation of motion from (9.46):

where:
U U0 u U u V V0 v W W0 w Q Q0 q
R R0 r 0 X A X A0 x A XT XT0 xT
Substituting all of these terms gives:

mu V0 v R0 r W0 w Q0 q mg sin0 X A0 x A XT0 xT
Using the trigonometric terms from (9.71) and small angle approximation:
sin 0 sin 0 cos cos 0 sin sin 0 cos 0 (9.71)
gives:
m V0R0 W0Q0 mu V0 r R0v W0q Q0w m vr wq
mg sin 0 X A0 XT0 mg cos 0 x A xT
Embedded within this equation is the Steady State equation:
Which means that these terms can then be eliminated to give:
mu V0 r R0v W0q Q0w m vr wq mg cos 0 x A xT
The second term in this equation contains the product of the perturbation variables v, r, w and
q to each other. These are non-linear in nature. Since the perturbations are assumed to be
sufficiently small, then the products of the perturbation variables to themselves can be
considered to be negligible. The non-linear terms therefore become negligible and can be
removed to give:
mu V0 r R0v W0q Q0w mg cos 0 x A xT
Repeating this process to all equations produces the general perturbed state equations of
motion (9.72) and (9.73).

mv U0 r R0u W0 p P0w mg sin 0 cos 0

(9.72)
mg cos 0 cos 0 y A yT
mw U0q Q0u V0 p P0v mg cos 0 sin 0
mg sin 0 cos 0 zA zT
I x p I xzr I xz P0q Q0 p I z I y R0q Q0 r l A lT

I y q I xz 2P0 p 2R0 r I x I z P0 r R0 p mA mT (9.73)
I z r I xz p I xz Q0 r R0q I y I x P0q Q0 p nA nT
Repeating this process with the Kinematic equations produces (9.74)
p
cos sin
0 0 0
Page 107
q sin cos cos cos

0 0 0 0 0 0
(9.74)
sin cos cos sin
0 0 0 0 0

r cos cos sin cos
0 0 0 0 0 0
cos sin
cos 0 cos 0 0 0 0
These 9 equations with 9 variables are relative to a general state of steady state , one where
all motion variables are non-zero steady state values.
The majority of aircraft dynamic problems are concerned with perturbations relative to a steady
state for which:
1. The is no initial side velocity, V0 = 0;
2. There is no initial bank (roll) angle exists 0 = 0

3. There are no initial angular velocities present P0 Q0 R0 0
0 0 0
Substituting these conditions gives equations (9.75), (9.76) and (9.77):
mu W0q mg cos 0 x A xT
mv U 0 r W0 p mg cos 0 y A y T (9.75)
mw U 0q mg sin 0 z A zT
I x p I xz r l A lT
I y q mA mT (9.76)
I z r I xz p n A nT
p sin0
q (9.77)
r cos 0
Equations (9.75), (9.76) and (9.77) form the basis of most studies of aircraft dynamic stability,
response to controls and automatic flight control systems.
Page 108

Table 9.2: Summary of the equations of motion for a rigid aircraft, symbols and terms
Aerodynamic Loads
Axial force X A C X qS
Normal force Z A CZ qS
Side force YA CY qS
Pitching moment M A Cm qSc
Rolling moment LA Cl qSb
Yawing moment N A Cn qSc
Angular rates
X-axis P (Roll rate)
Y-axis Q (Pitch rate)
Z-axis R (Yaw rate)
Axis System
Body Coordinate fixed to the aircraft
Fixed or Inertia
fixed to the earth
Coordinate
Euler angles
rotated about X-axis (phi) bank or roll angle
rotated about Y-axis (theta) attitude or pitch angle
rotated about Z-axis (psi) heading or yaw angle
Dynamic pressure q 21 V 2
Gravitational forces
X-axis X g mg sin
Y-axis Yg mg cos sin
Z-axis Zg mg cos cos
Moments of inertia
X-axis
I x y 2 z 2 dm
Y-axis Iy x 2
z dm
2
Z-axis Iz x 2
y dm
2
Perturbed state
X-axis 0
Angles Y-axis 0
Z-axis 0
mu W0q mg cos 0 x A xT
mv U 0 r W0 p mg cos 0 y A y T
Equations about mw U 0q mg sin 0 z A zT
steady state condition
I x p I xz r l A lT
I y q mA mT
I z r I xz p n A nT
Page 109
p sin0
q
r cos 0
All motion variables are defined relative to a steady state flight
Flight definition
condition and are the sum of a steady state and perturbed quantities
X-axis X A X A0 x A
X-axis XT XT0 xT
Y-axis YA YA0 y A
Forces
Y-axis YT YT0 yT
Z-axis Z A Z A0 zA
Z-axis ZT ZT0 zT
mv U0 r R0u W0 p P0w mg sin 0 cos 0
mg cos 0 cos 0 y A yT
mw U0q Q0u V0 p P0v mg cos 0 sin 0
mg sin 0 cos 0 zA zT
I x p I xzr I xz P0q Q0 p I z I y R0q Q0 r l A lT

I y q I xz 2P0 p 2R0 r I x I z P0 r R0 p mA mT
General equations
I z r I xz p I xz Q0 r R0q I y I x P0q Q0 p nA nT
p
cos sin
0 0 0
q sin cos cos cos

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 sin 0 cos 0 cos 0 sin 0
r cos cos sin cos
0 0 0 0 0 0
cos sin
cos 0 cos 0 0 0 0
X-axis LA LA l A 0
X-axis LT LT0 lT
Y-axis M A M A0 mA
Moments
Y-axis MT MT0 mT
Z-axis N A N A0 nA
Z-axis NT NT0 nT
X-axis P P0 p
Rates Y-axis Q Q0 q
Z-axis R R0 r
X-axis U U0 u
Velocities Y-axis V V0 v
Z-axis W W0 w
Products of inertia
XY-axis I xy xydm
XZ-axis I xz xzdm
Page 110
YZ-axis I yz yzdm
Thrust forces
Axial Fx propulsive XT
Normal Fz propulsive ZT
Side F y propulsive YT
Thrust moments
Pitching M propulsive MT , M Tz T T
Rolling Lpropulsive LT
Yawing N propulsive NT , N T T y
T 1 2 T
Velocity components
X-axis U
Y-axis V
Z-axis W
Velocity relationship between earth-fixed (xyz) and aircraft fixed (xyz) systems
x ' U1 c c s sc c s c sc s s U

y ' V1 c s s ss c c c ss s c V
z ' W s s c cc W
1
c cos , s sin
Rigid aircraft equations of motion


m V UR WP mg sin cos YA YT

m W UQ VP mg cos cos Z Z A T
I x P I xzR I xzPQ I z I y RQ LA LT
General
I yQ I xz P 2 R 2 I x I z PR MA MT
I zR I xzP I xzQR I y I x PQ NA NT
P 1 0 sin

Q 0 cos cos sin
R 0 sin cos cos

I x P I xzR I xzPQ I z I y RQ Qhz Rhy LA LT
with spinning rotors
I yQ I xz P 2 R 2 I x I z PR Rhx Phz MA MT
I zR I xzP I xzQR I y I x PQ Phy Qhx NA NT
Steady state
mU0R0 W0P0 mg sin 0 cos 0 YA0 YT0
m U0Q0 V0P0 mg cos 0 cos 0 Z A0 ZT0
I xzP0Q0 I z I y R0Q0 LA0 LT0
General equations

I xz P02 R02 I x I z P0R0 M A0 MT0
I xzQ0R0 I y I x P0Q0 N A0 NT0
Page 111
P0 1 0 sin 0
0

0
Q 0 cos 0 cos 0 sin
0 0
R
0 0 sin 0 cos 0 cos 0 0
All motion variables are constant with time relative to a body fixed axis

Flight definition
system V 0, 0 , V c, c
P P
0 mg sin 0 X A0 XT0
0 mg sin 0 cos 0 YA0 YT0
Rectilinear flight 0 LA0 LT0
0 M A0 MT0
0 N A0 NT0
P0 Q0 R0 0
V0 P0 R0 0 0
mW0Q0 mg sin 0 X A0 XT0
0 YA0 YT0
mU0Q0 mg cos 0 Z A0 ZT0
Symmetrical pull-up
0 LA0 LT0
0 M A0 MT0
0 N A0 NT0

Q0 0
P0 0 0 sin 0
0
0 0 cos sin
0
Q 0 0 0
Turning flight R 0 0 cos 0 cos 0

0 0
' k
k' , const, const
1
Page 112
Chapter 10
Aerodynamic and Thrust

Forces and Moments
10.0 Introduction
Aerodynamic and thrust forces and moments on aircraft can be determined in two ways, by:
1. Experimental methods (flight tests or tunnel model tests);
2. Theoretical and/or empirical methods.
Experimental methods have the advantage of accurate prediction of the full scale aircraft
behaviour over a wide range of flight conditions. Their disadvantage is that they are costly and
time consuming. They are therefore only used in research and final verification studies.
Preliminary design and parametric studies therefore use primarily theoretical and/or empirical
methods
This chapter deals with the prediction of the aerodynamic and thrust forces and moments by
means of theoretical and/or empirical methods. In doing this, the following method will be used.
An aircraft is considered to be broken up into a number of components:
1. wing,
2. body (or fuselage),
3. horizontal tail (or canard), and
4. vertical tail
The total aerodynamic force on the aircraft in a coordinate direction, is the sum of forces acting
on its components in that direction, given below:
FAAircraft FAWing FABody FAHor .Tail FAVert .Tail
All interference effects between the components must also be properly accounted for. The
aerodynamic and thrust forces and moments will now be derived for both steady and perturbed
state flight. In order to do this, it is convenient to use what is called the Stability Axes system
of coordinates.
10.1 The Stability Axis System of Coordinates
The Stability Axes are defined as follows. Consider an aircraft flying a symmetrical steady
state straight line flight path. That means that P0 = Q0 = R0 = V0 = 0, but U0 and W0 are not
zero.
Page 113
The angle between the free stream velocity vector VP0 and U0 is 0, the steady state angle of
attack. The Stability Axes xs ys zs are obtained from the body axes by rotating about y = ys
over an angle 0 until x coincides with VP0, Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: Definition of the Stability Axes, where x y z is the arbitrary body axis,
and xs ys zs is the stability axes.
Note the relationship between the steady state pitch angle 0 and the steady state angle of
attack 0 is given by (10.1).
0 0 0 (10.1)
The new axes system xs ys zs is again considered to be rigidly attached to the aircraft and thus
moves with it. In fact, the Stability Axes is a special case of a body fixed axes system where
the orientation has been selected with respect to a steady state flight condition. You should
note that the stability axes system xs ys zs is oriented relative to x y z differently for each steady
state flight condition. However, in each case, the stability axes system remains rigidly attached
to the aircraft once its orientation has been selected.
The Stability Axes is a body fixed axes system. Observe that in the xs ys zs system U 0s VP0
and W0s V0S 0 .
If in the steady level flight, the aircraft has a component of velocity along the y-axis, V0 0,
then the aircraft is flying with sideslip, or is side-slipping. The stability axes system in this case
is defined in such a way that the xs axis lies along the projection of the steady state velocity
of the aircraft VP0 onto the xz-plane. The sideslip angle is the angle between the xs axis and
the steady state velocity of the aircraftVP0 , Figure 10.2, and which is given by equation (10.2).
V0
0 sin1 or 0 V0 (10.2)
VP U0
0
10.2 Steady State Forces and Moments
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How aerodynamic and thrust forces and moments depend on steady state motion variables
can be answered by examining the individual effects of each motion variable. The steady state
variables and the corresponding aerodynamic forces and moments are given in table 10.1.
Figure 10.2: Definition of Steady State Sideslip Angle

Only angle of attack, sideslip angle and control surface (or flap) deflections are counted as
variables. Its possible to break down the steady state forces and moments into independent
longitudinal and lateral-directional sets, for relatively small sideslip angles.
Table 10.1: Dependence on Aerodynamic Variables of the Steady State
Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
Load All = 0 A E R
X A0 Drag at Drag due Negligible
Negligible Negligible Negligible
zero to for small
Indirect Side force
YA0 Side force
zero effect of Negligible zero
due to due to R
on Y
Lift at Lift due Negligible Lift due
Z A0 Negligible Negligible
zero to for small to E
Indirect Rolling Rolling Rolling
LA0 zero effect of moment moment zero moment
on L due to due to A due to R
Pitching Pitching Pitching
M A0 Negligible moment
moment at moment Negligible Negligible
for small due to E
zero due to
Page 115
Small
Indirect Yawing Yawing
Yawing
N A0 zero effect of moment moment zero moment
on N due to due to R
due to A
10.2.1 Control Surface Deflection Definition
Control of an aircraft is achieved by providing incremental lift force on one or more of the
aircraft lifting surfaces. The incremental lift force can be produced by deflecting the entire lifting
surface or by deflecting a flap incorporated in the lifting surface. Figure 10.3 shows the primary
aerodynamic controls defining the direction of their positive movement.
Figure 10.3: Definition of positive notation for all control surface deflections
10.2.2 Longitudinal Forces and Moments
The steady state values of thrust forces and moments depend on the powerplant
characteristics and orientation in the airframe. It is assumed that in each steady state flight
condition, the value of installed thrust (for jet, rocket or propeller) is known from the powerplant
specifications. The definition of positive thrust and of the thrust vector with regards to the
stability axes is given in Figure 10.4.
For the case of straight-line symmetrical steady state flight, the aerodynamic and thrust forces
and moments that act on the aircraft are: XA, XT, ZA, ZT, MA and MT. Based on Figure 10.4,
these forces and moments are given by (10.3).
Aerodynamic Thrust
X A0s D XT0s T cosT 0
Z A0s L ZT0s T sinT 0 (10.3)
M A0s M A0 MT0s MT0 TdT
Page 116
Figure 10.4: Steady State Forces and Pitching Moment in the Stability Axes
10.2.3 The Total Aircraft Drag
The total aircraft drag using the non-dimensional coefficient CD is given by equation (10.4).
D 21 VP20 CDS CD q S (10.4)

where:
CD is the total aircraft drag coefficient (10.6)
is the dynamic pressure, defined by q 21 VP0
2
q (10.5)
From the dependence table 10.1, the steady state aircraft drag depends on the following
parameters:
1. angle of attack,
2. elevator or stabilizer angle, E and iH
3. dynamic pressure q
4. Mach number and Reynolds number
The dynamic pressure is accounted for through q . The functional dependence on the other
parameters is usually expressed in the form of (10.6).
CD CD01 CD CDiH i H CDE E (10.6)

where:
CD01 = total aircraft drag coefficient for i H E 0
CD = total aircraft drag change with angle of attack at i H E 0
CDiH or CDE total aircraft drag change with horizontal stabilizer or elevator
=
angle at 0
The terms in equation (10.6) are calculated at constant Mach and Reynolds Number.
Page 117
Before continuing it is necessary to define a short hand notation of a derivative for a coefficient.
If you have the coefficient CA (where A could be the drag D, lift L, pitching moment M, etc.)
and we want to differentiate it with respect to a variable B (where B could be the aircraft angle
of attack , the elevator angle E, etc.) the derivative is written in the form of (10.7)
dC A
C AB (10.7)
dB
For most stability and control calculations, the drag changes due to control surface deflections
are negligible, therefore CD CD 0 . Note that this may not be a reasonable assumption in
iH E
performance calculations, where trim drag may be important.
The aircraft drag is usually represented by the drag polar equation (10.8).
CL2
CD CD0 kCL2 CD0 (10.8)
Ae
where:
CD0 = is the aircraft drag at CL = 0
CL = the total aircraft lift coefficient
Due to the quadratic nature of the drag polar, the expression for the drag variation as a function
of angular displacements is a local linearization. How this is done can be seen in Figure
10.5.
Figure 10.5: Validity of the Linear Drag Polar Representation
The expression for the steady state aerodynamic force in the stability x-axis direction is
therefore given by (10.9).

X A0s D CDq S CD01 CD CDiH i H CDE E q S (10.9)
10.2.4 The Total Aircraft Lift
The total aircraft lift using the non-dimensional coefficient CL is given by equation (10.10).
Page 118
L 21 VP20 CLS CL q S (10.10)

where:
CL = the total aircraft lift coefficient (10.11)
The steady state aircraft lift depends on the following:

1. angle of attack,
2. elevator or stabilizer angle, E and iH
3. dynamic pressure q
The dynamic pressure effect is accounted for through q . The functional dependence on the
other parameters is expressed in the form of equation (10.11).
CL CL01 CL CLiH i H CLE E (10.11)
where:
C L01 = total aircraft lift coefficient for i H E 0
CL = total aircraft lift curve slope
CLiH or CLE = change in total aircraft lift coefficient for unit stabilizer or elevator angle
The terms for (10.11) are calculated at constant Mach number. The Reynold's Number has a
secondary effect on lift, so its effect is neglected except when determining CL . Max
The derivatives CL ,CL ,CL and CL depend on the March number. To develop these terms,
01 iH E
consider the forces and geometry of Figure 10.6.
Figure 10.6: Geometry for Finding Total Aircraft Aerodynamic Parameters (Power off)
A wing that generates lift will generate circulation causing an updraft ahead it and a downwash
behind it. The main wing will therefore have an effect on the horizontal tail or canard, Figure
10.7. The magnitude of the upwash (canard) or downwash (horizontal tail) depends on the lift
of the main wing and on its location relative to the tail surface. The downwash angle is given
by expression (10.12).
d
0 (10.12)
d
where:
0 = is the downwash angle when the angle of attack of the wing is zero.
Page 119
Figure 10.7: Flow field around an aircraft generated by the wing
For a wing with an elliptical lift distribution and using finite-wing theory, the theoretical
expression for the downwash angle is given by (10.13).
2CLw
(10.13)
ARw
where:
CLw = the lift coefficient of the wing at the current aircraft speed
AR w = the aspect ratio of the wing
The rate of change of downwash angle is obtained by differentiating this equation to give
(10.14).
d 2CL w
(10.14)
d ARw
Considering the forces and geometry of the aircraft from Figure 10.6, and summing the forces
about the zs axis gives that the resultant lift generated by the aircraft is given by:
L LWB LH cos DH sin
But since the downwash angle is very small, then the small angle approximation
cos 1 and sin 0 can be used.
So the resultant total lift is given by:
L LWB LH
Writing this equation using the respective wing and horizontal tail lift coefficients, gives:
CLq S CLWB q S CLH qH SH
where:
Page 120
SH = is the horizontal tail planform area

qH = is the horizontal tail dynamic pressure qH 21 VH2 (10.15)
CLH = the horizontal tail lift coefficient
VH = the velocity of the air experienced by the horizontal tail
Note that the dynamic pressure at the tail is not necessarily the same as the dynamic pressure
at the wing.
The ratio of the dynamic pressures between the horizontal tail and wing is called the Tail
Efficiency H and is given by (10.16).
1
VH2 qH
H 2
(10.16)
1
2 VP2
0
q
If we then divide the previously defined equation by H it gives that the lift coefficient term is
now defined by (10.17)
S
CL CLWB CLH H H (10.17)
S
For this equation it is now necessary to define expressions for the lift coefficients of the wing-
body and for the tail CL , CL . The wing-body lift coefficient CL is expressed by (10.18).
WB H WB
CLWB CL0WB CLWB (10.18)

The wing-body lift-curve slope CL differs from the wing lift-curve slope CL , because of
WB W
interference effects. For configurations with large ratios of wing span to fuselage diameter, it
is acceptable to assume that:
CLW CLWB
The aircraft angle of attack is not necessarily the wing angle of attach W. From Figure 10.8,
it can be deduced that the wing angle of attack is given by (10.19).
W iW (10.19)
where:
iw = is the wing incidence angle
Page 121
Figure 10.8: Aircraft geometry showing the wing angle of incidence W

It is of course possible to select the x-axis such that i w 0 . Note that how the x-axis is
selected affects the value of C L . 0WB
Looking at a figure of the forces acting on the horizontal tail, Figure 10.9., the horizontal tail lift
coefficient C LH is given by (10.20).
Figure 10.9: Horizontal tail geometry showing the all forces acting and
its angle of incidence H
CLH CL0H CL H H CL H E E (10.20)

where:
H = is the angle of attack of the horizontal tail, given by (10.21)
H iH (10.21)
is the average downwash angle induced by the wing on the horizontal

=
tail (10.13)
iH = is the horizontal tail incidence angle
E = is the elevator deflection angle
H
E = is the angle of attack effectiveness of the elevator
E
is the zero angle of attack horizontal tail lift coefficient, which has a value
CL0H =
of zero CL0H 0 for horizontal tails with symmetrical airfoils
The elevator angle of attach effectiveness is proportional to the size of the flap used as an
elevator and can be determined using Figure 10.10 or equation (10.22).
4 3 2
c c c c
E 5.7785 f 11.023 f 7.7734 f 3.1647 f (10.22)
c c c c
where:
cf Sf is the ratio of moving flap length to airfoil chord length, or alternatively
=
c S the ratio of moving flap area to the wing area
Page 122
Substituting all of these equations into the one for CL (10.17) gives (10.23).
cf Sf

c S
Figure 10.10: Flap effectiveness parameter
SH d
CL CL0WB CL WB CL H H i H 0 E E (10.23)
S d
It is now possible to find the overall aircraft characteristics in the form of CL as defined by
equation (10.11).
CL CL CL CL i H CL E
01 iH E
(10.11)
Where we now have that the four coefficient terms of (10.11) are given by (10.24), (10.25),
(10. 26) and (10.27).
S
CL01 CL0WB CL H H H 0
S

CL0WB in many cases
(10.24)
S S d
CL01 CL0WB CL H H H 0 iW CL WB CL H H H , if iW 0
S S d
SH d
CL CL WB CL H H 1 (10.25)
S d
S
CLiH CL H H H (10.26)
S
SH
CLE CL H H E (10.27)
S
Page 123
The expression for the steady state aerodynamic force in the stability z-axis direction can now
be written as equation (10.28).

ZA0s L CLq S CL01 CL CLiH i H CLE E q S (10.28)
10.2.5 The Total Aircraft Pitching Moment
The total aircraft pitching moment using the non-dimensional coefficient CM is given by
equation (10.29).
M A 21 VP2 CmSc Cm q Sc
0
(10.29)
where:
C m = is the total aircraft pitching moment coefficient (10.30).
The steady state aircraft pitching moment depends on the same parameters as did the lift and
drag. The functional dependence on the parameters is expressed in the form of (10.30).
Cm Cm01 Cm CmiH i H CmE E (10.30)

where:
Cm01 = total aircraft pitching moment coefficient for i H E 0
Cm the total aircraft rate of change of pitching moment with respect to angle
=
of attack
CmiH or CmE change in total aircraft pitching moment coefficient for unit stabilizer or
=
elevator angle. Also called control power derivatives
These 4 terms now need to be determined in terms of conventional aircraft components.

Figure 10.11 shows the location of the conventional components.
Figure 10.11: Geometry for Finding Total Aircraft Aerodynamic Parameters (Power off)
where:
X ACWB = Distance from wing leading edge to the wing-body aerodynamic centre
X CG = Distance from wing leading edge to the aircraft centre of gravity (CG)
Page 124
X ACH = Distance from wing leading edge to the horizontal tail aerodynamic centre
Carrying out the summation of all moments about the centre of gravity gives:

M A M ACWB LWB X CG X ACWB cos

DWB X CG X ACWB sin LH cos X ACH X CG cos
Note that the drag contribution due to the tail has been neglected. In most instances it is found
that the drag contribution due to the wing is also negligible.
If we assume small angles of attack for the aircraft and also small downwash angles, then the
moment equation reduces to:

M A M ACWB LWB XCG X ACWB LH X ACH XCG
It can now be written using the wing and horizontal tail lift coefficients and the aircraft pitching
moment coefficient to give:

Cmq Sc CmACWB q Sc CLWB q S XCG X ACWB CLH qH SH X ACH XCG
Dividing by the product of the dynamic pressure, wing planform area and mean aerodynamic
chord q Sc gives:
Cm CmACWB CLWB

X CG X ACWB q S X ACH X CG
CLH H H

c qS c
Two terms now need to be defined:

1. The Horizontal Tail Volume Coefficient, which is very important in the initial sizing of
the horizontal tail of new aircraft given by (10.31).
VH

SH X AC H X CG (10.31)
S c
2. The bar notation for distanced divided by the main wing mean aerodynamic chord
(10.32).
X X AC WB X AC H
X CG CG , X ACWB , X AC H (10.32)
c c c
Substituting for these terms into the moment coefficient equation from above gives:

Cm CmACWB CLWB XCG X ACWB CLH HVH
And substituting now for CLW B (10.18) and C LH (10.20) which have already been defined, gives
(10.33).

Cm CmACWB CL0WB CLWB X CG X ACWB
d (10.33)
CLH HVH 0 i H E E
d
From (10.33) it is now possible to find the overall aircraft characteristics in the form of Cm as
specified by (10.30).
Page 125
Cm Cm01 Cm CmiH i H CmE E (10.30)

Where we now have that the four coefficient terms of (10.30) are given by (10.34), (10.35),
(10. 36) and (10.37).

Cm01 CmACWB CL0WB X CG X ACWB CL H HVH 0
(10.34)
The last term of this equation, CL HVH 0 can be ignored in most cases
H

Cm CLWB X CG X ACWB CLH HVH 1
d
(10.35)
d
CmiH CLH HVH (10.36)
CmE CLH HVH E (10.37)
The steady state aerodynamic pitching moment can now be written as (10.38).

M A0s M A Cm q Sc Cm01 Cm CmiH i H CmE E q Sc (10.38)
10.2.6 Assembling the Steady State Longitudinal Forces and Moments
It is now possible to collect all expressions for the longitudinal steady state forces and
moments and assemble them in matrix format. This is given in (10.39) and (10.40) below.
1
X A D CD q S CD CD01 CD CDiH CDE
0s
Z A0s L CL q S with CL CL01 CL CLiH CLE
M M C q Sc C C i
Cm C mi H CmE H
A0s A m m m01
E
CD01 CD CDiH CDE
10.8 1 (10.39)
10.8 small small
CD
CL01 CL CLiH CLE
where: CL
C 10.24 10.25 10.26 10.27 i H
m C Cm C mi H CmE E
m01
10.34 10.35 10.36 10.37
The bracketed numbers in (10.39) are the equation numbers.
X T T cosT 0
0s
ZT0s T sinT 0 (10.40)
M TdT
T0s
10.2.7 Lateral-Directional Forces and Moments
Page 126
For the Case of steady state straight and level flight with V0 0, the aircraft is side-slipping.
The sideslip angle was already defined as (10.2) which is the lateral-directional equivalent
of the longitudinal angle of attach is defined by Figure 10.2.
This sideslip gives rise to a rolling moment L A0 , a side force YA0 and a yawing moment N A0 .
s s s
The steady state lateral-directional forces and moments due to thrust LT0s , YT0s and NT0s are
assumed to be known from the magnitude of T and its orientation.
The steady state rolling moment, side force and yawing moment depend on the following:
1. angle of attack,
2. angle of sideslip ,
3. control deflections of aileron, rudder and spoiler (A, R ,s) or other lateral-directional
control
4. dynamic pressure,
10.2.8 The Total Aircraft Side Force

The total aircraft Side-Force using the non-dimensional coefficient CY is given by (10.41).
YA CY q S (10.41)
where:
CY = is the total aircraft Side-Force coefficient (10.42)
The functional dependence of the side-force coefficient on sideslip angle , rudder angle R
and aileron angle A is given by (10.42).
CY CY01 CY CY A A CYR R (10.42)

where:
CY01 the side-force coefficient for zero sideslip and zero control deflections.
=
Equal to 0 for aircraft symmetrical about xz plane
CY change in side-force coefficient due to a unit sideslip angle (called the side-
=
force derivative due to sideslip).
CY A change in side-force coefficient due to a unit change in lateral control
=
deflection.
CYR change in side-force coefficient due to a unit change in directional control
=
deflection.
The side-force derivative due to sideslip CY is usually made up of two components (10.43):
1. Wing Body CY WB
and
2. Vertical Tail CY
V
CY CY WB CY V (10.43)
The Wing Body Contribution

The Wing Body contribution is generally small compared with the vertical tail contribution. For
this reason (and because it is difficult to calculate) it is generally neglected in theoretical
estimates. Nevertheless, the sign of CY is negative.
WB
The Vertical Tail Contribution
Page 127
The Vertical Tail of the aircraft is aft of the fuselage and wing, similar to how the wing generates
a downwash angle; there is a sidewash effect due to the fuselage-wing combination giving
sideways lifting. The sidewash angle is defined by the letter (sigma). Figure 10.12 shows
how the side-force is generated by the sideslip angle.
Figure 10.12: Vertical tail contribution to directional stability showing the

sidewash due to the fuselage
In a similar way to the horizontal tail, the ratio of the dynamic pressures between the vertical
tail and wing is called the dynamic pressure ratio at the vertical tail or Vertical Tail Efficiency
V (eta v) and is given by:
1
VV2 qV
V 2
(10.44)
1
2 VP2
0
q
where:
VV = the velocity of the air experienced by the vertical tail
The angle of attack of the vertical tail v is given by (10.45).
v (10.45)
A simple algebraic equation for estimating the sidewash and vertical tail efficiency is given by
equation (10.46).
d Sv S z
v 1 0.724 3.06 0.4 w 0.009 ARw
1 cos c 4w
(10.46)
d d
where:
S = the wing planform area
Page 128
Sv = the vertical tail area including the submerged area to the fuselage centreline
zw the distance, parallel to the z-axis, from the wing root quarter chord point to
=
the fuselage centreline.
d = the maximum fuselage depth
AR w = the aspect ratio of the wing
c 4w = the sweep angle of the wing quarter chord.
The lift coefficient of the vertical tail is then given by:
d
CLv CLV 1
d
The side-force due to sideslip on the tail (assuming + are small) is then:
d
YA V CLv qv Sv CL V 1 qv Sv
d
Substituting this term into the original expression for YA, and looking at only the component
due to sideslip gives that:
d
CY V q S CL V 1 qv Sv
d
After rearranging, it gives the side-force derivative due to sideslip, (10.47).

d Sv
CY CY V CLV 1 v
d
(10.47)
S
The aileron deflection side-force coefficient control derivative CY is negligible small and can
A
generally be considered to be equal to zero, (10.48).

CY A 0 (10.48)
The side-force due to directional control CY produces a positive side-force due to a positive
R
deflection of the rudder R , Figure 10.13. The side-force Y A in terms of the original expression
R
for Y A is given by (10.49).
YA R CYR R q S (10.49)
However, the vertical tail lift coefficient due to the rudder deflection R is given by (10.50).
dCLv dCLv d v
CL v R R R CL v R R (10.50)
d R d v d R
where:
R is the angle of attack effectiveness of the rudder, calculated using Figure
=
10.10 or equation (10.22).
So, the side-force Y A in terms of the lift coefficient of the vertical tail due to the rudder
R
deflection is given by:

YA R CL V R R qv Sv
Page 129
But since both expressions for Y A are the same, we then have that the side-force coefficient
R
due to a unit change in directional control deflection is given by (10.51).
Figure 10.13: Physical explanation of the Side force generated due to rudder deflection
Sv
CY R CL V Rv (10.51)
S
The expression for the steady state aerodynamic side-force not involving angular rates can
now be written as (10.52).

YA0s YA CY CY A A CY R R q S (10.52)
10.2.9 The Total Aircraft Rolling Moment
The total aircraft rolling moment using the non-dimensional coefficient Cl is given by (10.53).
LA Cl q Sb (10.53)
where:
Cl = is the total aircraft rolling moment coefficient (10.54)
b = the wing span
The functional dependence on sideslip angle and control deflections is given by (10.54).
Cl Cl 01 Cl Cl A A ClR R (10.54)
where:
C l 01 the rolling moment coefficient for zero sideslip and zero control deflections.
=
Cl change in rolling moment coefficient due to a unit sideslip angle (called the
=
rolling derivative due to sideslip or dihedral effect)
C l A change in rolling moment coefficient due to a unit change in lateral control
=
deflection (called the lateral control derivative)
Page 130
C lR change in rolling moment coefficient due to a unit change in directional

=
control deflection (called the cross control derivative)
The aircraft Dihedral Effect C l is usually made up of 3 components (10.55):
1. Wing-Body Cl
WB
2. Horizontal Tail Cl
H
3. Vertical Tail C l
V
Cl Cl WB Cl H Cl V (10.55)
The Wing Body Contribution
The Wing-Body contribution Cl consists of three aerodynamic effects these are:

WB
1. Wing geometric dihedral,

2. Wing position on the fuselage,
3. Wing sweep angle.
The Wing Geometric Dihedral
The Wing Geometric Dihedral causes a rolling moment due to sideslip. The starboard wing
experiences a positive increase in angle of attack, and the port wing a negative change in
angle of attack. The overall result is a negative rolling moment, Figure 10.14.
Figure 10.14: Physical explanation of the Rolling moment due to sideslip as it is affected
by geometric dihedral
Adding this increment in vertical velocity due to dihedral to the free-stream velocity VP0 , results
in an increase in the angle of attach over the starboard wing by the amount (10.56), Figure
10.15, with the opposite change in the port wing.
(10.56)
Figure 10.15: Physical explanation of the how the angle of attack is changed due to
sideslip
Page 131
This differential increment in the angel of attack results in a differential rolling moment, Figure
10.16.
Figure 10.16: Physical explanation of the how the rolling moment is generated
From Figure 10.16, the incremental lift due to the sideslip angle is given by:
L qc y dyCL qc y CL dy
where:
cy = is the local chord length
Since there is an opposite effect on the port wing, the resultant elemental rolling moment is
given by:
dl w 2Ly 2qc y CL ydy
Integrating over the semi-span gives:

b
l W 2qCL c y ydy
2
If the aircraft has a tapered wing this becomes:
CL 1 2
l W qSb Cl w qSb
6 1
This simplifies to give the wing geometric dihedral effect (10.57).
CL 1 2
Cl w (10.57)
6 1
The Wing Position on the Fuselage.
The flow field of the fuselage interacts with the wing in such a way as to modify its dihedral
effect. Consider a long cylindrical body of circular cross section, with yaw angle , Figure
10.17.
The magnitude of the effect is dependent on the fuselage length ahead of the wing, its cross
sectional shape and the planform and location of the wing. Generally this explains why high
Page 132
wing aircraft have little or no dihedral but may have anhedral, whereas low wing aircraft have
dihedral angles which can be as much as 10.
Figure 10.17: Physical explanation of Rolling Moment due to sideslip as

affected by wing position on the fuselage
The elemental lift on the starboard wing is given by:
dLR q cos2 c / 4 c cos c / 4CLyi ds
The elemental lift on the port wing is :
dLL q cos2 c / 4 c cos c / 4CLyi ds
The differential rolling moment is then:

dl w dLL dLR y i q cos2 c / 4 cos2 c / 4 c cos c / 4CLyi yds
where:
y s cos c / 4 or dy cos c / 4 ds
Integrating from y = 0 to y = b/ 2 gives that:
l w q cos c / 4 cos c / 4 cCLyi yds

2
2 2
Integrating for a linearly tapered wing and differentiating with respect to , gives (10.58).
1 2
Cl w CL tan c / 4
31 w
(10.58)
The Horizontal Tail Contribution
The horizontal tail contribution can be explained in exactly the same manner as was done for
the wing. In many cases, the contribution of the horizontal tail Cl is negligible.
H
Page 133

affected by wing sweep angle
The rolling moment due to sideslip of the horizontal tail can be written in the form of (10.59).
LH Cl H qH SH bH (10.59)
where:
C l H = is obtained in the same manner as Cl
WB
bH = the horizontal tail span

SH = the horizontal tail planform area
Basing all parameters on the wing reference geometry gives (10.60).
qH SH bH
C l H C l H (10.60)
q Sb
The Vertical Tail Contribution
A physical explanation of the Vertical Tail contribution to the rolling moment due to sideslip is
given in Figure 10.19.
Deriving this using the value for side force, gives (10.61).
d Sv Zv s
Cl V CL V 1 v
d S b
(10.61)

Page 134

affected by the vertical tail
The Lateral Control Derivative Effect C l

A
The lateral control of aircraft (i.e. control over the bank angle ) is done with:
1. Ailerons
2. Spoilers
3. Differential stabilisers
4. other devices
5. suitable combinations of these
The symbol A will be used for all devices even though it usually stands for the aileron
deflection. The ailerons modify the spanwise lift distribution so that a moment is created about
the x-axis, Figures 10.20.
Figure 10.20: Physical explanation of Rolling Moment due to lateral control devices
Page 135
Figure 10.21: Figure showing change in lift distribution due to positive aileron deflection
The elemental change in rolling moment due to a change in aileron angle, Figure 10.21, is
given by:
dl A CL qc y ydy
The section lift coefficient where the aileron is can be written using the flap efficiency factor
, Figure 10.10, equation (10.22) is given by:
d
CL CL A CL A
d A
Integrating over the region containing the aileron, between y1 and y2 gives:
y2
l A Cl A A qSb 2CL A q c y ydy

y1
Which then gives the lateral control derivative (10.62).

2CL y2
Cl A
Sb c
y1
y ydy (10.62)
The Cross Control Derivative C l R
Derived using the value for side force due to the rudder deflection, Figure 10.22, gives (10.63).
Page 136
Figure 10.22: Physical Explanation of rolling moment due to rudder deflection
Zv s
Cl R CY R (10.63)
b
The expression for the steady state aerodynamic rolling moment not involving angular rates
can now be written as (10.64).

LA0s LA Cl Cl A A Cl R R q Sb (10.64)
10.2.10 The Total Aircraft Yawing Moment
The total aircraft yawing moment using the non-dimensional coefficient C n is given by (10.65).
N A Cn q Sb (10.65)
where:
Cn = is the total aircraft yawing moment coefficient (10.66)
The functional dependence on sideslip angle and control deflections is expressed in the form
of (10.66).
Cn Cn01 Cn Cn A A CnR R (10.66)

where:
C n01 the yawing moment coefficient for zero sideslip and zero control deflections.
=
Cn the change in yawing moment coefficient due to a unit sideslip angle (called
=
the directional stability derivative)
Cn A the change in yawing moment coefficient due to a unit change in lateral
=
control deflection (called the cross control derivative)
CnR the change in yawing moment coefficient due to a unit change in directional
=
control deflection (called the directional control power derivative)
Page 137
The aircraft yawing moment derivative due to sideslip angle Cn is made of two components
(10.67):
1. The wing and body contribution Cn
WB
2. The vertical tail contribution Cn

V
Cn Cn WB Cn V (10.67)
1 The Wing Body Contribution
The wing body contribution Cn can be calculated using (19.68).

WB
Cn WB k n kRl
Sfs l f
/deg (10.68)
S b
where:
kn = body interference factor, function of fuselage geometry
k Rl = correction factor, function of the fuselage Reynolds Number
Sfs = the projected side area of the fuselage, Figure 10.23
lf = the length of the fuselage, Figure 10.23
S = the wing planform area
b = the wing span
Figure 10.23: Side view of the fuselage

where:
h = maximum body height
Xm = distance from nose to centre of mass
h1,2 = body heights at the and fuselage position
The Interference Factor k n
The Interference Factor k n is calculated using Figure 10.24. The process to calculate it is as
follows:
Page 138
1. Start with a value of the ratio of the position of the centre of mass of the fuselage
Xm
lf
.
2. Draw a vertical line up to of fuselage length squared divided by fuselage side area
l f2 .
S fs
3. Go across horizontally to the square root of the ratio of fuselage height at the to
positions .
h1
h2

4. Draw vertical line to the ratio of maximum fuselage height to width .
h
wf
5. Go across to find k n .
The Reynolds Number correction Factor k Rl
The Reynolds Number correction Factor kRl is determined from Figure 10.25.
Figure 10.24: Wing body interference factor
Page 139
Figure 10.25: Reynolds number correction factor
2 The Vertical Tail contribution
The Vertical Tail contribution to the yawing moment is derived using the value for side force,
Figure 10.26 and equation (10.69).
Figure 10.26: Physical contribution to the yawing moment due to the vertical tail
d Sv X v s
Cn V CL V 1 v
d
(10.69)
Sb
Another term which needs to be defined is the Vertical Tail Volume Coefficient, given by
(10.70).
Sv X v s
VV (10.70)
Sb
where:
Sv = the area of the vertical tail
X v s = the distance from the aircraft centre of gravity to the vertical tail
aerodynamic centre
Page 140
Making the vertical tail contribution to the yawing moment to be (10.71).
d
Cn V CL V 1 vVv (10.71)
d
The aircraft yawing moment derivative due to sideslip angle Cn is then given by (10.72).
Sfs l f d
Cn k n k Rl CL V 1 VVV (10.72)
S b d
The Lateral Control Derivative Effect Cn A
The magnitude and sign of the yawing moment due to lateral control can vary widely from one
airplane configuration to another. The reason is the large differences in aerodynamic control
devices used for lateral control. A physical explanation of the aerodynamic mechanism
responsible for Cn in the case of ailerons, spoilers, and differential stabilizer is given in
A
Figures 10.27 and 10.28. Values of Cn are difficult to estimate and it is generally best to use
A
experimental data.
Figure 10.27: Physical explanation of yawing moment due to aileron deflection
The Directional Control Power Derivative Cn

R
The Directional Control Power Derivative Cn is derived using the value for side force due to
R
the rudder deflection, Figure 10.29 and gives equation (10.73).
Cn R CL V RvVv (10.73)
The expression for the steady state aerodynamic yawing moment not involving angular rates
can now be written as equation (10.74).

N A0s N A Cn Cn A A Cn R R q Sb (10.74)
Page 141
Figure 10.28: Physical explanation of yawing moment due to spoiler deflection
Figure 10.29: Physical contribution to the yawing moment due to the vertical tail
10.2.11 Assembling the Steady State Lateral-Directional Forces and Moments
It is now possible to collect all expressions for the lateral-directional steady state forces and
moments and assemble them in matrix format. This is given by equation (10.75).
YA CY q S CY CY CY A CYR
0s
LA0s Cl q Sb with Cl Cl Cl A ClR A
N C q Sb C C Cn A CnR R
A0s n n n
CY CY A 0 CYR
10.47 10.48 10.51 (10.75)
CY
Cl Cl A Cl R
where: Cl
C 10.55 10.62 10.63 A
n C R
Cn A CnR
n
10.72 small 10.73
Page 142
Note that:
1. The bracketed numbers in (10.75) are the equation numbers;
2. Thrust expressions have not been given;
3. Straight line steady state is considered only.
10.3 Perturbed State Forces and Moments
The perturbed motion variables: u, v, w, p, q, r and their time derivatives affect the perturbed
aerodynamic forces and moments. In order to determine their effect, a systematic analysis of
what happens aerodynamically as perturbations relative to some steady state are introduced
is required. Figures 10.30 and 10.31 show the perturbed motion variables relative to the steady
state.
Figure 10.30: Interpretation of Perturbed State Velocities

The velocity vector VP generated from the perturbed velocities is given by (10.76).

VP U0 u v w (10.76)
The angle of attack generated by the perturbed velocities is defined by (10.77)
w w
arctan (10.77)
U 0 u U0
The sideslip angle generated by the perturbed velocities is defined by (10.78)
v v
arctan (10.78)
U0 u U0
Page 143
Figure 10.31: Interpretation of Perturbed State angles

Table 10.2 summarizes only those perturbed motion variables which have an effect. The
assumption is that all perturbations are relative to a symmetrical steady state, i.e.
V0 P0 R0 0 , therefore YA0 LA0 N A0 0 .
Table 10.2: Dependence of Perturbed Aerodynamic Forces and Moments on Motion and Control
Variables
Control
Direct Variables Derived Variables
Variables
u w w q w U0 w U 0 E F
X A X A X A X A X A X A X A X A
xA
u w w q E F
Z A Z A Z A Z A Z A Z A Z A Z A
zA
u w w q E F
M A M A M A M A M A M A M A M A
mA
u w w q E F
v p r v v U0 v U0 A R
YA Y A YA YA Y A YA YA YA
yA
v p r v A R
LA L A LA LA L A LA LA LA
lA
v p r v A R
N A N A N A N A N A N A N A N A
nA
v p r v A R
Page 144
Note that the terms in the columns which have been highlighted, although required, they are
intrinsically calculated within the terms in the derived variables columns.
What is necessary is to look at each variable perturbation in order to derive the forces and
moments equations. We will however only look at the forward u and side v speed
perturbations.
Forward Velocity Perturbation u
This perturbation causes two quantities to change:

1. The dynamic pressure q 21 VP2 , and
2. The Mach Number
Either of these quantities will affect x A , z A and m A , as shown in table 10.2. These changes
are expressed in terms of the first derivatives of the terms x A , z A and m A with respect to u,
X A Z A M A
, and . Because YA LA N A 0 there will be no change in Y A , L A and N A
u u u 0 0 0
due to forward speed perturbations u.
Side Velocity Perturbation v
This velocity perturbation can be identified with the sideslip angle perturbation , through
equation (10.79).
v
(10.79)
U0
A change in sideslip angle has been determined to affect Y A , L A and N A (as shown in the
table). These changes are then expressed in terms of the first derivatives of these terms with
YA LA N A
respect to , which are: , , .

This process is then repeated for:

1. the downwards velocity (w) which is related to the angle of attach (),
2. the rolling (p), pitching (q) and yawing (r) velocity perturbations.
It is worth noting that the and derivatives are with respect to non-dimensional variables. It
is desirable to have all differentiations carried out with respect to non-dimensional variables.
w v
Considering that and it is also reasonable to non-dimensionalise u with respect
U0 U0
X Z M A X u
to U0. Therefore, the terms: A u , A u , u are replaced with: uA ,
u u u U U0
0
Z A u M A u
and .
u U 0 u U0
It is also desirable to non-dimensionalise the differentiations with respect to p, q and r. This is

pb qc rb
done by replacing p, q and r by: p ,q ,r . This means that for
2U0 2U0 2U0
Page 145
example the pitching moment mA derivative with respect to q becomes:

M A M qc
q A
.
q
2U 2U0
qc
0
The differentiations with respect to angular rates and are also non-dimensionalised by
c b
replacing and by: , . This means that for example the rolling
2U 0 2U 0
L L b
moment lA derivative with respect to becomes: A

A
.

b 2U0
2U0
The differentiations with respect to the control surfaces are already non-dimensional.
One further assumption needs to be made: That the perturbed forces and moments are only
dependent on the instantaneous values of the motion and control variables and not on the
time-history of these variables. This is known at the Quasi-State assumption. Although not
always realistic, for low frequency motion it is reasonable, whereas for high frequency motion
it is not. The great majority of rigid aircraft stability and control problems can be solved very
adequately with the quasi-steady description of the perturbed forces and moments, given in
(10.80) and (10.81).
Non-dimensional Quasi-Steady Model for Perturbed Forces and Moments
Longitudinal
X X A X A X A X A X A U0
u
uA
2Uc0

2qUc0 E F
x A U0
ZA Z A Z A Z A Z A Z A 2U0
c
zA u q c (10.80)
m U0 2Uc0 2qUc0 E F 2U0

A M M A M A M A M A M A E
uA
U0 2Uc0 2qUc0 E F F

Lateral-Directional
Y YA YA YA YA YA
A b
R A 2U0

2Ub0 2pUb0 2rUb0
y A
LA LA LA LA LA LA 2U0
pb
lA r b (10.81)
n R A 2U0

2Ub0 2pUb0 2rUb0
A N N A N A N A N A N A R
A
R A A

2Ub0 2pUb0 2rUb0

10.3.1 Longitudinal Stability Derivatives
10.3.1.1 The u Stability Derivatives ( CDu , CLu , Cmu )
The forces and moments affected by u are XA, ZA and MA. These forces are non-
dimensionalised in the form of (10.82).
X A CX qS Z A CZ q S M A C m q Sc (10.82)
Page 146
Derivative of XA
Differentiate XA with respect to u/U0, which using the product rule gives:
X A C X q S C X q
u qS CX S u
Uu0 Uu0 U0 U0
However, the perturbed forces and moments are all defined relative to a steady state. That
means that all derivatives need to be evaluated at the steady state flight condition. This means
that, for example:
X A X A
means
Uu0 Uu0
0
The consequence of this on the second term of the differential of XA is then that, firstly:
q q
U0
U0
u
u 0
Where the dynamic pressure is given by:

q 21 VP2 21 U 0 u v 2 w 2
2

Therefore:
q
Uu0
U 0
q
u
U0
1
u 2

U0 u v 2 w 2
2
0
0
U 0 U 0 u 0 U 02
Substituting back into the derivative of XA and noting that all remaining constant terms are to
be evaluated at the steady state condition 0, gives:
X A C X
u q0S C X 0 SU 02
Uu0 U0
0
It is now necessary to determine CX by looking at an aircraft flying at its steady level flight
condition, Figure 10.32. The values of CX and CZ are aligned with the stability axes and by
using Figure 10.32, they can be derived to be given by (10.83) and (10.84)
Page 147
Figure 10.32: Determination of CX and CZ from CL and CD

Cx CD cos CL sin
(10.83)
CD CL
Cz CL cos CD sin
(10.84)
CL CD
The expression for CX is then:

C X CD CL
So, its derivative with respect to u/U0 is:
C X CD CL

Uu0 Uu0 Uu0
0 0 0
CD

Uu0
0
We also have from the equation for CX that at the steady flight condition 0, it has a value of:
C X 0 CD0
It is now necessary to introduce the notation of (10.85).

CD
CDu (10.85)
Uu0
Which will be used for all other coefficient derivatives with respect to u/U0.
The derivative of XA then becomes (10.86).

X A
CDu q0S CD0 SU 02 CDu q0S 2CD0 q0S
Uu0
Page 148
X A
Uu0

CDu 2CD0 q0S (10.86)
The derivative of CDu is called the speed-damping derivative. The sign of CDu depends on the
free stream Mach number of the corresponding steady state flight condition. Typical values
are given Figure 10.33, although for M < 0.7, can assume a value of 0.
Derivative of ZA
Differentiate ZA with respect to u/U0 and following similar steps to what was carried out with
XA, we have that:
Z A CZ
u q0S CZ0 SU02
U0
u
U0
0
From equation (10.84), the expression for CZ was defined as:

Cz CL CD
Figure 10.33: Variation of CDu with Mach number for typical Jet Aircraft
At the steady flight condition 0, it has a value of:
Cz0 CL0
Differentiating the expression for CZ gives:
Cz CL CD

Uu0 0
Uu0 0
Uu0 0
Using the new notation and evaluating the expression at the steady state flight condition, it
becomes:
Page 149
Czu CLu
The derivative of ZA is then given by (10.87).
Z A
Uu0

CLu 2CL0 q0S (10.87)
The derivative CLu can be evaluated for high aspect ratio wings as follows. At subsonic speeds,
according to the Prandtl-Glauert transformation it is found that:
CL
CL M 0
1 M 2
Differentiating with respect to M gives:
CL M
CL
M 1 M 2
But:
CL U 0 CL CL
CLu M0
U0
u
a a
u
M
Giving that CLu is then (10.88).

M 02
CLu CL (10.88)
1 M 02 0
Derivative of MA
Differentiate MA with respect to u/U0, and using the new notation gives (10.89).
M A
Uu0

Cmu 2Cm0 q0Sc (10.89)
Note that:
Cm
Cmu M (10.90)
M
10.3.1.2 The Stability Derivatives ( CD , CL , Cm )

The forces and moments affected by are XA, ZA and MA

Derivative of XA
X A

C X q0S CD CL0 q0S (10.91)
where:
C X CD CL0 (10.92)
and
2CL0
CD CL (10.93)
A Re
Page 150
Derivative of ZA
Z A

CZ q0S CL CD0 q0S (10.94)
Derivative of MA
M A
Cm q0Sc (10.95)

The terms CL and Cm were determined previously and are given in (10.25) and (10.35)
respectively.
10.3.1.3 The Stability Derivatives ( CD , CL , Cm )
There do not exist accurate methods for calculating the derivatives for arbitrary
configurations. A quick approximate method which has been found to give reasonable results
in subsonic flow is based on 'lag of downwash' theory. In this theory it is assumed that the
downwash is dependent primarily on the strength of the trailing vortices of the wing in the
neighbourhood of the tail. Because the vorticity is transported with the flow, a change in
downwash at the wing (due to a change in ) will not be felt as a change in downwash at the
tail until a time t has elapsed, given by (10.96).
XH
t (10.96)
U0
Where XH is the distance from the tail aerodynamic centre to the point on the wing mean
aerodynamic chord. The effect of downwash on the X force is negligible, and therefore:
Derivative of XA
X A
CD q0S 0 (10.97)
2Uc0
Derivative of ZA
Z A
CZ q0S (10.98)
2Uc0
where:
d
CZ CL 2CLH HVH (10.99)
d
Derivative of MA
M A
Cm q0Sc (10.100)
2Uc0
where:
X H d
Cm 2CL H HVH (10.101)
c d
10.3.1.4 The q Stability Derivatives ( CDq , CLq , C mq )
The forces and moments affected by q are XA, ZA and MA
Derivative of XA
Page 151
X A C X
q 0S C X q q 0S (10.102)
2qUc0 2qUc0
From the previously defined expression for CX, its derivative is given by:
C X q CDq
It can generally be assumed that CDq 0 .
Derivative of ZA
Z A C
qcZ q0S CZq q0S (10.103)
2U0 2U0
qc
From the previously defined expression for CZ, its derivative is given by:
CZq CLq
Giving then that:
Z A
CLq q0S (10.104)
2qUc0
Derivative of MA
M A
C mq q 0 Sc (10.105)
2qUc0
We now need to find CL and C m . The physical explanation for the occurrence of forces and
q q
moments caused by q is given in Figures 10.34 and 10.35. The surface velocities about the
centre of gravity point P relative to the free stream are shown in Figure 10.34.
Figure 10.34: Surface velocities due to Pitch Rate q
The downwards lift and upwards lift due to the pitch rate q, result in a total lift due to pitch rate
(usually positive) and in a total moment due to the pitch rate (always negative), Figure 10.35.
Page 152
Figure 10.35: Surface velocities due to Pitch Rate q
For many aircraft the centre of gravity is located somewhere on the wing mean aerodynamic
chord. In such a case, the contribution of the wing to CL and C m is small while that of the
q q
horizontal tail is large (due to the large moment arm).
The angle of attack change at the horizontal tail aerodynamic centre is given by:
qX H
H
U0
where:
XH = the distance from the tail aerodynamic centre to the wing 0.75c
The aircraft lift due to this pitch rate is:
qX SH
CLdue to q on Tail CLH H H
U0 S
qc
Differentiating with respect to gives:
2U 0
CLq 2CLH HVH (10.106)
Using the expression for the aircraft lift due to q, the aircraft moment coefficient due to the
pitch rate induced lift on the horizontal tail becomes:
qX SH X H
Cmdue to q on H .Tail CLH H H
U0 S c
qc
Differentiating with respect to gives:
2U 0
XH
Cmq 2CLH HVH
c
It is customary to multiply the horizontal tail contribution by an arbitrary factor of 1.1 to

account for the wing + body contribution, giving (10.107).
Page 153
XH
Cmq 2.2CL H HVH (10.107)
c
10.3.1.4 The E Stability Derivatives ( C DE , CLE , CmE )
The E derivatives affect the forces and moment, XA, ZA and MA
Differentiate XA
X A C X
q S C XE q0S CDE q0S (10.108)
E E
Differentiate ZA
Z A CZ
q S CZE q0S CLE q0S (10.109)
E E
Differentiate MA
M A Cm
q Sc CmE q0Sc (10.110)
E E
The expressions for C D , CL and Cm have already been defined. Where the value for
E E E
CDE 0 is very small and CLE and Cm

E
are given by equations (10.27) and (10.37)
respectively.
10.3.2 Lateral Directional Derivatives
The forces and moment affected by all lateral directional derivatives are: YA, LA and NA.
The loads are non-dimensionalised using equations (10.111).
YA CY q S LA Cl q Sb N A Cn q Sb (10.111)
The derivatives of these 3 terms will be carried out for all variables affecting the lateral
directional perturbed motion.
10.3.2.1 The Stability Derivatives ( C y , C l , Cn )
Derivative YA
YA
CY q0S (10.112)

Derivative LA
LA
Cl q0Sb (10.113)

Derivative NA
N A
Cn q0Sb (10.114)

Page 154
The stability derivatives C y , C l and Cn have already been defined and are given by
equations (10.47), (10.55) and (10.72) respectively.
10.3.2.2 The Stability Derivatives ( C y , C l , Cn )
Derivative YA
YA
CY q0S (10.115)
2Ub0
Derivative LA
LA
Cl q0Sb (10.116)
2Ub0
Derivative NA
N A
Cn q0Sb (10.117)
2Ub0
There is a direct analogy between the and derivatives. There does not exist accurate
methods for estimating the derivatives. It is generally assumed that these derivatives
are negligible although there seem to be situations where this assumption may not be valid.
10.3.2.3 The p Stability Derivatives ( C y p , C l p , Cn p )
Derivative YA
YA
CYp q0S (10.118)
2pbU0
Derivative LA
LA
Cl p q0Sb (10.119)
2pbU0
Derivative NA
N A
Cn p q 0Sb (10.120)
2pbU 0
The stability derivatives: C y p , C l p and Cn p now need to be determined.
The Derivative C y p
The derivative C y p is made up of two components (10.121).
CYp CYpWBH CYpV (10.121)
Page 155
The contribution CY pWBH

is due to the wing, fuselage and horizontal tail. It is frequently small
compared to the vertical tail contribution. Due to the roll rate p about the x-axis, a force Fp is
generated on the vertical tail, Figure 10.36. This force points in the negative y-direction and
acts a distance ZVs , which is the distance between the stability x-axis and the centre of
pressure due to the pressure distribution caused by the roll rate.
Figure 10.36: Physical explanation of the side force due to the roll rate p
The side force Fp can be expressed as:

pZVs
FP CL qV SV
V U0
where:
pZVs
= is the representative angle of attack due to the roll rate.
U0
The side force of the aircraft due to the roll rate would then be:
YAVDue to Roll CYVDue to Roll q S
where:
pZVs SV
CYVDue to Roll CL V
V U0 S
pb
Differentiating with respect to gives (10.122).
2U 0
ZVs SV
CYpV 2CL V (10.122)
V b S
The Derivative C l p
The derivative C l p is made up of three components (10.123)
Cl p Cl pWB Cl pH Cl pV (10.123)
The contribution Cl pWB

is due to the wing. The physical explanation for how Cl pWB
is generated
is given by Figures 10.37 and 10.38.
Page 156
Figure 10.37: Aircraft showing the resultant forward speed in the stability axes and the
flow velocity on the wing due to the roll rate p
The roll rate p will generate a velocity distribution along the wing which is linearly increasing
pb
from the CG to the wing tip, where the velocity value is given by , Figure 10.37. For a
2
positive roll rate, the starboard (right) wing will move downwards and hence experience an
upwards gust of wind, whereas the port (left) wing will experience a negative downwards gust
of wind. When this is combined with the forward steady state velocity of the aircraft U0, Figure
10.38, there is then a resultant increase in angle of attack on the starboard wing and a resultant
decrease in the angle of attack of the port wing. This has the effect of an increase in the lift of
the starboard wing and a decrease in lift of the port wing, which has the effect of producing a
negative resultant rolling moment due to the positive roll rate p.
Page 157
Figure 10.38: Physical explanation of rolling moment due to roll rate p
The equation for Cl pWB

is given by (10.124)
CL w 1 3
Cl pWB (10.124)
12 1
The contribution Cl is due to the horizontal tail, is equivalent to that of the wing, but has to
pH
be scaled accordingly, and is given by (10.125).
CL H 1 3 S b 2
Cl pH H 2H (10.125)
12 1 Sb
The contribution C l is due to the vertical tail and is given by (10.126),

pV
2
ZVs S
Cl pV 2CL V V (10.126)
b S
V

The Derivative Cn p
The derivative Cn p is made up of two components (10.127).
Cn p Cn pWB Cn pV (10.127)
Although there is an effect due to the fuselage C n pWB
, the major component which contributes
to Cn p is that of the vertical tail. It is the product of the side force Fp which is generated by the
roll rate p, and is given by (10.128).
Page 158
ZVs XVs SV
Cn pV 2CL V (10.128)
V b b S
10.3.2.4 The r Stability Derivatives ( C y r , Cl r , Cnr )
Derivative YA
YA
CYr q0S (10.129)
2rb
U0
Derivative LA
LA
Cl r q0Sb (10.130)
2rb
U0
Derivative NA
N A
Cnr q 0Sb (10.131)
2rb
U0
The stability derivatives: C y r , Cl r and Cnr now need to be determined.
The Derivative C y r
The derivative C y r is made up of two components (10.132).
CYr CYr WBH CYr V (10.132)
The contribution CYr is due to the wing, fuselage and horizontal tail. It is frequently small
WBH
compared to the vertical tail contribution. Due to the yaw rate r about the z-axis, a force Fr
rises on the vertical tail. This force points in the positive y-direction and acts a distance X Vs ,
which is the distance between the stability z-axis and the centre of pressure due to the
pressure distribution caused by the yaw rate. A physical explanation of the effect of yaw rate
r on the vertical tail side force is given in Figures 10.39 and 10.40.
In Figure 10.39, the aircraft is flying with a resultant velocity VP along its stability axes, when
it experiences a yaw rate r. This generates a linearly increasing velocity distribution along
the entire fuselage but which has its maximum values on the vertical tail, Figure 10.39.
The resultant velocity component on the vertical tail can be thought of acting at the centre of
pressure of the vertical tail, Figure 10.40. Its value is given by rXVs .
Page 159
Figure 10.39: Flow field generated by yawing rate r
Figure 10.40: Resultant velocity acting on centre of pressure due to flow field
generated by yawing rate r
By combining the aircraft forward speed with the resultant induced velocity due to the yaw
rate r, it can clearly be seen in Figure 10.41 that the vertical tail experiences a change in its
rX Vs
angle of attack of magnitude . This change in angle of attack generates a resultant
U0
positive sideward force Fr at the centre of pressure which is located at a distance X Vs and ZVs
from the aircraft centre of gravity, Figure 10.42.
Page 160
Figure 10.41: Change in vertical tail angle of attack due to resultant velocity due to flow
field
generated by yawing rate r.
Figure 10.42: Resultant positive sideward force Fr at the centre of pressure due to
the flow field generated by the yawing rate r.
The side force Fr can be expressed as (10.133).
rXVs
Fr CL qV SV (10.133)
V U0
where:
rX Vs
= is the representative angle of attack due to the yaw rate.
U0
Page 161
The side force of the aircraft due to the yaw rate would then be:
YAVDue to Yaw CYVDue to Yawl q S
where:
rXVs SV
CYVDue to Yawl CL V
V U0 S
rb
2U 0
XVs S
CYr V 2CL V V (10.134)
V b S
The Derivative Cl r
The derivative Cl r is made up of three components (10.135).
Cl r Cl r WB Cl r H Cl r V (10.135)
The contribution C l r V is due to the vertical tail. The resultant force on the vertical tail due to the
yawing rate r acts a vertical distance ZVs away from the aircraft centre of gravity, Figure 10.42.
This gives rise to a positive rolling moment, Figure 10.43.
Using the value for the side force (10.133), the yawing moment derivative is given by
(10.136).
XVs ZVs S
Cl r V 2CL 2
V V (10.136)
V b S
The contribution C l r H is due to the horizontal tail and is generally considered to be negligible.
Figure 10.43: Resultant positive rolling moment from the sideward force Fr due to the flow
field generated by the yawing rate r.
Page 162
The contribution Cl r is due to the wing and fuselage, however only the wing contribution
WB
will be considered here.
In Figure 10.44, the aircraft is flying with a resultant velocity VP along its stability axes, when
it experiences a yaw rate r. This generates a linearly increasing velocity distribution along
rb
the wing with a maximum value equal to at both wing tips, Figure 10.44.
2
Figure 10.44: Resultant positive rolling moment from the sideward force Fr due to the flow
field generated by the yawing rate r.
On the starboard wing the resultant induced velocity acts in opposite direction to the
incoming wind direction, therefore it reduces the resultant velocity experienced by the
starboard wing which has the effect of decreasing the lift produced. The port wing however,
experiences an increase in velocity due to the yaw rate, and therefore an increase in lift. The
increase in lift by the port wing and decrease in lift by the starboard wing give rise to a
resultant positive rolling moment, Figure 10.44.
The resulting rolling moment from the difference in lift distribution given by:

dl w 21 U0 ry U0 ry c y dyCL y
2 2

where:
cy = is the chord length at the distance y from the centre of gravity..
This expression can be simplified to give:
dl w 2 U 0 rCL c y y 2dy
Integrating from y = 0, to y = b/2, gives:

b
lw 2U0 rC L
0
2
c y y 2dy
Page 163
Assuming a straight un-tapered wing, where c is a constant, the rolling moment is then given
by:
l w 12
1
cCL rU0 b3
The rolling moment of the aircraft due to the yaw rate would then be:
lWDue to Yaw ClWDue to Yawl q Sb
Equating these two terms together gives that:
1 CL rb
ClwDue to Yaw
6 U0
rb
2U 0
CL
Cl r w (10.137)
3
For a linearly tapered wing, it can be easily demonstrated that this same term is given by
(10.138).
C 1 3
Cl r w L (10.138)
6 1
The derivative Cnr
The derivative Cnr is made up of two components (10.139).
Figure 10.45: Resultant negative yawing moment from the sideward force Fr due to the
flow field generated by the yawing rate r.
Page 164
Cnr Cnr WB Cnr V (10.139)
Although there is an effect due to the fuselage Cn r WB

, the major component which contributes
to Cnr is that of the vertical tail.
V
The resultant force on the vertical tail due to the yawing rate r acts the horizontal distance X V s
away from the aircraft centre of gravity, Figure 10.42. This gives rise to the negative yawing
moment of equation (10.140), Figure 10.45.
XV2s SV
Cnr V 2CL 2
V (10.140)
V
b S
10.3.2.5 The A and R Stability Derivatives ( C y , Cl , C n )
Derivative YA
YA CY
q S CY q0S (10.141)

Derivative LA
LA Cl
q Sb Cl q0Sb (10.142)

Derivative NA
N A Cn
q Sb Cn q0Sb (10.143)

The expressions for CY , Cl , Cn and CY , Cl , Cn have already been defined where:

A A A R R R
CY A 0 and C l A is given by equation (10.62) and the value of Cn A is small. Whereas

CYR , ClR , CnR are given by equations (10.51), (10.63) and (10.73) respectively.
10.3.3 Summary of Perturbed Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

For convenience the next two equations in matrix form are given which summarises all of the
perturbed aerodynamic force and moments equations as equations (10.144) and (10.145).
xA Uu0

q0S CDu 2CD0

CD CL0 CD CDq CDE
zA

CLu 2CL0
CL CD0 CL CLq CLE 2Uc0 (10.144)
q0S C 2C
mA mu
m0 Cm Cm Cmq CmE qc
2U0
q Sc
0 E

CDu 2CD0 C CL0
D CD 0 CDq 0 CDE 0
10.86 10.91 10.97 10.102 10.108

where:

CLu 2CL0
CL CD0 CL CLq CLE
10.87 10.94 10.98 10.104 10.109

Cm 2Cm
u 0
Cm Cm C mq CmE

10 . 89 10.95 10.100 10.105 10.110
Page 165
yA
b
q0S CY CY CYp CYr CY A CYR 2pb
U0
lA

Cl Cl Cl p Cl r Cl A ClR 2rbU0 (10.145)
q0Sb C Cn Cn p Cn r Cn A CnR 2U0
n A n A
q Sb
0 R
CY CY 0 CYp CYr CY A 0 CYR
10.112 10.115 10.121 10.132 10.48 10.51

Cl Cl 0 Cl p Cl r Cl A Cl R
where:
10.113 10.116 10.123 10.135 10.62 10.63
Cn Cn 0 Cn p Cnr Cn A CnR

10.114 10.117 10.127 10.139 small 10.73
Note that the bracketed numbers in (10.144) and (10.145) are the equation numbers;
10.3.4 Perturbed Thrust Forces and Moments
The only variables which have a significance effect on the aircraft stability characteristics
due to the thrust forces and moments are: u , and .
The following expressions are therefore introduced:
X X T
uT

xT U0
ZT Uu
ZT
zT u 0
m U0 (10.146)
T M MT
u
T
U0
Longitudinal Derivatives
YT

y T
LT
lT
n
(10.147)
T N
T

Lateral Directional Derivatives
10.3.4.1 The u Thrust Derivatives ( C X Tu , CZTu , C mTu )
The longitudinal thrust forces and moment are non-dimensionalised using equations
(10.148).
XT C X q S
T
ZT CZ q S T
MT CM q Sc (10.148) T
Derivative XT
Differentiate XT with respect to u/U0 gives:
Page 166

XT C XT q S
C XT
q S C XT S
q
Uu0 Uu0 Uu0 Uu0
Previously we had demonstrated:
q
U 02
Uu0
Which therefore gives (10.149).
X T
Uu0

C XTu 2C XT0 q0S (10.149)
where:
C X T0 = is the Steady State Thrust Coefficient and C X CD T0 0
is the derivative of the Thrust coefficient and is found from engine and
C XTu = propeller data. However some general terms can be derived from
observation for some propulsion devices and are given in the next 5 cases.
Case 1: Gliders or Power off Flight
In the case of gliders and power off flight, there is no thrust being produced hence T = 0,
which means that:
CX CX 0 Tu T0 (10.150)
Case 2: Aircraft equipped with Pure Jets and Fan Jets
For Pure Jets and Fan jets, thrust data as a function of Mach number is required from the
F
manufacturer, from which the gradient T is taken. Using this data, then the C X term is
M
Tu
given by (10.151) and (10.152)

M0 FT
C XTu 2C XT0 (10.151)
q0S M
C XT0 CD0 (10.152)
Case 3: Aircraft with Variable Pitch Propellers
Assuming that the thrust axis is aligned with the X-axis, thrust power is virtually constant,
therefore:
T U 0 u X T U 0 u constant
Differentiating with respect to u gives:
XT XT U0 u
U0 u XT 0
u u 0
0
u
giving:
XT
U0 XT0 0
u
which simplifies to:
Page 167
X T
X T0 C XT0 q0S
Uu0
X T
So in the general format of ,the values for C X and C X are given by (10.153) and
Uu0 Tu T0
(10.154).
C XTu 3C XT0 (10.153)
C XT0 CD0 (10.154)
Case 4: Aircraft with Fixed Pitch Propellers and Reciprocating engines

FT
In this case the propeller characteristics are important and must be found from installed
u
propeller data. An expression similar to that for Jet engines is produced, giving (10.155) and
(10.156).
U F
C XTu 0 T 2C XT0 (10.155)
q0S u
C XT0 CD0 (10.156)
Case 5: Aircraft with Rocket Engines
Since a rocket engine produces near constant thrust then:
T constant
So
C XTu 0 (10.157)
and:
C XT0 CD0 (10.158)
Derivative ZT
Differentiate ZT with respect to u/U0, gives (10.159).

ZT
Uu0

CZTu 2CZT0 q0S (10.159)
The derivative C Z and coefficient C Z are negligible on most conventional aircraft

Tu T0
configurations and can therefore assume that:

ZT
0 (10.160)
Uu0
However for V/STOL aircraft this assumption is definitively not true!
Derivative MT
Differentiate MT with respect to u/U0, gives (10.161).

MT
Uu0

CmTu 2CmT0 q0S (10.161)
Page 168
For conventional aircraft arrangements, the derivative C m follows directly from C X by

Tu Tu
dT
multiplying with the non-dimensional moment arm , Figure .10.4.
c
dT
Cm C X (10.162)
Tu Tu
c
The term C m which is the steady state thrust-moment coefficient depends on the trim state.
T0
For pitch equilibrium in steady state flight, it is evident that:
CmT0 Cm0 0 CmT0 Cm0 (10.163)

where:
Cm0 Cm01 Cm 0 CmiH i H0 CmE E0
The numerical value of C m is often negligible because thrust lines pass either through or
Tu
close to the cg. However, on aircraft such as the 767 and 747, this derivative is not negligible!
10.3.4.2 The Thrust Derivatives ( C X T , CZT , C mT )
Derivative XT
Differentiate XT with respect to gives:

XT
C XT q0S (10.164)

For most conventional aircraft configurations:
C XT 0 (10.165)
Derivative ZT
Differentiate ZT with respect to gives:
ZT
CZT q0S (10.166)

Figure 10.46: Normal Forces for Propeller Driven Aircraft
Page 169
If the thrust line is aligned approximately with the Xs axis then CZT is caused by only by the
propeller of inlet normal forces Np or Nj., Figures 10.46 and 10.47. It turns out that these normal
Z
forces are sufficiently small to be negligible as far as T is concerned, therefore:

ZT
0 (10.167)

Figure 10.47: Normal Forces for Jet Driven Aircraft
Derivative MT
Differentiate MT with respect to gives:

MT
CmT q0Sc (10.168)

Expressions for C m for propeller and jet driven aircraft will be given in these lecture notes in
T
the future.
10.3.4.3 The Thrust Derivatives ( CyT , ClT , CnT )

The lateral directional thrust forces and moment are non-dimensionalised using the
following equations:
YT CYT q S LT ClT q Sb NT CnT q Sb (10.169)
These derivatives arise in a manner similar to the thrust derivatives.
A sideslip causes a normal force at the propeller or jet inlet. The result of the derivative
YT is almost negligible, but can cause a yawing moment of some consequence.
Derivative YT
YT
CYT q0S 0 (10.170)

Derivative LT
LT
ClT q0Sb 0 (10.171)

Page 170
Derivative NT
NT
CnT q0Sb (10.172)

Expressions for CnT for propeller and jet driven aircraft will be given in these lecture notes,

but only in the future.
10.3.5 Summary of Perturbed Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
For convenience the next two equations in matrix form are given which summarises all of the
perturbed thrust force and moments equations as equations (10.144) and (10.145).
xT

zT

q0S C XTu 2C XT0 0
Uu0
0 0 (10.173)

q0S C 2C
mT mTu mT0 CmT

q Sc
0
YT

q 0S 0
LT
0 (10.174)
q0Sb C
NT nT
q Sb
0
Page 171
Table 10.4: Summary of symbols, terms and the equations of the aerodynamic forces and
moments acting on an aircraft in steady state flight (most aircraft derivatives have the name Total
Aircraft in front of them, however for brevity this was omitted from their name in this table)
Aircraft
angle of attack 0
climb angle 0
pitch angle 0 0 0
Distance
Xvs from aircraft centre of gravity to the vertical tail aerodynamic centre
X CG from wing leading edge to the aircraft centre of gravity (CG)
X ACH from wing leading edge to the horizontal tail aerodynamic centre
X ACWB from wing leading edge to the wing-body aerodynamic centre
X CG (non-dimensional) from wing leading edge to the aircraft centre of
X CG
c gravity (CG)
X AC H (non-dimensional) from wing leading edge to the horizontal tail
X AC H
c aerodynamic centre
X ACWB (non-dimensional) from wing leading edge to the wing-body
X ACWB
c aerodynamic centre
d 2CLw
Downwash angle 0 ,
d ARw
Drag coefficient
equation CD CD01 CD CDiH i H CDE E
zero value for CD01
iH E 0
rate of change with CD
angle of attack
rate of change with
horizontal stabilizer CDiH
angle
rate of change with C DE
elevator angle
Dynamic pressure q 21 VP20
4 3 2
c c c c
Elevator effectiveness E 5.7785 f 11.023 f 7.7734 f 3.1647 f
c c c c
Elevator deflection E
angle
Horizontal tail
air velocity VH
angle of attack H
dynamic pressure qH 21 VH2
Page 172
1
VH2 qH
efficiency H 2

1
2 VP2 0
q
lift coefficient CLH
lift coefficient for CL0H 0 (for symmetrical airfoil shapes)
0
planform area SH
volume Coefficient VH

SH X AC H X CG (10.31)
S c
Lift coefficient
equation CL CL01 CL CLiH i H CLE E
CL01 CL0WB CL H H
SH
S
0
CL0WB in many cases
for i H E 0 S S d (10.24)
CL01 CL0WB CL H H H 0 i W C L C L H H ,
S WB H
S d
if iW 0
SH d
lift curve slope CL CL WB CL H H 1 (10.25)
S d
rate of change with SH
CLiH CL H H (10.26)
stabilizer angle S
rate of change with S
CLE CL H H H E (10.27)
elevator angle S
Longitudinal thrust load
force X-Axis XT0s T cosT 0
force Z-Axis ZT0s T sinT 0
moment Y-Axis MT0s MT0 TdT
Pitching moment coefficient

equation Cm Cm01 Cm CmiH i H CmE E (10.30)
zero coefficient (for
iH E 0 )

Cm01 CmACWB CL0WB X CG X ACWB CL H HVH 0 (10.34)
rate of change with
respect to angle of

Cm CLWB X CG X ACWB CLH HVH 1
d
(10.35)
attack d
stabilizer control CmiH CLH HVH (10.36)
power
elevator control CmE CLH HVH E (10.37)
power
Rate of change of d 2CL w

downwash angle d ARw
Ratio of moving flap cf Sf

length to airfoil chord c S
Rolling moment coefficient
equation Cl Cl 01 Cl Cl A A ClR R (10.54)
zero sideslip and Cl 01 0 (for aircraft symmetrical about xz plane)
control deflections
Page 173
(10.55)
sideslip or dihedral CL 1 2 (10.58)
Cl Cl WB Cl H Cl V , Cl w ,
effect derivative 6 1 (10.60)
(10.61)
1 2
CL w tan c / 4 , Cl H Cl H H H H ,
q S b
Cl w
31 q Sb
d Sv Zv s
Cl V CL V 1 v
d S b
aileron control 2CL y 2

Sb y1
Cl A c y ydy (10.62)
derivative
rudder control Zv s
Cl R CY R (10.63)
derivative b
Side-Force coefficient
equation CY CY01 CY CY A A CYR R (10.42)
zero sideslip and CY01 0 (for symmetrical aircraft about xz-plane)
control deflections
derivative due to d Sv
CY CY V CLV 1 v
d
(10.47)
sideslip S
rate of change due CY A 0 (10.48)
aileron deflection
rate of change due Sv
CY R CL V Rv (10.51)
rudder deflection S
V0
Sideslip angle 0 sin1 or 0 V0
VP U0
0
Sidewash and vertical d Sv S z
v 1 0.724 3.06 0.4 w 0.009 ARw
1 cos c 4w
(10.45)
tail efficiency d d
xs ys zs is rigidly attached to the aircraft and moves with it. It is
obtained from the body axes by rotating these about y = ys over an
Stability Axes angle 0 until x coincides with VP0, which is the aircraft forward speed
and indicates its direction. This axes system is oriented relative to x y
z differently for each steady state flight condition.
Steady state aerodynamic force
X-axis
X A0s D CD q S CD01 CD CDiH i H CDE E q S (10.9)
Y-axis
YA0s YA CY CY A A CY R R q S (10.52)
Z-axis
ZA0s L CLq S CL01 CL CLiH i H CLE E q S (10.28)
Steady state aerodynamic moment
X-axis (rolling)
LA0s LA Cl Cl A A Cl R R q Sb (10.64)
Y-axis (pitching)
M A0s M A Cmq Sc Cm01 Cm CmiH i H CmE E q Sc (10.38)
Z-axis (yawing)
N A0s N A Cn Cn A A Cn R R q Sb (10.74)
Vertical tail
Page 174
air velocity VV
angle of attack v
area Sv
1
VV2 qV
efficiency V 2
(10.44)
1
2 VP2 0
q
Sv X v s
volume coefficient VV (10.70)
Sb
Wing
angle of attach W iW
aspect ratio AR w
incidence angle iw
lift coefficient CLw
zero wing angle of
attack downwash 0
angle
Yawing moment coefficient
equation Cn Cn01 Cn Cn A A CnR R (10.66)
zero sideslip and Cn01 0 (for aircraft symmetrical about xz plane)
control deflections
cross control Cn A
derivative
directional control Cn R CL V RvVv (10.73)
power derivative
Cn Cn WB Cn V , Cn WB k n kRl
Sfs l f
/deg , (10.67)
directional stability S b
(10.68)
derivative d
Cn V CL V 1 vVv (10.71)
d
Page 175
Table 10.5: Summary of the perturbed state stability derivatives

Perturbed Forces and Moments
X X A X A X A X A X A U0
u
uA
2Uc0

2qUc0 E F
x A U0
Z A Z A 2U0
c
Z A Z A Z A Z A
Longitudinal zA u (10.80)
m U0 2Uc0 2qUc0 E F 2qUc0

A M M A M A M A M A M A E
uA
U0 2Uc0 2qUc0 E F F

Y YA YA YA YA YA
A b
b
2U0 2pUb0 2rUb0 R A 2U0
y A
LA LA LA LA LA LA 2U0
pb
Lateral-Directional lA (10.81)
n R A 2rUb0

2Ub0 2pUb0 2rUb0
A N N A N A N A N A N A R
A
R A A

2Ub0 2pUb0 2rUb0

Derivative of XA
X A
Uu0

C
CDu 2CD0 q0S , CDu uD
U0
(10.86)
(10.85)
X A

CD CL0 q0S , C X CD CL , 0 (10.91)
(10.92)
2CL0
CD CL (10.93)
A Re
X A
CD q0S 0 (10.97)
2Uc
0

X A
C X q q0S , C X CD , CDq 0 (10.102)
2qUc0 q q
X A
CDE q0S (10.108)
E
Derivative of ZA
Z A
Uu0
C
Lu
2C L0
q 0 S, C Lu

M 02
CL
1 M 02 0
(10.87)
(10.88)
Z A

CL CD0 q0S (10.94)
Z A d
CZ q0S , CZ CL 2CLH HVH (10.98)
2U
c
0

d (10.99)
Z A (10.104)
CLq q0S , CLq 2CLH HVH
2qUc0 (10.106)
Z A
CLE q0S (10.109)
E
Derivative of MA
Page 176
Cm
M A
U0
u

Cmu 2Cm0 q0Sc , Cmu MM
(10.89)
(10.90)
M A
Cm q0Sc (10.95)

M A X d
Cm q0Sc , Cm 2CL HVH H , XH -
2U
c
0
H
c d (10.100)
distance from tail aerodynamic centre to the point on (10.101)
wing MAC
M A X
Cmq q 0Sc , Cmq 2.2CL HVH H (10.105)
2U 0
qc H
c (10.107)
M A
CmE q0Sc (10.110)
E
Derivative YA
YA
CY q0S , C y is given by equation(10.47) (10.112)

YA
CY q0S (10.115)
2Ub0
YA
CYp q0S , CY CY CYpV , CYpWBH 0 ,
2pbU0 p pWBH (10.118)
(10.121)
ZVs SV (10.122)
CYpV 2CL V
V b S
YA
CYr q0S , CYr CYr CYr V , CYr WBH small ,
2rb
U0
WBH (10.129)
(10.132)
XVs SV (10.134)
CYr V 2CL V
b V S
YA
CY A q0S , CY 0 (10.141)
A A
YA
CYR q0S , CY is given by equations (10.51) (10.141)
R R
Derivative LA
LA
Cl q0Sb , C l is given by equation(10.55) (10.113)

LA
Cl q0Sb (10.116)
2Ub0
LA
Cl p q0Sb , Cl Cl Cl pH Cl pV ,
2pbU0 p pWB
(10.119)
CL w 1 3 CL H 1 3 S b 2 (10.123)
Cl pWB , Cl pH H H, (10.124)
12 1 12 1 Sb 2 (10.125)
2
ZVs S (10.126)
Cl pV 2CL V V
b S
V

Page 177
LA
Cl r q0Sb , Cl r Cl r Cl r Cl r , (10.130)
2rb
U0
WB H V
(10.135)
XVs ZVs SV (10.136)
Cl r V 2CL 2
V , Cl r H negligible , (10.138)
V b S
CL 1 3
Cl r w
6 1
LA
Cl A q0Sb , C l is given by equation (10.62) (10.142)
A A
LA
ClR q0Sb , C l is given by equation (10.63) (10.142)
R R
Derivative NA
N A
Cn q0Sb , Cn is given by equation (10.72) (10.114)

N A
Cn q0Sb (10.117)
2Ub0
N A
Cn p q 0Sb , Cn Cn Cn pV , Cn pWB small effect ,
2pbU 0 p pWB (10.120)
(10.127)
ZVs XVs SV (10.128)
Cn pV 2CL V
V b b S
N A
Cnr q 0Sb , Cnr Cnr Cnr , Cn small effect ,
2rb
U0
WB V r WB
(10.131)
(10.139)
XV2s SV (10.140)
Cnr V 2CL 2
V
bV
S
N A
Cn A q0Sb , Cn small value (10.143)
A A
N A
CnR q0Sb , Cn is given by equation (10.73) (10.143)
R R
Table 10.6: Summary of the perturbed state thrust forces and moments
Perturbed Thrust Forces and Moments
X X T
uT
U0
T
x
ZT ZT Uu0
Longitudinal zT u (10.146)
m U0
T M MT
u
T
U0
Page 178
YT

y T
LT
Lateral Directional lT (10.147)
n
T N
T

Derivative XT
X T
Uu0

C XTu 2C XT0 q0S , C X CD T0 0 (10.149)
Gliders or Power off Flight: C X C X 0 Tu T0

(10.150)
M0 FT
Pure Jets and Fan Jets: C XT 2C XT0 (10.151)
u
q0S M
Variable Pitch Propellers: C X 3C X Tu T0 (10.153)
U0 FT
Fixed Pitch Propellers: C XTu 2C XT0 (10.155)
q0S u
Rocket Engines: C X 0 Tu (10.157)
XT (10.164)
C XT q0S , C XT 0 for most aircraft configurations
(10.165)
Derivative ZT
ZT
0 (10.160)
Uu0
ZT
0 (10.167)

Derivative MT
MT
Uu0
d
CmTu 2CmT0 q0S , Cm C X T , Cm Cm ,
c Tu Tu T0 0
(10.161)
(10.162)
Cm0 Cm01 Cm 0 CmiH i H0 CmE E0 (10.163)
MT
CmT q0Sc (10.168)

YT
Derivative YT CYT q0S 0 (10.170)

LT
Derivative LT ClT q0Sb 0 (10.171)

NT
Derivative NT CnT q0Sb (10.172)

Page 179
Chapter 11
Steady State Stability and Control
11.0 Introduction
It is generally agreed that aircraft must be stable and controllable. Aircraft stability is divided
into two parts:
1. Static and
2. Dynamic stability
The first refers to the changes in the forces and moments on an aircraft due to a slight
displacement. The second involves the history of the motion and the changing values of forces
and moments.
Both types of stability apply to deviations in any motion, either longitudinal or lateral. They
refer to the behaviour of an aircraft to a disturbance without the interference of pilot-operated
control surfaces.
11.1 Static (Steady State) Stability Criteria
The definition of Static (or Steady State) Stability is:
Static Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to develop forces or

moments which directly oppose an instantaneous perturbation of
a motion variable from a steady-state flight condition
There are basically three states of equilibrium, illustrated in Figure 11.1:

1. Statically Stable Equilibrium
2. Statically Unstable Equilibrium
3. Neutrally Stable Equilibrium
Figure 11.1: Drawings showing the different static stability states
Case 1: Statically Stable Equilibrium
Page 180
If the ball is displaced from the bottom of the curved surface, Figure 11.1(a), the gravitational
attraction will roll the ball back to the bottom, i.e. the force and moment tends to restore the
ball to its equilibrium position. This is a stable equilibrium point.
Case 2: Statically Unstable Equilibrium
The ball is balanced on the curve surface, Figure 11.1(b), and then any displacement from its
equilibrium point would cause the ball to roll off the surface. This is an unstable equilibrium
point.
Case 3: Neutrally Stable Equilibrium
The ball is placed on a flat surface, Figure 11.1(c). If it is displaced from its initial equilibrium
position to another point, the ball would remain at the new position, this is called the neutrally
equilibrium point and represents the limit or boundary between static stability and static
instability.
The definition of Static Stability Criterion is:
Static Stability Criterion is a rule by which steady-state (i.e.

equilibrium or trim state) flight conditions are separated into the
categories of stable, unstable or neutrally stable
The steady-state case of flight is defined as having:

1. Constant speed;
2. Constant rotational velocities, and
3. Constant load factors
This type of flight is frequently encountered in straight and level flight and in steady turns
In applying the definition of static stability here, the tendency to oppose disturbances is judged
in terms of the instantaneous force and moment behaviour of the aircraft to disturbances from
a steady-state flight condition. In order to determine which combinations of forces, moments
and disturbances are required, the following arbitrary rules should be followed:
1. Velocity disturbances are initially opposed only by forces;

2. Rotational velocity disturbances are initially opposed only by moments;
3. Angle-of-attack and sideslip disturbances obtained by interpreting the velocity
disturbances v and w as v /U0 and w /U0 are initially only opposed by
moments.
By applying these rules and the definitions of static stability to the instantaneous force and
moment behaviour of the aircraft, the criteria for static stability can be derived. The results are
the terms in table 11.1 and 11.2. An aircraft will be considered statically stable in a motion
variable if it satisfies the criterion of tables 11.1 and 11.2.
Table 11.1: Criteria for static stability of aircraft: Forces

Perturbed Variables
Forces u v w

X A XT X A XT 0
u

YA YT YA YT 0
v
Page 181

Z A ZT ZA ZT 0
w
Table 11.2: Criteria for static stability of aircraft: Moments

Perturbed Variables
v w
Moments u p q r
U0 U0

LA LT LA LT 0 LA LT 0
p

M A MT M A MT 0 MA MT 0 M A MT 0
u q

N A NT N A NT 0 NA NT 0
r
The static stability criteria of these tables will now be discussed in the sequence in which they
appear
11.2 Static Stability Criteria for Speed Disturbance
11.2.1 Forward Speed Disturbance
Criterion
From tables 11.1 & 11.2, an aircraft is statically stable for a forward speed disturbance u if:

X A XT 0 (11.1)
u
The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a consequence of an increase in forward

speed, u (along the x axis), a force must be generated which tends to oppose the increase
in speed u.
In the stability axes, the aerodynamic and thrust forces are given by:

X A X T CD CT X qS
Differentiating with respect to u gives:

CD CT X q S

CTxu CDu CTx0 CD0 U2 0
u 0
The steady state level flight condition is that:
CTx0 CD0 0
The Static Speed Stability criterion then reduces to (11.2).
C Txu CDu 0 (11.2)
Page 182
11.2.2 Side Speed Disturbance
Criterion
From the tables 11.1 & 11.2, an aircraft is statically stable for a side speed disturbance v if:

YA YT 0 (11.3)
v
The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a consequence of a side-speed disturbance v

(along the y axis), a force is generated which tends to oppose v. The approximation v U0
is used.
Assuming that the side-speed disturbance does not affect the dynamic pressure, then after
substituting for the coefficients and differentiating, we have that:
CY CTY 0
And since the thrust coefficient variation with sideslip is approximately zero, then:
CY 0 (11.4)
A requirement for static stability is that the side-force derivative due to sideslip be negative.
This condition is satisfied by current aircraft configurations, for angles of sideslip below those
where flow separation becomes an issue.
11.2.3 Vertical Speed Disturbance
Criterion
An aircraft is statically stable for a vertical speed disturbance w if:

ZA ZT 0 (11.5)
w
The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a consequence of a positive velocity

disturbance w (along the z axis), a force is generated which tends to oppose w. The
approximation w U0 is used.
Applying the above criterion, using w U 0 and neglecting effects on the normal force of
the engine simplifies the criterion to give that:
CL 0 (11.6)
11.3 Weathercock ( and ) Stability Criteria
11.3.1 Static Directional Stability
Criterion
An aircraft is statically (directionally) stable for a sideslip disturbance if:
Page 183

N A NT 0 (11.7)

The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a result of an angle of sideslip disturbance ,
the aircraft turns into the new relative wind.
Applying the above criterion, and if the thrust dependence on sideslip is assumed to be
negligible, then, the criterion reduces to:
Cn 0 (11.8)
11.3.2 Static Longitudinal Stability
Criterion
An aircraft is statically (longitudinally) stable for an angle of attack disturbance if:

MA MT 0 (11.9)

The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a result of an angle of attack disturbance ,
the aircraft turns into the new relative wind.
Applying the above criterion, and if the thrust dependence on angle of attack is assumed to
be negligible, then, the criterion reduces to:
Cm 0 (11.10)
11.4 Static Stability Criteria for Rotational Velocity Disturbances
11.4.1 Roll Rate Disturbance
Criterion
An aircraft is statically stable for a disturbance in roll velocity p if:

LA LT 0 (11.11)
p
The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a result of an increase of rolling velocity p, a
moment is generated which tends to oppose the increase in rolling velocity.
Applying the above criterion, and neglecting any roll effects on power, then, the criterion
reduces to:
Cl 0 p (11.12)
11.4.2 Pitch Rate Disturbance
Criterion
An aircraft is statically stable for a disturbance in pitch velocity q if:
Page 184

M A MT 0 (11.13)
q
The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a result of an increase of pitch velocity q, a
moment is generated which tends to oppose the increase in pitching velocity.
Applying the above criterion, and neglecting any pitch damping due to thrust effects, then, the
criterion reduces to:
Cm 0 q (11.14)
11.4.3 Yaw Rate Disturbance
Criterion
An aircraft is statically stable for a disturbance in yaw velocity r if:

NA NT 0 (11.15)
r
The physical meaning of this criterion is that as a result of an increase in yawing velocity r, a
moment is generated which tends to oppose the increase in yawing velocity.
Applying the above criterion, and neglecting any thrust effects, then, the criterion reduces to:
Cn r 0 (11.16)
11.5 Discussions of Cm and C l

u
11.5.1 Pitching Moment due to Forward Speed, Cm u

MA MT does not qualify as a
Under the definition of static stability, this partial derivative
u
static stability parameter. However, the coefficient Cm has important consequences to
u
longitudinal stability from the pilots perspective.
If the derivative M A MT u has a positive sign, it means that as there is an increase in the
forward speed, the nose of the aircraft will pitch upwards. This would the have the tendency
to slow the aircraft.
Hence, for an aircraft would have stable pitching moment versus speed behaviour if:

M A MT 0 (11.17)
u
Applying the above criterion, the coefficients equate to:
Cmu CmTu 0 (11.18)
But if the thrust passes through the centre of mass or CmT is negligible, then the condition
u
becomes:
Cmu 0 (11.19)
Page 185
11.5.2 Dihedral Effect (Lateral Stability), C l

Under the definition of static stability, this partial derivative LA LT does not qualify as a

static stability parameter. Nevertheless, this differential has an important effect on stability and
on handling qualities. It is generally felt that for satisfactory aircraft handling, the following
inequality must be satisfied:

LA LT 0 (11.20)

The physical significance of this is that, for a positive sideslip disturbance (nose left), the
aircraft tends to roll away from the disturbance, i.e. roll to the left. For this reason it has been
identified as a lateral stability criterion although it should not have been so considered.
Applying the criterion, neglecting any thrust effect and substituting for v U0 , gives the
stability condition:
Cl 0 (11.21)
11.6 Summary of the Stability Criteria
In summary, the stability criteria in non-dimensional form are given in table 11.3.
Table 11.3: Criteria for Static Stability of Aircraft

Perturbed Variables
Forces & v w
Moments u v w p q r
U0 U0
X A XT CTxu CDu 0
YA YT CY 0
Z A ZT CL 0
LA LT Cl 0 Cl p 0
M A MT Cmu 0 Cm 0 C mq 0
N A NT Cn 0 Cn r 0
11.7 Stability and Control Characteristics for Steady State: Straight and Level Flight
To keep an aircraft in a steady state flight condition and to allow it to be manoeuvred from one
such condition to another, it is necessary that:
1. it has sufficient control power, and
2. it does not require extraordinary pilot effort.
The steady state, straight line flight equations of motion were developed in Chapter 9, resulting
in equations (9.58) and (9.59). Substituting to these, the aerodynamic and thrust forces and
moments from Chapter 10, equations (10.39), (10.75) and (10.40), shown below.
0 mg sin 0 X A0 XT0
0 mg sin 0 cos 0 YA0 YT0 (9.58)
Page 186
0 LA0 LT0
0 M A0 MT0 (9.59)
0 N A0 NT0
1
X A D CD q S CD CD01 CD CDiH CDE
0s
Z A0s L CL q S with CL CL01 CL CLiH CLE (10.39)
M M C q Sc C C i
Cm C mi H CmE H
A0s A m m m01
E
YA CY q S CY CY CY A CYR
0s
LA0s Cl q Sb with Cl Cl Cl A ClR A (10.75)
N C q Sb C C Cn A CnR R
A0s n n n
X T T cosT 0
0s
ZT0s T sinT 0 (10.40)
M TdT
T0s
All of these equations are now combined to form the equations of motion of equations (11.22)
and (1.23).

mg sin 0 CD CD 0 CD i H CD E q0S T0 cosT 0
01 iH 0 E 0

mg sin 0 cos 0 CY 0 CYA A CYR R q0S YT0 (11.22)

mg cos 0 cos 0 CL01 CL 0 CL iH i H0 CL E E0 q0S T0 sinT 0

0 Cl 0 Cl A A0 Cl R R0 q0Sb LT0

0 Cm01 Cm 0 CmiH i H0 CmE E0 q Sc T d
0 0 T
(11.23)
0 C n 0 Cn A Cn R
A 0 R 0
q Sb N0 T0
These six equations have the following 9 unknowns, where the subscript 0 indicates the steady
state flight condition.
0 0 0 0 A 0
i H0 E 0
R 0
T0
In order to solve the 6 steady state straight and level flight equations of motion, it is necessary
to reduce the number of unknown to just 6.
In most practical cases, this is done by specifying the:

1. Bank angle 0 ;
2. Thrust T0 ;
3. Stabiliser angle i H . 0
Page 187
Note that the stabiliser angle i H is selected such that the pilot does not have to exert any
control forces in steady state flight.
The equations can now be solved for the six unknowns:
0 0 0 A 0
E 0
R 0
With this, the steady state flight problem can now be solved.
Its common in the design process of aircraft to split these equations into two groups:
1. Longitudinal
2. Lateral-Directional
11.7.1 Longitudinal Stability and Control: Straight and Level Flight
Separating the longitudinal equations from equations (11.22) and (1.23) yields (11.24).

01 iH 0 E 0

mg cos 0 CL01 CL 0 CL iH i H0 CL E E0 q0S T0 sinT 0 (11.24)

0 0 T
In order to decouple these equations it was necessary to assume that the steady state banking
angle 0 0 . The thrust T0 and stabiliser angle i H 0 need to be provided hence the unknown
terms are:
0 0 E 0
These equations are transcendental and have a range of solutions depending on the specific
steady flight conditions. Consider first the case for unpowered glide
11.7.1.1 Unpowered Glide
In this case T = 0, and assuming shallow glide then cos 0 1 . The lift and moment equations
can then be separated from these to give (11.25):

mg CL01 CL 0 CL iH i H0 CL E E0 q0S
0 C q Sc
(11.25)
m01 Cm 0 CmiH i H0 CmE E0 0
Satisfying the 2nd of these is a condition known as Moment-Trim. In Matrix form, these
equations become:
CL CL E 0 qmg0S CL0 CL i i H0
C 1 H
(11.26)
m Cm E E0 Cm01 Cm iH i H0
Solving for the unknown gives:
0
C L0
CL01 CL iH i H0 Cm E Cm0 Cm iH i H0 CL E
CL Cm E Cm CL E (11.27)
Page 188
E

Cm0 Cm iH i H0 CL CL0 CL01 CL iH i H0 Cm
0
CL Cm E Cm CL E (11.28)
Note that the term CL included in the final expressions for 0 and E is defined as (11.29).
0 0
mg
CL0 (11.29)
qS
Solutions for the flight angle 0 can then be found by solving for sin 0 from the longitudinal
equations. As long as the solutions for 0 and E and 0 are physically reasonable, it is said
0
that the aircraft can be moment-trimmed in that steady state flight condition. Physically
reasonable means that 0 is within the linear range of the lift-curve slope, that E is less than
0
the available elevator deflection and that 0 is shallow.
11.7.1.2 Stick Fixed Neutral Point ( X NP )
To guarantee static longitudinal stability, the total aircraft rate of change of pitching moment
with respect to angle of attack has to be negative (11.10).
Cm 0 (11.10)
The limit for Static Longitudinal stability is then the case where Cm 0 . This term is
dependent on the location of the centre of gravity of the aircraft. Since the centre of gravity
can change during a flight, it is important to know if the is a limit to the movement of the centre
of gravity.
The expression for Cm was derived in Chapter 10 and is given by (10.35).

Cm CLWB X CG X ACWB CLH H
SH

X ACH X CG 1
d
(10.35)
S d
By setting this equation to zero it is possible to calculate the position of the centre of gravity
which causes the point of neutral stability Cm 0 . This is called the Stick-Fixed Neutral Point
X NP and is given by (11.30).
SH d
X ACWB CLWB CLH H X ACH 1
X NP
S d
(11.30)
S d
CLWB CLH H H 1
S d
If the centre of gravity of the aircraft reaches this location, the aircraft will become neutrally
stable. If the cg moves beyond the neutral point, the aircraft will become statically unstable.
11.7.1.2.1 Flight Measurement of the X NP
The equation developed for estimating the elevator angle to trim an aircraft for unpowered
glide, can also be used to determine the stick fixed neutral point from flight test data. This is
Page 189
achieved by carrying out several flight test experiments where the elevator trim angle is
measured at various speeds for different positions of the centre of gravity.
For each cg position, a curve of elevator trim angle E0 versus trim lift coefficient CL0 can be
plotted. The thing about this, is that each emerging curve is based on a specific location of the
cg. For an aircraft, plotting such data produces the a plot similar to Figure 11.2
Figure 11.2: Plot of elevator trim angle E0 versus trim lift coefficient CL0
where the X CG term had been defined in Chapter 10 as being a function of the location of the
cg divided by the mean chord (10.32).
X CG
X CG (10.32)
c
The slope of each of the lines in Figure 11.2 is related to the elevator trim angle E0 by
differentiating the equation for the elevator angle with respect to CL0 to give (11.31).
E0 Cm

CL0 C
L Cm E Cm CL E (11.31)
When this equation is set to be equal to zero, it coincides with Cm 0 , which is when the
centre of gravity is at the neutral point. Therefore, to determine the stick fixed neutral point,
the following 3 steps are required:
1. Measure the slope of the curves in the E0 versus CL0 graph;
2. Since each curve is associated with a distinct cg position, then plot the slope
E0
vs. X cg .
CL0
Page 190
E0
3. Extrapolate the curve to the position where 0 to give the stick fixed Neutral
CL0
Point X NP , Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3: Estimating the stick-fixed neutral point X NP by extrapolating to find

the centre of gravity position.
11.7.1.3 Unpowered Glide: Trim Flight
In design, it is useful to use the lift and moment equations previously defined (11.25).

mg CL01 CL 0 CL iH i H0 CL E E0 q0S
0 C q Sc
(11.25)
m01 Cm 0 CmiH i H0 CmE E0 0
But in a new format where the lift coefficient is used instead of the angle of attack in the
moment equation (11.32).
CL0 CL01 CL 0 CL iH i H0 CL E E0
dCm (11.32)
Cm0 Cm01 CL CmiH i H0 CmE E0
dCL
dCm
The term is referred to as the Static Margin. It is a measure of how close the centre of
dCL
gravity is to the position of the Stick Fixed Neutral point and hence how close the aircraft is to
dCm
becoming statically unstable. To derive the term , it is necessary to combine the
dCL
previously derived expressions for CL , X NP and Cm to give:

Cm CL XCG X NP
Rearranging gives (11.33).
Page 191
Cm dCm
d dCm
dCL
X CG X NP (11.33)
CL d dCL
11.7.2 Lateral Directional Stability and Control: Straight and Level Flight
Separating the Lateral Directional equations from equations (11.22) and (1.23) yields
(11.34).

mg sin 0 cos 0 CY 0 CYA A CYR R q0S YT0

0 Cl 0 Cl A A0 Cl R R0 q0Sb LT0 (11.34)

0 Cn 0 Cn A A0 CnR R0 q Sb N
0 T0
These equations apply to symmetrical and unsymmetrical power configuration.
For symmetrical power, the thrust terms will generally satisfy the condition of (11.35).
YT0 LT0 NT0 0 (11.35)
For unsymmetrical power (engine-out), these terms have finite and sometimes very large
values, depending on the engine arrangement. In most engine-out cases, the yawing moment
equation will also contain a large drag term N D , (11.36).

0 Cn 0 CnA A0 CnR R0 q Sb N
0 T0 ND (11.36)
The yawing moment due to drag in engine-out cases can be as large as NT itself, and can be
caused by several factors. Drag due to:
a) Windmill of engine or propeller;
b) Feathering propeller;
c) Spillage from the inlet;
d) Rudder deflection.
Assuming that T0 is known, and that the flight angle 0 has been solved from the longitudinal
equilibrium equations about the X-axis, there are 4 unknown variables in the Lateral
Directional equations:
0 0 A0 R0 (11.37)
Since there are 4 unknown and 3 equations, there are 4 ways to solve the equations:
1. Select 0 and solve for 0 , A and R , or 0 0
2. Select 0 and solve for 0 , A0 and R0 , or

3. Select A and solve for 0 , 0 , and R , or
0 0
4. Select R0 and solve for 0 , 0 and A0 .
In the following solution (11.38), it is assumed that the banking angle 0 has been pre-
selected:
Page 192
mg sin 0 cos 0 YT0

CY CY A CYR 0
q0S
LT

Cl Cl A ClR A0 q0Sb (11.38)
C Cn A
CnR R0 NT ND
n q0Sb
Which can be solved numerically. The solution is considered feasible when A0 and R0 are
within the mechanical range of surfaces deflection available or when 0 , A and R are
0 0
such that no flow separation will occur.
Analytical expressions can be obtained for the 3 angles by solving these equations
analytically, however the resulting terms are difficult to interpret.
For this reason it is better to consider the following simplification. Consider only the control
power about the Z-axis. In this case it is possible to compute the rudder control angle R 0
needed to maintain a given sideslip angle 0 for an engine out situation. The equation is then:
NT ND
Cn 0 CnR R0 0 0
q0Sb
Giving (11.39).
NT ND
Cn 0 0
q0Sb (11.39)
R0
CnR
And if it is desired to balance out the yawing moment due to engine-out (NT) with zero sideslip,
then the previous equation reduces to:
R

NT0 ND
(11.40)
0
CnR q0Sb
Note that as the speed decreases, the required rudder deflection increases inversely
proportional to the velocity squared!
11.8 Stability and Control Characteristics for Steady State: Manoeuvre Flight
There are two types of steady state manoeuvre flight for which the equations of motion were
derived:
1. Steady State Turning Flight
2. Steady Symmetrical Pull-up.
The solution to these equations will be included in these lecture notes in the future!
Page 193
Table 11.4: Summary of symbols, terms and equations of steady state stability and control
Criteria for static stability of aircraft: Forces
Forward Speed
Disturbance
CTxu CDu 0
Side Speed CY 0
Disturbance
Vertical Speed CL 0
Disturbance
Criteria for static stability of aircraft: Moments
Dihedral Effect Cl 0 (Lateral Stability)
Roll Rate Disturbance Cl p 0
Pitching Moment due

to Forward Speed
C mu CmTu 0 , or Cm 0 u
Static Longitudinal Cm 0 (Weathercock Stability)

Stability
Pitch Rate C mq 0
Disturbance
Static Directional C n 0 (Weathercock Stability)
Stability
Yaw Rate Cn r 0
Disturbance
General equations of motion

01 iH 0 E 0


mg cos 0 cos 0 CL01 CL 0 CL iH i H0 CL E E0 q0S T0 sinT 0


0 0 T
0 C n 0 Cn A Cn R
A 0 R 0
q Sb N
0 T0
Lateral Directional Stability and Control

Straight and level
flight


0 Cn 0 Cn A A0 CnR R0 q Sb N
0 T0
Page 194
mg sin 0 cos 0 YT0

CY CY A CYR 0
With T0 and the flight q0S
LT

Cl Cl A ClR A0 (In matrix form)
angle 0 known C
q0Sb
NT ND
Cn A CnR R0
n q0Sb
Longitudinal Stability and Control

01 iH 0 E 0

Straight and Level
mg cos 0 C L01 CL 0 CL iH i H0 CL E E0 q S T sin
0 0 T 0
flight

0 0 T
CL CL E 0 CL0 CL i i H0
mg
C q0S
Cm E E0 Cm0 Cm i i H0
1 H
or
m 1 H
0
C L0
CL01 CL iH i H0 Cm E Cm0 Cm iH i H0 CL E
Unpowered Glide
C L Cm E Cm CL E
E

Cm0 Cm iH i H0 CL CL0 CL01 CL iH i H0 Cm
0
C L Cm E Cm CL E
SH d
X ACWB CLWB CLH H X ACH 1
Stick Fixed Neutral S d
X NP
Point S d
CLWB CLH H H 1
S d
Stick Fixed Neutral E0 Cm

Point (flight
measurement)
CL0 C L Cm E Cm CL E
Cm dCm
d dCm
Static Margin dCL
X CG X NP
CL d dCL
Page 195
Chapter 13
Bibliography
13.0 Introduction
The following books were used in creating these lecture notes
1. Anderson, Introduction to Flight 5th Ed. (McGraw-Hill 2005)

2. Etkin, Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight (Wiley, 1972)
3. Hale, Aircraft Performance, Selection and Design (Wiley, 1987)
4. Houghton and Carruthers, Aerodynamics for Engineering Students 3rd Ed.(Arnold 1982)
5. McCormick B W, Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics, ISBN10: 0-471-
57506-2 ISBN13:9780471575061- Hardcover, 1994
6. Nelson R, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, ISBN10: 0-07-115838, 1998
7. Roskam J, Airplane Flight Dynamics & Automatic Flight Controls I-II, ISBN10: 1-884885-
03-9 ISBN13: 9781884885037; 2-Part Set
Page 196

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Aircraft Performance and Flight Mechanics

Lectured by: Dr Nicholas Raske

3.9.3 Calculating the Pitching Moment Coefficient .................................................. 26

4.1.1 Stall Speed .................................................................................................... 30

8.2.3 Airborne Distance .......................................................................................... 71

Steady State Stability and Control..................................................................................... 180

2.1 Planform Geometry

Figure 2.1: Wing planform geometry

2.1.1 Wing Span

2.1.2 Taper Ratio

2.1.3 Wing Area

2.1.3.1 Areas of Different Geometrical Shapes

2.1.4 Mean Chords

2.1.5 Aspect Ratio

The form of aspect ratio given by (2.10) is the most common.

2.2 Aerofoil Section Geometry

Figure 2.6: Wing section geometry

2.2.1 The camber line Camber

2.2.2 The symmetrical fairing Thickness distribution

The maximum thickness or depth is defined by t .

2.3 Dihedral Angle

Figure 2.7: Aircraft illustrating the dihedral angle

2.4 Incidence, twist, wash-out and wash-in

Figure 2.8: Aerofoil section at an incidence angle , with respect to

Figure 2.10: Wings showing wash-in and wash-out

2.5 Equations Summary

Planform shape of the wing seen on a plan view of the aircraft

Standard mean chord S

3.1 Aerodynamic Forces

3.1.1 Lift (L, -z)

(a) High speed level flight (b) Climbing flight

(c) Low speed level flight (d) Banked circling flight

3.1.2 Drag (D, -x)

3.1.3 Cross-wind Force (Y)

3.1.4 Pitching Moment (M)

3.1.5 Rolling Moment (LR)

3.1.6 Yawing Moment (N)

3.2 Forces on a Body Moving Through a Fluid

3.3 The Atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided into two regions:

3.3.1 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

In order to perform aircraft comparisons, it is advantageous to do this using a standard

3.3.2 Properties of the Troposphere

The temperature drop with altitude is given by (3.11)

Table 3.1: International Standard Atmosphere values at sea level1

ln ppp12 g lnT0 Lh hh12 (3.14)

1 Values for the ISA are given in Appendix B

3.3.3 Properties of the Stratosphere

Since T Ts is a constant, then p is also a constant, therefore the variation of pressure

3.3.4 Relative Density

density at relevant altitude

3.4 Determining Aircraft Airspeed (Subsonic non-compressible flow)

Figure 3.3: Pitot-static tube

Which when rearranged gives:

These consist of an aneroid barometric capsule or a pressure transducer. The former is a

Calibrated airspeed in knots is usually abbreviated as KCAS, while indicated airspeed is

To calculate TAS we need to do the following:

But since these two pressures are the same, then

So the definitions again:

Indicated Air Speed: IAS The speed shown by an air-speed indicator

3.4.1 Pressure Coefficient

It is often convenient to express variables non-dimensionally, one such variable is pressure.

If the flow is incompressible, then from Bernoullis we have that: