Jim Crow Era Jazz and the Introduction of African American Musicians in Larger Venues

Bindy Sombatsaphay

History 1700

Professor Cassandra Clark

25 November 2017
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Introduction

Jim Crow laws in the south were in effect for a century between the 1860s and 1960s.

These laws were created after the Civil War to segregate colored people from non-colored people

in virtually every public venue including restaurants, schools, hospitals, and churches. It was

extremely difficult for a colored person to find a place where the Jim Crow laws were not in

effect. The racial segregation created a rift between these two groups that seemed to be

unmendable. During this time, a new style of music called jazz was born.

Jazz was created in New Orleans and became well known in the 1920s. Its popularity

spread across the United States and attracted people of all races and backgrounds. It was

especially popular among African Americans. Due to the Jim Crow laws, they were limited to

where they were able to perform. They played in small venues such as churches, bars, or in their

own homes. They were unable to get in front of bigger audiences in more prominent venues

because of their skin color.

The first topic of this essay will be about Ella Fitzgerald and how she was able to get into

large music venues thanks to the help of a white manager1 and celebrity2. The second topic is

George Shearings stance on the lack of minority presence in the music scene and what he did to

change that.3 The final topic is about the Cotton Club and why they allowed African Americans

to perform in a white only club.

1 Fitzgerald, Ella. Official Employment Contract. Contract.

2 Standard Form of Artists Engagement Contract. Contract. Washington D.C.: National Museum
of American History
3 The Chicago Defender (National Edition), Top Musicians Divided On Racial Unity, Prejudice

In Jazz World. Newspaper. Chicago: April 20, 1963. From National Museum of American
History.
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The Jim Crow era in the United States allowed racism and segregation to run rampant

throughout the south which further damaged the relationships between colored and non-colored

people. However, not every non-colored person supported the Jim Crow laws and instead fought

against it by supporting and working with African American musicians. They helped bring

colored people to the larger music venues where they would not be able to play before.

Ella Fitzgerald

Ella Fitzgerald was an African American Jazz singer whose career was aided by her

manager Norman Granz and her friend Marilyn Monroe. Both were white advocates for civil

rights and did not support the Jim crow laws. They helped open the doors that allowed Ella to

perform in places where she normally wouldnt have been able to because of her skin color.

Ella hired Norman Granz as her manager on April 20, 1955.4 Norman worked with many

other black musicians including Louis Armstrong, Benny Carter, and Charlie Parker. In 1955 at a

concert Ella was performing in, Norman removed signs that were meant to separate the seating

between colored and non-colored people. By doing this he was given a large fine of $2,000

which he paid himself. The two worked together for nearly four decades up into the 1990s.

Marilyn Monroe was a very famous celebrity during 1950s and a close friend to Ella.

Monroe used her status to convince the owner of the Mocambo jazz club in Los Angeles to let

Ella perform there. The Mocambo hosted very few African American performers in the past so it

was very special for her. The contract was officially signed on October 11, 1957.5

4Fitzgerald, Ella. Official Employment Contract. Contract.

5Standard Form of Artists Engagement Contract. Contract. Washington D.C.: National Museum
of American History
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Norman Granz and Marilyn Monroe showed that there were non-colored people that

supported African Americans during that time. Without their help, Ella would not have been able

to perform in as many venues as she did and in front of as many people. Her long career and

success can be attributed to their support.

George Shearing

George Shearing was a white jazz pianist that performed with musicians of all races and

skin colors. He brought together a group of musicians and created the George Shearing Quintet

in 1949. Two members, John Levy and Denzil Best, were African Americans.6 In 1963, he and

other prominent jazz musicians did an interview with The Chicago Defender about racial

prejudices and Jim Crow influences in the jazz community. In that interview George said, It has

nothing to do with race; it is the individual. I only ask can the man do the job.7 This statement

showed that he worked with anyone regardless of their skin color as long as he knew they were

fit for the job. Jim Crow influences were still lingering in the community during that time and

throughout Georges career he had people wanting him to change the personnel of his groups.

Those people insisted him to get rid of the African Americans or else they would not attend his

shows or allow him to play at their venue. His response to them was, When you grow up, Ill

come and work for you.8 He was adamant on his stance of giving everyone an equal opportunity

to play alongside him despite the backlash he received.

6 George Shearing Quintet. Photograph. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, n.d.

7 The Chicago Defender (National Edition), Top Musicians Divided On Racial Unity, Prejudice
In Jazz World. Newspaper. Chicago: April 20, 1963. From National Museum of American
History.
8 Ibid.
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George Shearing fought against racial injustices in the music industry by performing with

people of different skin colors and giving them opportunities they normally would not have.

When choosing people to perform with, he only cared about who they were as an individual. He

never let anyone change his idea of equal rights.

The Cotton Club

The Cotton Club was a famous, white-only club in New York City that operated from the

1920s to 1940s. They allowed African Americans to perform their despite only catering to

white patrons. Some of the notable performers were Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, and Ethel

Waters. There are photos of black performers with white performers from inside the club and on

flyers.9 One advertisement flyer from 1925 depicts wealthy white patrons being assisted by black

servers. It also shows black performers performing with white performers.10 Although Jim Crow

laws were not legal in New York, its influence was present all over the country. Having people

of different skin colors performing with one another was something that happened very rarely.

The Cotton Club did this as a way of introducing black music and performers to white patrons in

a venue that was for white people. It was beneficial for the performers as well because by being

exposed to more eyes, the better chance they had to be offered a gig elsewhere.

The Cotton Club put African American performers in front of an audience that was

unlikely to see them due to the racial segregation that was happening in parts of the country.

Despite being a white-only club, they still supported people of different colors by letting them

perform there.

9 The Cotton Club. Photograph. New York City: Untapped Cities, n.d.
10 Cotton Club Flyer. Photograph. New York City: New York Public Library, n.d.
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Conclusion

Segregation in the United States from 1860 to 1960 due to the Jim Crow laws caused the

relationships between colored and non-colored people to deteriorate even further. There were

people in the jazz scene including musicians and managers that worked to repair these

relationships by directly opposing those laws. Ella Fitzgerald had support from Norman Granz

and Marilyn Monroe, George Shearing worked with people of all colors, and the Cotton Club

allowed colored performers. The efforts of those individuals and establishments aided in the goal

of obtaining civil rights in the United States.

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Bibliography

George Shearing Quintet. Photograph. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, n.d.

http://amhistory.si.edu/jazz/Levy-John/Levy_Classroom_Lesson.pdf (accessed
October 30, 2017).

The Chicago Defender (National Edition), Top Musicians Divided On Racial Unity,
Prejudice In Jazz World. Newspaper. Chicago: April 20, 1963. From National
Museum of American History. http://amhistory.si.edu/jazz/Levy
John/Levy_Classroom_Lesson.pdf (accessed October 30, 2017).

The Cotton Club. Photograph. New York City: Untapped Cities, n.d.
https://untappedcities.com/2013/08/04/vintage-photos-inside-the-cotton-club-one of
nycs-leading-jazz-venues-of-the-1920s-and-30s/ (accessed October 30, 2017).

Fitzgerald, Ella. Official Employment Contract. Contract.

https://americanhistory.si.edu/sites/default/files/file-uploader/contract%201.jpg
(accessed October 30, 2017)

AGVA Standard Form of Artists Engagement Contract. Contract. Washington D.C.:

National Museum of American History
https://americanhistory.si.edu/sites/default/files/file-uploader/contract%202.jpg
(accessed October 30, 2017)

Cotton Club Flyer. Photograph. New York City: New York Public Library, n.d.
http://www.boweryboyshistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/1-7.jpg (accessed
November 25, 2017).