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    The sub-discipline of x-ray physics involves a certain amount of nomenclature and notation that you will need to become familiar with before performing this lab. Much of the older literature in the field uses the so-called “Siegbahn notation” to describe x rays emitted during transitions between atomic electron configurations. A terminology diagram showing the transitions giving rise to the K, L, and M lines appears in Reference [7, p. 630] and is reproduced in Figure 1. Table I further explains the correspondence of the level naming scheme to electronic configurations. In more recent times, a more intuitive “IUPAC notation” has become dominant (see Reference [3]). In this system, transitions between x-ray levels are denoted by the level symbols for the initial and final states separated by a minus sign. The initial state is placed first, irrespective of the energetic ordering. You should become familiar with converting between both notations. Table II shows the correspondence between the two notations. As an example: K−L3 in IUPAC notation is Kα1 in the Siegbahn notation. Either way, it denotes the filling of a 1s hole by a 2p3/2 electron.

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    The sub-discipline of x-ray physics involves a certain amount of nomenclature and notation that you will need to become familiar with before performing this lab. Much of the older literature in the field uses the so-called “Siegbahn notation” to describe x rays emitted during transitions between atomic electron configurations. A terminology diagram showing the transitions giving rise to the K, L, and M lines appears in Reference [7, p. 630] and is reproduced in Figure 1. Table I further explains the correspondence of the level naming scheme to electronic configurations. In more recent times, a more intuitive “IUPAC notation” has become dominant (see Reference [3]). In this system, transitions between x-ray levels are denoted by the level symbols for the initial and final states separated by a minus sign. The initial state is placed first, irrespective of the energetic ordering. You should become familiar with converting between both notations. Table II shows the correspondence between the two notations. As an example: K−L3 in IUPAC notation is Kα1 in the Siegbahn notation. Either way, it denotes the filling of a 1s hole by a 2p3/2 electron.

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    62 views44 pages

    X Rays

    Uploaded by

    suman dahal
    The sub-discipline of x-ray physics involves a certain amount of nomenclature and notation that you will need to become familiar with before performing this lab. Much of the older literature in the field uses the so-called “Siegbahn notation” to describe x rays emitted during transitions between atomic electron configurations. A terminology diagram showing the transitions giving rise to the K, L, and M lines appears in Reference [7, p. 630] and is reproduced in Figure 1. Table I further explains the correspondence of the level naming scheme to electronic configurations. In more recent times, a more intuitive “IUPAC notation” has become dominant (see Reference [3]). In this system, transitions between x-ray levels are denoted by the level symbols for the initial and final states separated by a minus sign. The initial state is placed first, irrespective of the energetic ordering. You should become familiar with converting between both notations. Table II shows the correspondence between the two notations. As an example: K−L3 in IUPAC notation is Kα1 in the Siegbahn notation. Either way, it denotes the filling of a 1s hole by a 2p3/2 electron.

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    of 44

    X-Rays

    Jan Kybic

    20052014
    Overview

    I Fundamentals of X-rays
    I Generation of X-rays
    I Detection of X-rays
    I Imaging and diagnostic methods
    Invention

    1895, W. Rontgen B. Rontgen hand modern hand


    Electromagnetic spectrum
    Particles and waves

    I reflection, scattering, refraction, diffraction


    I photons with energy E = hf ,
    = 1 nm 1.2 103 eV = 1.2 keV
    I ionizing radiation (above 1 eV)
    Chest X-rays radiography machine
    Chest X-ray
    X-ray scanner
    X-ray source

    I 15 150 kV, rectified AC


    I 50 400 mA anode current
    I tungsten wire (200 m) cathode, heated to 2200 C
    I anode rotates at 3000 rpm
    I molybdenum or thungsten-rhenium anode
    I thermoionic emission
    Beam focusing

    I Focal spot size 0.3 mm 1.2 mm


    Penumbra

    I geometric unsharpness
    I small focal spot
    I large distance
    X-ray tube
    X-ray parameters
    Intensity: [W /m2 ]: U 2 I
    Spectrum: (150 kV)

    I Bremsstrahlung
    I Characteristic radiation
    I Filter low-energy rays that would not penetrate the patient
    Al sheets. (skin dose reduced 80)
    Interaction between X-rays and matter

    I Coherent scattering
    I Photoelectric effect
    I Compton scattering
    I (Pair production)
    I (Photodisintegration)
    Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering

    I Photon photon
    I Low-energy radiation
    8/3
    I Probability Zeff /E 2 .
    I Zeff - effective atomic number
    I muscle Zeff 7.4, bone Zeff 20
    I About 5 10 % of tissue interactions
    Photoelectric effect

    I High-energy radiation
    I Photon characteristic radiation, photo-electron / Auger
    electron, positive ion
    I ionization
    I Desirable, X-ray photon completely absorbed
    Photoelectric interaction wrt E

    I K -edge
    I 3 /E 3 (above K -edge)
    Probability Zeff
    I Excellent contrast bone/tissue at low E
    Compton scattering

    Einc
    Escatt = Einc
    
    1+ me c 2
    1 cos

    I photon photon + electron, ionization


    I most frequent in X-ray imaging, especially for high Einc
    I independent to atomic number small contrast
    I background noise, health hazard
    Effects of Compton scattering
    Attenuation

    dI = nI dx
    Ix = I0 ex

    linear attenuation coefficient


    Half-value layer 0.693/

    Mass attenuation coefficient /


    Attenuation factors wrt E

    = photoel + Compton + coherent


    Attenuation wrt E (2)
    Beam restrictor / Collimator
    Beam restrictor / Collimator (2)
    Antiscatter grid

    Bucky factor = efficiency


    Intensifier screen

    I 50 sensitivity increase
    I thickness; trade-off resolution/sensitivity
    I Gd green, La blue
    I efficiency 20 %
    Film
    I monochromatic (sensitive to blue), ortochromatic (sens. to
    green)
    I double emulsion (10 m), silver bromide in gelatin
    I blackening, optical density (OD) log10 (Ii /It )
    I contrast = log ODE22 OD
    log10 E1 , slope of the linear region
    1
    10
    I latitude (dynamic range), range of useful exposure values
    I grain size sensitivity/resolution trade-off
    I mixed-particle size high contrast
    I automatic exposure control, ionization chamber
    Digital Sensors

    I Computed radiography (CR)


    I Phosphor-based storage plate
    I chemical storage (oxidation of Eu)
    I laser scanning, light erasure
    Digital Sensors

    I Computed radiography (CR)


    I Phosphor-based storage plate
    I chemical storage (oxidation of Eu)
    I laser scanning, light erasure
    I Digital radiography (DR)
    I flat-panel detectors (FPD)
    I thin-film transistor (TFT) array
    I CsI scintillator photo-diode/transistor
    I 41 41 cm, 2048 2048 pixels
    I better dynamic range, quantum efficiency, and latitude wrt film
    Digital Sensors

    I Computed radiography (CR)


    I Phosphor-based storage plate
    I chemical storage (oxidation of Eu)
    I laser scanning, light erasure
    I Digital radiography (DR)
    I flat-panel detectors (FPD)
    I thin-film transistor (TFT) array
    I CsI scintillator photo-diode/transistor
    I 41 41 cm, 2048 2048 pixels
    I better dynamic range, quantum efficiency, and latitude wrt film
    I Charge coupled device (CCD)
    I Phosphor screen, fiber-optic cables, CCD sensor
    I good sensitivity, low noise
    X-ray image characteristics

    I Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)


    I Quantum mottle, source variation, Poisson distribution,
    I SNR N, N intensity / photons per area
    I exposure time and current, SNR TI
    I higher U more high-energy rays more
    incident photons better SNR
    I X-ray filtering smaller SNR
    I patient size, antiscatter grid, intensifying screen, film
    X-ray image characteristics

    I Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)


    I Spatial resolution
    I point spread function (PSF), line spread function (LSF), edge
    spread function (ESF), modulation transfer function (MTF)
    I thickness of the intensifier screen
    I speed of the X-ray film
    I geometric unsharpness
    I magnification factor (patient film). Place patient as
    close as possible.
    X-ray image characteristics

    I Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)


    I Spatial resolution
    I Contrast-to-noise ratio
    |SA SB |
    I CNR = N = |SNRA SNRB |
    X-ray contrast agents
    I barium sulfate, gastrointestinal tract
    X-ray angiography

    I Stenosis, clotting of arteries


    I Iodine-based contrast agent
    I Time series
    X-ray angiography

    I Stenosis, clotting of arteries


    I Iodine-based contrast agent
    I Time series
    I Excellent resolution (100 m)
    I Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
    I Registration needed
    DSA example
    Fluoroscopy / Intra-operative imaging

    I Now a FPD/CCD instead of the fluorescent screen.


    Fluoroscopy example
    Dual-Energy Imaging

    I Two exposures
    I Two detectors
    I Beam hardening
    Dual-energy example
    Mamography

    I low U (25 30 kV), filter high-energy rays


    I digital mamography, CCD sensor (1024 1024 pixels)
    X-ray Advantages / disadvantages

    I Advantages
    I Widely used and available
    I Experts available
    I High-spatial resolution
    I Excelent imaging of hard tissues (bones)
    I Disadvantages
    I Radiation exposure
    I Difficulty in imaging soft-tissues
    I 2D projection, hidden parts
    New trends

    I FPD/CCD sensors replace film


    I higher sensitivity, faster exposure, lower dose
    I dynamic imaging
    I CT

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