Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693

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Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Master Plan Jakarta, Indonesia: The Giant Seawall and the need for
structural treatment of municipal waste water
Simon A. van der Wulp a,⁎, Larissa Dsikowitzky b, Karl Jürgen Hesse a, Jan Schwarzbauer b
a
Forschungs und Technologiezentrum Westküste, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Hafentörn 1, D-25761 Büsum, Germany
b
Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum and Coal, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstraße 420, D-52056 Aachen, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In order to take actions against the annual flooding in Jakarta, the construction of a Giant Seawall has been pro-
Received 30 September 2015 posed in the Master Plan for National Capital Integrated Coastal Development. The seawall provides a combina-
Received in revised form 3 May 2016 tion of technical solutions against flooding, but these will heavily modify the mass transports in the near-coastal
Accepted 19 May 2016
area of Jakarta Bay. This study presents numerical simulations of river flux of total nitrogen and N,N-diethyl-m-
Available online 25 May 2016
toluamide, a molecular tracer for municipal waste water for similar scenarios as described in the Master Plan.
Keywords:
Model results demonstrate a strong accumulation of municipal wastes and nutrients in the planned reservoirs
Jakarta Bay to extremely high levels which will result in drastic adverse eutrophication effects if the treatment of municipal
River discharges waste water is not dealt with in the same priority as the construction of the Giant Seawall.
Flow modelling © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Nitrogen
DEET
Giant Seawall

1. Introduction environmental and socio-economic consequences of the Master Plan in-

The municipalities of the Jakarta Metropolitan Area are facing a great
challenge to deal with the issues of overexploitation of groundwater,
land subsidence and annually reoccurring floods, lacking expansion of
infrastructure including, among others, sanitation and treatment of mu-
nicipal waste water (Steinberg, 2007). The uncontrolled flow of untreat-
ed municipal waste water has led to a strong deterioration of water
quality in the rivers of Jakarta and along the shores of Jakarta Bay
(Damar, 2003; Arifin, 2004; Thoha et al., 2007).
Van der Wulp et al. (2016-in this issue) have identified persistently
high concentrations of total nitrogen and total phosphorus along the Ja-
karta shoreline due to high initial river concentrations and sub-optimal
flow characteristics in those areas where eutrophication issues are fre-
quently reported.
The Master Plan “National Capital Integrated Coastal Development”
focuses on the design and functioning of flood risk solutions incorporat-
ed in an integral design for socio-economic urban development
(Ministry for Economic Affairs, 2015a). This offshore approach incorpo-
rates the phased construction of a Giant Seawall and large storage basins
to protect Jakarta City against floods from sea and rivers. Various articles
in the Jakarta Post show public concerns expressed about the
⁎ Corresponding author.
cluding the deterioration of the water quality in the intended storage
basins.
In the present study, an existing combination of numerical hydrolog-
ical and flow modelling techniques as previously described in Van der
Wulp et al. (2016-in this issue) was used to simulate river discharges,
flow, and dispersion of nutrient flux, in the form of total nitrogen (TN)
and total phosphorus (TP), into Jakarta Bay. The flow and mass tracer
model was adapted to simulate scenarios similar to the three phases
of the Master Plan to illustrate the fate of river bound nutrients and mu-
nicipal waste water. In addition, the simulation of N,N-diethyl-m-
toluamide (DEET) flux was introduced as a tracer substance. DEET is
an organic compound, which is commonly used as insect repellent.
Due to its intensive usage in the study area and its properties, DEET is
useful as molecular marker for municipal wastewater discharges
(Dsikowitzky et al., 2014).
2. Materials and methods
A number of scenarios were simulated by the adaptation of the
existing Jakarta Bay flow model as described by Van der Wulp et al.
(2016-in this issue). The development phases A, B, and C, similar to
the phases described in the Master Plan National Capital Integrated
Coastal Development (Ministry for Economic Affairs, 2015a) were im-
plemented in the flow model (Fig. 1).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.048
0025-326X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S.A. van der Wulp et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693
Fig. 1. An overview of Jakarta Bay and the development phases of the construction of a Giant Sea wall similar to the Master Plan of National Capital Integrated Coastal Development.
Differentiation can be made between land reclamations of phase A (cross-hatched), phase B (gray), and the closing of the eastern reservoir in phase C (dotted lines). Pumping stations
are placed to control the water level of the western and eastern reservoirs by pumping water from the reservoirs to the sea (black dots). Jakarta city limits topography ©
OpenStreetMap-contributors.
2.1. Flow model
The Delft3D modelling suite was used to simulate flow characteris-
tics for Jakarta Bay. The computational grid, with a spatial resolution
of 300 m, covers Jakarta Bay and stretches out 60 km toward the
south tip of the Seribu Islands archipelago. Along the vertical, the do-
main was divided into 15 fixed layers with a higher resolution closer
to the surface to resolve multiple layers for the relatively shallow Jakarta
Bay. Bathymetrical data were obtained from nautical charts of the Java
Sea and Jakarta Bay. The model incorporated forcing by tides. Tidal forc-
ing was added based on thirteen astronomical tidal constituents ex-
tracted from the Global Tidal Model (Egbert and Erofeeva, 2002).
Additionally, Sea Surface Height (SSH) and daily, three-dimensional
values of salinity and temperature were provided as boundary condi-
tions by the HAMSOM Indonesian model (Mayer et al., 2010, 2015;
Mayer and Damm, 2012). Spatiotemporal varying sea surface wind
and pressure fields were derived from the GME model (Majewski and
Ritter, 2002) and imposed on the model grid to account for wind effects.
Simulations were run for the year 2012 with a warm up time covering
the last quarter of 2011. A detailed description of the flow model setup
and validation is described in Van der Wulp et al. (2016-in this issue).
2.2. River discharges and nutrient loads
River discharges defined for the flow model were taken from the hy-
drological model as described by Van der Wulp et al. (2016-in this issue).
A total average discharge of 205 ± 97 m3 s−1 flow to Jakarta Bay distrib-
uted over 13 rivers and streams (Cisadane, Cengkareng, Banjir Kanal
Barat, Muara Angke, Muara Baru, Ciliwung, Sunter, Cakung, Blencong,
Banjir Kanal Timur, Cikarang-Bekasi-Laut (CBL), Keramat, Citarum)
(Fig. 2a). Most of the river discharges enter Jakarta Bay through the
Citarum River (137 ± 64.2 m3 s−1) and the Cisadane River (36 ±
17 m3 s−1). River TN flux was chosen as the potential driver of possible
eutrophication effects. TN loads for individual rivers were quantified
687
based on river discharges, river water quality measurements taken in
October 2012 and calibration of simulated nutrient gradients in Jakarta
Bay (Van der Wulp et al., 2016-in this issue). TN loads ranged between
39 and 174 tons d−1 with an average of 91 ± 45 tons d−1. The highest
TN loads entered Jakarta Bay through the Citarum River (46%) followed
by the Ciliwung River (18%) and CBL (12%) (Fig. 2b).
Similarly, TP loads ranged between 14 and 60 tons d−1 with an av-
erage of 31.9 ± 15.7 tons d− 1. The highest TP loads entered Jakarta
Bay through the Citarum river (51%), followed by the CBL (17%) and
the Ciliwung River (13%) (Fig. 2c).
2.3. DEET as tracer for municipal wastewater discharges
The organic contaminant DEET was used as a tracer for municipal
wastes DEET was found in exceptionally high concentrations in Jakarta
Bay and its adjacent rivers with concentrations in the range of
30 ng L−1 in the Citarum River and up to 24,000 ng L−1 in the rivers
flowing through the central part of Jakarta City (Dsikowitzky et al.,
2014). DEET loads were quantified based on river discharges and
DEET concentrations in river water sampled in October 2012 as de-
scribed in Van der Wulp et al. (2016-in this issue). DEET loads were in
the order of 44 ± 23 kg d− 1, of which the highest loads were found
for the Ciliwung River (16 ± 8 kg d−1) and Sunter River (11 ±
7 kg d−1) (Fig. 2c).
2.4. Scenarios
The reference scenario consisted of a simulation covering the period
2012, without land reclamations.
Phase A involves land reclamations in the form of 16 islands situated
in the near-shore area of the Jakarta coastline (Fig. 1). In between the
islands, a uniform depth of 3 m was specified.
Phase B contained the construction of the Giant Seawall and Port Ex-
tension Areas (Fig. 1). The closing of the western reservoir provides a
688 S.A. van der Wulp et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693
Fig. 2. Relative distributions of river discharges (a), TN loads (b), TP loads (c), and DEET
loads (d).
retention lake, which covers 70 km2. Water depth averages 9.6 m with a
maximum depth of 16.7 m in the main reservoir. Within the model,
three pumps were defined (Fig. 1) with a total flow rate equal to the
input by the adjacent rivers to artificially keep the water level within
the reservoir constant and discharge the excess of water on the other
side of the seawall. The annual average river discharges entering the
western reservoir were equal to 11.4 ± 5.9 m3 s−1 with a maximum,
monthly averaged, discharge of 22.2 m3 s−1. It should be denoted that
river discharges are monthly averaged quantities and do not include
peak discharges of shorter timescales. On average 22.6 ±
11.3 tons TN d−1, 5.4 ± 2.7 tons TP d−1 and 19.6 ± 7.8 kg DEET d−1
were discharged into the western reservoir from the Cengkareng,
Kanal Banjir Barat, Muara Angke, Muara Baru, and Ciliwung catchment
areas.
For Phase C, the eastern reservoir was closed creating a retention
lake of 47 km2 with an average depth of 7.5 m. An additional pumping
station was added to keep the water level in the eastern reservoir con-
stant (Fig. 1). The adjacent rivers, Cakung, Blencong, Banjir Kanal
Timur, CBL, equal a discharge of 17.1 ± 10.1 m3 s−1 and a maximum,
monthly averaged, discharge of 35 m3 s−1. Corresponding TN, TP, and
DEET loads were 11.8 ± 7.1 tons d−1, 5.7 ± 3.4 tons d−1, and 9.0 ±
5.5 kg d−1, respectively.
3. Results
3.1. Total nitrogen
Model results of the reference scenario show a distribution of TN
concentrations affecting the entire bay (Fig. 3a). Elevated TN levels
dominate the shoreline of Jakarta city with high concentrations found
in the vicinity of the Cengkareng and Ciliwung river mouths. Nutrient
concentrations decrease with increasing distance from the shore with
the 10 μM isoline, as reference, situated at the outer edge of Jakarta
Bay. A westward plume bulges into the Java Sea from where it is rapidly
diluted toward background concentrations. A more detailed description
of this simulation can be found in Van der Wulp et al. (2016-in this issue).
Model results of the second scenario, phase A of the Master Plan,
show that in between the newly constructed islands, TN concentrations
doubled locally to 120 μM (Fig. 4a). River discharges are channelled past
the islands causing a northward shift of the TN gradient by approxi-
mately 5 km when compared to the reference scenario. The 10 μM iso-
line lies at the approximately same location indicating that TN gradients
at the outer edge of Jakarta Bay is not shifted with exception of a small
plume around the second island from the west (Fig. 3b).
For the realisation of the seawall and the closing of the western res-
ervoir in phase B, model results show a strong accumulation of TN (Fig.
3c). Within the western reservoir, TN concentrations increase by a fac-
tor 56–780 μM and approach a water quality similar to those of the ad-
jacent rivers. The pumps discharge the excess of water with
corresponding concentration into the open waters of Jakarta Bay from
where it is dispersed rapidly towards background levels (Fig. 4b). The
10 μM reference isoline does not show any seaward expansion. In the
contrary, TN concentrations drop in front of the seawall with exception
of the pumping stations discharge points where a small plume is visible
(Fig. 3c). The construction of the port expansion area in the east of Jakar-
ta Bay creates confined areas which experience less flushing and in-
creased TN levels up to 150 μM in front of the Sunter river mouth and
45 μM in front of the CBL (Fig. 4b and c).
Model results of Phase C show similarities with Phase B with excep-
tion of the eastern reservoir which has been closed (Fig. 3d). TN concen-
tration within the eastern reservoir increased to 540 μM between the
mainland and the island and 500 μM in the eastern reservoir, equal to
a factor 15 when compared to phase B, prior to the closing of the eastern
reservoir (Fig. 4).
3.2. Total phosphorus
Model simulations with respect to TP show distributions similar to
those of TN (Fig. 5). Elevated TP levels were commonly found along
the shoreline of Jakarta city with high concentrations found in the vicin-
ity of the Cengkareng and Ciliwung river mouths. Nutrient concentra-
tions decrease with increasing distance from the shore with the 2 μM
isoline, as reference, situated at the outer edge of Jakarta Bay. River in-
puts are rapidly diluted toward background concentrations in the
outer parts of Jakarta Bay. Model results of phase A show that in be-
tween the newly constructed islands, TP concentrations increase to
 S.A. van der Wulp et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693
Fig. 3. Annual averaged total nitrogen (TN) concentrations for the reference scenario (a), initiated land reclamation of phase A (b), construction of the Great Garuda and closing of the
Western reservoir during phase B (c), and completion of the initial design with closure of the eastern reservoir during phase C (d).
12 μM (Fig. 6a). The constructed islands cause a northward shift of the
TP gradient by approximately 5 km when compared to the reference
scenario. The 2 μM isoline indicates that the TP gradient at the outer
edge of Jakarta Bay, however, remains stable (Fig. 5b).
The realisation of the seawall and the closing of the western reser-
voir (phase B) show a strong accumulation of TP (Fig. 5c). Within the
western reservoir, TP concentrations increase by a factor of 50–82 μM
and approach a water quality similar to those of the adjacent rivers. Out-
side the Giant Seawall, TP is rapidly dispersed towards background
levels (Fig. 6b). The 2 μM reference isoline does not show any seaward
expansion, whereas TP concentrations drop in front of the seawall
with exception of the pumping stations discharge points (Fig. 6c). The
construction of the port expansion area in the east of Jakarta Bay creates
confined areas which experience less flushing and increased TP levels of
up to 12 μM in front of the Sunter river mouth and 8 μM in front of the
CBL (Fig. 6b and c). Model results of Phase C show similarities with
Phase B with exception of the eastern reservoir, which has been closed
(Fig. 5d). TP concentration within the eastern reservoir increases to
100 μM, equal to a factor of 16 when compared to phase B, prior to
the closing of the eastern reservoir (Fig. 6).
3.3. DEET as a tracer form municipal wastewater discharges
River discharges from the central part of Jakarta City account for 90%
of the total DEET flux. With the construction of the Giant Seawall, 44%
and 20% of the total DEET load accumulate in the western and eastern
reservoirs, respectively. 26% of the DEET is discharged from the Sunter
river in between both reservoirs, from where it will be flushed towards
the open waters of Jakarta Bay. The remaining 10% enter Jakarta Bay via
689
the Cisadane and Citarum rivers. DEET concentrations simulated in the
reference scenario are highest in the near-shore area with concentra-
tions in the order of 700 ng L− 1 (Fig. 7a). The reference isoline, at
100 ng L− 1, shows that the DEET footprint is situated within Jakarta
Bay. Concentrations rapidly drop beyond this border due to increasing
water depth and water movement.
The inclusion of islands within the model (Phase A) results in a
northward shift of the DEET gradient over the first 5–7 km, similar to
the pattern of the TN simulations. In between the islands, DEET concen-
trations double to approximately 1200 ng L−1. The 100 ng L−1 reference
isoline indicates no increased influence in direction of the Java Sea (Fig.
7b).
For Phase B (Fig. 7c), accumulation of DEET occurs where 44% of the
total DEET load enters the western reservoir, resulting in DEET levels of
up to 9500 ng L−1, 60 times higher as the concentration found for the
reference scenario. Land reclamations for port expansion in the east of
Jakarta Bay limit the water exchange causing elevated DEET levels in
the order of 2500 ng L−1 in front of the Sunter river mouth and
1100 ng L−1 in front of the CBL river mouth. Simulations of scenario
Phase C allow 21% of the total DEET loads to enter the eastern reservoir.
Model simulation results in DEET concentrations of 9000 and
6100 ng L− 1 for the area in between the near-shore island and the
main eastern reservoir, respectively.
4. Discussion
In the present study, numerical simulations regarding flow and
tracers were applied to illustrate the effects of river discharges with cor-
responding loads of nutrients (total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus
690 S.A. van der Wulp et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693
Fig. 4. Comparison of simulated annual averaged TN concentrations of all scenarios along transect A–A' crossing the western reservoir (top), transect B–B' in between the western and
eastern reservoir (middle), and transect C–C' crossing the eastern reservoir (bottom).
(TP)) and N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET). Simulation of scenarios
similar to the three phases of the Plan National Capital Integrated Coast-
al Development (Ministry for Economic Affairs, 2015a) addresses possi-
ble implications, which may arise from river bound nutrients and
municipal waste water.
Model results show that nutrient levels are enhanced for all simulat-
ed scenarios, when compared to a simulation of Jakarta Bay without any
land reclamations. To date, no water quality standards for TN and TP are
defined for Jakarta Bay. Water quality standards for a comparable trop-
ical area, Marina Bay, Singapore, indicate nutrient concentrations small-
er than 70 μM N (1 mg N L−1) and 2.25 μM P (b0.07 mg P L−1).
According to the simulations, these thresholds are exceeded signifi-
cantly with the construction of both western and eastern reservoirs.
Construction of near-shore islands, as simulated in scenario phase A,
causes a shift of nutrient gradients within Jakarta Bay. No significant
shift of the nutrient gradient was observed beyond the inner confine-
ments of Jakarta Bay due to rapid dispersion at the outer edge of Jakarta
Bay. The construction of the Giant Seawall and the closing of the west-
ern and eastern reservoirs in phases B and C, lead to extraordinary
high nutrient levels due to the accumulation of river water with high
nutrient concentrations. A division of the reservoir volume with the
adopted annual averaged river discharges yields flushing times of ap-
proximately 600 and 200 days for the western and eastern reservoir, re-
spectively. Also, due to retarded flows, the port in between the western
and eastern reservoir experiences higher levels of nutrients.
According to the simulations, the extended retention of TN and TP
within and in between the structures of the Giant Seawall causes a con-
tinuous availability of dissolved nutrients, which no longer form a limit-
ing factor for primary production. The model considered TN and TP as
conservative substances and were assumed to behave as dissolved sub-
stance with relatively high mobility. In reality, TN and TP both consist of
inorganic and organic compounds which are subject to uptake by micro
algae and microbial decomposition. Part of the TN and TP are temporar-
ily stored in the sediment as particulate organic matter in the form of
detritus.
Despite these simplifications, it can be concluded that accumulation
of nitrogen and phosphorus in the western and eastern reservoirs as
well as in other areas with reduced flushing will very likely cause a bio-
logical response including the formation of high biomass algae blooms
and enhanced microbial decomposition of organic matter. Considering
the stagnant nature of the reservoirs, this will result in anoxia and ulti-
mately azoïc conditions which are currently found in the adjacent rivers
of Jakarta Bay. By contrast, construction of the reservoirs will reduce the
nutrient levels outside the Giant Seawall in the open waters of Jakarta
Bay.
The individual sources of nutrients to the rivers leading to Jakarta
Bay originate from municipal waste water, industrial waste water, and
agriculture. Over half of the total nutrient loads to enter Jakarta Bay orig-
inate from the Citarum and Cisadane rivers (Van der Wulp et al., 2016-in
this issue). Currently existing eutrophication effects mostly occur at the
near-shore area of the city of Jakarta due to a combination of city
bound nutrients and a lack of dispersion (Damar, 2003; Arifin, 2004;
Thoha et al., 2007; Van der Wulp et al., 2016-in this issue). Estimates in-
dicate that approximately 80% of the total nutrient flux from Jakarta's riv-
ers is attributed to municipal wastes (Sachoemar and Wahjono, 2007).
In this study, the fate of municipal waste water is represented by
DEET as molecular tracer as proposed by Dsikowitzky et al. (2014).
DEET loads originate predominantly from within the Greater Jakarta
 S.A. van der Wulp et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693 691

Fig. 5. Annual averaged total phosphorus (TP) concentrations for the reference scenario (a), initiated land reclamation of phase A (b), construction of the Great Garuda and closing of the
Western reservoir during phase B (c), and completion of the initial design with closure of the eastern reservoir during phase C (d).

Fig. 6. Comparison of simulated annual averaged TP concentrations of all scenarios along transect A–A' crossing the western reservoir (top), transect B–B' in between the western and
eastern reservoir (middle), and transect C–C' crossing the eastern reservoir (bottom).
692 S.A. van der Wulp et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693

Fig. 7. Annual averaged N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) concentrations as a molecular marker for municipal wastes for the reference scenario (a), initiated land reclamation of phase A
(b), construction of the Great Garuda and closing of the Western reservoir during phase B (c), and completion of the initial design with closure of the eastern reservoir during phase C (d).

City area. The half-life of DEET in surface water is estimated to be 5–

Fig. 8. Catchment areas of the Jakarta Metropolitan Area adjacent to the western and
eastern reservoirs.
15 days (Weeks et al., 2011). The model does not consider such decay.
Nonetheless, simulated distributions indicate that DEET and thus mu-
nicipal waste water discharges from the City of Jakarta as well as from
larger parts of the districts Bogor, Depok, Tangergang, and Bekasi will
end up along the shoreline of Jakarta and in the western and eastern res-
ervoirs, as simulated for the scenarios of phase A, B, and C. To date, only
2% of the inhabitants in Jakarta City are connected to a centralised sew-
age system, 16% are connected to individual treatment plants, 71% use
individual septic tanks, and 11% drain their waste water directly to sur-
face waters and gutters (PAL JAYA, 2012). These numbers exclude the
Greater Jakarta area such as the districts of Bogor, Depok, Tangerang,
and Bekasi. How much of the waste water actually ends up in the cities'
surface waters remains unclear. There are indications that most of the
septic tanks are inadequately designed, leak waste water, and de-sludge
only when they overflow in waterways or gutter (Vollaard et al., 2005).
When emptied, faecal sludge is conveniently discharged in surface wa-
ters and rivers (Steinberg, 2007).
The findings of this study underline the statements made in the Mas-
ter Plan National Integrated Coastal Development (Ministry for
Economic Affairs, 2015a) that water quality within the created retention
lakes will strongly deteriorate and priority needs to be given to a water
quality improvement program for Jakarta. According to the calculations
made in the technical background report to the Master Plan, a reduction
of at least 75% of organic matter (expressed as BOD) in combination
with a reduction of nutrient loads of over 90% is required (Ministry for
Economic Affairs, 2015b).
Current planning to address the issues of sanitation in Jakarta is de-
scribed in the reviewed master plan for wastewater management in Ja-
karta from 1991 (PAL JAYA, 2012). According to this plan, 80% of the
 S.A. van der Wulp et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 110 (2016) 686–693
areas with a population higher than 300 inhabitants per hectare should
be connected to a centralised waste water treatment plant by 2050. The
remaining areas should be connected to on-site treatment systems such
as individual treatment plants or septic tanks with regular de-sludging.
These numbers only apply to the district of Jakarta. However, the catch-
ment areas, which are connected to both western and eastern reser-
voirs, taken from the hydrological model as described by Van der
Wulp et al. (2016-in this issue), cover a considerable area of the Jakarta
Metropolitan Area including the districts of Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang,
Depok, and Bekasi (Fig. 8).
A full coverage of state-of-the-art waste water treatment techniques
with an assumed 80% treatment efficiency would still imply a consider-
able load of nutrients to the created retention lakes and cannot exclude
possible eutrophication effects in the planned reservoirs.
5. Conclusions
The urgency for the municipalities to deal with the issues of the Ja-
karta Metropolitan Area is very high. The Master Plan National Capital
Integrated Coastal Development offers an approach to tackle issues
such as, among others, the annual floods. The accumulation of nutrients
from municipal waste water in the reservoirs indicates the susceptibility
of these artificial water bodies to deteriorating water quality. These
findings stress that the phased construction of the master plan should
prioritise a parallel development of structural treatment of municipal
waste water to control the illustrated water quality deterioration.
Such structural treatment should involve an improvement and mainte-
nance of the waste water collection systems and an extension of the
coverage of the centralised sewage system within all relevant catch-
ment areas. Efficient collection of municipal waste water would provide
the benefit that waste water flows can be controlled, treated, and where
possible, diverted from the western and eastern reservoirs to alternative
discharge locations, which provide more favorable flow and dispersion
characteristics to control the environmental adverse effects of the re-
maining effluent.
Acknowledgements
This study is part of the German-Indonesian SPICE Program (Science
for the Protection of Indonesian Coastal Marine Ecosystems), funded by
the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), grant
number FKZ 03F0641C.
693
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