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Fjord
Geologically, a fjord or fiord (/ˈfjɔːrd/ ( listen), /fiˈɔːrd/ ( listen))[1] is a long, narrow
inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by glacial erosion. There are many fjords on the
coasts of Alaska, British Columbia, Chile, Greenland, Iceland, the Kerguelen Islands,
New Zealand, Norway, Novaya Zemlya, Labrador, Nunavut, Newfoundland, Scotland,
and Washington state.[2] Norway's coastline is estimated at 29,000 kilometres
(18,000 mi) with 1,190 fjords, but only 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) when fjords are
excluded.[3][4]

Contents
Formation
Fjord features and variations Geirangerfjord, Norway
Hydrology
Coral reefs
Skerries
Epishelf lakes
Etymology
Scandinavian usage
Differences in definitions
Freshwater fjords
Great Lakes
Locations
Principal glaciated regions
Other glaciated or formerly glaciated regions
Extreme fjords
See also
Notes
Bibliography
External links

Formation
A true fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by ice segregation and abrasion of the surrounding bedrock.[5]
Glacial melting is accompanied by the rebounding of Earth's crust as the ice load and eroded sediment is removed (also
called isostasy or glacial rebound). In some cases this rebound is faster than sea level rise. Most fjords are deeper than the
adjacent sea; Sognefjord, Norway, reaches as much as 1,300 m (4,265 ft) below sea level. Fjords generally have a sill or
shoal (bedrock) at their mouth caused by the previous glacier's reduced erosion rate and terminal moraine.[6] In many
cases this sill causes extreme currents and large saltwater rapids (see skookumchuck). Saltstraumen in Norway is often
described as the world's strongest tidal current. These characteristics distinguish fjords from rias (e.g. the Bay of Kotor),

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which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea. Drammensfjorden is cut
almost in two by the Svelvik "ridge", a sandy moraine that during the ice cover
was under sea level but after the post-glacial rebound reaches 60 meters above
the fjord.[7]

Jens Esmark in the 19th century introduced the theory that fjords are or have
been created by glaciers.[8] Tresholds at the mouths and overdeepening of
fjords compared to the ocean are the strongest evidence of glacial origin,[9] and
this tresholds are mostly rocky. Tresholds are related to sounds and low land A glacier in eastern Greenland
where the ice could spread out and therefore have less erosive force. John flowing through a fjord carved by the
Walter Gregory argued that fjords are of tectonic origin and that glaciers had a movement of ice
negligible role in their formation. Gregory's views were rejected by subsequent
research and publications. In the case of Hardangerfjord the fractures of the
Caledonian fold has guided the erosion by glaciers, while there is no clear
relation between the direction of Sognefjord and the fold pattern.[8] This
relationship between fractures and direction of fjords is also observed in
Lyngen.[10]

Hanging valleys are common along glaciated fjords and U-shaped valleys. A
hanging valley is a tributary valley that is higher than the main valley and were Illustration of how a fjord is created
created by tributary glacier flows into a glacier of larger volume. The shallower
valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley or a fjord. Often, waterfalls
form at or near the outlet of the upper valley.[11] Hanging valleys also occur
under water in fjord systems. The branches of Sognefjord are for instance
much shallower than the main fjord. The mouth of Fjærlandsfjord is about 400
meters deep while the main fjord is 1200 meters nearby. The mouth of
Ikjefjord is only 50 meters deep while the main fjord is around 1300 meters at
the same point.[12]

Fjord features and variations

Hydrology
During the winter season there is usually little inflow of freshwater. Surface
water and deeper water (down to 100 meters or more) are mixed during winter
because of the steady cooling of the surface and wind. In the deep fjords there
is still fresh water from the summer with less density than the saltier water Muldalsfossen waterfall drops
along the coast. Offshore wind, common in the fjord areas during winter, sets several hundred meters from the
Muldalen hanging valley to
up a current on the surface from the inner to the outer parts. This current on
Tafjorden.
the surface in turn pulls dense salt water from the coast across the fjord
threshold and into the deepest parts of the fjord.[13]

During the summer season there is usually a large inflow of river water in the inner areas. This freshwater gets mixed with
saltwater creating a layer of brackish water with a slightly higher surface than the ocean which in turn sets up a current
from the river mouths towards the ocean. This current is gradually more salty towards the coast and right under the
surface current there is a reverse current of saltier water from the coast. In the deeper parts of the fjord the cold water
remaining from winter is still and separated from the atmosphere by the brackish top layer. Fjords with a shallow

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threshold this deep water is not replaced every year and low oxygen
concentration makes the deep water unsuitable for fish and animals. In the
most extreme cases there is a constant barrier of freshwater on the surface and
the fjord freezes over such that there is no oxygen below the surface.
Drammensfjorden is one example.[13]

Gaupnefjorden branch of Sognefjorden is strongly affected by freshwater as

glacial river flow in. Velfjorden has little inflow of freshwater.[14]

Coral reefs Distribution of ice (white) in Europe

during the last glacial period
As late as 2000, some coral reefs were discovered along the bottoms of the
Norwegian fjords.[15] These reefs were found in fjords from the north of
Norway to the south. The marine life on the reefs is believed to be one of the most important reasons why the Norwegian
coastline is such a generous fishing ground. Since this discovery is fairly new, little research has been done. The reefs are
host to thousands of lifeforms such as plankton, coral, anemones, fish, several species of shark, and many more. Most are
specially adapted to life under the greater pressure of the water column above it, and the total darkness of the deep sea.[16]

New Zealand's fjords are also host to deep-water corals, but a surface layer of dark fresh water allows these corals to grow
in much shallower water than usual. An underwater observatory in Milford Sound allows tourists to view them without
diving.[17]

Skerries
In some places near the seaward margins of areas with fjords, the ice-scoured channels are so numerous and varied in
direction that the rocky coast is divided into thousands of island blocks, some large and mountainous while others are
merely rocky points or rock reefs, menacing navigation. These are called skerries.[16] The term skerry is derived from the
Old Norse sker, which means a rock in the sea.[18]

Skerries most commonly formed at the outlet of fjords where submerged glacially formed valleys perpendicular to the
coast join with other cross valleys in a complex array. The island fringe of Norway is such a group of skerries (called a
skjærgård); many of the cross fjords are so arranged that they parallel the coast and provide a protected channel behind
an almost unbroken succession of mountainous islands and skerries. By this channel one can travel through a protected
passage almost the entire 1,601 km (995 mi) route from Stavanger to North Cape, Norway. The Blindleia is a skerry-
protected waterway that starts near Kristiansand in southern Norway, and continues past Lillesand. The Swedish coast
along Bohuslän is likewise skerry guarded. The Inside Passage provides a similar route from Seattle, Washington, and
Vancouver, British Columbia, to Skagway, Alaska. Yet another such skerry protected passage extends from the Straits of
Magellan north for 800 km (500 mi).

Epishelf lakes
An epishelf lake forms when meltwater is trapped behind a floating ice shelf and the freshwater floats on the denser
saltwater below. Its surface may freeze forming an isolated ecosystem.

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Hardangerfjord in Hordaland, Norway

Etymology
The word fjord comes from Norwegian (pronounced [ˈfjuːr], [ˈfjøːr], [ˈfjuːɽ] or
[ˈfjøːɽ] in various dialects), where it can have a more general meaning: in many
cases to refer to any long narrow body of water, inlet or channel (for example,
see Oslofjord).

The Norse verb ferd (travelling/ferrying), the Norse noun substantive fjǫrðr
means a "lake-like" waterbody used for passage and ferrying, which is of Indo-
European origin (*prtús from *por- or *per).[19]

The Scandinavian fjord, Proto-Scandinavian *ferþuz, is the origin for similar

Germanic words: Icelandic fjörður, Swedish fjärd (for Baltic waterbodies),
Scots firth.[19] The Norse noun fjǫrðr was adopted in German as Förde, used
for the narrow long bays of Schleswig-Holstein, and in English as firth "fjord,
river mouth". The English word ford (compare German Furt, Low German
Ford or Vörde, in Dutch names voorde such as Vilvoorde, Ancient Greek
πόρος, poros, and Latin portus) is assumed to originate from Germanic *ferþu-
and Indo-European root *pertu- meaning "crossing point". Fjord/firth/Förde
as well as ford/Furt/Vörde/voorde refer to a Germanic noun for a travel:
North Germanic ferd or färd and of the verb to travel, Dutch varen, German
fahren; English to fare.[20] Important fjords and lakes in
Norway. Note: The part of the map
As a loanword from Norwegian, it is one of the few words in the English showing the northern fjords has a
language to start with the sequence fj.[21] The word was for a long time considerably smaller scale. Blurred
normally rendered fiord,[22] a spelling preserved in place names such as Grise coastlines = skerries
Fiord, but now generally current only in New Zealand English.

Scandinavian usage
The use of the word fjord in Norwegian, Danish and Swedish is more general than in English and in international scientific
terminology. In Scandinavia, fjord is used for a narrow inlet of the sea in Norway, Denmark and western Sweden, but this
is not its only application. In Norway and Iceland, the usage is closest to the Old Norse, with fjord used for both a firth and
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for a long, narrow inlet. In eastern Norway, the term is also applied to long
narrow freshwater lakes (for instance Mjøsa [commonly referred to as fjorden],
Randsfjorden and Tyrifjorden) and sometimes even to rivers (in local usage,
for instance in Flå in Hallingdal, the Hallingdal river is referred to as fjorden).
In southeast Sweden, the name fjard fjärd is a subdivision of the term 'fjord'
used for bays, bights and narrow inlets on the Swedish Baltic Sea coast, and in
most Swedish lakes. This latter term is also used for bodies of water off the
coast of Finland where Finland Swedish is spoken. In Danish, the word may
even apply to shallow lagoons. In modern Icelandic, fjörður is still used with Fjord à Christiania, by Claude
the broader meaning of firth or inlet. In Faroese fjørður is used both about Monet (1895).
inlets and about broader sounds, whereas a narrower sound is called sund. In
the Finnish language, a word vuono is used although there is only one fjord in
Finland. Small waterfalls within these fjords are also used as freshwater
resources for the people of Scandinavia and, in particular, Norway.

In old Norse genitive was fjaraðr whereas dative was firði. The dative form has
become common place names like Førde (for instance Førde), Fyrde or Førre
(for instance Førre.[23] Holandsfjorden with Svartisen
glacier in Nordland.
The German use of the word Föhrde for long narrow bays on their Baltic Sea
coastline, indicates a common Germanic origin of the word. The landscape
consists mainly of moraine heaps. The Föhrden and some "fjords" on the east side of Jutland, Denmark are also of glacial
origin. But while the glaciers digging "real" fjords moved from the mountains to the sea, in Denmark and Germany they
were tongues of a huge glacier covering the basin of which is now the Baltic Sea. See Förden and East Jutland Fjorde.

Whereas fjord names mostly describe bays (though not always geological fjords), straits in the same regions typically are
named Sund, in Scandinavian languages as well as in German. The word is related to "to sunder" in the meaning of "to
separate". So the use of Sound to name fjords in North America and New Zealand differs from the European meaning of
that word.

The name of Wexford in Ireland is originally derived from Veisafjǫrðr ("inlet of the mud flats") in Old Norse, as used by
the Viking settlers—though the inlet at that place in modern terms is an estuary, not a fjord.

Before or in the early phase of Old Norse angr was another common noun for fjords and other inlets of the ocean. This
word has survived only as a suffix in names of some Scandinavian fjords and has in same cases also been transferred to
adjacent settlements or surrounding areas for instance Hardanger, Stavanger and Geiranger.[24][25]

Differences in definitions
The differences in usage between the English and the Scandinavian languages have contributed to confusion in the use of
the term fjord. Bodies of water that are clearly fjords in Scandinavian languages are not considered fjords in English;
similarly bodies of water that would clearly not be fjords in the Scandinavian sense have been named or suggested to be
fjords. Examples of this confused usage follow.

The Bay of Kotor in Montenegro has been suggested by some to be a fjord, but is in fact a drowned river canyon or ria.
Similarly the Lim bay in Istria, Croatia, is sometimes called "Lim fjord" although it was not carved by glacial erosion but
instead is a ria dug by the river Pazinčica. The Croats call it Limski kanal, which does not translate precisely to the English
equivalent either.

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The Lim bay in Croatia is commonly
called a fjord but is scientifically a
ria.
pack was deep enough to cover even the high grounds when they were formed. The Oslofjord on the other hand is a rift
valley, and not glacially formed.
In the Danish language any inlet is called a fjord, but none of the fjords of
Denmark may be considered a fjord in the geological sense. Limfjord in
English terminology is a sound, since it separates the North Jutlandic Island
(Vendsyssel-Thy) from the rest of Jutland. Ringkøbing Fjord on the western
coast of Jutland is a lagoon. The long narrow fjords of Denmark's Baltic Sea
coast like the German Förden were dug by ice moving from the sea upon land,
while fjords in the geological sense were dug by ice moving from the mountains
down to the sea.
The fjords in Finnmark (Norway), which are fjords in the Scandinavian sense
of the term, are not universally considered to be fjords by the scientific
community.[26] Although glacially formed, most Finnmark fjords lack the
steep-sided valleys of the more southerly Norwegian fjords since the glacial

In Acapulco, Mexico, the calanques—narrow, rocky inlets—on the western side of the city, where the famous cliff-divers
perform daily, are described in the city's tourist literature as being fjords.

Freshwater fjords
Some Norwegian freshwater lakes that have formed in long glacially carved
valleys with tresholds or terminal moraines blocking the outlet follow the
Norwegian naming convention; they are frequently named fjords. Such
moraines blocking the outlet form isthmuses between the lake and the
saltwater fjord, in Norwegian called "eid" as in placename Eidfjord or
Nordfjordeid.[27] Eidfjord village sits on the moraine forming an eid between
Hornindalsvatnet separated from the
Eidfjordvatnet lake and Eidfjorden branch of Hardangerfjord.[28] Nordfjordeid
Nordfjord by the Nordfjordeid
is the isthmus with a village between Hornindalsvatnet lake and isthmus
Nordfjord.[29][30] Such lakes are also denoted fjord valley lakes by
geologists.[31]

One of Norway's largest is Tyrifjorden at 63 meters above sea level and an average depth at 97 meters most of the lake is
under sea level. Norway's largest lake, Mjøsa, is also referred to as "the fjord" by locals.[27] Another example is the
freshwater fjord Movatnet (Mo lake) that until 1743 was separated from Romarheimsfjorden by an isthmus and connected
by a short river. During a flood in November 1743 the river bed eroded and sea water could flow into the lake at high tide.
Eventually Movatnet became a saltwater fjord and renamed Mofjorden (Mofjorden).[32] Like fjords, freshwater lakes are
often deep. For instance Hornindalsvatnet is at least 500 meters deep and water takes an average of 16 years to flow
through the lake.[33] Such lakes created by glacial action are also called fjord lakes or moraine-dammed lakes.[34]

Some of these lakes were salt after the ice age but later cut off from the ocean during the post-glacial rebound.[14] At the
end of the ice age Eastern Norway was about 200 meters lower (the marine limit). When the ice cap receded and allowed
the ocean to fill valleys and lowlands, and lakes like Mjøsa and Tyrifjorden were part of the ocean while Drammen valley
was a narrow fjord. At the time of the Vikings Drammensfjord was still 4 or 5 meters higher than today and reached the
town of Hokksund, while parts of what is now the city of Drammen was under water.[35] After the ice age the ocean was
about 150 meter at Notodden. The ocean stretched like a fjord through Heddalsvatnet all the way to Hjartdal. Post-glacial
rebound eventually separated Heddalsvatnet from the ocean and turned it into a freshwater lake.[36][37] In neolithic times
Heddalsvatnet was still a saltwater fjord connected to the ocean, and was cut off from the ocean around 1500 BC.[38]

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Some salt water fish got trapped in lakes that originally were part of the salt fjord and gradually became freshwater fish
such as the arctic char.[39] Some freshwater fjords such as Slidrefjord are above the marine limit.

Like freshwater fjords, the continuation of fjords on land are in the same way denoted as fjord-valleys. For instance
Flåmsdal (Flåm valley) and Måbødalen.[8][40][41]

Outside of Norway, the three western arms of New Zealand's Lake Te Anau are named
North Fiord, Middle Fiord and South Fiord. Another freshwater "fjord" in a larger lake
is Western Brook Pond, in Newfoundland's Gros Morne National Park; it is also often
described as a fjord, but is actually a freshwater lake cut off from the sea, so is not a
fjord in the English sense of the term. Locally they refer to it as a "landlocked fjord".
Such lakes are sometimes called "fjord lakes". Okanagan Lake was the first North
American lake to be so described, in 1962.[42] The bedrock there has been eroded up to
650 m (2,133 ft) below sea level, which is 2,000 m (6,562 ft) below the surrounding
regional topography.[43] Fjord lakes are common on the inland lea of the Coast
Mountains and Cascade Range; notable ones include Lake Chelan, Seton Lake, Chilko
Lake, and Atlin Lake. Kootenay Lake, Slocan Lake and others in the basin of the
Columbia River are also fjord-like in nature, and created by glaciation in the same way.
Along the British Columbia Coast, a notable fjord-lake is Owikeno Lake, which is a
freshwater extension of Rivers Inlet. Quesnel Lake, located in central British Columbia, Årdalstangen village on the
small isthmus between
is claimed to be the deepest fjord formed lake on Earth.
Årdalsvatnet lake (behind)
and Årdalsfjorden branch of
Sognefjorden (front)
Great Lakes
A unique family of freshwater fjords are the embayments of the North American Great
Lakes. Baie Fine is located on the northwestern coast of Georgian Bay of Lake Huron in Ontario, and Huron Bay is located
on the southern shore of Lake Superior in Michigan.

Locations
The principal mountainous regions where fjords have formed are in the higher
middle latitudes and the high latitudes reaching to 80°N (Svalbard,
Greenland), where, during the glacial period, many valley glaciers descended
to the then-lower sea level. The fjords develop best in mountain ranges against
which the prevailing westerly marine winds are orographically lifted over the
mountainous regions, resulting in abundant snowfall to feed the glaciers.
Hence coasts having the most pronounced fjords include the west coast of
Norway, the west coast of North America from Puget Sound to Alaska, the
southwest coast of New Zealand, and the west and to south-western coasts of Sognefjord in Norway, the longest
South America, for example in Chile. fjord in Norway,[19] is a popular
tourist attraction

Principal glaciated regions

West coast of Europe

Faroe Islands
Westfjords of Iceland
Eastern Region of Iceland

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Norway, the whole coast including Svalbard

Kola Peninsula in Russia
West coast of New Zealand

Fiordland, in the southwest of the South Island

Eyjafjörður in north Iceland, Akureyri
Northwest coast of North America
can be seen to the far right
Coast of Alaska, United States: Lynn Canal, Glacier Bay, etc.
British Columbia Coast, Canada: from the Alaskan Border along the
Portland Canal to Indian Arm; Kingcome Inlet is a typical West Coast
fjord.
Hood Canal in Washington, United States and various of the
sidewaters of Puget Sound
Northeast coast of North America

Labrador: Saglek Fjord, Nachvak Fjord, Hebron Fjord

The east coast of Ungava Bay. Killary Harbour, western Ireland
Greenland: Kangerlussuaq, Ilulissat Icefjord, Scoresby Sund
Saguenay Fjord, Quebec[44]
Chile

Western Patagonia, Chile

Other glaciated or formerly glaciated regions

Other regions have fjords, but many of these are less pronounced due to more
limited exposure to westerly winds and less pronounced relief. Areas include:
New Zealand's Milford Sound
Europe

Ireland

Lough Swilly
Carlingford Lough
Killary Harbour
Russia (see also List of fjords of Russia)

Chukchi Peninsula
Kola Peninsula
Scotland (where they are called firths, the Scots language cognate of
fjord; lochs or sea lochs). Notable examples are: Glacier in a fjord at Kenai Fjords
National Park, Alaska
Loch Long
Loch Fyne, Scotland's longest fjord at 65 km
Loch Etive
Sweden

Gullmarsfjorden, in Bohuslän, Sweden

North America

Canada:

the west and south coasts of Newfoundland, particularly:

Facheux Bay
Bonne Bay in Gros Morne National Park
Aviron Bay
La Hune Bay
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Bay de Vieux
White Bear Bay
Baie d'Espoir
La Poile Bay
Bay Le Moine
the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, particularly:

Ellesmere Island
Baffin Island
Greenland Tysfjord in Norway north of the
Arctic Circle is located in the boreal
Scoresby Sund, the largest fjord in the world zone
Søndre Strømfjord or Kangerlussuaq
Disko Island
Ilulissat Icefjord, the most productive ice fjord in the world.
United States:

Somes Sound, Acadia National Park, Maine

Hudson River

most clearly seen at The Palisades

Puget Sound
South America

Chile:
The entrance to Larsen Harbour, a
Patagonia sub-embayment of Drygalski Fjord
Arctic in South Georgia Island

Arctic islands

Novaya Zemlya
Severnaya Zemlya
Antarctica

South Georgia (UK)

Kerguelen Islands (France)
particularly the Antarctic Peninsula
Sub-Antarctic islands

Extreme fjords Norwegian fjord by Kazimierz

The longest fjords in the world are: Stabrowski (1928), National
Museum in Warsaw.
1. Scoresby Sund in Greenland—350 km (217 mi)[45][46]
2. Greely Fiord/Tanquary Fiord in Canada—230 km (143 mi) The length of
the total fjord system from the head of Tanquary Sound, through Greely
Fjord, to the mouth of Nansen Sound is approximately 400 km, making it
arguably the longest fjord in the world.
3. Sognefjord in Norway—204 km (127 mi)[47]
4. Independence Fjord—200 km (124 mi)
5. Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya—125 km (78 mi) (a strait with a fjord
structure)[48]
Deep fjords include:

1. Skelton Inlet in Antarctica—1,933 m (6,342 ft)

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2. Sognefjord in Norway—1,308 m (4,291 ft)[49][47] (the mountains then rise

to up to 1,500 m (4,921 ft) and more, Hurrungane reaches 2,400 m
(7,874 ft))[50]
3. Messier Channel in Tortel, Chile—1,358 m (4,455 ft)
4. Baker Channel in Tortel, Chile—1,251 m (4,104 ft)

See also
Firth The calving end of Inostrantsev
Förden and East Jutland Fjorde Glacier at Inostrantsev Fjord,
Fjard Novaya Zemlya.
Ria

Notes
1. "Fjord – Definition of fjord by Merriam-Webster" (http://www.merriam-webs
ter.com/dictionary/fjord). merriam-webster.com.
2. Syvitsky, James P. M.; Burrell, David C.; Skei, Jens M. (1987). Fjords:
Processes and Products. New York: Springer. pp. 46–49. ISBN 0-387-
96342-1. "The NE coast, from Victoria Fjord to the Scoresby Sund fjord
complex ..., has approximately 50 major fjords, some of them the world's
largest and deepest. ... The SE coast, from Scoresby Sund to Kap Farvel
..., has approximately 100 fjords."
3. "Geografiske forhold (Geography of Norway)" (https://www.ssb.no/a/aarbo
k/kart/i.html). Statistics Norway. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
4. Gregory, J.W. (1913). The Nature and Origin of Fiords. London: John
Snow covered mountains stands out
Murray.
in contrast to the dark water of
5. Murton, Julian B.; Peterson, Rorik; Ozouf, Jean-Claude (17 November Efjorden and Stefjorden, Tysfjorden
2006). "Bedrock Fracture by Ice Segregation in Cold Regions" (http://scien and Ofotfjorden in the distance.
ce.sciencemag.org/content/sci/314/5802/1127.full.pdf) (PDF). Science.
314 (5802): 1127–1129. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1127M (http://adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/2006Sci...314.1127M). doi:10.1126/science.1132127 (https://d
oi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1132127). PMID 17110573 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pubmed/17110573).
6. Alley, R.B.; D. E. Dawson; G. J. Larson; E. B. Evenson; G. S. Baker (14
August 2003). "Stabilizing feedbacks in glacier-bed erosion". Nature.
Nature PublishingGroup. 424 (6950): 758–760.
Bibcode:2003Natur.424..758A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.4
24..758A). doi:10.1038/nature01839 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01
839). PMID 12917679 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12917679).
7. Jørgensen, Per: Kvartærgeologi. Landbruksforlaget, 1995.
8. Holtedahl, H. (1967). Notes on the formation of fjords and fjord-valleys.
Geografiska Annaler. Series A. Physical Geography, 49(2/4): 188-203.
9. Nesje, A., & Whillans, I. M. (1994). Erosion of Sognefjord, Norway.
Geomorphology, 9(1), 33-45.
10. Randall, B. A. O. (1961). On the relationship of valley and fjord directions
to the fracture pattern of Lyngen, Troms N. Norway. Geografiska Annaler,
43(3/4), 336-338.
11. "Glossary of Glacier Terminology" (http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1216/h/h.
html). U.S. Geological Survey. May 28, 2004. Retrieved 2007-05-24.

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12. Nesje, A., & Whillans, I. M. (1994). Erosion of Sognefjord, Norway.

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Bibliography
Moore, Arthur William (1890). The Surnames & Place-Names of the Isle of Man (https://books.google.com/books?id=
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u&sig=g942G1PqIz5PgIXNwJrs8rwQDJQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=utM5Ve-jAtDdsASkz4DADw&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBw#v=on
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External links
Use of whales to probe Arctic fjord's secrets (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2683797.stm)
Fiordland's Marine Reserves (http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-visit/fiordland/western-fiordland/fi
ordlands-marine-reserves/features/fiordland-marine-reserves-a-z/) Department of Conservation
Nextstopnorway – Listing of Norwegian fjords (http://www.nextstopnorway.com/norwegian-fjords)
Saguenay River – The Canadian Atlas Online (http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=rivers&sub=r
ivers_east_saguenay)

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