Lecture 4

ES2A9
Engineering Mathema1cs and Technical Compu1ng

Lecture 4
Lecturer: Prof. Declan Bates

Office: D220
Email: D.Bates@warwick.ac.uk
Course Syllabus
!  Introductory Material:
!   Sequences, series, limits, convergence/divergence,
Binomial theorem, Taylor series, par1al differen1a1on and vector calculus

!  Applied Linear Algebra:
!   Linear matrix/vector equa1ons, eigenvalue/eigenvector analysis, mul1dimensional Taylor series, lineariza1on
and extrema of func1ons

!  Numerical Methods:
!   Newton-‐Raphson itera1on, Euler integra1on of ini1al value ODE’s, numerical integra1on of func1ons

!  Transforms:
!   Fourier series, Fourier transforms, z-‐transforms

!  PDE’s:
!   Par1al differen1al equa1ons and their solu1on

!  Programming and Computer Modelling using Matlab (Laboratory sessions):
!   Introduc1on to MATLAB, Matlab as a computa1on, modelling and analysis tool, Introduc1on to computer
programming concepts and constructs using MATLAB
Applied Linear Algebra -‐ the formalism of matrices and vectors

Linear Algebraic Linear Ordinary Non-‐Linear Ordinary
Equa0on Differen0al Equa0on Differen0al Equa0on

Ax = b x!(t ) = Ax(t ) x!(t ) = A( x)x(t )

Applica1ons: Applica1ons: Applica1ons:
Sta1c and equilibrium Dynamics, Control, Signal Dynamics, Control, Signal
problems, data fi[ng, Processing, Robo1cs, Processing, Robo1cs,
op1miza1on, numerics Aerospace, Automo1ve, Aerospace, Automo1ve,
etc Bioengineering, etc etc… Bioengineering, etc etc…

Outcomes: Outcomes: Outcomes:
Existence and number of Finding the solu1ons, Lineariza1on and Stability
solu1ons; Stability of an equilibrium of an equilibrium state.
Finding the solu1ons. state.
Matrices and vectors – revision of basic concepts
!   Matrix: a rectangular array of numbers, symbols or expressions

⎛ a11 a12  a1 j  a1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22  a2 j  a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
    ⎟
A=⎜
⎜ ai1 ai 2  aij  ain ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜     ⎟
⎜⎝ am1 am 2  amj  amn ⎟⎠
!   The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries. This
matrix contains elements arranged in m rows and n columns.
!   The entry aij is contained in row i and column j. aij are scalars, they
can be real or complex valued.
!   The size of a matrix is described in terms of the number of rows
(horizontal lines) and columns (ver1cal lines) it contains.
!   This matrix’s size is mxn, m (rows) by n (columns).
⎛ a11 a12 ! a1 j ! a1n ⎞

⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22 ! a2 j ! a2n ⎟
⎜ " " " " ⎟
A=⎜ ⎟
⎜ ai1 ai 2 ! aij ! ain ⎟
⎜ " " " " ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ am1 am 2 ! amj ! amn ⎟⎠

!   Example: The number of hours that a student spent studying

three subjects during a certain week:
⎛ 2 3 2 4 1 4 2⎞
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜0 3 1 4 3 2 2 ⎟
⎜4 1 3 1 0 0 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
!   The matrix A is a 3 by 7 (3x7) matrix. The element in row 2 and column
5 is a25= 3.
⎛ b1 ⎞
!   A general (m-‐dimensional) column vector b takes the form: ⎜ ⎟
!   This vector contains m elements ⎜ b2 ⎟
⎜ ! ⎟
!   The entry bi is contained in row i b=⎜ ⎟
⎜ bi ⎟
⎜ ! ⎟
!   Example: ⎜
⎝ bm ⎟⎠
⎛1⎞
!   The number of hours a student spent studying three subjects b = ⎜ 3 ⎟ .
during a certain day is a column vector. For example, on Friday: ⎜ ⎟
⎜0⎟
!   b is a 3-‐dimensional column vector. The element in row 2 is b =3. ⎝ ⎠ 2
!   Transpose of a matrix: If A is any mxn matrix, then the
transpose of A, denoted by A', is defined to be the nxm matrix
that results from interchanging the rows and columns of A; that
is, the first column of A' is the first row of A, the second column
of A' is the second row of A, and so forth. The rows of A become
the columns of A', which has n rows and m columns.
⎛ a11 a12  a1 j  a1n ⎞ ⎛ a11 a21  ai1  am1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22  a2 j  a2n ⎟ ⎜ a12 a22  ai 2  am 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜     ⎟
    ⎟ A′ = ⎜
A=⎜ ⎟
⎜ ai1 ai 2  aij  ain ⎟ ⎜ a1 j a2 j  aij  amj ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜     ⎟
⎜     ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ am1 am 2  amj  amn ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ a1n a2n  ain  amn ⎟⎠
(m × n) ⇒ ( n × m)
!   Example: ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
!   Find the transpose of the 3x4 matrix A. A = ⎜5 6 7 8 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 9 10 11 12⎠
!   The matrix A has transpose A' ⎛⎜ 1 5 9⎞
⎟
which is a 4x3 matrix: ⎜ 2 6 10⎟
A′ =
⎜3 7 11⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝4 8 12⎠
!   Thus the entry a'ij in row i and column j of A' is the entry aji in row j and
column i of A; that is, the subscripts are reversed: a'ij= aji .
!   Note: ( A′ )′ = A

!   Row vector: The transpose of a general (m-‐dimensional) column

vector b is a row vector b'
(b )
⎛ b1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
b2 ⎟ b′ = 1 b2  bm
⎜
⎜  ⎟
b=⎜ ⎟
bi ⎟ Size ( m ×1) ⇒ Size (1× m)
⎜
⎜  ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ bm ⎠
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
!   Note: In this course, a lower case character, e.g. b, will b = ⎜ 5 ⎟
denote a column vector. A row vector will be wrieen ⎜⎝ 9 ⎟⎠
as a transposed column vector, e.g. b'.
b ′ = (1 5 9)
!   Par00oned matrices. A matrix can be subdivided or par00oned

into smaller submatrices by inser1ng horizontal and ver1cal
rules between selected rows and columns.
!   For example, a general matrix A can be par11oned into:
⎛ C⎞ ⎛ E F⎞ ⎛C ⎞
A=⎜ ⎟ A = (E F) A=⎜ ⎟ A=⎜ F⎟
⎝ D⎠ ⎝ D ⎠ ⎝D ⎠
where C, D, E and F are matrices of appropriate dimension.

!   Example: ⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
!   Consider the matrix: A = ⎜ 5 6 7 8 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 9 10 11 12⎠
⎛ C⎞
!   A possible par11on is: A = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ′⎠
with: ⎛ 1 2 3 4⎞
C=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5 6 7 8⎠

d ′ = (9 10 11 12)
⎛ a11 a12 ! a1 j ! a1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
! a2 j ! a2n ⎟
!   Column and row par00ons. ⎜⎜ a21 a22
" " " " ⎟
A general mxn matrix A has A = ⎜⎜ ai1 ai 2 ! aij ! ain ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜
" " " " ⎟
⎟
Column par11on: ⎜⎝ am1 am 2 ! amj ! amn ⎟⎠
⎛ w(1) ′ ⎞ Row par11on: ⎞ ⎛ a1 j

⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜

A=⎜
⎜ w (2)′ ⎟
⎟ A= v (1)
v (2)
(  v (n)
) ⎟
⎟
( j) ⎜ a2 j
where v = ⎜
⎜  ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ 
⎜ w (n)′ ⎟ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ amj

⎝ ⎠
where w(i)' is a row vector is a column vector corresponding

corresponding to row i of A. to column j of A.
⎛1 2 3 4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎛ w (1) ′ ⎞
!   Example A = ⎜ 5 6 7 8 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ (2) ′ ⎟
⎝ 9 10 11 12⎠ A= w
⎜ ( 3) ′ ⎟
Column par11on: Introduce row vectors: ⎜w ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(1)′ (2)′ ( 3) ′
w = (1 2 3 4 ) , w = ( 5 6 7 8 ) , w = (9 10 11 12)
Row par11on: Introduce column vectors:
⎛1⎞ ⎛2⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛ 8⎞
⎜ ⎟ (2) ⎜ ⎟ (3) ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ 5⎟, v = 6 , v = 7 , A = (v (1) v (4) )
(1)
v
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ v (4) = ⎜ 4⎟ v (2) v ( 3)
⎜9⎟ ⎜ 10 ⎟ ⎜11⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝12⎠
!   Square matrix: A nxn matrix A with n rows and n columns is

called a square matrix of order n. ⎛ a11 a12  a1 j  a1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22  a2 j  a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
!   The shaded entries a11, a22 , …, ann    
A=⎜ ⎟
are said to be on ⎜ a ai2  aij  ain ⎟
⎜ i1 ⎟
the main diagonal of A. ⎜     ⎟
⎜ a ⎟
⎜⎝ n1 an2  anj  ann ⎟⎠
!   Trace of a square matrix is defined to be the sum of the entries
on the main diagonal of A. The trace of A is undefined if A is not
a square matrix. Tr( A) = a + a +…+ a +…+ a
11 11 ii nn
!   Diagonal matrix: A general nxn diagonal matrix D takes the form

⎛ d1 0 0  0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 d 2 0  0 ⎟ where all off-‐diagonal entries are zero.
D = ⎜      ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0  0 dn−1 0 ⎟
⎜ 0  0 0 dn ⎟⎠
⎝

!   Iden0ty matrix. The par1cular nxn diagonal matrix with all

diagonal entries having value unity is the Iden1ty matrix (of
order n), denoted In.
⎛ 1 0 0⎞
!   Example: ⎛ 1 0⎞ ⎜ ⎟
I2 = ⎜ ⎟ I 3 = ⎜ 0 1 0⎟
⎝ 0 1⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 0 1⎠
For any nxn matrix A: AI n = I n A = A

!   Equality of Matrices. Two matrices are defined to be equal if they
have the same size and their corresponding entries are equal.
⎛ a11 a12  a1 j  a1n ⎞ ⎛ b11 b12  b1 j  b1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22  a2 j  a2n ⎟ ⎜ b21 b22  b2 j  b2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
    ⎟     ⎟
A=⎜ B=⎜
⎜ ai1 ai 2  aij  ain ⎟ ⎜ bi1 bi2  bij  bin ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜     ⎟
⎜     ⎟
⎜  bmj  bmn ⎟⎟⎠
⎜⎝ am1 am 2  amj  amn ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ bm1 bm2
!   Both matrices are the same size mxn;

A=B if and only if aij=bij for all i and j.
!   Example: ⎛ 1 3 0 ⎞
⎛ 1 3 ⎞ ⎛ 1 3 ⎞
!   Consider the matrices: A = ⎜ ⎟ , B=⎜ ⎟ , C=⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 4 x ⎠ ⎝ 4 7 ⎠ ⎝ 4 7 0 ⎠
!   If x=7, then A=B. If x ≠ 7, then A ≠ B.
!   There is no value of x for which A=C, since A and C have different sizes.

!   Addi0on of matrices:

If A and B are matrices of the same size, then the sum A+B is the
matrix obtained by adding the entries of B to the corresponding
entries of A, and the difference A-‐B is the matrix obtained by
subtrac1ng the entries of B from the corresponding entries of A.
!   Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or subtracted.
⎛ a11 + b11 a12 + b12 ! a1n + b1n ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ( A + B)ij = aij + bij
⎜ a21 + b21 a22 + b22 ! a2n + b2n ⎟
A+ B=
⎜ " " " " ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ am1 + bm1 am 2 + bm 2 ! amn + bmn ⎠
!   Subtrac0on of matrices: ⎛ a −b a12 − b12  a1n − b1n ⎞

11 11
⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 − b21 a22 − b22  a2n − b2n ⎟
A− B = ⎜ ⎟
⎜     ⎟
⎜⎝ am1 − bm1 am2 − bm2  amn − bmn ⎟⎠
!   Example: ⎛ 1 2 3⎞ ⎛ −6 5 −4 ⎞
A=⎜ ⎟, B=⎜ ⎟,
⎝ 4 5 6⎠ ⎝ 3 −2 1 ⎠
⎛ −5 7 −1⎞ ⎛ 7 −3 7⎞
A+ B= ⎜ ⎟ A− B = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 7 3 7⎠ ⎝ 1 7 5⎠
!   Opera0ons on vectors and matrices:
⎛1⎞ ⎛ −4 ⎞ ⎛ −3⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (1) ⎜ ⎟
v (1)
= ⎜ −2 ⎟ , v = 5 , v + v = ⎜ 3 ⎟ v − v = ⎜ − 7 ⎟
(2) (1) (2) ( 2)
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3⎟ ⎜ −6 ⎟ ⎝ −3⎠ ⎜ 9 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

A+B and A-‐B are undefined, since A and B do not have equal sizes.
⎛ 1 2 ⎞
⎛ 6 7 10 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
A = ⎜
3 4
⎟ , B =
⎜ (
,
⎟ v = ⎜ ⎟ , w )
′= 3 4 ,
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 8 9 11 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

v+w’ and v-‐w’ are undefined, since v and w’ do not have equal numbers of
rows and columns.
!   Opera0ons on vectors:
!   Inner product: (scalar product) of an n-‐dimensional row vector w' and
an n-‐dimensional column vector v is defined by:
w′ v = w1 v1 + w2 v2 ++ wn vn
⎛ v1 ⎞ w′ = ⎛ w w … wi … wn ⎟
⎞
⎜⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎛ v1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
2
v2 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ v2 ⎟
⎜ ! ⎟ ⎛ ⎞⎜ ⎟
v=⎜ ⎟  ⎟
w′ v = ⎜ w1 w2 … wi … wn
⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜ = w1 v1 + w2 v2 ++ wn vn
⎜ vi ⎟ ⎜ vi ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ! ⎟ ⎜  ⎟ w’v is a scalar
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ vm ⎟⎠
⎜⎝ vm ⎟⎠ ⎝
(1× n) (n × 1) = 1× 1
!   Opera0ons on vectors:

!   Inner product: w′ v = w1 v1 + w2 v2 ++ wn vn
!   If the inner product w'v = 0, then w and v are orthogonal.

!   In Euclidean space, the inner product w'v corresponds to w.v, the
scalar (dot) product of two vectors, given by w v cosθ
!   If w and v are orthogonal => θ = 90 degrees
!   The norm (length) of a vector w is defined by:
w = ( w′ w ) = ( w + w +!+ w )
2 1/2
1/2 2 2
1 2 n
!   A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

!   Scalar Mul0ples: If A is any matrix and α is any scalar, then the
product α A is the matrix obtained by mul1plying each entry of
the matrix A by α . The matrix α A is said to be a scalar mul1ple
of A. ⎛ αa αa  αa  αa ⎞
11 12 1j 1n
⎜ ⎟
⎜ α a21 α a22  α a2 j  α a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
αA=⎜     ⎟
⎜ αa α ai2  α aij  α ain ⎟
⎜ i1
⎟
⎜     ⎟
⎜ αa α am2  α amj  α amn ⎟
⎜⎝ m1 ⎟⎠
!   Example: A = ⎛⎜ 1 2 3⎞⎟ ⎛ 3 6 9⎞
α = 3 αA=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 5 6⎠ ⎝12 15 18⎠
!   Matrix product: If A is an mxn matrix and B is an nxp matrix, then the
product AB is the mxp matrix whose entries are determined as follows. To
find the entry in row i and column j of AB, single out row i from the matrix
A and column j from the matrix B, then calculate the inner product of row
i and column j, that is mul1ply the corresponding entries from the row
and column together, and then add up the resul1ng products.
⎛ ⎛ ⎞ n
a11 a12  a1 j  a1n ⎞ b11 b12  b1 j  b1 p
( A B) ij = ∑ a ik bkj
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22  a2 j  a2n ⎟ ⎜ b21 b22  b2 j  b2 p ⎟ k =1
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
    A B = AB
A=⎜
    ⎟ B=⎜ ⎟
mxn nxp = mxp
⎜ ai1 ai 2  aij  ain ⎟ ⎜ bi1 bi2  bij  bip ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜     ⎟ ⎜     ⎟ In general, AB≠BA
⎜⎝ am1 am 2  amj  amn ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ bn1 bn2  bnj  bnp ⎟⎠
Worked examples

Engineering applica1ons
!   Why linear algebra?
!   Matrix/vector techniques provide a concise and computa1onally

convenient means of handling problems involving large numbers of
variables, inputs and outputs
!   Linearity is rare in the real world, but ubiquitous in engineering models
of real-‐world systems.
!   More, and more powerful, analysis and design techniques are available
for linear than for nonlinear systems.
!   Civil / Mechanical Engineering
“In prac1cal engineering work, it is quite likely that if very non-‐linear
structural behaviour is found, it may well be indica.ve of poor design. It
may then be be4er to look for, and eliminate, the causes of the non-‐
linearity, such as backlash and fric1on, rather than to spend .me
modelling the non-‐linear problem”

“Fortunately, with the possible excep.on of damping, significant non-‐
linearity in vibra1ng structures, as they are encountered in industry today,
is actually quite rare.”

!   Aerospace Engineering – problems inherently mul1variable
Elevator AlJtude

Ailerons Speed

Rudder 3 + x 2 + 4 xy Angle-‐of-‐aMack

LeI engine Pitch rate

Right engine Roll rate
Dynamics are approximately linear at

a certain flight condi1on
!   Aerospace Engineering – problems inherently nonlinear
u = signal to elevator servomotor from flight control

system

y = actual moJon of elevator
!   But design models usually linear (nonlinear elements reintroduced in

verifica1on & valida1on phase)
!   Electronic Engineering – linear versus nonlinear models
Simula1ng a PCB between 273-‐373K

-‐> linear model

Simula1ng a PCB at low temperatures
(between 50-‐100K) -‐> nonlinear model

Thermal conduc1vity of pure copper versus temperature
!   Image processing and computer graphics
Simple digital representa1on of π:

⎛ 1 1 1 1 1 ⎞
π =⎜ 0 1 0 1 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 1 0 1 0 ⎠

!   Matrices allow convenient storage of spa1al informa1on
!   Manipula1ng images = mathema1cal opera1ons on matrices
Exercises
⎛ 9 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1.  Find the transpose of C = ⎜ 1 −2 ⎟ , and show that (C’)’ = C
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ α 4 ⎟⎠
2.  Given ⎛ 4 1 ⎞ ⎛ −1 3 ⎞
A=⎜ 9 −1 ⎟ ,B = ⎛ 1 2 3 ⎞
,C = ⎜ 0 4 ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 4 ⎟
−1 ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5
⎝ 2 0 ⎠ ⎝ 1 6 ⎠
find: (i) A+2C, (ii) B-‐3C’, (iii) (2C + 5B’)/3
⎛ 4 −2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 3 4 ⎞
3. Given A = ⎜⎝ 1 3 ⎟⎠ , B = ⎜⎝ −1 2 0 ⎟⎠ , calculate (i) AB, (ii) (AB)’, (iii) B’A’

What do you observe from the answers to (ii) and (iii)?

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ES2A9

Engineering Mathema1cs and Technical Compu1ng

Lecturer: Prof. Declan Bates

! Matrix: a rectangular array of numbers, symbols or expressions

⎛ a11 a12 ! a1 j ! a1n ⎞

! Example: The number of hours that a student spent studying

! Row vector: The transpose of a general (m-­‐dimensional) column

! Par00oned matrices. A matrix can be subdivided or par00oned

⎛ w(1) ′ ⎞ Row par11on: ⎞ ⎛ a1 j

where w(i)' is a row vector is a column vector corresponding

! Square matrix: A nxn matrix A with n rows and n columns is

! Diagonal matrix: A general nxn diagonal matrix D takes the form

! Iden0ty matrix. The par1cular nxn diagonal matrix with all

For any nxn matrix A: AI n = I n A = A

! Both matrices are the same size mxn;

! If x=7, then A=B. If x ≠ 7, then A ≠ B.

! Addi0on of matrices:

! Subtrac0on of matrices: ⎛ a −b a12 − b12  a1n − b1n ⎞

! Opera0ons on vectors:

! If the inner product w'v = 0, then w and v are orthogonal.

! A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

! Why linear algebra?

! Matrix/vector techniques provide a concise and computa1onally

! Why linear algebra?

! Civil / Mechanical Engineering

! Why linear algebra?

! Aerospace Engineering – problems inherently mul1variable

Dynamics are approximately linear at

! Why linear algebra?

! Aerospace Engineering – problems inherently nonlinear

u = signal to elevator servomotor from ﬂight control

! But design models usually linear (nonlinear elements reintroduced in

! Why linear algebra?

! Electronic Engineering – linear versus nonlinear models

Simula1ng a PCB between 273-­‐373K

! Why linear algebra?

! Image processing and computer graphics

Simple digital representa1on of π:

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!   Matrix: a rectangular array of numbers, symbols or expressions

!   Example: The number of hours that a student spent studying

!   Row vector: The transpose of a general (m-‐dimensional) column

!   Par00oned matrices. A matrix can be subdivided or par00oned

!   Square matrix: A nxn matrix A with n rows and n columns is

!   Diagonal matrix: A general nxn diagonal matrix D takes the form

!   Iden0ty matrix. The par1cular nxn diagonal matrix with all

!   Both matrices are the same size mxn;

!   If x=7, then A=B. If x ≠ 7, then A ≠ B.

!   Addi0on of matrices:

!   Subtrac0on of matrices: ⎛ a −b a12 − b12  a1n − b1n ⎞

!   Opera0ons on vectors:

!   If the inner product w'v = 0, then w and v are orthogonal.

!   A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

!   Why linear algebra?

!   Matrix/vector techniques provide a concise and computa1onally

!   Why linear algebra?

!   Civil / Mechanical Engineering

!   Why linear algebra?

!   Aerospace Engineering – problems inherently mul1variable

!   Why linear algebra?

!   Aerospace Engineering – problems inherently nonlinear

!   But design models usually linear (nonlinear elements reintroduced in

!   Why linear algebra?

!   Electronic Engineering – linear versus nonlinear models

Simula1ng a PCB between 273-‐373K

!   Why linear algebra?

!   Image processing and computer graphics