BOILERS

EVAPORATORS
& CONDENSERS

Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS
 BOILERS, EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS
1. Introduction
S. Kakaç

2. Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchangers

S. Kakaç and E. Paykoq

3. Forced Convection Correlations for Single-Phase Side of

Heat Exchangers
S. Kakaç and R. Oskay

4. Heat Exchanger Fouling

A. K. Agrawal and S. Kakaq

5. Industrial Heat Exchanger Design Practices

J. Taborek

6. Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boilers: Fundamentals and Elements

J. B. Kitto, Jr. and M. J. Albrecht

7. Once-Through Boilers
R. Leithner

8. Thermohydraulic Design of Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boiler

Components
Z. H. Lin

9. Nuclear Steam Generators and Waste Heat Boilers

J. G. Collier

10. Heat Transfer in Condensation

P. J. Marto

11. Steam Power Plant and Process Condensers

D. Butterworth

12. Evaporators and Condensers for Refrigeration and Air-

Conditioning Systems
M. B. Pate

13. Evaporators and Reboilers in the Process and Chemical

Industries
P. B. Whalley

Appendix A. Thermophysical Properties

P. E. Liley

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 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 01 Contents
1. Introduction
S. Kakaç

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

s. KAKA<;
Department of Mechanocal Engln&ering
Univef3ity of Mi3ml
~a' ~s. Fkv~ 33124

This chaple r gives a bri ef Introd uction to th e fu llowing c hapt e rs wh ich detail
the types, design. and operation of various kinds of boile rs. evapora tor... and
condensers.
Boi ler:., evaporators, <lnd I.:ondcnsc rs arc Iwo-phasc-fluw heat exchange
equipme nt: o n one side is a boiling or condensing Hu id, and on the o ther side
is e ithe r a single·pha se or two-pha se flow . App roximately 60% of a ll hea t
excha nge e qu ipme nt uscd in industrial applications works in a two-phasc-f1 ow
mode (Fi g. 1.1), T hey arc used in the power, proces-s, food induslTics, and
a ir-conditio ning a nd rcfrigcrUlion syste ms. In this book almost eyery facet of
boilers, C\l3porators. and condensers is considered.
T ilt! oldesl Iwu-ph,lse. now he al exchanger used by people was ce rtainly a
cooking vc-ssc l for prcparing meals by boil ing wate r. One of the ea rli est
rccorded boile rs ( 130 A.D.), operat ing on the water-tube principle , supplied
steam to H ero's steam e ngine, 11 hollow sphere mo unted on ho llow trunn ions
Ihal perm illed sleam to pass into the sphere. The steam was exhausted
Ihro ugh two offset n O.....l les tha t caused Ihe sph e re to revolve, thus providing
the world 's first steam tu rbi ne.
In ancien t EgYPI, hoi ling heal transfer is repon ed 10 have been used fo r
production through disl illing wine. Usc ill food production was the dominan t
applica tio n of two- phase-Ilow heat exchangers unt il the invent ion of the
stea m e ngine by J am es Watt. The industrial usc o f boile rs (fi red·type two-
phase·llow heat exchangers ) follow cd hlt e r. The production o f the firs t
commcrcial ste am engi nes hy Tho mas Savel)' in l f19R and Thomas Newcomer
in 1705 provided the im pe tus for the Ind ustrial Revolu tio n. Since the n stea m
has been exte nsively used to meet the needs of transportation and industry.

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 Two·Phase·FIow Heat Ellchanger Applications

I
Process Power A" Heat
Industry Industry Conditioning Siorage

EvapcHatOf
I
Fossil Boilers
I
Condenser
I
Oired·Contact

I
C()Ildensers Nuclear Steam
I
Evaporator
CondensahOfl

I
Freezer
Generators
I
Cooling Towers
( CrystallllallOfl)

Fig. 1.1. Two- phase·flow hc al clIchll ngc rs acco rd ing 10 lIpplication.

Early boilers consisted of closed vesse ls made from sheet s of wrought iron
and we re formed into shapes varying from simple spheres to complex
sectiuns; for example. the Waggon boiler of Wall (I 788) was shaped as a
cove red wagon. These vessel s were supported by brickwork over a fire which
it se lf was supported on a grade. The wurking pressure maint ained was about
0.7 har.
In the ear ly boile rs, steam was produced at low pressure. typically 1 bar
above atmospheric pressure. The trend of maintaining low pressures contin -
ued for about a ce ntury the reafter. The development of boilers for power
plant s went through many stages after the first commercially successful steam
engine which was pat ent ed hy Thomas Savery ( 1698). One of the main steps
for Ihe early developme nt of boil ers was the introduction of water-tube
boilers. One of th e early wat er-tuhe boilers is shown in Fig. 1.2 [I].
The demand fo r more powerful engines crea ted a need for boile rs that
ope rated at higher pressures, and, as a result , individual boilers wen! built
larger and large r. Eventually. the size of a power plant boiler became so large
that existing furnace designs and methods of coal burning, such as stokers,
were no longer adequate. This led to the deve lopment of pulverized-coal
firing and the usc of water-cooled furnaces. As a result of these develop-
ments, the boiler units used in modern power plants for steam pressure
above 1200 psi (80 bar) consist of furnace water-wall tubes, supe rheaters, and
such heat recove ry accessories as economizers and air heaters (Fig. 1.3) [1J.
In this book emphasis is placed on the problem of modern, high-tempera-
ture unit s of boilers. The development of modern hoil ers and more emdent
condense rs for the power industry have represented major milestones in

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N.XT
 fig. 1.2. Babcock and Wilcox boiler dc\'clolX'd in 1877[11.

Damper I
Gas !

J.' ig. I J. BOilc r wilh W;II CI < ""Icd rum;lCc Wllh hc;tl rcc(lvcry unils [I J.

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 4 INTRODUCTION

Liquid-to-Vapor Phase· Change Exchangers

I
Boilers Vaporizing Exchangers
(Fired) (Unfired)

I
Steam Waste Heat
I
Evaporators
I
Reboilers Vaporizers
Generators Boilers
fOf

I I
Water· Ga,· liquid Metal Chemical Power Plant Air·
Cooled Cooled Cooled Evaporators Evaporators Conditioning
Reactors Reactors Reactors Evaporators

fo'ig. 1.4. Liquid-Io -vapor pha se -ch ange exchangers.

engineering. The refore in the power and process industries, e ngineers had to
design steam generators, evaporators, and condensers to produce steam and
to separate a condensable component from the gas mixture.
In the process industry. engineers are concerned with designi ng equipment
to vaporize a liquid. In the chemical industry, the function of an evaporator is
to vaporize a liquid or to concentrate a solution by vaporizing part of the
solven!. Evaporators may also be used in crystallization processes. Ofte n the
solvent is water, but in many cases the solvenl is valuable and recove red for
reuse. The vaporizers used in the process chem ical industry cover a wide
range of sizes and applications.
Two-phase-flow equipment includes various types of boilers (fired heat
exchangers), vaporizing exchangers (unfired), and condensers (direct-contact
and indirect-contact type). These heat exchangers may be classified according
to the type of construction, process function, transfer process. flow arrange-
ment, heal transfer mechanisms, number of ph ases of fluids, and applicat ion
(2.31. The two-phase heat exchangers discussed in this book can be classified
according to process function as condensers, liquid-ta-vapor phase-change
exchangers (boilers and vaporizers), heaters. coolers, and chillers.
Liquid-to-vapor phase-change exchangers are classified as boi lers and
vaporizi ng exchangers (Fig. 1.4 ). Further classitication of boi lers (fired) and
vaporizi ng exchangers (unfi red) is given in Chapters 6, 8, II , and 13.
Condensers arc classified as direct contact and indirect contact (Fig. 1.5),
and the detailed classification is given in Chapter II.
Recently. the re has been an impetuous development in the design of
evaporators and condensers for power and process engineering, especially in

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 INTRODUCTION 5

Condensers
(Vapor-Io·liquid Phase·Change Exchangers)

I
I
Direct Con1act
I
lrnJirect Contact

I
I I I I
Pool Spray
aM
COlom°r i
Packed Shell and Tube Extended Plate Type

~~
Tray

Power Process Tube· Fin Plale-Fin Plate Spiral

Industry Industry Air·Cooled Cryogenic
Condenser Condenser

Fi,;:. 1.5. Vapor -lo- Iiquid phase .change exchangers.

power engineering, because of the need for increasing the unit power per
station and the demands of nuclear power plants. Until the end of the I950s,
fossil-fired power stations had an electrical output of 50 to 100 MWe per
unit; while modern coal-fired power stations are on the order of 700 10 900
MWc [2].
Nuclear power, through the fission of uranium, has provided a furt her
means of producing steam for electricity production. Presently, nuclear
reactors provide energy up to 1300 MWe per unit. Thc increase in electrical
output means that the thermal power had to grow from 150 to 400n MW'h
per station, which leads to the development of modern boilers, new steam
generators. and condensers.
As mentioned before, this book has been written for newcomers to the
industria l heat transfer field and mechanical and chemical engineering stu -
dents, who require a broad introduction to and design information on boilers,
condensers, and evaporators and heat exchangers in genera l.
Basic design methods are reviewed first in Chapler 2. Thc effects of
individual resistances on the overall heat transfcr coefficicnt, temperature
distribution in direct-transfer heat exchangers, mean temperature difference
LMTD, £-NTU, P- NTU". and ljs-P methods are discussed. Examples of
elementary sizing and rating problems arc given for a shell-and-tube hcat
exchanger. Pressure drop relations applicable to the single-phase side of
two-phase-ftow heat exchangers are also given.
In most applications of boilers, evaporators, and condensers, one side is a
singlc-phase ftuid and the other side is a two-phase ftuid. One of the
important design parameters is calculating the overall heat transfer coeffi-
cient. Therefore it is necessary to discover the heat transfer characteristics of

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the single-phase Huid side in addition to those fo r the two- phase side . In
Chapter 3, a comprehensive review of the available correlations for the
lam inar and turbulent How of a si ngle -phase newtonian flu id th rough circular
and nonci rcular ducts is presen ted. The effect of prope rty variat ions is
discussed. Important correlations arc recommended for heat exchanger de-
sign.
Fouling of heat transfer surfaces introduces perhaps the major unce rt ai nty
into the design and operation of hea l exchange equipmen t. Chapter 4
introd uces the reader to the spedal problems of design and operation of heat
exchange eQuipmeni exposed to fouling conditions. The basic concepts of the
fouling of heat transfe r surfaces are presented, emphasizing import ant topics
that are useful to the designers and users of heat exchange equi pment subject
to fouling . The impact of fouling o n heat transfer and pressure drop is
explai ned by worked exa mples.
Overa ll optimizat ion of a particular heat exchanger e ncompasses a variety
of problem ate<lS that involve both quantitative and Qua litative in formation
and interpret ation of results. Chapte r 5 fncuses on the logical design modules
such as process specifications for design, thermohydraul ie design. meehani-
cal-metallurgicu l design, archit ectural design, upe ration. control. and ma in -
tena nce conside rations. The modern strat egy of heat exchanger design is a
parallel approach to all these pertinent design submodu les. Guide lines for a
prope r design process arc discussed and illustrated in a typica l worked
exa mpl e. This chapt cr also brieHy introduccs thc many important prohlems
that may arise in the design and ope ration of va rious heat exchange equip-
ment.
Boilers ca n bc broadly classificd into t wo ~ th osc heated dircctly by the
combustion o f fossil fue ls and those hea led indi rectly by a hot gas or liquid
that has reccived its hea t from another energy source. The latter arc usually
refe rred to as waste hea t boilers. Chapter (, is conce rned with the key
elements of stea m- wate r two-phase How in foss il-fi rcd hoilcrs. Particular
emphasis is placed upon the evaluation of i;.tfge. coal-fi red, hi g h ~ pfess u re
boilers wh ich are prevalent in electric utility power stations. This provides the
framework fo r the common c1emcnts with unique character istics of other
steam ·generati ng systems treated as additions or exceptions. The boiler
ci rcuitry, furnace absorption , and genera l circulation calculation arc re~
viewed ; the key lim iting criteria arc addressed incluu ing instabi lit ies, hea t
transfer with particular reference to crit ical hea t flux , steam- water separa-
tion , and boile r drum. The foc us of the discussion is a modern subcrit ical
pressure. dru m ~ type boiler typica lly found in the United Stales. Canada. and
thc Unitcd Ki ngdom.
Chapter 7 explores selected aspects of once-through boiler uesign whe re
water is evaporated cont in uously to dryness in individual boiler tubes. A
historical overview is fo llowed by discussion of special design issucs, sliding
pressure operation, operating and start-up characteristics. and sel ected two-
phase-flow topics. Th e once-t hrough hoiler design typical of uni ts found in

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 INTROOUCTION 7

Ge rmany is the basis for this discussion . The classification o f boilers is

dcscribed in Chapters 6 a nd 8. O nce-through boilers involve much more
difficult design problems because they must be carefully proportione d to give
a good water-flow diSlribution by avoiding flow instability. Im portant design
criceria in comparison to other systems, special design considera tions. start-up
systems, feed-water control, and operating expe rience with va rious o nce -
through boilers are a ll t.lescribed in this chapter.
Chapter 8 conside rs the constructio n and design problems of fossil-fuel-
tired system hoilers and it provides a detailed design process following the
boiler design practice of the Peoplc's Re public of C hina (PRO and, by
associat io n, the Soviet Union. Boiler Iype ~, the construct ion of boile r compo-
nelliS, a nd the hea l transfer calcula tio ns of boiler componellls are described.
Worked examples for heat transfer calc ul at ions of boiler componen ts are
given. To remove heat from the boi le r heating surfaces, it is necessary that
proper ci rculatio n (the flow of water, steam, or steam-water mixtu re within
the steam hoilcr) he provided throug hout th e hoi ler circuits.
Chapler 9 concerned wit h the principal types of unfired modern steam
generators used in ce ntral sta tio n nuclear powe r plants a nd process chemical
indu5lries. This type of heat exchange equipment is ca lled a waste heat
boiler. Nuclear steam generators are i l special class of waste heal boileTS. The
me thods used for the thermal design of this type of heat exchange equipment
are discussed with worked examples. a long wi th the common prohlems of
steam generators e ncoun te red during the operation.
Condensation of vapor is an im porta nt ph e no me non that occurs in numer-
ous heat exchange equi pment such as condensers. O ne of the im porta nt steps
in the thermal design of condensers is calculating the heat transfer coefficient
on the condensing side of the equipment. which is presented in C ha pter 10.
Calculational methods for the heat transfer coefficient and the pressure drop
arc presc nt ed fo r a wide variety of surface geomctries and flow configura-
tion s, including she ll -side condc nsation, in-tube condensation , and direct-
cont,lct conde nsation. Worked examples are provided to illu strate the use of
corre lat ions in calcu lating the condensing-side heat t ransfer coefficien t.
There is a wide variety of equipment available for vapor condensat io n.
Chapter II describes the main featu res of the more import ant types and
discusses their thermal design and chcck rating; methods available for Ihe
design of these exchangers a re given. with particular e mphasis un the shell
and lUhe which is the most common typc. A n important calcul<lIion step is
the determination of the mean te mpera tu re difference and mean overall hea t
transfe r coefficient from their loca l val ues. This proble m is a lso discussed in
some detail with worked exam ples.
C hapter 12 introduces various types of evaporators and condenser coi ls in
air-conditioning systems. The major fa ctors affecti ng heat transfer between
the refrigerant and air in a plated finned- tube heal exchanger, otherwise
known as ,Ill evaporator or condenser coi l, arc diltCusscd. Th ese factors are
the inside heal transfer coemcie nt. the thermal eon t<lct resistance between

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the fi n and the tube, and the outside heat tran sfer coefficient . Correlations
are presented to calculate the rate of heal transfer for each of these factors.
In-tube augmentation, oil - refrigerant mixture effects, and frosti ng are also
discussed. Tube-circuiting procedures and standards available for rating coils
are also presented. Thermal design procedures are illustrated with worked
examples.
The main function of an evaporator is to vaporize a liquid or to concen-
trate a solution by vaporizing part of the solvent. Reboilers are used to
vaporize the liquid at the bottom of a distillation column to provide the vapor
flow up the column. Chapter 13 describes the main features of different
classes of such equipment used in the process and chemical industries. The
main applications of various types are bril!fly discussed. Energy efficiency in
evaporation is briefl y reviewed, and the possible energy-saving arrangements
of multiple-effect evaporation, vapor recompression, and multistage fla sh
evaporation are introduced briefly. The main problems in the heat transfer
and pressure drop in evaporators and reboilers are reviewed. Some of the
problems encountered during operation are men tioned.

REFERENCES
Steam, lis Generation and Use. Babcock and Wilcox. New York, 1978.
2. Shah. R. K. (1981) Classification of heat exchan gers. In Heal F.Jchangers:
Thermal-Hydraulic Fundamentals OIld Design, S. Kaka~, A. E. Bergles. and
F. Mayinger (cds.). Hemisphere. New York.
3. M,lyinger, F. ( 1988) Classification and applications of two-phase flow heat exchang-
ers. In Two-Phase Flow Heal Exchangers, S. Kak a<;, A. E. Bcrg1cs. and E. O.
Fernandes (cds.). Kluwcr, Dordrccht.

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MI
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Exchangers

a:: s. Kakac and E. Paykoc

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CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 02 Contents
2. Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchangers
S. Kakaç and E. Paykoq

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Arrangement of Flow Path in Heat Exchangers
2.3 Basic Equations in Design
2.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
2.4.1 Order of Magnitude of Thermal Resistances
2.5 The LMTD Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis
2.5.1 Multipass and Crossflow Heat Exchangers
2.6 The ε-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis
2.7 The P-NTUC Method
2.8 The ψ-P Method
2.9 Heat Exchanger Design Calculation
2.10 Variable Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
2.11 Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop and Pumping Power
2.11.1 Tube-Side Pressure Drop
2.11.2 Noncircular Cross-Sectional Ducts
2.11.3 Shell-Side Pressure Drop
2.11.4 Heat Transfer and Pumping-Power Relationship
2.12 Summary
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

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 CHAPTER 2

BASIC DESIGN METHODS

OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

S. KAKAG
Department of Mechanical Engineefing
Unrversny of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida 33124

E. PAYKOq
Department of MechanICal Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara, Turkey

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The must common heat exc hanger des ign proble ms arc ra ting and si:£ing
prohle ms. In this c haple r the basic design me thods for two-fluid direct-tra ns-
fe r heat exchangers aTt: n;vic wed.
A heal exc hanger is a device in which heat is transferred from a hot fl uid
to a cold fluid . In il s simplest form, the TWO Huids mix and leave at an
intermedia te temperature determi ned by the conserva tion of e nergy. T his
device is no1 truly a heat exchanger but rather a mixer. In most applica tions.
the fl uids do nOI mix but transfer hea t through a separati ng wall that takes 011
a wide variety of geomet ries. Three categories are normally used to classify
heat exchange rs: (I) recupc rators. (2) regenerators. and (3) direct -con tact
apparatus.
There a rc also heat excha ngers in which the heat carrier fluid is hCH tcd or
cooled by means of inte rnal heat sources ur si nks.
Recupe rators are direct·transfer hea t excha ngers in whic h hea l transfer
occurs between two fluid slreams OIl differe nl te mpe ratures in a space

BoiI~'S . Eraporalors and Co<rdrnj~rs. Edited by Sadik K ~ ka\ J()hn Wil"y &. Son.~. Inc .
IS IJ N ()·47!-(i2170·o 0 1991

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se parated by a thin solid wall (parting sheets or tu be walls). Heat transfer
occurs by convection from the hOller flui d to the separating wall surface. by
conduction through the separating wall , and by convection from the separat-
ing wall surface to the cooler Huid . If one of the Hu ids is a radiati ng gas,
thermal radiat ion also plays an importa nt role in the heat exchange between
t he two media. Recuperators include, fo r example, air hea ters, economizers,
evaporators, condensers, steam boilers, dry cooling towers. and so on. Regen-
erator!> arc heat exchangers in which a ha l and a cold Hu id How through the
same heating surface at certain time inte rvals. The surface of the rege nerator
first receives heat energy from the hot Huid; it t hen releases this therm al
energy to the cold flui d. Thus the process of heat transfer is a transie nt o ne
in a regenerator; that is, the temperatures of the heating wall and of the
flui ds va ry with time during the he.1l t ransfer process. Both rceupe rators and
regenerators are sorface-type heat exchangers.
tn direCI-contacl heal exchangers, heal i.~ transferred by completc or
parti al physical mixing of the two streams. Hot and cold flu ids entering such
an exchanger sepa rately leave together as a single mixed strea m. A pplica tions
include the jC j con den~ r fo r waler vapo r and olher vapors. lIsin g a wa ler
spray. Direct-contact heat exchangers also include the cooling lOwers o f
the rmal and nuclea r power stations where heat is transferred t hrough direct
contact octween the hot and cold immiscible flu ids.
Some heat exchangers, such as those of nuclear reactors and electrica l
heaters. incl ude an in ternal heat sou rce and a cooling flui d to remove the
heat energy liberated in the system, A detailed classifica t ion o f heal exchang-
ers is give n by Shah [ J].
In this chapte r the basic relationships for sizin g and rating two-Hu id
recu perato r-type heat exchange rs will he discus<;ed. In most heat exchanger
applicat ions, three modes of heat transfer occur in se ries and result in the
continuous te mpe rature change of at le,lst one of the fl uid media involved .

2.2 ARRANGEMENT OF FLOW PATH IN HEAT EXCHANGERS

A recuperato r· typc heat exchanger is classified tlccordi ng to the flow direc-

t ion o f the hot and cold fl uid streams and the number of passes made by each
l1uid as it passes through the heat exchanger. T he refore heat exchange rs may
have the fo llowing patterns of fl ow: (I) pa rallel flow wi th two fluid s Hawing in
the same direction ( Fig. 2. 1a ), (2) counterflow wi th two Huids flow ing para llel
to one another but in opposite directions (Fig. 2. 1b ), (3) crossftow wit h two
fl uids t;russing each uther (Figs. 2.1c and d), and (4) mixt;(j fluw whe re but h
Huids arc simulta neously in parallel flow, in counterflow ( Figs. 2.2a and b).
and in mult ipass crossfl ow (Fig. 2.2d. Applications include va rious shell-
and· tube heat exchange rs.

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 Fluod 1

~ I' -
Ij$-3-
(.)

----=-~B=9-
FlUId'
,.,

Fluid 2
InSiCle
Tubes

Ho t FlUid. Tn' (d)

(0)

Fig. 2:. 1. I'!cal exchanger da ~~ific:Hi\ln :u.:(;l:lr(ling Itl flow arra ngements.

2.3 BAS(C EQUATIONS IN DESIGN

The term heal exchunger. although applieablc to all fou r catcgories listcd
previously. will be used in this chapte r 10 designate a recupe rator in which
heat transfer occurs between two fluid st rea ms that do not mix or physica lly
contact each other. Basic heat transfe r equatio ns will be outlined for the
thermal ana lysis (sizing and ritling calculations) of such hea t excha nge rs.
Although complete dc~ign of a heat exchange r req uires ~tru ctural and
economica l considerations in 'H.ldition to these bask equations. the purpose
of the thermal ana l)'sis given here will be to dete rmine the hea t transfe r
surf,lee area of the heal exchange r (sizi ng problem). Performance calcula -
tions of a heat exchanger (rating probl em) arc eOlrried out when the hea t
exchanger is availanle. but it is necessary to find the alllOlint 6( heat
transfe rred . pressure losses, and ou Uet tempentlures of both fluids.
The temperature profiles in usual Huid-to- flu id hea t trOlnsfer processes,
depending o n the flow pat h arrangement , arc shown in Fig. 2.3, in which the

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12 BASIC DESIGN METHOOS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

lal 101

(oJ

Fig. 2.2. Multipass and mult ipass erossflow ar rangements.

heat transfer surface arca A is plott ed along the x axis and the tempe ralUre
of the flu ids is plon ed alo ng the y axis. Refe rrin g to Fig. 2.3, counterflow
heat transfer with the two flu ids fl ow ing in opposite directions is s hown as
Fig. 2.3a. Parallel· flow heat transfer with the two flu ids fl owing in the sa me
direction is shown as Fig. 2.3b. Heat transfer wit h the cold fluid at constant
temperature (evapora tor) is shown as Fig. 2.3('. Heat transfer with the hot
fluid at consta nt temperat ure (condensed is shown as Fig. 2.3d. The nature
of the te mperature profiles will also depend on t he heat capacity ratios (,hc r )
of the fluid s and is shown laler.
From the first law o f thermodynamics for an open system. under steady·
sta te conditions, wi th negligible pote nt ial and kin etic energy changes, the
change of enthalpy of one of the fluid st reams is (Fig. 2.4)

(2 . I)

where ril is the Tate of mass fl ow, i is the specific en tha lpy, and 8Q is the
heat transfer rate to the fl uid concerned associated with the infinitesimal
state change. Int egration o f Eq. (2. J) gives (Fi g. 2.4).

( 2.2)

where i l and ; 2 represent the initial and final enth alpics of the flu id stream.
Equat ion (2.2) holds for all processes of Fig. 2.3 . Note that oQ is negative for
the hot fl uid . If there is negligible heat transfer be twee n t he exchange r an d

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 T T

JL r
.T,
T.

TC'I~~~~1'
T",. m" T~
L T,

o L-__'__-"-_-"--oC--'-_ oL-~--'--~---L--
--11141- Surlace L --J dA I - Surface L
Area. A Area, A

(.) (0)

T
T., T.,

TO'

o S.rl"", L o S.rlace L
Area , A
"'''' A
(0) (d)

Fig. 203. Fluid temperature variatiun in par:tlld · f\ow, counterflow. cvapor:lIor. and
c(lndcnscr he'll exchangers. (a ) Counte rflow. (b) Parallel flow. (e) Cold fluid evaporat-
ing at constant temperature. (d) H OI flu id condensing al constant temperature.

m,.. ill2
r InsulaUon
A . Heal Ttanslef
Sul1ace Area

Fig. 2.4. Overall energy balance for the hoi ;lIId cold Huids of a two·f1u id heal
cKchangcr.

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14 BASIC DESIGN METHODS Of HEAT EXCHANGERS

its surroundings (adiabatic process). integration of Eq. (2.t) for hot and cold
flu ids gives

( 2.4)

The subscri pts It and c refer to the hot and cold fluid s, where 1 and 2
designate the fluid inlet and outlet condit ions. If the fluid s do not undergo a
phase change and have constant specific heats wi th di = c p dT. then Eqs.
(2.3) and (2.4) ca n be written as

(2.5)

( 2.6)

As ca n be see n from Fig. 2.3, the tempc ratu re difference betwec n the hot
and cold fluids (.6.T = Tit - Te ) varies with posit ion in the heat exchanger.
The refore, in the heat transfe r analysis of heat exc hangers, it is conven ien t to
cstablish an appropri ate mean value of the temperature differencc hetwccn
the hot and cold fluid s such that the total heat transfer ra te Q between the
fluids ca n be dctcrmined from the fo llowing cqua tion:

( 2.7)

where A is the total heat transfer area and U is the average ove rall heat
transfer coefficient based on that area. tJ.Tm is a function of T~I' T~ 2 ' "/~ I' and
T{"2 . The refore a specific fo rm of .6. T,,, must be obtained.
Equat ions (2.5) to (2.7) are the basic equat ions for the thermal ana lysis of
a heat exchanger undcr steady-state conditions. If Q, the tota l heat transfe r
rate. is known from Eq. (2.5) or (2.6), then Eq. (2.7) is used to calcul ate the
heat t ransfer surface area A. Therefore it is clea r that the problem of
calculat ing the heal transfer arca comes down to determining the ovcrall
mean tempe rature difference tJ.Tm.

2.4 OVERAll HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Heat exchanger walls are usually made of a single material. although the wall
may sometimes bc bimetallic (stee l with alum inum cladding) or coated wi th a
plastic as a protection against corrosion . Most hea t exchanger surfaccs (end
to acquire an additional heat transfer resistancc that increases with limc.

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 2.4 OVERAlL HEAT TRANSFEA COEFFICIENT 15

This may eithcr bc a very thin surface oxidation laye r. or. at the other
ext re me. it may be a th ick crust deposit. such as th at which rcsults fro m a
salt-wa ter coolan t in steam conde nsers. This effe ct can be taken into consid-
era tio n by introducing a n additiona l thermal resistance. termed the fouling
resistance R ,. Its value depends on the tempe rature level, nuid velocity. type
of surface, a nd length of service of the heat excha nger [2 - 41. Fouling will be
discussed in a separa te chapte r.
In addi tion. fi ns are ofte n added to the surfaces exposed to either or both
fluid s, and. hy increasing the surface a rea, thcy rcduce the resistancc to
convl::ctiun hea t transfe r. The overall heat transfer coe fficient for a single
smooth and d ea n plain wall can be written as

UA (2 .H)
II,
+ +
h,A, kA

whe re R , is the lotal the rmal res istance to heat Ilow across the surface
between the ins ide and outside flow, I is the th ick ness of the wall, and h, a nd
II " arc he,ll transkr coefficien ts for inside a nd outs ide fl ow, respectively.
For the untin ned and clean tuhu lar heat exchanger, the overall hcat
transfcr coefficient is given by

lJ"A" = V,A; = (2 .9)

II , In (r,,/r; )
+ +
",A , 27TkL h il A "

If thl:: hea t transfer surface is fo uled with the acc umulation of deposits,
this in turn introd uces an additiona l therma l resistance in the path o f heat
flow . We de fi ne a sca le coefficie nt of heat tra nsfe r h , in terms of the the rm al
resistance R , of this scale as

H, I
-~ R (2.10)
Q ' Ah,

where the area A IS the origi nal heat transfer area of the surface before
scaling and !::.T, is the tem pe rat ure drop through the scale. R , = 1/ 11, is
le nned as fouling fac tor (i .e., unit fouling resistance) which has the unit of
(m z . K)/ W. Th is is lIiscussed in de tail in the following c ha pters and tables
are provided for the val ues of R f '
We now conside r heat transfer across a heat exchange r wall fouled by
delX"sit fOml<lIion on both the inside and outside surfaces. The total thermal

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resisl ance R, can be expressed as

R
R,= + R +- (2. 11)
VA ll;A; h,A , • A,"

The calculation o f a n ove rall heal lransfcr coeffi cient depends Ul>on
whether it is based on the cold- or hot -side surface area, since U" .. U, if
*"
A n A ,. T he wall resista nce R _ is oblained from the following eq ual ions:

' (for a plane wa ll ) (2. 123)

kA
R .., =
{
In ( , o/' ,)
21TLk
(for a tube wall ) (2.12b)

A separa ti ng wall may he tinned ditre re nt ly o n each side (Fig. 2.5). On

either side, hea t transfer takes place from the fin s (subscripi f in the
following equa tions) as wel l as fr om Ihe unfinllt:d pori ion of the wall
(subscript lI). Int roducing the fin clliciency 'I f' the total heat transfer ca n be
expressed as

(2. 13 )

whe re !I T is either (T" - T... 1) or (T"' 2 - T,J. The subscripts II a nd c refe r to

the hoI and cold Ouids, respcclively.
"f
Ta king II " .,., = " and rearra nging the right-hand side of Eq . (2. 13), we
g"

(2. 14 )

:===::f:::FIO Surface Area A,

H g.2.S. Firm ed w;.II.

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 2." OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT 17

( 2. 15)

where "I" = (I - (! - T/f}Af/ AI is call ed the overall surface efficiency and

A - A .. +A f ·
As can be see n from Eq. (2.15), there will be add itional thermal resis-
tances for finned surfaces as 1/ T/"ltA on hath sides of the finned wa ll ; this is
the combined surface resistance of the fin a nd the unfinned a rca .
The refore a n overall thermal resistance for the e ntire wall is the n given by

R, ~ R"
+ R ... + +
VA V" A " lJ (> A "

(2 .16)

Contact resista nce may be fin ite between a tube or a plat e a nd the fin . In
this case the contact resistance te rms on the hot and cold sides a rc added to
EO. (2.10).
In heat exchanger applications, the ove rall heat transfer coeffi cien t is
usually based on the oute r area (cold side or hot side). T hen Eq . (2. IM can
be rep rese nted in te rms of the overall heat tra nsfer coe ffi cie nt based on the
outside surface are'l of the wall as

U. - "'A-,-----A..--nRc - - - -Rn-----.----,- ( 2 .17)

" + -" - I' +A " R ... + I" +
71" A, 71"

The expressions or magnitude of 711 for a va rie ty of fin configurations arc

available in t he lite rature (5J. If a straight or pin fin of le ngth L a nd unifo rm
thickness is used a nd a n ad iab:Lt ic tip is assu med, the fi n efficiency is given by

tanh (m L)
(2 . 18)
tn t
whe re

m _ /2h
5k ,
(2.19)

whe re [) is the fin thickness and l. is the fin lengt h.

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18 BASIC DESIGN METHODS Of HEAT EXCHANGERS

Fo r the unfi nned. tuhula r hea l exchangers of Figs. 2.1 a and hand 2.2.. Eq.
(2.16) reduces to

(2.20)

The ove rall he.1I tran sfe r coefficien t can be de t~rmin e d from knowledge of
the inside and oulside heat transfer cocflicie nt ~. foul ing fac t or~. and appro-
priate geome trical pilnlmcte rs.

2.4.1 Order of Magnitude of Thermal Resistances

For a plane wall of thickness f and h , and h" 011 either side with fouling o n ly
on one side, Eq. (2. 16) becomes

+ R r, + k + ( 2.2 1)
u h, h"

The order of magnitude and range of h for var ious conditions arc give n in
Table 2. 1.

Example 2.1. De termine the ove rall he al Irll11sfcr codti t: icn t U fo r liquid-to-
liqu id heat transfe r th rough a 0.OO3-m-l hick stee l plate [k - 50 W / (m' K )] fo r
the following hea t tran ~ rcr t:oc f11 cie nls ,Ind fuuling fa cl;Jr on o ne ~idc:

II, _ 1800 W / (m l . K) lJ u - 1250 W /( m ~ . K)

Ur, - 0.0002 (m ~' K)/ W

TABLE 2.1 Ordu or Mag nitude or h

Flu id h. W /( m 1 . K)

Gas.cs (nalural convection) .'i 25

Flowing ga~s 10-250
Flowing liquids (nonmetal) 100- 10.000
Flowing liquid melals 5.111_1 . 25(1.(101)
Boiling liquids 1.000-250J.0 0
Conde nsing vapors 1.000- 25.000

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 Substituting into Eq. (2.21), we gel

I I OJI03 J
- - - - + 0.0002 + - - + --
U 1800 50 1250

R ,A '" 0.00056 + 0.0002 + 0.00006 + 0.0008 - O.lXH62 (m l . K) / W

U;;;617 W/ (m 2 ·K)

In this case none of the res istances is negligible.

Examplt'" 2.2. In Example 2.1 , replace one of the Iluwing liquids by a Ilowing gas
[h o = 50 W / (m 2 . K)]:

I I 0.003 I
- ~ - - + 0.0002 + - - + -
U I80U 5U 50

R,A - 0.00056 + 0.0002 + 1l.OOOO6 + U.02 = 0.02082 (m 2 . K) / W

U=48W/(m 2 . K)

In this case o nl y the gas side resistance is significant.

Example 2.3. In Example 2.2, replace the Ilowing liquid hy another gas [h i - 25
W /(m 2 • K)]:

I I 0.003 I
- = - + 0.0002 + - - + -
U 2.') 50 50

R,A = 0.04 + 0.0002 + Il .OOOO6 + O.lll = 0.06026 (m 2 • K) /W

U ;;; 17W/(m 2 . K)

Here the wall and scale resistances arc negligible.

2.5 THE lMTD METHOD FOR HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS

In the heat transfer analysis of heat exchangers, the total heat transfer rate Q
through the heat exchanger is the quantity of primary interest. Let us
consider a simple counterflow or parall el- fl ow heal excha nger (Figs. 2.3a and
b). The form of "\1;,, in Eq. (2.7) may be determined by app lying an cne(!,,'Y
balance to a differential area clement dA in the hot and cold fluids. The
temperature of the hot fluid will drop by dTh • The temperature of the cold
fluid will also drop by dT< over th e eleme nt dA for counterflow, but it will
increase by dr;. for parallcl flow if the hot-fl uid direction is taken as positive .

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CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
20 BASIC OE~ METHODS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Consequently, from the differenlial forms o f Eq ~. (2.5) and (2.6) o r from Eq.
(2.1) fo r adiaba tic. steady·stat e fl ow. the e ne rgy ba lance yields

(2 .22.)

0'

6Q - - Cll dT~ - ± C,. (/7~ ( 2. 22b)

whe re e" and C,. a re the hal· and cold-fluid heat capacity r:l!c s, respectively,
and the + refers to parallel flow. The nile of heat transfer 5Q from the hot
to the cold fluid across the heat tr:msfcr a rea dA may IIlso be expressed as

(2 .23 )

From Eqs. (2.22) for counterflow, we get

d(TIt - T)
( - dTh - dT( - OQ( -'-
C, - -'-
C ) . (2.24)

Substituting the value of liQ from Eq. (2.23) into Eq. (2.24 ), we obtain

( 2.25)

which , whe n int egrated with conSlant va lues o f U. C~. and C, over the c nl ire
length of Ihe heat exchanger, results in

In T., - T" - UA - - -
T ill - Tel C..
(I I)
C~
(2 .260)

(2 .26b )

It is seen th at the te mpera ture distributiun along the heat exchanger is

I:xponc nl ial. Hence in a cou nterflow heat excha nge r the te mperatu re differ-
ence (rio - T.. ) decreases in the direction of fl ow if CI. < C.. . but increases if
C" > C.. (Fig. 2.6). The expressions for C.. and CI. can now be obtai ned from

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 C o < C". C o .. C ..... C" -: c ~ , C~ .. C .-,
T T
T"
T"
T" T.
r,, ~_ T&.

T., T<,
T<
T"
T" T,
0 Surface Area. A L 0 Surface Area, A L

la' 10'
t'ig.2.6. T cmfK,:raiu re vari<l lj()11 fm a coun terflow heal exchanger.

Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6) and subMi tuted inlo Eq. (2.26a ), Solving fo r Q and
rearranging, we obta in

(2.270)

(2.27b)

where 6.T, is the temperature difference betwee n the two fluids at one end
of the heat exchanger and 6.Tz is the temperature difl'erence of the tluids at
the other end of the heat exchanger.
Comparison of the preceding expression wi th Eq. (2.7) revea ls that the
appropriat e ave rage temperature difference be tween the hot and cold fluid s,
over the entire le ngth of the heat exchanger. is give n by

tJ.T1 - ilT z
(2.28)
10(uT,/uT! }

which j:o; ca lled Ihe log- mean tempe rat ure differe nce (LMTD). Accordingly,
the total heat transfer ra te between the hot and cold fluid s for all single- pass
flow arrangements shown in Fig. 2.3 is determined from

Q - AUuT (2.29)
'm

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22 BASIC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

In the case of counterflow with (,ilC)h = (riIC)c' the quantity !i. TIn> is
indete rminate since

and (2.30 )

In th is case, it ca n be show n usin g I.' Hospit al's rule tha t ~ Tln> = d TI - 6 T2

and t herdore

(2.3 1)

Starling with Eq . (2.22 ) fo r a pa rallel -fl ow a rrangement, it can be shown that

Eq. (2.27b) is al so applicable. Howe\ler, fo r il para llel-flow hea t exchan ger.
the e ndpoint te mpe ra ture di ffe re nces must now be defi ned as .11'1 -
(Thl - 7;'1 ) a nd !:l1'2 = ( 1'~2 - T,. ~ ).
No te th at , for the same inlet and uutlet tempera tures, the log-mean
te mperature diffe re nce fo r coun te rllow exceeds that fo r pa ra llel flow. !:lT lm .d
> 6Tlm . rf ; th at is. LMTD re prese nt s the maximulll temperat ure potentia l fo r
heat transfe r tha t ca n o nly be obtained in il cou nterfluw excha nge r. lienee
the surface area re qui red to affeet a prcscrihcd heat Ira nsfe r ra te Q is
smalle r fo r a counte rflow arrange ment t han that for a pa ralle l-fl ow a rrange-
me nt. assuming the same \la lue o f U. Also note that J~l can exceed J~ l for
co unte rflow but not fo r paralle l flow.

2.5.1 Multipass and Crossflow Heat Exchangers

The LMTO de\leloped previousl), is no t a pplicable for heat trallSfer an a lysis
o f crossfl ow and multipass excha nge rs. The integra tio n of Eq. (2.23 ) for these
fl ow arrangeme nts results in a form o f a n integra ted mea n tem pe rature
d iffere nce Ll T", such thai

( 2.32)

whe re 6 T", is Ihe true (or effective) mea n te mpe rature diffe rence a nd it is a
complex functio n o f Thl , 7~ 1 ' Td , a nd Td . G e ne ra lly this fun ctio n !I T,,, ca n
be de te rm ined a na lyt ically in terms of the following quantities [6, 7J:

(T1I2 - Tcl ) - (Till - 7;2 )

(2.33)
In[ ( T,.2 7;'1 ) /(7;" 7~2 )1

( 2.34)

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 2.5 THE LMTD METHOO FOR HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS 23

and

(2.35)

where .6.Tlm . d is Ihe log-mean lemper:Hu re difference for a eounle rflow

arrangement with the same fluid in leI and out le t temperat ures. P is a
measure of the ratio of the heat actu ally transfe rred to the cold fluid to the
heat which would be transferred if the same fluid were 10 be raised to the
hot-fluid inlet temperature; therefore P is the tempe rature effectiveness of
the heat exchanger on the cold-fluid side. R is the ratio o f the mcp value of
the cold fluid to that of the hot fluid and it is ca lled the heat capacity rate
ratio (regardless of which fluid is the tube-side or shell-side fluid in the
shell -and-tube heat exchanger).
For design purJX)ses, Eq. (2.29) can also be used for multipass and
crossflow heat exchangers wi th a LMTD correction factor F:

( 2.36)

F is nondimensional; it depends un the temperature effectiveness p , the hea t

capacity rate ratio R , and the fl ow arrangeme nt

F - Ib( P , R , flow arrangemen t) (2.)7)

The correction factors are available in chart form as prepared by Bowman

et ai , [6, 7) for pract ical usc for all common multi pass shell-a nd- tube and
crossflow hea l exchangers and selel1ed resu lts are presented in fi gs. 2.7 to
2, II. In calculating P and R to determine F, it is immaterial whe ther the
colder fluid flows Ihrough the shell or inside the tubes.
The correction factor F is less than I for crossflow and mult ipass arrange-
me nts; it is I for a true counterflow heat exchanger. It represents the degree
of departure of the true mean temperature differe nce from the LMTD for a
coun terflow arrangement.
In a multipass or a crossflow arrangement : the fluid temper"ture rna)' nOI
be uniform at a particular distance in the exchanger unless the fluid is well
mixed along the path length. For exa mple, in crossft ow (Fig. 2, 12) the hOI and
cold flu ids may cnte r at uniform tempera tu res. but if there are channels in
the fl ow path to prevent mixing, the exit temperature distributions will be as
shown in Fig. 2.12. If such channels are not prese nt. the fluid s may be well
mixed along Ihe path length and the exit temperatures are more nea rly
uniform as in the flow normal to th e tube bank in Fig. Id, A similar
st ratification of temperatures occurs in the shell-and-tube multipass ex·
changer. A series of baffles may be required if mixing of the shell fluid is to
be obtained. Charts are presented for both mixed and unmixed fluids in Figs.
2.13 and 2.14.

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 0.9

IJ...
0.8
c;
ti
t\)
LL.
c;
Q 0.7 0
~ :0
0
U ~ w
0.6 0 lnO 0> 0> j).

0 0
0 00 0 0

Temperature EHIClency, P

Fig_ 2.7. LMTD correction factor F for ib $hell-and-tubc heal exchanger--one shell pass

CONTENTS
BACK I and [wo or multiple of two tube pass ~ ~
BACK t;: ~

NEXT
CONTENTS ~ ~ CiS
cc z z
o
u
NEXT
 0 .9

I..L
0 0.8 :l)
0
ell
U-
c
N
e (Jo OCll Ol l>-
(:)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.7
~
8
0.6
L

1
0.5
0 0 .1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 t.O
Temperature Efficiency. P

I: il) ) P", TC2 - 7",

Tn! - Tel
R", T~! - Tn2
T'2 - Tel

~
Fig. 2.8. LMTD correction faclor F for ,I l ell-and-tube heat exchanger-two 5hdl passes

CONTENTS
BACK and four or multiple of (our lUhe p a~ ~ BACK ii I-

NEXT
U LI.I X
< I- UJ
CONTE NTS ~ It) ~ Z
u
N EXT ,
 0_9

lL
~~ 08
0
:n
ro
u..
c::
Q
~
0.7 0
"0
~
0
0
<'.0

Temperalure Et1lclency, P

'1 ~leJFand'IUbc heal excnanger-rhree shell passes

CONTENTS
BACK Fig. 2.9. LMTD correction factor F .
BACK

NEXT
u ILl ~
CONTENTS and SIX or more even number of ru b ~ a ~r ~.,

NEXT j
 1 0

I.i..
0 09
U
~
u...
c
0
13 0,8
~
0
u
0.7

1,0

Temperature Efficiency, P

Fig, 2.10. LMTD correction factor F for a divided·flow shell·type heal exchanger-one
divided·f1ow shell pass and even number of tube passes [7[.

Uil

CONTENTS
I-
BACK

~ @
t\) BACK Z

NEXT
-....I w
I-
CONTENTS Z
0
u
NEXT I
 1 °
0.9

lI..
0 0.8
t3
'"
u...
c
.Q :0
t> 07
~ en S>- V> N
O 0
0>
0 '" 0 0 (J\

"
0
U 0

Temperature Efficiency, P

Fig. 2.11. LMTD correction facl9-b J~o r a split-flow shell·type heal exchanger-one

CONTENTS
BACK
split-How shell pass and two lube I'~S( ~ ~
BACK

NEXT
CONTENTS <I
cc
I-
Z
UJ
Z
o
u
 FiR. 2.12. Temperature distribution in a crosstlow heat exchanger.

The preced ing analysis assumed V to be uniform throughout the heat

exchanger. If V is not uniform , the heat exchanger calcu lations may be made
by subdivid ing the heat exchanger in to sections ovcr which V is nea rly
uniform and hy applying the previously developed relations to each suhdivi-
sioll (see Section 2.10).
An important implicat ion of Figs. 2.7 to 2. 11 , 2. 13, and 2.14 is :ha\. if the
temperalUre change of one fluid is negli gible, e ither P or R is 0 and F is I.
Hence heat exchanger behavior is independent of specific configuration. Such
would he the case if on e of the fluid s underwent a phase change. We not e
from Figs. 2.7 to 2.11 , 2.13, and 2.1 4 that the value of temperature effective·
ness P ranges from () to I. The value of R ranges fro m 0 to x , with ()
corresponding to pu re vapor condensation, and 00 to evaporation. It should
be noted that a value of F close to 1 does not mean a highly efficient heat
exchanger; it mea ns a close approach to th e cou nterflow behavior fo r
comparable operat ing conditions of flow rates and inlet Jluid tempe ratures.

2.6 THE £- NTU METHOD FOR HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS

When the inlet or out let temperatu res of the flui d streams are not known, a
tria l-and-error proced ure could be applied for using the LMTD method in
the thermal analysis of heat exchangers in order to de termine the value of
LMTD which wi ll satisfy the requirement that the heat transferred in the
heat exchange r [Eq. (2.7)] be equal to t he heat convected to the fluid [Eq.
(2.5) or (2.6)]. In these cases, to avo id a tri al·and-error proced ure, the
method of the number of transfer units (NTU) based on the concept of a
heat exchange r effect iveness may be used. The met hod is based on the fact
that the inlet or exit tempe rature diffe rences of a heal exchanger are a
function of VA IC, and CJCh [see Eq. (2.25)J.

BACK
BACK CONTENTS
CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
 0.9

lJ..

o
t5 0 .8
III
u.
c
_9
~ 07
o
U

0.6

0.8 09 1.0
Temperature EMlciency. P

BACK I
f, "81
BACK
~~
CONTENTS

NEXT
CONTENTS !
Fig. 2.13. LMTD correction ~t ~r ~f a cro$Sfiow heat exchanger with both fluids
unmixed Pl.
NEXT u
 1.0 1 ......1III!!!!l~~::::=::::::~::=:::::::=::::=-=:;:::::::::=---------l

0 .9

lL O.B
0
U
(l)
LL
c 07
9
~
0
()
06

0.1 02 03 0.4 05 0.6 0.7 08 09 1.0

Tempera1ure Efficiency. P

CONTENTS
BACK BACK
~

NEXT
CONTENTS Fig. 2.14. LMTD corn:ction f act tir single-pass crossfiow heat exchanger with one
fluid mixed and Ihe oIlier unmi., .IfI.,
NEXT '
32 BASIC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

The heat exchanger heat transfer equations such as Eqs. (2.3), (2.4), and
(2.26) may be written in dimension less form resulting in the following
dimensionless groups (8].
1. Capaci ty rate rat io:

(2.38)

where Crn,n and ern .. are the smaller and larger of the two magnitudes Ch
and Ce , respectively. and C· !:> 1. C· = 0 corresponds to a finite Crn'h and
ernu approaching (]J (a condensing or evaporating fl uid).
2. Exchanger heat transfer effectiveness:

, - -Q- (2.39)
Qm••
which is the ratio of the actual heat transfe r rate in a heat exchanger to the
thermodynamically limited maximum possible heat transfer rate if an infinite
heat transfer area were available in a counte rflow heat excha nger.
The actual heat transfer is obta ined either by the e nergy given off by the
hot fluid o r the e nergy received by the cold fl uid. from Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6):

(2.40)

These are valid for the parallel-flow and counterflow arrangements shown in
Fig. 2.3. Therefore the Huid that might undergo the maximum temperature
difference, which is thc difference between thc inJet te mperalUres of hot and
cold Huids. is the Huid having the minimum heat capacity rate Cm'h ' There-
fore the maximum pos... ible heat transfer is expressed as

(2.410)

(2.41h)

which ca n be obtained with a counte rflow heat exchanger (Fig. 2.5 ). Heat
exchanger effective ness is therefore written as

(2.42)

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 2.6 THE ~ _ NTU METHOD FOR HEAT EXCHANGER 04.NALYSIS 33

The lirst definition is for Cit - Cm", and the second for Cc - Cmin . Equation
(2.42) is va lid for all heat exchange r flow arrangemen ts. The value of B
ranges be tween 0 and I.
For given F and Q ........ the actual heat transfer rate Q from Eq . (2.39) is

If the effectiveness f o f the exchanger is known. Eq. (2.43) provides an

explicit expression for the determination of Q.
3. Heat tran sfe r area number:

AU
NTU =
e m1n ~ -.-I f UdA
(min A
(2.44)

If U is not conslant . the defin ition of second equality applies. NTU desig-
nates the nondi mc nsiOilil l heat transfe r size of the heat exchanger.
Le I us co n ~jder a single- pass hea t exc hanger, assuming Cr > Ch , so that
Ch = C min and Cr - Cm,,,' With Eq. (2.44), Eq . <2.26b) may be written as

(2.45)

where the + is fo r count erflow and the - is for pa rallel flow. Wi th Eqs.
(2.5), (2 .b). a rH.J (2.42). 'f ~2 and '/ ~2 in i::q. (2.45 ) can be diminated and the
followi ng expression is ohtaincd for 6 for counterfl ow:

, - 1 - exp[ - NTU( I - C"""/C n,,.,.)]

(2.46)

If Cr < Ch (Cc "" ('m," ' Ch - Cma, ), the result will be the same.
In the ca.';c of parallclllow, a sim ilar analysis may be applied to obtain the
following expression:

- exp! - NTU(I + C"" . I C m .. )! (2.47)

I + Cnnn/e m...

Two limiting cases arc o f interest: Cm'n /Cm~' equal 10 1 o r O. For

('moo/ em..., - I, Eq. (2.46) is indeterminate , but by applying L' I-Iospita l's rule
to Eq . (2.46). the following resu lt is obtained: For (Cm,n/ Cm,.. ) - I for
counte rflow

, - -;-:--:-;';""
NTU
(2.48)
1 + NTU

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TABLE 2.2 The t -f'Io"U u; p ressions a nd Limiling Values of £ for C· - I a nd NTU
-- ao for Va rious [)lc hangu Flow Arna nge menlS [3. 91

Flow Ar"'ng~mcnl ~ - Nl1) Formulas

Counlerflow
, - 1 - up[ - NTU(l - C')]
1 - C ' up! f'JTtj(1 - C')J

Parallel Flow
.-- I - v.pi - NTU(I",C ' )J
I ... C '

~ - I - e,pl - (I ... CO )NTU] [ iu(2Nl1) /C' )

.. ,;c; 1,( 2NTt Jv"-; )
CrOSlitlow .
/lu,d5 unmixed
bolh
_I :.,C'
...t. ("" . ill. (2NTUVCO) ]

~edFIUid

~Mi~ed Fluid

Crosstt{)\O. o ne fluid
mixed. olhe. u"m , ~~d. ,
, .• Z; [ I - e~l'{ CO[l - e~I'( - NTU)1) 1

.X "" ""d , - ---;-----'--;~----;­

~xedFIUld -:-:c== . -,-:::::;-:";:=-;=
, - ~.p(
C-
NT U ) .....-: np( NTU C') NTU

Cr05.!flow. bo lh
11,,;.1, mi,ed

,
'\
i= , - -,---::,-------"--'::-;.",,.-=

where
(I ",C' j + (I ... C , l j';I C01h ( r /2 )

r- NTUI I + C ' ~ J '"

1-2 sh~ll·and · lube
e..:hanger. shell tt",d
mixed. TEMA I'. ~hell

,. _ 1 _ 2~ [2CO .. e.p( - NTU(E: "~/2 )ll

le' + I 2C' - exp ( - Nl1J( C' - 1/2 \)

If C .. ," - C ..." 3nd C ..... • C,.""

1_2, hell .and · lube
el<Changer. shell tt uid
unm ..... ed. TEMA £ shell

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 ru~mpR"1C .... l~ of,
~- NTU F."mul~ s for " _ I .. "",,,NTU -_

·- NTU
.. N T U
- I f.:>faIlC·

• - HI ""1'£ - 2N1'Ull I .. c'

. .. I - [1,,{2NT Ul" l ,jlNTU1Jr INTI) r - I r,'raUC '

., - 1 C'll( (I c .p( N'fl ) l]

• • I up( II C ' )

~ - I - e.p( - (I - e~I'( - NTLJ ) 11

.----co
' -==~
' ~
I I
l - e~p( - N r U) N ru

, ,
·- 2 ... /iOO lh(1" /2 ) ·- (I ' C")
, (I" c ·/ )' ,l
.. h~,c r .. .;z NTU

Irc _ .. C""" Mn,l C' .. 1/2

, .. I -
I ... ' .... " ..

2 ' NTU ·- , (
Z/(I'IC" ) tor C ' ;J: U.~
for C' < (15

~
J
'[2" c ~p( - ; I'ITU)]
.. I - ..
2 - cop( ~ I'ITU) ·- ! • ("'

35
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 ~ - NTU f orm "I ••

If C .... _ C r_ ~nd C ..... - c ...u

~ Shell Fluid , - 4/ 12(1 .C ' ) ... (I " 4C' 1) '

/1
CQth( r / 4)
+ t ~ nh( NTU / 4)1

Tube Fluid f
I f .....n - C ...." and C .... _ C, .....

1_4 ~ h ~ lI ·a n d · lu be t _ 4/ [ 2(1 ... CO J T (4 ... CO:)' /l rotll( r· /4)

n<=h~n"c •. ~hc ll flu id
mi:<~d. T(~A £ shell ... C· tanh(NTU · C'/ 4)]

I f C .. ," _ C,...,. and CO'" - C ...."

. "
(I ... G ... lC"G)'(~C

(I ... G '" lC'G) • le ' ll - 0) ..

I) ~~

lc"~
, n
•

1- ,· 1- , .
",h ere D - 2("' ... 1 (i - 2e' _ I ("" - u s NTU,/2

'" - ~NTU(2 C- ... II.IJ - , NTU (K' - ()

1- 2 ~pl; , · n<J" ( xcllan):cr. If C",," - C..." and <'m... - C'ob<.

shell Iluid mixed, tile prece di ng r"rmu};). Wi lli C ' replaced II)· I/ C·.
u ~e
T EMA G s hell NTU replaced by NTU C', ~n d ~ .epta ced by cC'

I f C"". - C,y"" Mnd C .." - C .... "

,
Shell Fluid
."~"" ... 2C·<t> ·

I where <t> . - I ... r ( -,' -'- - '-$ ' )

~ Tube FlUid

I f C ..," - C"",,, ami C... , - C,~ ....

\ - 2 rJ;~iderJ · fI<Jw use the precedmg formula "ilh C ' re placed
n(h8nj;:e •. 511e1l flu rd b) I / C ·. NTU .epl~ ccd by NTUC· . ~ nd
mIXed. TEM A J shell ,. rcpla<=cd I>y , C '

36

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 A<ymplolic Value of €

".. hen NTU ---> ""

, ,
, - -~~=~-~=~~
4 ;5colh(J'/4) + lanh(NTUj4)
+
, - - -- - - - - c o, , -
2(1 + CO) + (I + 4CO,)' /l +

where r - /5 NTU

, ,
.- -~-~---=--~--
4 + V5COlh(f'/4) + lanh(NTUj4)
" - ------'~~-
/
1(1 +C ')+ (4 + C"j' 2+ C '

where I" - /5 NTU

ForC' >;

4 - ,, - """-'/ 2 _ " -.l ~/l

·- 2e' +
l C " + C· +
I

F"' C ' ~;

,-,

For C'<2
C" ./- 2
Same a, the preceding furmub
,- - C · > + C ' + 2

For C · ." 2, . - ljC '

.- I +
2
2<1>'
·- -----'----,--",
2
I + lC' + (I + 4C· , / ll

wner~ 4" - '+>

• - (' "")
I ---
'I,

<t> - exp( - NTU,),), -y - /5/2

If e",," - C\holl

Same ~~ the preceding form"l~

·- -~--:---,;;
2
C' + 1 + (C,2 + 4)' /l

37

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 Countertlow E~changer Parallel·FIoW Exchanger
Pei10rmance Perlofmance

- Hot Fluid (mcQ) ~ '" C ~

..........
/' s~: SFs'~i: S(:::;c\: \;~
~~-
Hot Fluid (me,,) ~
------ ... ,
I IISSSSISSSSSSI,SIS SSISI,SS!S$! -
Heal Translet Surlace
/ Cold fluid (ri1cp)~

Heat Transler Surface

(.) 10)
100
C-. / C ..... ... 0 C ..... / C m . , ... 0
O.
Vb.50

• '"
.; 60
~ 0.75
', 00 -- 60
0.25
0.50
•• I%: ;; 0.75

=1If 100
0
~
'0 - - V-
~
~
w
20 f 20
/
I 1·- I-
o 0
o 2 3
Number 01 Transler Un,ts, NTU ma. .. AU / em",
• 5 o 2
Number 01 Transter UI'1I\s. NTU-. ... AU; C.-.
3 • 5

Crossftow Exchanger with

One FlUid Mixed

I
~;"df10'd
Idl Unmixed FlUid
100
025
C"""'., ... 0 00

<' -- - •
•,
60 \ 1:925
V- Osp
o.~~_
---- •,
60
C'''''''''«I '
V - - --
- - -
--
-
0.5
2
075
133
.; 60 _, 0V 1.00 -
.; 60
'l:
••
~ ~
•• f- C"" •." 1
r-
•, ,• '0 C............ ...
0 0

~
'0 l- f-
~
~
~
w w
20
f - - I- 20

o
Number 01 Transler Unlls. NTU ...... .. AUj C ....
o 2
NumO€!r 01 Transler Units, NTU,,,,,, ... AU / C"""
3
• 5

F'ig. 2. 15. EfJcct i"cnc~ vs. NTU for various types of he;.! exchangers (for dashed lines
C min " C uom",,:<l) (8).
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 MultipasS CrOS$·Counl6f·
Flow Excnanger C,...,./C_ - 1

.•• - --
Unmt.ICed Flow WlttWn Passes fJtc:;hanger Pertonnance
.- .... ... - ~
Eftect 01 Flow NratlQ8m8llt

'~.'
lor C_,/C_ .. 1

'"
, 80
_
Four Pauel . I Crossllow
a.;-e FUId Mt.ed \:
~I"-
ilr-r
Crossllow FlUids

I U'ii"" ,-

L~"~-
j
'In - ... ) /
':60
.. 10 I '-+-j---j-+ r ... Three Passes
~ v
~ ~ T~P~ II
~ 60 One Pass If' PalaJle1 Flow

w rl Parallel·Counlerftow
~ri-n~+-ri-+-r+-ri ,Oor 57" ~"',
.0 r o I I I I I
o 2 5 3 • o 2 3 • 5
Number 01 Transler UmlS, NTU.... , _ AU/ C ..... Number of Transle! Unlls. NTU _ .. AUj C-.

Mullipass Counlerllow
Exchanger Perlormance E.ehanger Perlormanee
(Pltr8I1el·CounlerlIOW passes) Elleet 01 C""" / C .....

EHecl 01 Number 01 Shell Passes

l or C,.,., / C ...... _ 1

'''' '.'
100 'h'
,, .
I I I I IFcu,'"," Counterflow
1.~ ' .-
-- - -
Counterflow In _ <E) I-C_I C_ •
I-'?....IC_ .. 0.9
,, 80 l-
I ~1§
- - -
--~
-
.60
~p ' Three Passes
.; 60
-- -- Crossllow
~ r"-

J~ ..
BoIh FlUids UnmIxed
!/ I ~ C.... / C ...... .. 0 .9
) r\ Two Passes 11 - 2 Exct\aOQ9f) r
y
I ' C,..../ C-. .. 1 0
One Pass (1 - 2 EllchanOe') ~
w
L 20
II
o o
o 2 3 • 5 o 2 3 • 5
Number of TrClllSIef UnrtS. NTU-. _ AU/ C_

fill:. 2.IS. (CQlllimj~d)

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NI!XT 39
 ll~ SholF'"" (me.1.- c. ,."" F'"" (me.1. - C " 1.
-- ,II~ ~ _
T! ,,':me.1,_c, IIi
One Shell Pass
FlUId (me"J, - C, ' I'
Two Shell Passes "
(01 2. 4, 6. etc_. Tube Passes (J) 4, 8, 12. etc . Tube Passes

"': ffl~/~. ~~-·t!°O~l';2 '-~~~~

'00
C...,./ C_ - 0

80 0'25

"
,
V .
0.50
V. O} 5
' 60 ~ ~
.; 60
••
•c
~ 40 I~
V 1- 1.00
j.o ~'-t-I-t-+-+-t-I-+--1
~
w w
20 20 I-f+-I--H
o
o 2 3 • 5
Numbel 01 Transfel Units, NTU"",. - AUj C,-, NumDer 01 Transl er VMS. NTU" ... - AU! C ,,~

."ig. 2.IS. (Co/lfi'Wf'fll

a nd for parallcl fl ow, Eq. (2.47) gives

f - ! (1 - e-: :-rrU) ( 2.41.)
For Cm,n/Crnv. ,. 0, as in boi le rs and condensers ( Figs. 2.3c and til for
parallel now or cou nte rflow . Eqs. (2.46) and (2.47) become
t'_ I _ e - NTtJ ( 2.5H )
11 is noted from EQs. (2.46) and (2.47) thai
f - ~(NTU. C ' . now arrangeme nt ) ( 2.5 1)
Similar exprcs... ions have hcen developed for heat excha ngers having ot he r
flow arrangements, such as crossnow. multipass. and so fo rth . and re preSCIl -
tat ive rcsuhs are summ arized in Table 2.2 13. 9. 1111.
Some c- NTU relat ions are graph ica lly shown in Fig. 2.15 [8J. Thc fo llow-
ing observa tions may be made by reviewing these fi gures:

I. The heat exchanger effe ctive ness c incrcases wilh increasi ng va lues of
NTU for a specified C·.
2. The exchanger cfl"cClivencss I" increases with decreasi ng va lues of C"
for a specified NTU.
3. For e < 40% the capacity rate ratio C· docs not have a significant
influence on the exchan ger effective ness.

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 Because of the asymptolic nature of the £-NTU L"urvCS, a significant
increase in NTU, and hence in the heat exchanger size, is requi red for a
small increase in E at high values of £.
The counte rflow exchanger has the highest exchanger effectiveness E for
specified NTU and C · values compared to those for all other exchanger fl ow
arrangements. Th us, for a given NTU and C~, a maximum heat transfer
performance is achieved for counterflow: alternately. the heat transfer sur-
face is utilized most efficie ntly compared to all 01 her flow arrangements.

Example 2.4. A two-paS!; tube, bamel! sinKle-pass shell, shell-and-tube heat

exchanger is used as an oi l cooler. Cooli ng water fl ows through the tubes at
Me at a ra te of 4.0R2 kg/s. Engine o il enters the shell side at a rate of 10
kg/s. The in let and outlet temperatures of oil are 65~C and 55 ~C, respect ively.
Determine the surface area of the heat exchanger by both thc LMTD and
€- NTU method~ if the overa ll heat tr,lOsfer coefficicnt based on the out~idc
tube area is 262 W /( 01 2 . K). The specific heats of water and oil arc 4179
J/ (kg' K) and 2047 J /(kg' K), respectively.

Solution: The heat transfer rate Q and LMTO for counte rflow will first be
calculated. Subsequentl y. P. R, and the t"Orrection faclor F will be de termined.
The he;lt tran~fer surface area A will thcn be determined by the LMTD
met hod usi ng Eq. (2.36). The heat capacity rates for the she ll fluid (oill and the
lube fluid arc

C, .. (me,,) ( = 4.082 x 41 79 .. 17.059 W/ K

From the temperalure drop of oil. the hcat transfer rate is

Q .. C~(T~ , - T~2) '"" 20,470 x (65 - 55) .. 204.7 kW

From the encrgy balance Q .. C~(Td - Tel)' the wa ter outlet tempera tu re is

Td .. (204,700/ 17 .0511) + 20 ~ 32°C

From the definition of 6T 1m in Eq. (2.28) for il counterflow arrangement

The values of P and R from Eqs. (2.34) and (2,35) arc

32 - 20 c,
.. 0.267 .. 0.833
65 20 C,

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 Therefore F fro m Fig. 2.7 is F - 0.98. Thus the heat transfe r area from Eq.
(2.36) is

204 ,700
","cc-''';;7,;C'::=
262 x 0.98 x 34
". 23.45 m 2

In the t;-NllJ method, first r: and C· and subsequent ly NTU and A will bc
ca lculated. In this problem, Clo > C" and he nce C" = C...in :

C"'in 17 .059
C' - ~- - - - - - 0.833
Cm~. 20,470

From the givcn (Cmperiltun:s, fur C, ~ Cn,in' EQ. (2.42) givlo:s

Now NTU is calcul;Itcd either from thc formula in Table 2.2 or il is found from
Fig. 2. 15 as NTU - 0.360. Hence

17.059 x 0.360
A
u
NT U _ --=~--
262
_2J.44 m l

2.7 THE P-NTU c METHOD

Thi s method is a variation of the c-NTU method. A .. shown in Table 2.2, the
~' - NTU relations are different depending upon whether the tube fluid is the
Cm". or Cm,n fluid in shdl-a nd-tube hea t exchangers. In order to avoid
possible confusion abou t which is the C",;n fluid , P is defined as the
temperature effect iveness of the heat exchanger on one fluid side, regardless
of whether it is the hot side or the cold side. NTU is based on that side's heat
capacity rate and R is defined as a ratio of that side's heat capacity rate to
that of the other side. Somewhat arbitrarily, that side is chosen as the
cold-Iluid sidc. If a distinction is required for the shell side and the tube side
instead of hot and cold Iluids. the results may also be presen tcd based on the
tube side. The P, R. and NTU,. defin itions are also va lid for the shell side or
the tube side as lo ng as they are consistently defi ned for one side. The
defini tions of P. R , and NTU are given by Eqs. (2.34), (2.35), and (2.44)
whe re e",;" "" C,..
Comparing EQs. (2. 34) and (2.42), temperature effectiveness P and ex-
chan ger effectiveness E arc related by

fo r C~ = em;n
(2 .52)
fo r C, = Cma.

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 2.7 THE P-NTU c METHOD 43

1.0r-------------------=~-____,

, _ Shell Fluid

L [TUbe FlUid

0.8 - !' • iII

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

4.0

0.2

0. '

Fig. 2.16. Thc temperature effectivcness P as a function of NTU,. and R for a 1-2
shell-and-tube heat exchanger with shell fluid mixed (9].

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44 BASIC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Note that P is always less than or equal to E. NTU( is re lated to NTU based
on C nlln as

C ( NTU for Cr - Cm in
NTUc ~ I'jTU c;-
m ..
~ NTU · CO
for Cr - e m..
(2.53)

Simi lar to the exc hange r effective ness t:, the temperature effectiveness P
is a function of NTU.. . R . and flow arrangement

P ... 1>( NTU,., U , fl ow arrangement) (2.54)

It should be noted thaI P, NTU .. , a nd U a re defi ned consiste nt ly based on

the cold-side flu id variables: the results arc also valid for P. NTU c_ and Rail
hased on the tube·side fluid variables or she ll ·side fluid va riables; they can
also be based on the hot · fl uid variables.
The origin of the P- N-!lJ , method is related to shel l-and·tube heal
exchangers and the must usefu l NTU, lk~ i g n range for shell-and-tube ex-
changers is abou t 0.2 103. T he P-NT U, results are ge nerally presented on a
semi-log paper. as shown for example in Fig. 2.16, in ordcr to obtain more
accura te graphical val m:s of P or NT U, .
In the P- NTU( method, the total heat transfer rate from the hot flui d to
the cold fluid in the heat exch,mge r is expressed as

(2.55)

The P- NTUc relationships can be derived directly for any flow arrange-
ment or can be obtained from the E-NT U rela tionship given in Tabl e 2.2, by
re placing C·, t', a nd NTU by R , P , and NTU,. respectively, using EiJs. (2 .3 ~O,
(2.52), and (2.53). For example , for the parallel-flow heat exchanger, the
I'- NTU( relationship becomes

- exp l - NT U, (I + R)i
!' = ( 2.56)
1+ R

which is valid for R = () to R = oe·, P is the cold-side (or tube-side) tempera-

ture effective ness and NTU, is based on C, (or lUbe-side C,).

2.8 THE "'-P METHOD

As mentioned in Section 2.6, a trial-and-error method is needed for the
solution of th e rating problem by the LMTD method and for the sol ution of
Ihe sizing problem (for multipass she ll-a nd · tube exchangers) by the f:-NTU
method. For the graphical represen tation of the E- NTU result s, the abscissa
ranges from () to 00 (i.c., it is unbounded). A met hod that combi nes all the

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 28 THE . -p METHOD 45

\'ariable.<; of the LMTO and £-NT U methods and cli minates their limit ations
for hand calculation has bee n proposed by Muelle r [ I II. In th is method, a
new groupi ng ~ is introduced . It is a ratio o f the true mean tempera ture
difference to the inle t temperat ure dilfere nce of the two fluid s

(2 .57)

It ca n be shown Ihal '" is related to £ and NTU as

r
(2 .58)
NTU.

The log-mean tempera ture difference correction fa ctor is defined as (see Eqs.
(2.32) aod (2.36)J,

(2 .59)

where aT", is the true mea n temperature difference. In order to eval uate F ,
we com pare an actual heat exchanger o f any flow arrangement of interest
wi th a reference cou nterflow heat excha nger having the same termina l
temperatures. Therefore Eq. (2.59) ca n also be written as

F- (2 .60)

where NTUr represen ts the actual numher of transfer units for II given heal
exchanger. The P- NTUc relationship can be wri tten for count e rftow from
Table 2.2 as

1 - "pl - NTU, ( 1 - /1) 1

(2 .6 1)
1 - Rexpl - NTU, (I - R)I

aod

_ I 10( 1- III') for R "*

NTU _ l - R I - P
r. d p (2 .62)
{ for R -
I - P

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N'XT
•

P - ! Ta - T~,) /( T~I ~ Te,)

Fig. 1.17. ,J. - P charI ror a 1-2 shcll -ilnd·tu be heal e)(c.hangcr. she ll fluid mixed [9].

46

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TABLE 2.3 Working Equations for the LMTD. E-NTU, P-NTU~ , and v-P Methods"
LMTD £-NTU

Q ~ UAF Do T1m • c1

CATd - T~ ,)
Cmin(Thl 7,·1)

(mc p)""n
( mCP)m..
UA I
NTU- - - - JUdA
e mm em,n A

F = </J(P, R, flow arrangement) t- = rf>(NTU. C*. flow arrangement)

Q - PC,'(Thl - T(1)
VA em;n
NTU - - - NTU - -
~ Co e~

P - </J(NTU,., R . flow arrangement) 1/1 - rf>( P, R , flow arrangement)

"The definitions of P, R, and NTU, ca n also be consistently based on C" Ch , or C, .

Equations (2.58), (2.60), and (2.62) can be combined to relate !/I to F as

FP(I - R }
(2.63)
'" - In[(1 RP}/(I P}j

In this method the rate of heat transfer can be calculated as

(2.64 )

There is no need to calculate d Tim sinee ljJ represents the nondimcnsional

dTm . As can be seen from Eq. (2.63), we have

ljJ = </J(P, R , flow arrangement) (2.65)

IjI-P charts with R as a parameter have been prepared by Mueller [II]. As an

example, the !/I- P chart for a 1-2 shell-and-tube heat exchanger is shown in
Fig. 2.17 [9].
Table 2.3 summarizes each of the methods discussed in the preceding
sections.

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48 BASIC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT eXCHANGERS

In obtai ning expressions for t he fo ur basic design met hods that we

discussed in the precedi ng sections, Eqs. (2.22) and (2.23) are integrated
across the su rface area under the following assumpt ions:

1. Th e heal exchange r ope rates unde r steady-state, steady-fiow condi tions.

2. Heat transfe r to the surroundings is negligible.
3. The re is no heat generatio n in the heat exchanger.
4. In counte rflow and parallel-fl ow hea t exchangers, the tcmpe ra ture of
each fl uid is uniform ove r every now cross sect io n; in crossflow heat
exchnnge rs each fluid is considered mixcd or unmixed at eve ry cross
section depe nd ing upon the specifications.
5. If there is a phase change in one of t he fluid st rea ms fl owin g through
the heat exchanger. phase change occurs at a constant tempe rature fo r
a single-component flu id at constant pressure.
6. T he specific hea t at constan t pressure is constant for each fluid .
7. Lon gitudina l heat conduction in the flu id and in the wnll are negligible.
8. T he overa ll heat tra nsfer coeffi cien t between the fluid s is constant
throughout the heat exchange r incl uding the case o f phase change.

Assumptio n 5 is an idea lization of a two-phase- flow heat excha nge r.

Especiilily. for two-phase fl ows on both sides, ma ny of the foregoi ng assump-
tions are not valid. The design theory of t h c~ types of heat exchange rs is
discussed and practica l results arc prese nted in the fo llowing chapt ers.

2.9 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN CALCULATION

We have discussed four methods for performin g a heat exchan ger therma l
a nalys is (Table 2.3). T he rating and sizi ng of heat exchangers a rc two
important problems e ncounte red in the the rmal analysis of heat exchangers.
The ra ting prohlem is conccrn"Cd with the determination of th e heat
tra nsfer rate and the fl uid out let temperatures for prescribed fluid fl ow rates,
inl et temperatu res, and the pressure drop for an existing heat exchange r:
hence the hea t transfe r surface area and the fl ow passage dimcnsions are
avai lable.
T he siz.i ng problem. on the other hand, is concerned wi th the determina-
tion of the d imensions o f the heat exchanger. th at is. se lecting an appropriate
heat exchanger type and de terminin g the size to meet the speci fi ed hot- and
cold- fl uid inlet and ou tlet temperatu res, flow rales, and pressu re drop rc-
quireme nts. Fo r example, if the inlet temperatures and mass flow rates are
known an d t he objective is to design a heat exchanger that will provide a
desired value of outlet temperature for one of the Hu ids, the LMTD method

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 2 .9 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN CALCULATION 49

can be used 10 solve Ihis sizing problem wit h the followin g steps;

I. Calculale (! and the unknown outlet temperature from Eqs. (2.5) and
(2.6l.
2. Calculate J1T'm from Eq. (2.28) and obtain the correction factor F if
necessary.
3. Calculate the overall heat transfer coemcient U.
4. Dete rmine A from Eq. (2.36).

The LMTD method may also be useu for rating problems (performance
analysis), but computation would be tedious, requiring iteration since the
outle t te mpera tures are not known tu calculate the LMTD. In such silUations
the analysis can be simplified by using the F. - NTU me thod. The rating
analysis with the E- NTU method wi ll be as follows:

1. Calculate the capacity rate ratio C· - Cm,n /Cma> and NTU = UA/e mm
from Ihe input data.
2. Determine the effectiveness E from the appropriate charts or E-NTU
equat io ns for the given heat exchanger and specified flow a rrangemen t.
3. Knowing E, calculate the lola I heal transfer rate from EQ. (2.43).
4. Calcu late the outlet temperatures from Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6).

The £-NTU me thod may also be used for Ihe sizi ng problem and the
procedure will he as follows:

I. Knuwing the outlet and inlet temperatures, calculate £; from Eq. (2.42).
2. Calculate the capacity rate ratio C· = Cmin/Cm.x'
3. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U.
4. Knowing E. C·. and t he flow arrangement, determine NTU from charts
o r from t:-NTU rclations.
5. Knowi ng NTU, calculate the heat transfer surface area A from Eq.
(2.44).

The P-NTU~ me thod is ju st a variant of the E-NTU method. The w-P

method combines all th e variables of the LM TD and £-NTU methods and
eliminates their limitation s.
The use of the E-NT U method is gene rally preferred in the design of
compact heat excha nge rs for automotive , aircraft, air-conditioning. and other
industrial applicalions where the inle t temperalUres of Ih"/.! hal and cold fluids
are specified a nd th e he at transfer rates a re to be determ ined. The LMTD
and IjJ-P me thods arc traditionally used in the process, powe r, and petro-
c hemical industries.

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50 BAStC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

2.10 VARIABLE OVERAU HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

In practical applications, the overall heat transfer coe ffi cient varies along the
heat exchanger and it is st rongly dependent on the flow Reynolds number,
heat transfe r surface geometry, and fluid physical properties. Methods to
account for specific va riations in U are given for counterflow. crossflow . ,lOd
multipass shell-and-tube heat exc hangers.
Figure 2.18 shows typical situations in which the va riation of U within a
heal exchanger might be very large. The case in which both fluid s arc
changing phase is shown in Fig. 2. IRo, where there is no sensible heat ing and
coolin g: the tempera tures si mply remain constan t throughout. The condenser
shown in Fig. 2. ISh is pe rhaps more common than the condense r of Fig.
2.3d. In the former , the condensing vapor enlers at a te mperat ure greater
than the sat urat ion temperature and subcooling o f the liquid takes place
hefore the hot liquid leaves the exchanger. A correspondi ng situation , where
the cold fluid enters as a liqu id and is heated. evaporated, and then
superheated, is shown in Fig. 2. ISe. When the hot fluid consists o f both
conde nsable vapor and noneondensable gases, the temperature distribution is
more oomp lcx as represen ted in a ge neral way in Fig. 2.ISd. The d ifficulty
that one faces in desig ning such a hea t exchange r is the continuo us variation
of U with position within the hea t exchanger. If the three parts of the heat
exchanger (Figs. 2. IHb and c) had constant values of U. then the heat
exchange r could be trea ted as three different heat exchange rs in series. For
arbitrary variation of U t hrough the hea t exchanger. the exchange r is divided
into many segments and a differe nt va lue of U is then assigned to each

Condensing T" '-noco~==~=----,

~
s,uperheatin9
T, , Sutx::ooli~
T Condensing \
,
Evaporating

(al Both FlUids Changing Phase

" Heating "
(b) .One FlUid Changing Phase
T"
Too

T" , - - - - - - - ,
T"O:C-------'P"._rt"i••'--,
Cooling Condensation

Superheating Healing Te , T" G;;;~

Heating T"
Too
(c) One Fluid Changing Phase (0") Condensable and
Noncondensable
Components

Fig. 2. 18. Typical cases o f a hem cxch;mger with va riahle U.

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segment. The ana lysis is best pe rformed by a numerical or fi nite-difference
method . Let us consider a counterflow do uble-pipe heat exchanger (Fig.
2.lh). The he al exchanger is divided into incre ments of surface area .lA o' .
For any incremental surface area, the hOI- and cold-flu id temperatu res are
T~, and T..-o> respectively. and it wi ll be assumcd that the overall heat transfe r
coeffieienl ca n be expressed as a function of these temperatures. Thus

(2.66)

The incremental heat transfe r in uA, ca n be calcu lated from Eq. (2.22):

From Eq. (2.23), AQ, is also given by

(2.IiX)

Equation (2.25) can he writte n in the finite -differe nce form as

(7~, - "1;.), +( - ('I;, - T~ ),

(2.69)
(T, - Te ) ,

(2.711 )

where

( 2.7 1)

The numerical analysis can be carriet! out as follows:

l. Choose a conven ie nt va lue of A.A , for the ana lysis.

2. Calculate the inn e r and o ute r hea t transfer coefficients and the value of
U for the in let condi tions and through the initial .lA increment.
J. Calcula te the value of A.Q, for this increment from Eq . (2.68).
4. Ca lcula te the val ues of Tlo> "~, and Th - 7~ for the next increment by
the use of Eqs. (2.(,7) and (2.tl9).

T he 10la l heal transfer Tatc is the n calculated from

Q - L" dQ , (2.72)
,- ,

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52 BASIC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Fo r t he overall hea t transfer coe fficient V and 6T varying lincarly with Q,

Colburn recommended th e fo llowing expression to ca lcu late Q [121:

(2.73)

where VI and V z arc the va lues of the over~1l hea t transfer coefficients on the
ends of the exchanger h,tvi ng tem pera ture differences of .6. TI and 6 T 2,
respectively.
When both IIU and .6.T vary linearly wit h Q. Butterworth [l 3] has shown
that
(2.74)
where

(2.75)

For somc condense r applica tions. Eqs. (2.7:') and (2.75) may be appl icable
(see also chapler I I ).

2.11 HEAT EXCHANGER PRESSURE DROP AND PUMPING POWER

Th e therm al design o f heat exchangers is di rected to calculate an adequate

surface area to handle the thermal duty for the given specifications. Fluid-
frict ion effects in the heat exchanger arc equally important. They determinc
the pressure drop of the flu ids flowing in the system. and consequen tly. the
pumping power or fan work input necessary to maintain Ihe flow . Provid ing
for pumps or fan s adds to the capital cost and is a major part of the operat ing
cost of the exchanger. Savings in exchange r capital cost achievcu by designing
a compact unit with high fluid velocities may soon be lost by increased
operating costs. The fin al design and se lection of a unit wi ll therefore be
influenced just as much by effec.:t ive use of the perm issible pressure drop and
the cost of pump or fan power as they :'I re influe nced by the tempe rature
distribution and provision of adequate area for heat tran sfer.

2.11 .1 Tube·Slde Pressure Drop

In fully developed flow in a tube, the fo llowing functiona l re lationship can be
written for the frictional pres~ure drop for e ither laminar or turbulent flow:

6P
L - 1b (1I .~,d,.p . JJ.. e) (2.76)

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 2 .11 HEAT EXCHANGER PRESSURE DROP AND PUMPING POWER 53

where the qua nt ity e is a statistica l measure of the su rface roughness of the
tube and has the dimension of length . It is assumed that ilP is proportional
to the length L of the tube. With force F, mass M, length L, and time 6 as
the fundamental dimensions and II .... £1" and p as the sc t of maximum
numbe r of quantities, which in themselves cannot form a dimensionless
group, the pi theorem leads to

='--;-;C;"TP- ,--;-;c;
4(L ld, )(p"~/2) - ~
( ". d,p e)
- ,,- , d,
(2.77)

where the dime nsionless numerica l con !>tanls 4 and 2 a re added fo r conve·
mence.
The previous dimensionless group involving t.t, P has been de fin ed as the
Fanning fric tion factor f:

jp
(2 .78)
f ~ 4( L i d, l(p" ~/ 2)

Equa tio n (2.76) hecomcs

(2.79)

Figure 2. 19 shows th is rela tio nship as ded uced by Moody (14} from expe ri ·
mental data for fu lly developed flow . In the laminar regio n, existing empirical
data on the pressure drop wi thin round pipes ca n be correlated by a simpl e
relationship between f and Rl'. indepe nde nt of the su rface roughness

1(,
f ~ -u, (2.80)

The tran si tion from lam ina r to turbul e nt flow is somewh e re in the ne igh·
borhood of Re from 2300 10 4000.
The [.ve rsus·Re re lation for smooth tubes in turhule nt flow has a slight
curvature o n a log-log plot. A few recomme nde d corre lat io ns fo r turbule nt
flow in smooth pipes a re given in T ahle 2.4. Two linear approximations
shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 2. 19 for turbule nt flow a re

f - O.046Re - n.1 for J x 111 4 < Re < lot' (HI,)

, nd

f '= O.079Re - u 25 for 4 x 10 .1 < Re < JO ~ (2.8 Ib)

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 01

'" e, em
i Turbulent Drawn Tubing 0.00015
0.020 Transitional: Commercial Steel 0.0046
Laminar : Asphalt Cast Iron . 0.012
N Galvanized Iron 0.015
"- 0.015
NE
I
Cast Iron 0.026
:::J I
c:.. I Wood Stave 0.0185-0.090
-0-
Concrete 0,03-0.3
"- 0.010 Rivetted Steel 0.090-0.90 0.01
.....J
~ 0.009
~ 0.008 \ 0.004
<j 0.007 \
\
.... 0.006

~
..:
0

u...
c
0
0.005

0.004
j\
f = 16jRe
ejdj = 0.001

0.0004

:§ (Circular Pipe Only)

u: 0.003
0.0001
f = 0.046
(Re)020
0.00005
0.OO2 ~~~~~~~ ________~________- L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~_ _ _ _ _ _~
10 3 2 34568
104

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 2,11 HEAT EXCHANGER PRESSURE DRoP AND PU MPING POWER 55

TABLF. 2.4 Turbul~nl .low isolhumal Fanning .' riction Factor Cornlalions
rOr Smooch Cin:ular Ducts [41
Rdercnc~ Corrcl ation a Limuallon~

I. Blouius f - - '.
,- - 0.0791 R ..
pu..,/2
2. Drew. Kw. / _ OJ)()l40 + O.125 Rr Mn Il 4 X 10 1 < ~ < 5 X 106
and McAdams

:l. Karm a n and 4 x 10' < IU < J X 10~

Nikuradl>(

HPllmximnted as
/ _ (J.64loi lD R~ - .\.VI) l

4. Approxima te Karman - f- U ,~6~ - n ~

Ni kura dse correla tion

a p mpc rti cs are evaluated at Ihe bulk Icmpcnllurc .

The friction fac tor f can he read from the graph. hut the correlat io ns for f
are useful for compu ter ana lysis of heat exchangers. They <l Ise show the
functional relationsh ip of various qu antities,
For fully developed flow in a tube, a simple force bala nce yields

(2."2)

which may be combined with Eq. (2.78) 10 get <In equiva lent form for the
fri ction fact or, defined as

( 2.83)

2.11 .2 Nonclrcular Cross-Sectional Ducts

A duct of noncircular cross scction is not geomctric<llly similar 10 a circular
ducl; hence dimensional analysis docs not re lllie the pe rformance of Ihese
two geome trica l shapes. However, in turbulent fl ow, f for noneircular cross
sect ions (annulllr spaces. rectangu lar, and tri angular ducts. etc.) may be
eva luated from the data for circu lar ducts if d; is replaced by an equivalent

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 56 BASIC DESIGN METHODS Of" HEAT EXCHANGERS

diamefer (hydraulic diamefer) Dt , defined by

4A 4( flowarea)
D, - P.
- (2.84)
welted perime te r

Using the equivalent d ia me te r in turbu le nt flo w gives / values withi n abou t

±8% of the measure d values (1 5).
The equivale nt diamete r of an annu lus o f inner and Oliler diameters
d,.d" is

(2.85)

For a ci rcular duct, F.q. (2.84) reduces to D, - d , .

The transition Reynolds number for noncircular ducts ( plI ",D, / Ji) is a lso
found to be a pproxi mate ly 2300, as for ci rcu lar ducts.
For laminar flow, however, the resu lts for noncircular c ross sectio ns arc
no t universally correla ted. In a thin annu lus, the flow has a parabolic
distribution perpe nd icular to the wall and has this sa me distrihution at every
circum fere ntia l posi tion. If this flow is trealed as a flow oc twee n two paralle l
fl a t plates sepa rate d by a d istance 2h, o ne ohtai ns

(2.86)

He re Dt - 2b and Eq. (2.86) c.'I n be written in the form

24
f - - (2 .87)
Rc

with J), re placing d , in the definitions of / and Re. Th is equation is different

from Eq. (2.80) which a pplies to laminar flow in c ircular duclS.
Flow in a rectangular duct (d imensions a X b) in which b c:: a is sim ilar
to thi s ann ular flow . For rectangular duelS o f o the r aspect ra tios (b / a):

16
f ~­ (2.88)
~R'

where

4ab
D, - 2( a + b)
(2.89)

and ,p is given in Fig. 2.20 (16].

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 2. 11 HEATeXCHANGeAPReSSuAeOAOPANOPIJM PlNG~A 57

bl a
05 06 07 08 09 10

" I
LO
..-'
• 0 .•
/'
= .'-
[=:Jb
01 02 03 0. 4 05
bto Fig. 2.20. Values of f/J for rcctangu lar ducts.

For laminar now in ducl S of tri<lngular and t rapezoidal cross section ,

Nikuradse (4) showed that [is approximated by 16/ Re with IJt given by Eq .
(2.84) and trans itio n occurs at approximately Rl' = 2300.
The pressure drop for now through a duct of length L is ge lll.:ra lly
expressed as

L pu :l
tJ.p ... 4[ _ _ _'" 12.90,)
IJc 2

or

I . 0' 1
~P ~4f- ­ 12 .YOb)
IJ, 2p

where G - u",P is refe rred to as the mass ve loci ty.

Th e exact form of Eq. (2.90) depends o n the nuw si tu.llion . The pressure
drop expe rienced hy a sin gle-phase Hu id in the tuhes in shcll-a nd·tuhe heat
exchangers must include the e lTects o f ;}Il the tubes. The pressure drop for all
the tubes ca n be caleulated hy

LN C'
uP, = 4[- -" --
' (2 .9 1)
U~ 21'

where Np is the numhe r of tube passes and /J, - d ,. The fluid will expe ri·
ence an additional loss due to sudde n ex pansio ns and contractions thar the
tube unde rgoes during a return . Experiment), show thaI the rl.:turn preSsure
loss is given by ( 17]:
,
PII ;"
:"P, - 4N - 12.92)
" 2

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58 BASIC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Flow Flow 1
-{<j

Fig. 2.21. Square and triangular pitch ·tube layout.

where Np is the number of tube passes, which is 2 in a 1-2 heat exchanger

and 4Np is the return pressure loss coefficient.

2.11.3 Shell-Side Pressure Drop

In a shell-and-tuhe heat exchanger with baffles, the fluid velocity fluctuates
because of the constricted area between adjacent lubes. The shell width and
the number of tubes vary from top to bottom or side to side . There is no true
area on the shell side by which the shell-side mass velocity G, can be
computed. For this reason, fictitious va lues of D~ and G, "Can he used. The
equivalen t diameter (hydraulic diameter) D~ representing shell geometry is
calculated along (instead of across) the long axes of the lubes to retain the
format of Eq. (2.91). The equ ivalen t diameter is then taken as four times the
hydraulic radius obtained by the geometry as layout on the tube sheet. Figure
2.21 shows a square and a triangular pitch layout.
For the square pitch, th e area is a square minus the areas of four
quarter-circles (the hatched section in Fig. 2.21). The wetted perimeter is Ihe
circumference of four quarter-circles. Thus
4(p} - ".d;/4)
D, ~ d (square pitch) (2.93)
". "
For the triangular pitch

4(p}13 14 - ".d;/8)
D ~ --"-'--'----co---"-'---'- (triangula r pitch) (2.94)
~ 7rd o /2

It will be necessary to calculate a shell-side l1uid velocity for a given mass

How rate. This can be done if there is an equation for the shell -side
characteristic area. The variables that influence the velocity are the shell
inside diameter Dp the clearance C between adjacent tubes (see Fig, 2.21),
the baffle spacing B, and the pitch PT' The shell characteristic area is given
by

a, - (2.95)

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 2.11 HEAT EXCHANGER PRESSURE DROP AND PUMPING POWER 59

The shell-side mass velocity is then found with

ri,
G, ~ (2.96)
a,

It should be noted that the shell-side velocity is not constant and the
preceding formulation yields an estimate that is useful in calculating the
pressure drop and the heat transfer coefficient.
The pressure drop on the shell side depends on the number of crosses of
the bundle between baffles. It is proportional to the number of times the
Huid crosses the bundle. A correlation has been obtained using the product
of distance across the bundle, taken as the inside diameter of the shell D"
and the number of times the bundle is crossed (NB + 0, where NB is the
number of baffles. Then the pressure drop is calculated by the following
expression [17];

(2.97)

where De is given by Eq. (2.93) or (2.94), and 4;>, = (J.Lb/J.L •..)O.14, which will
lake care of the effect of property variations. The friction factor f for the
shell side is given by

f ~ exp(0.576 - 0.191n Re,) (2.98)

where 400 :$ Re, (= (G<D~/Il) :$ I X IO h . The friction factor also accounts

for the entrance and exit losses. The additional friction of the shell itself is
ncglccted. If there is no baffle, Huid flow will be along the exchanger and the
pressure drop can be calculated as in a tube flow.
The most important parameter affecting pressure drop is the fluid velocity.
The pressure drop increases as the square of the velocity. A change in the
fluid velocity is therefore more significant than a change in other factors.
Doubling the velocity increases the pressure drop by a factor of 4.
The overall pressure drop in the exchanger is the sum of a number of
components. The primary loss generally occurs in fluid flow through tubcs, in
crossHow over the tube bank, or, as in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, in the
combined crossHow and axial flow characterized by repeated passes through
the tubc bundle in baffled shell-side flow. Secondary losses occur as a result
of (he sudden contractions and expansions as the fluid enters and leaves the
exchanger through the inlet and outlet nozzles or enters and leaves the tube
bundles. Reversals in the flow direction in multipass exchangers also increase
the pressure drop. The use of augmented surfaces increases the heat transfer
coefficient at the expense of increased pressure drop.
In shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the Delaware method is recommended
for shell-side thermohydraulic design for single-phase flow. The Delaware

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60 BASIC DESIGN METHODS Of HEAT EXCHANGERS

method is presented in [18). The shell -side heat transfer coefficient and
pressure drop can be predicted with acceptable accuracy with th is method.
The shell- side pressure drop is built up in the Delaware method by
summing the pressure drops in crossftow and window sections without
lea kage or bypass; it is then corrected for a real hea l exchanger considering
the effect of bypass at the en trance and exit sections, the effects of bypass
and leakage in the interior crossfl ow section, and the effect of leakage in the
windows. The total nozzle-to-nozzle shell -side pressure drop is then calcu-
lated as the sum of the individual effects. Each of the correction factors ca n
vary over quite wide ra nges depending upon the configu ration of the heat
exchanger.
Equa tion (2.97) does not take into account the bypass and leakage effects
on the total pressure drop calcu lations. Therefore Eq. (2.97) overest imates
the shell-side pressure drop as shown in the fo llowing example:

Exampte 2.5. A si ngle-pass tube, baflled single-pass she ll, shell-and-t ube heat
exchanger is to be used in a hot -water hea ting system. The W:lter e nters the
shel l side of the heat exchanger at 70°C al Ihe rilte of ~5,OOO kg/hr. The water
will be healed by condensing stellm inside the tubes at IlOoe (P - 0.143 MPa).
It is proposed to use a heat exchange r that has 17.25 in. I D shell and 0.75 in.
0 0 , 18-BWG lubes. The tuhc!\ ,He I<lid out on a U.9375-in. triangular pitch. The
length of the heal exch<lnger is 3 m. The shell contains segmental baffles that
arc spaced 0.3 m a part. The heat exchange r is designed according to TEMA
sta ndards. Thc numher of tu bes is 239. Assume fouling factors of 0.000352
2 2
(01 . K)/W and 0.UOOO9 (m . K) /W for the she ll and tube sides, respectively.
The shell-side heat transfer coellieient is C<llcu lated to be 6'174 W /(m ~ . K) and
it is assumed Ihat the tube-side heat transfer coefficient is 9000 W /(m~· K).
The allowable pressure drop on the shell side is \0 psi and the expected outlet
temperatu re of the water is greater than 8SOC. The properties of water at 800C
are cp " 4 197 J/(kg· K), p - 972 kgjm'. ~ - 0.000352 Pa· s. W ill this heat
exchange r be su itable for this application?

SoIuticm; This example may be clas.~ified as one requiring a heat exchanger

performance calculation. Accordingly, it is expedient to base the calculations on
the NTU method.
The overall heat transfer coefficie nt is obtained <IS UO . . 1330 W / (m2 . K.)
from Eq. (2.20):

---
'0 I
' ; h,

where
d o .. 0.01905 m ( .. 0.75 in.)

d, " 0.01656 m ( - 0.652 in.)

k .. 53 W / (m . K)

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 The total heat transfer area of the heal exchanger i~

Ao - n11" d oL - 239 x 11" x 0.01905 x 3 - 42.91 mZ

The heat capacity rates are

85,000 x 4.197
c~ - C mln - (rile,, ),-
3600
- 99.10 kW / K

C min
C· - - - - 0
C m. ,

The numbe r of uansfc r units is

1330 X 42.91
- 0.576
99,100

From Fig. 2. 15 or from Eq. (2.50), the heat exchanger effectiveness is fountlto
be

£ .. 0.438

It is now a simple matter to determine the o utlct temperature of the he;!ling

water from FA!. (2.42):

Tel - 70
0.438 - Tel - 87SC
11 0 70

The pressu re drop on the shell side can bc calculated fro m Eq. (2.97). For this
cquiltion

D, - 0.438 1 m Pr - 0.02381 01 C - P r - do - 0 .004762 m

The shell characteristic area from Eq. (2.95) is

D,CB 0.4381 X OJX>4762 X 0 .3 2

" - - - - - --;;-O"";c;-- - - - 0.02629 01
• Pr 0.02381

The shell-side mass velocity from Eq. (2.96) is

,n 85.000
G• - -
".
=::---::c=:o
:\600 x 0.02629
- 898. 1 kg / (m·, · s)

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62 BASIC DESIGN METHOOS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

The slKlI equ ivalent diameter (hydraulic d",meter) IS calculated from Eq.
(2.94):

_ ,,:::..12
'("P"l.::fJ"I--.'_-,,"=-d 8)
D, -
rrJ,,/2

.. x (O.02..VII 1 X 13/4 - '" X 0 .01905 1/R)

- 1'1" X U.Ul9U5/2

- 0 .01376 m

The shell·side ReYOl)lm numhcr is.

G, JJ~ ~98. 1 x tlm:\7f1

R, - - - - - 35,107
• jJ. 0 .000352

The friction (;II;:lor fur the shdl side is give n by Eq. (2 .~8):

f- cxp(0.576 - 1I . 1 ~ In R~. ) - 0 .2435

The she ll·side pressure drop is then eakuJ:l ted as

1J,(NIj + I )G} O . 4 J~ 1x (i,I + I ) X 1:I'IK . I ~

M~ - f - 0.2435 X -32. 16kPa
' 2 p Dr tP. 2 x '172 x 0 .0\376 X

II was assumed th,11 the propcrtic5 arc con ~ t"nt ;tnd tP, - I.

Thc Delaware method gives the tolal nou le·to- nozzle shc1l ·side pressure
drop as 15.67 kPa . Therefore Eq. (2.97) overestimat es the shell-side pressure
drop by a factor of 2.05 for this configura tion and this hell I cxchllngcr will
serve the purposc.

2.11 .4 Heat Transfer and Pumping-Power Relationship

The fluid pumping power Ji is proportional 10 Ihe pressure drop in the nuid
across a heal exchanger. II is given by

. m6P
1' - - - (2.99)
p~,

where TJ p is Ihe pump o r fan eHiciency.

Frequent ly. the cosl in le rms of increased fluid friction requires an input
of pumping power greate r than the reali zed be nefit of increased heal trans·
fer.

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 In the design of heat exchangers involving high-density fluids. the fluid
pumping-power requirement is usually quite small relative to the heat trans-
fer rate, and thus the friction power expenditure (i.e .. pressure drop) has
hardly any influ ence on the design. However, for gases and low-densi ty fluids
and also for very high viscosity fluids, the pressure drop is always of eq ual
importance to the heat transfer rate and it has a strong influence in the
design of such heat exchangers.
Let us consider the si ngk -phase sid~ passage of a heat exchanger where
the flow is turbulent and the surface is smoot h. The forced convection
correlation and the friction coefficient can be expressed as

(2.100)

and

(2.101)

Equation (2. J()() gives the heat transfer coefficient

R,
II = (J.l- c p ) Pr - 1 ! J cf1h (2 . 102)
0,
" ca n be expressed in W /( m1 . K) and it ca n be interpreted as the heat
transfer power per unit surface area.
If the pressure drop through the pas...age is 6.P and the associated heat
transfer surface area is A, the pumping power per unit heat transfe r area
(W 1 m 2) is given by

P aP,i, I
(2 . 1113)
A

By substituting UP from Eq. (2.90) into Eq. (2.103) and noting that D~ -
4A j p ....

p
A
-s( ~', ).( _I ) 'R"~f
71"P D~
(2 .104)

If it is assumed for simpl icity that the friction coefficient is given by Eq.
(2.8Ia) and the Colburn analogy is applicable, then

IP, - O.046Re - 0 .1 (2 .105)

IPJ, - 0.023Re - O. 2 (2. 106)

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 TABLE 2.5 Pumping,Po"'f>r Expenditure ror Various Fluid Conditions
( li p - 80%, D, - 0 .0241 m) [19g 1

Fluid Conditions Powe r Expenditure, W I m l

WOller at 300 K
h _ 3850 W / (m l . K) 3.85
Ammon ia at 500 K.
Ollmosphcric pressu re
h - 100 W / (m ~' K ) 21).1
" - 248 W/ (m 2 • K) 697
Engine u il ill 300 K
,, - 250 W/ (m 1 . K) 0.270 X 10 4
h - SUO W/ (m 1 . K) 4.33% X 1{)4
II - 1200W/ (m 2 . K) CJ2.94 x 10·

Equations (2. 105) and (2. 106) approxim ate the typical characlerislics of fully
developed turbul ent fl uw in smooth tubes. Substit ut ing t hese rel at ions into
Eqs. (2. 102) a nd (2. 104) and comhi ni ng the nl to elimin ate the Reynolds
numbe r. the pumping powe r per unit hea t transfer area (W / m" ) is obtained
as

A - ( 2. 107)

where C = 1.2465 X ](14,

As ca n be see n from cq. (2. !O7 ). the pu mping power depends strongly on
fluid prope rties, as well as on Ihe equivale nt di amete r of the lIow passage .
Some im portant conclusions ca n be drawn fro m Eq. (2 .107) (sec Tabl e 2.5):

I. With a hi gh·de nsity fluid such as a liqu id, the heat excha nger surface
can be operated at large values of II wi thout excessive pumping·power
requiremen ts.
2. A gas with its very low densily results in high vi.lu es of pump ing puwer
fo r even very moderate va lu es of the heat tra nsfe r coc ltkien!.
3. A large va lue of viscosi! )' I.:a uscs the fric tion power to be large even
though !he de nsity may be hi gh. Thus heat exchange rs using oi ls must
be designell for re lat ively luw va lues of II in order !o hold t he pumping
power with in acceptahle li mits.
4, The thermal conductivi ty k also h;\s a very strong influence and
therdore. for liquid metals wi th very large va lues of therma l cond uctiv·
ity, the pu mping powe r is seldom of significance.
5. Small values of eq uivalent rJiameter D~ te nrJ tu minimize the pu mping
powe r.

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 NOMENCLATURE 65

2.12 SUMMARY

In this chapter the basic design methods for two-fluid direct-transfer heat
exchangers arc reviewed. The LMTO, F-NTU, P-NTUc> and IjI-P methods
are briefly discussed and basic relationships are introduced. Pressure drop
relations applicable for certain types of heal exchangers are also reviewed.
Some of the assumptions madc in this chapter restrict the ana lysis to
single-phase flow on both sides or un one side with dominating thermal
resistance. For two-phase flows on both sides, many of the foregoing assump-
tions are not val id. The design theory of a specific two-phase-flow heat
exchanger is presented elsewhere in this book.

NOMENCLATURE

A total heat transfer area on one side of a recuperator. m2

A, cross-sectional area of a he,ll exchange r passage, m2
AI fin surface arca on one side of a heal exchanger, m2
Au unfinned surface area on onc side of a heat exchanger, m2
a dimension of rectangular duct, m
a, shell characte ristic area, m!
B baffle spacing, m
b dimension of rectangular duct, m
b half·distance between parallel plates, m
C clearance between adjacent tubes. m
C constant. in Eq. (2.107)
C flow stream heat capacity rate, me", W / K
C max maximum of C, and C h , W/ K
C min minimum of C~ and ChI W / K
C* heat capacity rate ratio, C", ,, .ICm~x
e" specific heat at constant pressure, J /(kg' K)
De equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter) of flow passage, 4A /p""
m
di tube inside diameter. m
do tube outside diameter, m
e tube surface roughness, m
F LMTD correction factor
f Fanning friction factor, defined by Eq. (2.78)
G mass velocity, kgj(m 2 . s)
h heal transfer coefficient, W / (m 2 . K)
specific enthalpy. J /kg
k thermal conductivity, W/(m . K)
L length of the heat exchanger. m
M, parameter, defined by Eq. (2.71), Ijm 2
m fluid mass flow rate, kg/s

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 66 BASIC DESIGN METHODS O f HEAT EXCHANGERS

Ns num ber of baffles

Np numbe r of lUbe passes
NT U numb« of he" " ansfc, unilS b.sed on Cmm • VA / Cmm
n numbe r of incrementa l areas
P pressure, Pa
8. P pressure drop, Pa
P temperature effective ness. defin ed by Eq . (2.34)
P fluid pumping power. W
P, Prandtl number, p..c p/k
p", wetted perimeter, m
PT pitch. m
Q heat transfe r rate. W
R heat capacity rate rat io. defined by EQ. (2.35)
R thermal res istance, (m 2 . K)/ W
R, fouling factor. {m 2 . K)/ W
Re Reynolds numbe r based on the equiva lent diameter, plImDJ p..
, tube radius. m
SI Stanton numbe r, h / pCpll",
T temperature, K
Tr cold-fluid temperature, K
Th hot -flu id temperature, K
ilT local temperature diffe rence between two fluids , K
.:lTlm log-mea n temperature difference. defined by Eq . (2.28). K
ilTm true mean temperature d iffe rence , defi ned by Eq. (2.7), K
t wall thickness, m
U overall heat transfer coefficien t, W / (m 2 • K )
11 m fluid mean velocity. m/s

Greek Symbols
6. difference
.5 fin thickness, m
£ heat exchanger effective ness, defined by Eq. (2.39)
TJr fin effi ciency
1]" extended surface efficiency. defined by Eq. (2. 15)
~ dynamic viscosity. Pa . S
IJ kinematic viscosity, m 2 /s
p fluid density, kg/ m.l
7... wall shear st ress, Pa
<b parameter, (unct ion of
rJi ratio of true mean 6.T to inlet 6.T , defined by Eq. (2.57)

Subscripts
C cold fl uid
cf coun te rflow

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CONTI!NTS .'Xl
NEXT
 REFERENCE S 67

f fin . fi nned. friction

h hot fluid . heat transfer
inner, inside
m mean
max maximum
min mimmum
0 outer, outside, overall
p pump
pf parallel flow
, return
s shell , scale
tube, thermal , total
u unfinned
w wall
x local
1 inl et
2 out let

REFERENCES
1. Shah , R. K. (]98]) Classificat ion of heat exchange rs. In Heat ExcllmlKers: TIII"-
mal-Hydraulic Fundamellfuls and Design. S. Kaka ~ , A. E. Bcrg1cs, and
F. Mayinger (c ds. ), pp. 9 - 46. He misphe re, Ne w York.
2. Che nowet h, J. M., and Imp:.gliazZQ, M. (cds.) (1981) FoulinK in Hot Excll(llW'
Eqwlmllmt , ASME Symposium Volume HTD- 17. ASME, New York.
3. Ka ka~, S., Shah, R. K. , a nd BergJes, A. E. (cds.) (1981) Low Reynolds Number
Flow Hellt E.xch,mgers, pp. 2 1- 72. He misphe re, New York.
4. Kilka~, $ ., Shilh , R. K. , ilnd Aung, W . (eds.) (]91>17) Handbook. 0/ Sin8le I'lw.l"c
COnveclivt" Heat Trans/ t'r , Ch:. pte rs 4 and 18. Wiley, New York .
5. Kern , D. 0 ., and Kraus, A. D. (1 972) T:.:ctended S"rjuce Heat Trcm4er . McGraw·
Hill, New Yo rk.
6. Bowman, R. A., Muelle r, A. C, and Nagle, W. M. (1 940) Mean temperature
differe nce in design. TrailS. A SME 62 21>13- 294.
7. Stalldard 0/ IIII' Tublllar Exchange Mallu/aclllfus A ssociatioll (1 978) 6th cd .
TuhuJilr Exchanger Manuf;lc ture r.l Associat inn (TEMA), New York .
8. Kays, W. M .• a nd londo n. A. L. (1984) Compact Hi'a/ Exchangers, 3rd ed .
McGraw· Hill, New York .
9. Shah , R. K.. a nd Muelle r. A. C. (1985) Heil t e;>(cha ngcrs. In H'mdbook 0/ Hea/
TraflsJu AppiJcutiufI!; , W. M. Ro hseno w, J. P. I·{a nne tt . and E. N. Ga nic (cds.),
Chilptc r 4. McGrilw·llill. Ne w Yo rk.
10. Kays, W. M .. londo n. A. L a nd Jo hnson. D. W. (1 95 ]) Ga:; Turbilli' Plant Heal
F-xchullgerr . ASME, New Yo rk.
I \. Mue ller, A. C. (1%7) New c hans for true me an te mpera ture differe nce in heal
e xcha nge rs. A1ChE Pa per 10. Ninth Na t. Heat Tra nsfer Confere nce. Seattle.

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68 ElASIC DESIGN METHODS OF HEAT EXCI-IANGERS

12. Colburn, A. P. (1933) M~ a n tempe rature difference and heat transfer coefficient
in liquid he;)t exchangers. Ind . Eng . Chl!m . 2.S 873- 877.
D. Butterworth. D. 09SD Condensers : Thermohydr,lullc design. In Ikat £rchang·
us: Thumol·Hydro/llK F/mdameflfolJ and Dtsi~n. S Kaka,. A. E. Bergtes. and
F. Mayinger (cds.), pp. M7-"'79. Hemisphere. New Yurk o
14. Moody. L. F. (1944) Fricl K)n factor for Pipe flow . TrUlI$ . ASME 66 67J - &W.
15. Brundreu . E. (1979) Modified hydraul ic diameler for lurbulcnt flow. In Turbulent
Furud COI1l:I!Clion in Channels and Oundln. S. Kak.l, and D. B. Spaldmg (ed~ . ).
Vol. 1. pp. 36 t -367. Hemisphere. New York.
16. McAdams. W. 1-1 . (l9S4) Hem Transnll..~mm. 3rd cd. McGr:. .... · Hili. New York.
17. Kern. D. O . (1950) I'rouJS Ileal Trans/tr . McGraw· llIlI . New York.
18. Bell. K . (19M!) De laware method for shell Side deSig n. In Heal Exchangers:
Thfrmal· Uy(lraulic f 'lIntlamC/lla /s Ulld l>esign. S. K.. kil,. A. E. Bcrglcs. and
F. Mayingcr (cds.!. pp. 58 1-618. He misphe re. N~w Yor k.
19. Kaka~ . 5 .. Be rglcs. A. E .. :md Fcrmmdes. E. O . (ct!)..) OWl I) r. .
o·Pha.re Flo ....
Heal £rchonsers. pp. 29-&1 Kluwcr. Dordrechl.

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MI
a:: Ohapter 03
w
MI
Z
w
A Farce Convection
Z
o Correlations for

..'"
MI
Single-Phase Side
of Heat Exchangers
a:: s.
o
l-
Kakac and R. Dskay

e
a::
..
o
I
MI
a::
w
-..o
~

Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 03 Contents
3. Forced Convection Correlations for Single-Phase Side of Heat Exchangers
S. Kakaç and R. Oskay

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Laminar Forced Convection
3.2.1 Hydrodynamically Developed and Thermally Developing
Laminar Flow in Smooth Circular Ducts
3.2.2 Simultaneously Developing Laminar Flow in Smooth Ducts
3.2.3 Laminar Flow Through Concentric Smooth Ducts
3.3 The Effect of Variable Physical Properties
3.3.1 Laminar Flow of Liquids
3.3.2 Laminar Flow of Gases
3.4 Turbulent Forced Convection
3.4.1 Turbulent Flow in Circular Ducts with Constant Properties
3.5 Turbulent Flow in Smooth Straight Noncircular Ducts
3.6 The Effect of Variable Physical Properties in Turbulent Forced
Convection
3.6.1 Turbulent Liquid Flow in Ducts
3.6.2 Turbulent Gas Flow in Ducts
3.7 Summary
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

MAIN PAGE
 CHAPTER 3

FORCED CONVECTION
CORRELATIONS FOR
SINGLE-PHASE SIDE
OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

S. KAKAG
Department 01 MeChanical Engineering
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida 33124

R. OSKAY
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Middle East Technical University
Ankara. Turkey

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In many two-phase-flow heat exchangers such as boilers, steam generators.

power conlh.:nscrs. air conditioning evaporators, and condensers, onc side has
single-phase fluid while the olher side has two-phase flow. Generally_ the
single-phase side represents higher thermal resista nce, particularly with g:15
or oil flow. In this chapter a comprehensive review is made of the availab le
correlations for laminar and turbulent flow of si ngle-phase newtonian fluid
through circular and noncircular ducts with and without {he effect of prop-
erly variations. A large number of experimental and analyt ical correlations
arc available for the heat transfer coefficient and the flow friction facto r for
laminar and turbule nt now through duels. In this chapler recommended
correlat ions for the single-phase side of heat exchangers arc given. Conden-
sation heat transfer is discussed in Chapters 10 and 12. Design informat ion
fo r the boilin g side is discussed in Chapters 6, R, 12, and 13.
Laminar and turbulent forced convection correlat ions for single-phase
fluids represe nt an important class of heat transfer solut ions for heal ex-

Boilers. EL'''fJOralOrs ""II Com/~ns~n·. Edil~d by S"dik Kab ~

ISBN U-471-62170-0 e l99J John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

69

CONTENTS
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70 FORCED CONVECTION CORRELATIONS FOR SINGLE-PHASE SIDE

changer applications. When a viscous fluid flows in a duct. a boundary layer

wi ll form along the duct. The boundary layer gradually fills the entire duct
and the now then is said to be fully developed. The distance at which the
velocity oecomes fully developed is ca[[ed the hydrodynamic or velocity
en trance length (L hc ). Theoretically, the approach to the fully developed
velocity profile is asymptotic and it is therefore impossible to describe a
definite location where the boundary layer complete ly fills the duct.
If the walls of the duct are heated or cooled, then a thermal boundary
layer will also develop a long the duct. At a certain point downstream, one
can talk about the fully developed temperature profile where the thickness of
the thermal boundary layer is approximate ly equal to d12. The distance at
which Ihe temperature profil e becomes fully developed is ca lled the thermal
entrance length (L,( ).
If heating starts from the inlet of the duct , then both the velocity profile
and the temperature profile develop simultaneously. The associated heat
transfer problem is referred 10 as the combined hydrodynamic and thermal
enlry length problem or simultaneously deve loping region problem. There-
fore there are four Iypes of duct flows with heating. namely, fully developed,
hydrodynamically developing, thermally developing, and simultaneously de-
velopi ng. and t he design correlat ions shou ld be se lected accord in gly.
The rate of deve lopment of the ve locity and temperature profiles in the
combined entrance region depends on the fluid Prandtl number (Pr = viet).
For high Prandtl number iluids, such as oils, even though the velocity and
temperature profiles are uniform at the tube entra nce, the ve loci ty profile is
established much more rapidly than the temperature profile. In contrast, for
very low Prandtl number fluids, such as liquid meta ls. the temperature profile
is estab lished much more rapidly than the velocity profile. However, for
Prandtl numbers about I, as for gases, the temperature and velocity profiles
develop al a simil ar rate simu ltaneously along the duct, start ing from uniform
temperature and uniform velocity at the duct en trance .
For the limiting case of Pr - 'Xl , Ihe velocity profile is developed before
the temperature profile sta rts developing. For the othe r lim iting case of
Pr = 0, the velocity profile never deve lops and remains uniform while the
temperature profile is developing. The idealized Pr -> 00 and 0 cases are
good approximations for highly viscous fluid s and liquid metals. respect ively.
When fluids flow at very low velocities, the fluid particles move in definite
paths ca ll ed streaml ines. This type of flow is called lam inar flow. There is no
component of fluid velocity normal to the duct axis in the full y developed
region. Depending on the roughnes." of the circular duct inlet and inside
surface, fu lly developed laminar fl ow will be obtai ned up to Red:<o; 2300
within the duct length L longer than the hydrodynamic entry lengt h L hc ;
however if L < '-he' developing laminar flow would exist over the entire duct
length. The hyd rodynam ic and thermal entrance lengths for laminar tlow
inside conduits have been given in [I. 21. The hydrodynamic en trance le ngth

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 3. 1 INTRODUCTION 71

TABLE 3.1 Hydrodynamic Entrance Length L ~. a nd Thermal Entra nce Ltngth

L •• ror Lamina r Flow inside Ducts"

Constant Wall Consta nt Wall

Gcomclry Temperature Heat Flu:'l

0.056 0.033

0.0 11 0.008 0.012

alb - 0.25 0.Q75 0.054 0.042

0.50 0.085 0.049 0.057
1.0 om 0.04 1 0066
- Based o n the results reporte d in [ I, 2J, The th ermal entry le ngth s are ror th e hydrodynlmica ll)
dcvd oped. thermally deve loping now condi tion s.

L hc , for lam ina r How in!>ide duct!> of va rious c ross sections based o n the
defi nition discussed previously, is presented in Table 3. 1. Included in thi s
table arc the thermal e ntrance lengths for consta nt wall tempe ra ture and
constan t wall heat flux boundary condit io ns fo r thermally developing, hydru-
dynamically developed flow. In T able 3. 1 the Reynold!> num be r is based on
the hydra ulic diameter D h •
If the velocity of the Huid is gradua lly increased, there wi ll bc a poin t
where the laminar flow becomes unstable in the presence of small distu r-
ba nces a nd th e fluid no longe r flows along pa rallel linc!> (streamlines), but by
a se ries of eddies that result in a complete mixing of the entire flow field.
This type of flow is called turbule nt flow . The Reynolds numbe r at whic h the
flow changes from laminar to tu rbulent is referred to as the critical (value 00
Reynolds number. The critical Reynolds number in circular ducts is betwee n
2100 a nd 2300. ·Although the value of the cri tical Reynolds number depends
on the duct cross-sectional geometl)' and surface roughness, for particula r
applicatiulls it can be assumed that the transition from lami nar to turbule nt
How in noncircular ducts will also ta ke place be tween Re<r = 2 100-2300
when the hyd raulic diameter o f the duct. which is defined as fo ur times the
cross-sect ional (now) area A c divided by th e we tted pe rime ter P of the duct,
is used in ca lculat ing the Reynolds number.
At a Reynolds numbe r Re > 10\ the now is completely turbulent. Be-
tween the lower and upper limits lies the tra nsition zone from laminar to
turbulent flow. The refore full y turbulent flow in a duct occurs at a Reynolds
number Re ~ 10 4 •

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72 FORCED CONVEcnQN CQARELAnONS FOR SINGlE·PHASE: SIDE

The hea t flux between the duct wall and a flui d flowin g inside the duct ca n
be ca lculated at any position along the duct by

Q
-
A = h(T
. . . - T)
b.
(3 .1)

where h ~ is called the loca l heat transfer coefficient or fi lm coefficien t <lnd is

defined on the inner surface of the dUCI wall by using the convective
boundary condition

- k(JT/il y).
h, - (3.2)
(T. - T. ),

where k. is the thermal conductivi ty of [he fluid , T is the tempe ratu re

d istribution in the fluid . and T ... and T" are the wall and the fluid bulk
[ e mpe ra fure~, res['K:ctive ly. Then the local Nu.<.selt number is calculat ed from

h.d -d( ' T/ 'y).

Nil, - ( 3.3)
k (7; 7~ ),

Tht: fluid bulk tcmpc ralUrc 'lb' also referred 10 as the " mixing cup" or
flow ave rage temper:uurc, is defined as

(3.4)

where II ,., is the mea n velocity of the fluid ;lOd u and T are, respectively, the
velocity and tempera ture profiles of the flow at position .r along the duct.
The local hea t tra nsfer coe ffi cient is utili zed in calculating th e axia l (in the
.r directio n) va riation of the duct wall temperature or the local heat flux . In
design problems. it is necessary 10 calculat e the total heat transfer rate over
the total (entire) le ngt h of a duct using a mea n value of the hea t transfer
ooefficien t based on the mea n value of the Nusselt nu mber defined as

Nu:. - I fLNu . dx (3 .5 )
L "

3.2 LAMINAR FORCED CONVECTION

l...:lminar duct flow is generally encountered in compact heat exchangers,

cryogenic cooling systems, heating or cooling of heavy (high ly viscous) fluid s
such as oils, and in many ot her applications. Diffe rent investigators pe r·
form ed extensive experimental and theoretical studies with va rious nuids for

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 3.2 LAMINAR FORCED CONVECTION 73

nu merous duct geometries and under di ffe rent wall and entrance conditions.
As a result, they formulated relations for the Nusse lt number versus the
Reynolds and Prandtl numbers for a wide range of these dimensionless
groups. Shah and London III and Shah and Bhatti [2J have compiled the
laminar flow solutions.
Laminar flow ca n be obta ined for a specified mass velocity G = pu ", for
(I) low hydrau lic diamete r Dh of Ihe flow passage or (2) high fluid viscosit y J.L.
Flow passages with small hydraulic diameter are encountered in compact
hea t exchangers since they rcsult in large surface area per unit volume of the
exchange r. The intern al fl ow of oils and other liquids with high viscosity in
noncompaci hea t exchangers is gene rally of a lami na r nature.

3.2.1 Hydrodynamically Developed and Thermally Developing

laminar Flow in Smooth Circular Ducts
The well-known Nusselt - Graetz problem for heat transfe r to an incompress-
ible fluid wi th constant properties flowing th rough a circular duct with
constant wall temperature boundary cond it ions and fully deve loped laminar
velocity profil e was solved numerically by seve ral investigators (1 , 2]. The
asymptotl.:!S of the mean Nusseh numbl.:! r for a circular duct of th e length L
arc

Nu T - 1.61 ( +
P' d)' I' (3.6)

and

NUT - 3.66 (3.7)

The supc rposition of two asymptotes for the mean Nussdt numbe r de rived
by Schliinder 13] gives sufficiently good results fo r most of the practical cases;

M~ 'r - [ 3.66 3 + 1.61.1 (+

",,,)]'1' (3.8)

An empirical corre lation has also heen developed by Hause n [4] for
lami na r now in the thermal entrance region of circu la r duct at constant wall
temperature and is give n as

( 3.9)

The results o f Eqs. 0.8) and 0 .9) are comparable 10 each other. These

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74 FORCED CONVECTION CORRELATIONS FOR SINGLE-PHASE SIDE

equations may be used for the laminar flow of gases and liquids in the range
0.1 < Pe"d/L < 10 4 . Axial conduction effects must be considered at Pebd/L
< 0. 1. All physical properties arc evaluatcd at the fluid bulk. mean tempera-
ture of Tb , defined as
T _ T,+T"
• 2 (3. 10)

where T; and To are the bulk. tcmperalUres of the fluid at the inl et and exit of
the duct, respectively.
The asymptotic mean Nussclt numbers in circu lar tubes with constant wall
heat flux boundary conditions are [I]:

NUfi = 1.953 ( +d)'I'

pe Pe"d
fm - L- > (3.11 )

and

(3.12)

The fluid properties are evaluated at the mean bulk temperature T" as
defined by Eq. (3.10).
The resu lts given by Eqs. (3.7) and (3. 12) represent the dimensionless heal
transfcr coetficie nt s for laminar fo rced convection inside a circu lar duct in
the hydrodynamically and thermally developed regions under constan t wall
tcmperature and constant wall heal fl ux bou ndary conditio ns, respect ively.

3.2.2 Simultaneously Developing Laminar Flow in Smooth Ducts

When heat transfer st arts as soon as the fluid enters a duct, the velocity and
temperat ure profiles s tart developing simu lta neously. T he analysis of thc
temperature dis tribution in the 110w, and hence of the heat transfer betwee n

--- ,

Annular Flow

Tubu!ar Flow
Lnsula!ed

Fig. 3.1. Concentric lube annulus (41).

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the fluid and the duct wall , for such situat ions is more complex because the
velocity dist ribution varies in the axial direction as well as normal to it. Hea t
transfer problems involving simultaneously developing flow have heen mostly
solved by numerical methods for various duct cross sect ions. A comprehen-
sive review of such solutions are given by Shah and Bhatti [2] and Kaka'.; [5].
Shah and London [lJ and Shah and Bhatti [2] presented the numerical
va lues of the mean Nussclt number for this region. In the case of a short duct
length. Nil values are represented by t he asymptotic equat ion of Pohlhausen
[6] for simultaneously developing flow over a flat plate; for a circular d uct,
this equation becomes

NIIT = 0.664 ( Lpe,d) 'I' P'b I /f> (3. 13)

The range of va lidity is 0.5 < P'h < 500 and PebdjL > 10 3 .
For most engineering applications with short circu lar duels (d/L > 0. 1), it
is recommem.lcd thal, whichever of Eqs. 0.8), 0.9). and 0.13) gives the
highest Nusse lt number, be used.

3.2.3 Laminar Flow through Concentric Smooth Ducts

Correlations for concentric an nular ducts are very important in heat ex-
chan ger applications. The simplest form of a two-fluid heat exchanger is a
double-pipe heat exchanger made up of two concentric circular tubes (Fig.
3.0. One fluid flows inside the inner tube wh ile the other flows through the
an nular passage. Heat is usually transferred through the wall of the inner
tube wh ile the outer wall of the annular duct is insulated . The heat transfer
coefficient in the annular duet depends on the ratio of the diameters (D jd Q
)

because of the shap!; of the velocity profil e.

The hydraulic (equivalent) diamete r approach is the simpl est method to
calculate the heat transfer and the pressure drop in the an nulus. In this
approach, the equiva len t diameter of annulus D" is subst ituted instead of the
tube diame{er in interna l ftow corrc la{ions:

net free-flow area

D/ = 4 -.,,--;-;--;---:--cc--c----:--:- ( 3. 14)
, wetted (or heat (ransfe r) perimeter

Th is approximation is aecep{able for heat transfer and pressure drop calcu la-
tions. The validity of the hydraulic diamet er approach has been substantiated
by the results of experiments performed with finn ed annu li (7].
The total wctted perimeter of the annulus for pressure drop calcu lat ions is
given by

P". = 11"( D, + do) (3.15)

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76 FORCED CONVEcnQN CORRELATIONS FOR SlNGlE·PHASE Sloe

and the ht:at transft:r perime ter of the annulus can be calcula lt:d by

(3.16)

Th e on ly difference between p... and PI. is D which is Ihe inner diameter o f

Ihe shell (ou ler tube) of Ihe annulus. This" difference is due to Ihe fluid
friction on the inne r su rface of the shcll : however, Ihis is not the case for the
heat transfer perimc te r si nce the hea t transfe r takes place on ly through the
walls of the inne r tube . The net free-flow area of t he annulus i:. given by

,,(V,' - d~)
Ac - (3. 17)
4

The hydra ul ic diamete r based on the total wetted perimeter fo r pressure

drop caleul:lIion is

(3. IX)

and the hydraulic diameter hased on the heat transfe r perimete r is given hy
Eq. <3. 19), which is he reafter ca lled the equ iva lent diamete r.

(3. 19)

The Reynolds number, Graetz number, and th e rlllio d j t arc to be

calcul ated with D". D~ is used 10 calculat e the hea l transfer coeffi cien t from
the Nussc lt number and to eva luate the Grashof number. Slightly higher heat
transfer coeffi cie nt s arise when D" is used instead of D~ for hea t transfer
calcul ations.
For the constant wall temperatu re bound ary condition. Stephan (H] ha ~
developed a heal tra nsfe r corre lation based on Eq. 0.9). The Nusse lt numbe r
for hydrodynamically devclnrcd laminar flow in the thermal entrance region
of an isotherm,.1 annulus, the oute r w;.1t of which is insulated , may be
calculaled by the following correlation:

(3 .20)

where NIl_ is the Nusselt number for fully developed fl ow.

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 A detailed review of laminar convective heat transfer in ducts for various
hydrodynamic and 1hermal boundary conditions is givc n in [2].

3.3 THE EFFECT OF VARIABLE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

When the previously mentioned corre iaiions arc applied to praclical heat
Iransfe r problems with large temperature diffe rences between the surface
and the fluid, the constant-prope rt y assumption cou ld ca use significant er-
rors, since the transport properties of the most fluids vary with temperature,
which influence the variation of velocity <lnd tem pcrature through the bound-
ary layer or over the flow cross sect ion of a duel.
For practical applications_ a reliable and llppropriat e correlation based on
the consta nt-prope rty assumption can be modified and/or corrected so that
it may be used when the variable-property effect becomes important.
Two methods of correcting constant-property correlations for the
variable-property effect have been employed: name!)' the reference tempera-
ture method and the property ratio method. In the former , a characteristic
te mpe rature is chosen at which the properties appearing in nondimcnsional
groups are eva luated so that the constant-property results at that tempera-
ture m<ly be used to consider the variable-prope rty be havior: in the latter, all
properties arc taken at the bu lk temperature and then all variable·property
effects are lumped into a function of the ratio of one property evaluated at
the wall (surface) temperature to that property cvaluated at the bulk temper-
ature. Some corre lations may involve a modification or combination of these.
two methods.
For liquids, the va riat ion of viscosity is responsible for most of the
property effects. Therefore the variable-property Nussell numhers and fr ic-
tion factors in (he property ratio method for liquids are correlated by

Nu
(3.21,)
Nu ep

f _
leI>
(':'c)'"
1-1- ....
(3.2Ib)

where I-I- b is the viscosity eva luated at th e hu lk mean temperature , JJ. .. is the
viscosity evalualetl at the wall tempera ture, and cp refers to the conSlant-
property solution. The friction coefficient usually employed is the so-called
Fanning frict ion factor based on the wall sheflT rather 1han the pressure drop.
For gases, Ihe viscosity. thermal conductivity. and density vary with the
absolute tempera1ure. The refore, in the property ralio method, temperature
corrections of the following form s arc found to be adequatc in practical

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78 FORCED CONVECTION CORRELATIONS FOR SINGlE -PHASE SlOE

applicat ions fo r the tcmperulUrc-dependc nt property cffccts in gases:

Nu
(3.22a)
Nu ~

(3.22b)

where Tb and T". arc th e absolute bu lk mea n and wall temperatures.

n:spcctively.
It must be noted that the constant-p roperty portion of the specific corre la-
tion is eva lu ated in terms of the pa rilmctcrs and conditions defin ed by it s
author(s).
Extensive theoretica l and experiment al investigations on convective heat
transfer of fluid s with variable propert ies have been reported in the lite ratu re
to ohtai n th e values of the expone nt s t1 and m which will be cited in the
foll owing sections of th is chap cr.

3.3.1 Laminar Flow of liquids

Deissler [9] ca rried out a numcrical ilOillysis as described previously for
laminar flow through a circu lar duct li t constant heat flu x boundary condi-
tions for liquid viscosity variation with temperature given by

( 3.23)

and obta ined 1/ - 0.14 to be used with Eq. D.2I a). This has been used widely
to correlate experime nt al data for lamina r How fo r p, > 0.6.
De issler [91 also obtained m - - 0.58 for heat ing and III - - 0.50 for
cooling of liquids to be uscd with Eq. (3.2Ib).
Yang (101 obtai ned th e solution for hot h constant wail heat fl ux and
constant wail tempe rature boundary condi tions by assuming a viscosity de-
pende nce of a liquid on tempe ratu re as

~ •. [
I + A ( '~= T)] -'
I .. T,
(3.24)

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where A is a constant. His predictions for bot h consta nt wall heat fl ux and
constant wa ll temperature boundary conditions were correlated with n = 0.11
in Eq. (3.2 Ia), and he concluded that thc effect of thermal bound ary
conditions is smal l ami the influence on the friction coefficient is very
substa ntial. He also found that the correction for variable propert ies is the
same for developing and developed regions.
A simple empirical correlat ion has been proposed by Seider and Tate [tl]
to predict the mean Nusselt number for laminar How in a circular duct at
constant wall temperature

NIIT -
( Pe,d )'1'(--
1.86 - -
L
M, ) ' "
p.. ...
().25)

which is valid for smooth tubes, 0.48 < Pr b < 16.700, and OJH)44 < (p.. b/ p..,,.)
< 9.75. This correlation has been recommended by Whitaker 112] for
values of

(3.26)

All physical properties arc evaluated at th e fluid bulk mea n tempera ture
except jJ.- "" which is eva luated at the wall temperature.
It is not surprising that alternativc correlations have bee n proposed for
specific fluids. Oskay and Kak a~ {J3] performed experime ntal studi es with
mineral oil in laminar flow through a circular duct under constant wall heat
flux boundary conditions in the range of 0.8 X 10" < Neb < 1.8 x 10 '\ and
I < (T,,JTb ) < 3 and suggested that the viscosity r,lIio expone nt for Nil
shou ld be increased to 0.152 fo r mine ral oil.
Kuznetsova 114] conducted experiment s with tran sformer oil and fue l oi l in
the range of 4(KI < Re" < 1900 and 170 < !'rll < 640 and rccommended

Ntl~ =
( Pc,d
1.23 - -
)'A (--
M, ) " .
(327)
1. . }J. ",

Test 11 5] conducled an ana lytica l and expe rimen tal study o n the hea t
transfer and fluid friction of laminar fl ow in a circular duct for liquids with
temperature-dependent viscosity. The analytica l approach is a numerical

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TABLE 3.2 Laminar For«d Convection COITelations in Smooth Stralllht Circular ()ucts D

Number Reference Correlation Limitations and Remarks

Nussclt and Graetz [1, 2\ NI/T = 1.61(Pe b d/L)'/J Pebd/L > 10J, constant wall temperature
NUT = 3.66 PebdjL < 10 2 , fully developed flow in a
circular du~t, constant wall temperature

2 Sen liiode r (3 J Superposition of two asymptotes given in case

1 for the mean Nusselt number.
4
0.1 < PebdjL < 10

O.19( Peb d / L )0.8 Thermal entrance region, constant wall

3 Hallsen [4J NUT - 3.66 + --------::-:-:-::-
I + O.1l7(Pe},d/L)o.46J temperature. 0.1 < Pebd/L < 10·

<I Nusselt and Graetz (J, 2J NIIT = 1.953(Pe b djL)i j J Pebd/L > 10 2, constant heat flux
NIIH = 4.36 PebdjL < 10, fully developed flow in a
ci feu la r duct, conSlan I hea I flux
~ ~jtr.l li l .l
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Pebdjl" > IO J . 0.5 < p, < 500,
CONTENTS I 5 Pohlhausen [6J MIT = 0.664 I 1/6 ( . ,
simultaneously developing flow
(Pr) J 1 Z
NEXT u

6 Stcphan [8]
t}>(doID) = 1 + O.14(d oIDY 1/2
t/J(doID,)
7 Sieder and Tate [111
8 Oskay and Kaka~ [13J
9 Kuznetsova [14J
10 Test [IS]
d,,) 0.19 ( PeD"/I. )
"~ Circular annular duct, constant wa II
NUT:' Nu + 1> ( - ( )0467
Dj 1 + 0.117 PeD/,/L temperature. thermal cntrance region
Outer wall is insulated. heat transfer
through the inncr "-'all
= I + O.t4(d oID}I.l Heat transfer through outcr and inner wall
Nu I ~ 1.86( Reb Prbd I L)l /J(p. 01 P. ,,,>0.14 Thermal entrance region. constant wall
temperature. 0.48 < Pr b < 16.700,
4.4 X IO- J < (J.LhIJ.l.,) < 9.75.
(RebPrbdIL)I/3(P.bl!J. ... fl. > 2
Thermal entrance region, constant wall
heal flux, for 0;15
0.8 x 10.' < Reb < 1.8 X lOJ, 1 < (T"jTb ) < J
Thermal entrance region, constant heat flux,
400 < Reb < 1900, 170 < P'b < 640, for OIls
Thermal entrance region, 11 = 0.05 for
heating liquids. n = t
for cooling
liquids

bUnle~ OlhcI"W1Se Slated, fluid properties are evaluated at the bulk mean Auid temperature. Tb ~ (T, + To)/2.

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82 FORCEO CONVECTION CORRELATIONS FOR SINGLE-PHASE SlOE

solution of the continuity, momentu m, and cncrgy equat ions. The experimen-
tal approach involves the usc of a hot-wi re technique for determination of
the velocity profiles. He obtained the following correlation for the local
Nusselt numbe r:

NUb '" 1.4 ( + )'1'(" )"

p, d
J.L : (3.28)

where

0.05 for heat ing

n ~
( ,
,
for cooling liquids

He also obtained the friction fa ctor as

16 1 ( )'.' (3.29)
f = Rc 0.89 ::.

Equations 0.25) and (3.28) should not be applied to extremely long ducts.

3.3.2 laminar Flow of Gases

The first reasonably complete solution for laminar hea t transfer of a gas
flowing in a tube with temperature-dependent propert ies was developed by
WorS0e-Schmidt (161. He solved t he governing equations with a finite-dif-
ference technique for full y developed gas flow through a circul ar tube.
Heating and cooling with a constant surface temperature and heating with a
constant heat flux arc considered. In this solution. the radial velocity is
included. He concluded that ncar the ent rance, and also well downstream .
the results can be satisfactori ly correlated fo r heat ing I < (T,•./T6 ) < 3 by
1/ = O. m ". 1.00. and for cooling 0.5 < (7~fr,,,> < I by /I .. 0, m - 0.81.
Laminar fo rced convection and fluid flow in ducts have bee n studied
extensively. ami numerous n:sults are availablt: for circular and noncircular
ducts under vario us boundary conditions. These rcsul lS have been compiled
by Shah and London [I] and Shah and Bhatti (2]. The laminar forced
(;unvcction corrdations discussed in previous sect ions arc summarized in
Table 3.2. The constant -property correlations ca n be corrected fo r the
va riable physica l properties by the use of Table 3.3 in which the exponents !II
and 1/ arc summarized. For fully deve loped lam ina r flow, II ... 0.14 is gener-
ally recommended for heating liquids.

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 TABLE 3.3 Exponents nand m Associated with Eqs. 0.21) and 0.22) for Laminar Forced Convection througb Circular Ducts, Pr > 0.5

Number Reference Fluid Condition Limitations

Deissler (9) Liquid Laminar, heating 0.14 -0.58 Fully developed flow,
Liquid Laminar, cooling 0.14 -0.50 q::,
= const.
Pr > 0.6, J.t I J.i.. ... = (T IT".) - 1.6

2 Yang (10) Liquid Laminar, healing 0.11 Developing and fully developed
regions of a circular duct,
Th = const, q,7. = const
3 Wors0e·Schmidt (16) Gas Laminar. heating o 1.00 Developing and {ully developed
region~ , CJ,~ = conSl,
T", = const , I < (T,jTb ) < J
Gas Laminar, cooling o 0.81 T", = const, 0.5 < (T,..JTb ) < I

"Panning [ncllon (actor f is clc/1ned as f ~ 2r,, / (pu;,,) and for hydrodynamically developed ;solhermallaminar (low as f = 16 / RI!.

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84 FOflCEO CONVEcnON CORRELATIONS FOR SINGLE-PHASE SIDE

3.4 TURBULENT FORCEO CONVECTION

Extensive expe rimenta l and theoretica l efforts have been made to obtain the
solutions fo r turbul ent forced convection and flow friction problems in ducts
because of their frequent occurrence and application in heat transfer engi-
neering. A compilation of such solutions and correlations for circular and
noncircu lar ducts has been summa rized by Bhalli and Shah [17]. There arc a
large number of correlations available in the literature fo r the fully devel-
oped turbulent fl ow of single-phase newtonian fluids in smooth, straight
circular ducts with constant and temperatu re-dependent physical prope rties.
The ohjective of this section is to highli ght some of the existing correlations
to be ust:d in the design of heat exchange equipment and to emph"lsize the
conditions or limita tions imposed on the applicabi li ty of these correlations.

3.4.1 Turbulent Flow In CIrcular Ducts wIth Constant Properties

Extensive effon s have been made to obtain empirical correlations that ei ther
represent a best-fit curve to the experimental data or have the constant in the
theoretical equations adjusted to best fi t the experimenta l data. An exam pl e
of the latter is the correlation given by P~tukhov and Popov [l8l. Their
theoretical calculations for the case of full y developed turhulcnt flow with
constant properties in a circular tube with constant heat nux boundary
cond itions yielded the following correla tion. which is based on the three-layer
turhulent boundary layer model wi th constants adjusted to match the e)lpe ri -
mental data:

where

/ -= (3.6410£ Re" - 3.28) - 2 (3.31 )

and is defined as / - T~/ ~p u ~.

Equa tion 0.30) is applicable for fully developed turbulent flow in the
range 10 4 < Reb < 5 x JO ~ and 0.5 < Pro < 2UOO with 1% error, and in the
ran ge 5 x 10 5 < Reb < 5 x 10" and 200 < Pr/, < 2000 with 1% to 2% error.
Equation <3.30) is also applicable to rough tubes. A si mpler correlation has

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 3.4 TURBULENT FORCED CONVECTION 85

also been given by Petukhov and Kirillov as reported in [19] as

(3.32)

Equation 0.32) predicts the results in the range 10 4 < Reb < 5 X 10 6 and
0.5 < P'b < 200 with 5% to 6% error, and in the range 0.5 < P'b < 20{)()
with 10% error.
Webb [20] has exam ined a range of data for fully developed turbulent How
in smooth tubes; he concluded that the relation developed by Pctukhov and
Popov, given previously. provides the best agreement with the measurements.
Sieicher and Rouse [211 correlated analytical and experimental results for the
range 0.1 < P'b < \{)4 and \{)4 < Re" < \0(,. obta in ing

NUl> = 5+ O.OI5Re~'Pr; (3.33)

with

0.24
m = 0.88 -

11 = ~ + O.5exp( - O.6Prl»

Equations (3.30), (3.32), and (].33) arc not applicable in the transition region.
Gnielinski [22J further modified the Petukhov-Kirillov correlation by com-
paring it with the experimental data so that the correlation covers a lower
Reynolds number range. Gnielinski recommended the following correlation:

([/2)( Re" - IOOO)P"

(3.34)

where

f= (1.581n Reb - 3.28) - 2 (3.35)

The effect of thermal boundary conditions is almost negligible in turbul ent

forced convection [24J; therefore the empirical correlations given in Table 3.4
can bc used for both constant wall temperature and constant wall heat flux
boundary conditions.

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TABLE 3.4 Correlations for Fully Developed Turbulent Forced Convection through a Circular Duct with Constant Properties
Q
Number Reference Correlation Remarks and Limitations

PrandLi (23. 24J Based on three·layer turbulent bound-

ary laytr model. p, > 0.5

2 MCAdams [251 Based on data for common gases; rec-

ommended for Praodtl numbers '" 0.7

3 Petukholl and IGrillov [19)" Based on three-layer model with coo-

stants adjusted to match experimental
data.
0.5 < P'b < 2000. La· < Reh < 5 x 10 6

4 Webb (20] NUb '" Theort:!ically based. Webb found casc 3

1.07 + 9(fj2)1 / 2( p'h - 1)Pr;-I/4 better al high Pr and this one the same

CONTENTS
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~
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Z al other p,

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CON TENTS I f = 0.581n Re., ~ 8:
Z
oI Z
LI.I

NEXT
III .
u
 5 Sleicher and Rouse (211 NUb ~5 + O.015Re;P'b
In = 0.88 - 0.24 / (4 + P'b)
1/ = 1/3 + 0 .5 exp( -O.6P'b)
NUb = 5 + 0.012Re~·~3(P'b + 0.29)
(f1 2)( Reb - 1000) P'b
6 Gnielinski 1221 Nu" = - - - - -- ....,------
1 + 12,7(f12) ' /2 ( p,F J - I)
f ~ (1.58 In RCb - 3.28)-2
NUb "" O.0214(Re2~ -
7 Kays and Crilwford [23]
4Properties are evaluated at bulk lemperarures.
CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
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Bilsed on numerical results obtained for
4 4
0.1 < P'b < 10 ,10 < Reb < 10 6 •
4
Within 10% of case 6 for Reb> 10 .
Simplified correlation for gase~,
0.6 < Pr b < 0.9
Modification of case 3 to fit experimen-
tal data at 10"-' Re (2300 < Reb < 10 4 ) .
Valid for 2300 < Reb < 5 x 10 6 and
0.5 < Pr b < 2000
lOO)P,~4 Simplified correlation for 0.5 < Pr <
1.5. Agrees with case 4 within -6%
and +4%
Simplified correlation for 1.5 < p, <
S()(). Agrees with case 4 within -10%
and +0% for J x 10 3 < Reb < 10 6
Modified DiullS- Boeller correlation for
gases (Pr "" 0.5-l.0). Agrees with case
6 within 0% 104% for Reb ~ 5000
88 fORCED CONVECTION CORRELATION S f OR StNGlE·PHASE SlOE

3.5 TURBULENT FLOW IN SMOOTH STRAIGHT

NONCIRCULAR DUCTS

The he at transfer and fri ction coefficient s fo r turbule nt no w in noncircular

ducts a re compiled in {17l. A common practice is to e mploy the hydra ulic
diameter in the circular duct correlat ions to prediCi Nu a nd / for the
t urbulent flow in no nc ircular ducts. For most o f the noncircula r smooth
ducts, the accurate constan t-prope rfy experime nt al fric tion fac tors a rc within
± 10% of those predicted using t he smooth ci rcula r duct correlation with
hydraul ic (equivalent) diameter D" instead of ci rcula r duct diameter d. The
constant ·property expe rimenta l Nussc lt numbers arc a lso wi th in ± 10% to
15% except fo r some sha rp-cornercd and narrow channels. This o rder o f
accuracy is adequate fo r the ove ra ll heat transfe r coeffi c ie nt and the pressure
drop calcula tions in mast of the practical design prublems.
Many a lle mpts have been reported in the lit e rature to ltrrive a t a universa l
charac teristic dime nsio n for internal turbule nt flows that wo uld corre late the
constant-property frictio n facto rs a nd Nussclt numhc rs for a ll no nc ircula r
dUCI S [28 -3OJ. It must be e mphasized th at any improve ment made by these
a llempts is on ly a few percent. and the refo re the circula r duct correlatio ns
may be adequlIIe for ma ny e ngineering applicatio ns.
The correla tio ns given in Ta ble 3.4 do not account for e ntrance e ffects
occurri ng in sho rt ducts. Gnie li nski (31 recommends the e ntra nce correction
factor derived by H ause n 127J to o btain th e Nussclt numbe r for sho rt ducts
from the followin g correl ation :

[ (<1)'1
NUl. - Nu", I + L '] (3.36)

where Nu .. represe nts the fu lly develo pe d Nu sse lt numbers ca lculated from
the correlatio ns give n in Table 3.4. It sho uld he noted tha t the e ntrance
length depends on the Reyno lds and Prandtl num be rs a nd the the rma l
boundary conditio n. Thus Eq. 0 .36) should he used cautiously.

3.6 THE EFFECT OF VARIABLE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

IN TURBULENT FORCED CONVECTION

Whe n the re is a la rge difference betwe e n the duct wall and fluid bulk
te mpe ratures, heating a nd cooli ng influence the hea t tra nsfer and the nuid
fric tio n in turbu lent duct flow because of the J istort io n of turbule nt transport
mechan isms, in addition to the variatio n of l1uid properties with te mperature
as for laminar flow .

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 3.3 EfFECT Of VARIABLE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 89

3.6.1 Turbulent Uquld Flow In Duets

PelUkhov [I9J reviewed the status of heat tra nsfer and wa ll friction in fu lly
developed turbulent pipe flow with both constant and variable physica l
properties.
To choose the correct value of n In EQ. 0.21a), the heat transfer
experime ntal da ta cor re~ponding to heating and cooli ng fo r several liquids
ove r a wide range of values (p. .. / JJ. ,,) were coll ected by Petukhov [19). H e
found tha t the data are well correlated by

!'.
< 1 n = 0.11 for heating liquids (3.37)
!',

!'.
> 1 " '"' 0. 25 for cooli ng liquids (3.38)
!',

which are applicable for fu lly developed turbulent fI()'A.' in the range 10 4 <
Reb < 5 X IO~ , 2 < Pr b < 140, and 0.08 < (P. ... / IJ. Io ) < 40. The value of NU cI>
in Eq. 0.21a) is calculated from Eq. 0.30) or (3.32).
The value of Nu cp can also be calculated from the corre l ation~ listed in
Table 3.4.
Petukhov [19] collected data from va rious investigators for the variable
viscosity influence on friction in water for both heating and cooling and
suggested the following correlations for the friction factor :

!'.
<1
r ~(7- !"j for heating liquids (3.39)
!', r~ 6 !'.

!'.
> 1
r = ( :.. )0_24 for cooli ng liquids ( 3.411)
!" roo
The fric tion factor for an isot hermal (conslant·property) flow IeI' cit n be
calcu lated by the use of Table 3.5 or directly from Eq. (3.31) for the range
0.35 < (JJ. ..!lJ. b) < 2, 10' < Reb < 2J X 10 4 • and 1.3 < Pr b < 10.

3.6.2 Turbulent Gas Flow In Duets

The heat transfer and friction coefficients fo r turhulent fully developed gas
flow in a circu lar duct were obta in ed theoretically by PelUkhov and PoPOV
[18] by assuming physical properties p. c p • k., and IJ. as given function s of
temperature. Th is analysis is va lid only for small subsonic veloci ties, since the
va riations of density with pressure and heat dissipat ion in the flow were
neglected . The eddy dilTusivity of momentum was extended to the case of
variable properties. The turbulent Prandtl number was taken to be I (i.e.,

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 fl)
o
TABLE 3.5 Turbulent Flow Isothermal Fanning Friction Factor Correlations for Smooth Circular Duels [26J

Number Reference o Correlation b Remark5 and Limitations

Blasius f = 1'j I /2 pu~ = 0.0791 Re .. 1/4 This approximate explicit equation agrees with
case 3 within ± 2.5%.4 X 10 3 < Re < lOS
2 Drew, Koo, and McAdams f = 0.00140 + 0.125Re- n )2 This correlation agrees with case 3 within
- 0.5% and + 3%. 4 X 10.\ < Re < 5 X 1Of>

3 VOII Karman and Nikuradse 1/ Ii = 1.737 In( Re/J) - 0.4 von K~rman's theoretical equation with the
constants adjusted to best fil Nikuradse's
experimental data. Also referred to as the
Prandtl correlation. Should be valid for very
Of high values of Re. 4 X 10 3 < Re < 3 X 10 6
t/Il = 4Iog{Rell) - 0.4
approximated as
f"" (3.64 log Re - 3.28)- 2
f O.046Re- ' / 4 This approximate explicit equation agrees with
the preceding within - 0.4% and 4 2.2% for
3 x 10" < Re < 10 6
4 Flunenko f = [/0.58 In Re - 3.28)1 Agrees with case 3 within ± 0.5% (or
3 x 10' < Re < t0 1 and within ± 1.8% at
Re = 10 4 . 10 4 < Re < 5 X 10 5
2

5 Teeho, Tickner, and James

J/ f
(
I. 73 72 In 1. 96~ ni Re)
-t~-_x.31.,r.B_
An explicit form of case 3; agrees with
- 2_15____i_t _",_·it_h_in_ ±_O_._l o/,_c_. _l_O_~_<_R_e_<_2_.5_X_I_O_~_ _
CONTENTS
= \
BACK BACK

NEXT
• Prope rI ies are evaluated a I bulk Ie mpe ratures.
-CONTENTS
NEXT I
- "Cilcd in (17. 23. 24. 26).
~ ~I ~.
 TABLE 3.6 Exponents 1/ and m Associated wilh. Eqs. (3.211 and (3.22) for Turbulent Forced Convection through CIrcular Ducts

Number Reference Fluid Condition 11 rn Limilalions

Petukhov [19j Liquid Turbulent healing 0.11 10" < Re h < 1.25 X 10', 2 < frio < 140,0.08 < J.I.~/!LD < I
Liquid Turbulent cooling 0.25 I < J1. w /J1-b < 40
liQuid Turbulent healing Eq.13.39) 10' < Re h < 23 X IO~, 1.3 <: Pr, < )0'
or -0.25 0.35 < Il- ... /J'.,. < I
LIQuid Turbulent cooling - 0.24 ) < J1~./J1.b < 2

) Petukhov and Popov [18J Gas Turbulent heating -OA7 10' <: Rc. < 4.) X lOb. 1 < T./Tn < J.I
Gas Turbulent cooling -0.36 0.37 < T.lTh < I
Gas Turbulent heating - 0.52 14 x IO~ < RI': .s; IO~. I < Tw/Tb <: 3.7
Gas Turbulent cooling -0.38 0,37 < TjTh <

J Perk ins and Worsoc·$chm idt [31] Gas Turhllknl healing - 0.264 ::; T../7i. s 4

4 McEiligol Ci al. [32] Gas Turbuknt heating -0.1 < T«/T" < 2.4

CONTENTS
crJ
8AC~ I-
Z
BACK
ill:

NEXT
CONTENTS u LI.I
I-
~
~
LI.I
Z Z
0
NEXT u
 TABLE 3.7 Turbulent Forced Convection Correlations in Circular Ducls for Liquids with Variable Properties
Number Reference Corrt:lalion CommenlS and Limilaliuns

Colburn (33] Lid:> 60, PI, :> 0.6, Tf = (Tb + T )/2:

N

inadequate for large (Tw - Th )

0.1"

2 S(cder and Tau: [II) NU h ~ 0.023Rf~"Pr,:;J ( : : 1 Li d> 60, P'h

(T", - T/»
:> 0.6, for moderate

3 Pelukhoy and Kirillov r19) Li d> 60,O.OS < pjP.h < 40,
10· < Reb < S X \0 6 ,2 < Prb < 140,
f ~ (1.82108 Reb - 1.64)-2. 11 :. 0.11
(healing). n = 0.25 (cooling)

4 Hufschmi(j( et <II. (34) Waler,2 x 10' < Reb < 6.4 X 10.1,
2 < p, b < 5.5, f = (1.82 log Reb - 1.64) -1,
0,\ < Pr,,/PI. < 10

CONTENTS
E!t'CK 5 Yakovlev ()S) BACK Fully developed condilions. The use of lhe

NEXT
CONTENTS Prandtl group was first suggesled by
the author In 1960
NEXT
 0.26)

= 0.023ReZ ~Pr~' (. : : )
Waler, Lid> )0, 1.2 x 10' < Re h <
6 Oskay and Kaka~ [l3] NUb
4 X 10'
O.4l!7
30% glycerine-water mixll1re Lid> 10,
NUb = 0.023Re~~Pr~4 ( I'-b ) 0.89 X 10' < Reb < 2.0 x 10'
,J1.~

7 Hausen [36] NUb ~ 0.0235{Re2~ - 230X1.8Pr~J - 0.8) Altered form of eQualion presented in
1959[41

8 Sic icher and Rouse [2 t)
NUb = 5 + 0.015 ReJ'Pr; Lid> 60,0.1 < Prb < 10 1 ,
m - 0.88 - 0.24/(4 + Pr w ) 10' < Reb < 10 6
n ~ I + O.5e- MP , •.
NUb = 0.OI5Re~ &lPr~/3 Pr~ > 50
NUb = 4.8 + 0"0!5ReJ!-5Pr~~J Pr b < 0.1. u ni form wall Ie mpc ralu re
Nllb = 6.3 + O.0167ReJ~5P'2 oj Pr h < 0.1. untform wall heat !tux

CONTENTS
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NEXT
CONTE ~T~

NEXT '
 TABLE 3.8 Turbulent Forced Convection Correlations in Circular Ducts for Gases with Variable Properties

Number Reference Correia lion Gas Comments and Limitalions

n

Humble el al.1371 NUh = 0.023Reg~Prg· ( ~: ) Air 30 < Lid < 120,7 x 10) < Re~ < 3 x 10',
0.46 < T..,/1b < 3.5
n = 0 (cooling>
n = - 0.55 (healing)
-0.1

2 Bialokol and Saunders 119) Nil b = 0.022Reg· KPr~·· ( ~: ) Air 29 < L j d < 72. 1.24 x lOs < Reb < 4.35 x 10',
l.l < T,,; Tb < 1.73

3 Barnes and Jackson [Jill Air, ).2 < Tw/7b < 2.2,
helium, 4 x IO } < Reo < 6 x 10·,
carbon dioxide LJ d > 60
n = - 0.4 for air.
n = - 0.185 for helium,
n - - 0.27 for carbon dioxide
-O.s
4 McElhgo( CI al. (32) Nu b "" 0. 021 Reo,sPro.'
. ~ b
( Tw
Tb
1 Air , t i d > 30. I < T...J T~ < 2.5,
helium,
ninogen 1.5 X 10' < Re,b < 2.33 x 10 5,

CONTENTS
BACK BACK L i d > 5, local values

NEXT
CONTENTS

NEXT ]
 - 0,7

5 Perkins and
Wors0e-Schmidr (31)
M~h ~ O.02AReg sp,g ~:
Nu", ~ O.023Re~~Pr2·
4 ( ) Nitrogen Lid> 40, 1.24 < T~./Tb < 7,54,
18.3 X 10) < Re,b < 2.8 X lOs.
Properties evaluated at "'all
(empeJ~rUIt:, Lid> 24,
· ·07

NUb ~ 0.024RI'~·~P'~· (~:) 1.2 S Lid ~ t44

x [I ~ ro"(~: f']
+ {

6 Petukov er al. (J9) Nitrogen

n = - ( 0.9 log T r: -+ 0.205 )

7 Slelcher and ROLlse (21] NUh = 5 ... O. OI2Re?~}(P'w + 0.29) For gases, 0.6 < P'o < 0.9
o.~

8 Gniclinski (3) NUb = O.0214( Re2'~ - 1OO)P'~· ( ;: ) Air, 0.5 < Prb < 1.5, (or hearing of
helium, gases. The aUlhor collected
carhon dioxide the data from the literature .
Second for 1.5 < p, b < 500

04

NUb = O.OI2(Re~ p - 280)P,o. (-i)

X[h (ff/3j
CONTENTS
BACK :
10· < Reb < lOS, 18 < LIt! < 316
BACK

NEXT
9 Daile-Donne Air, hehum
CONTENl!
and Bowditch (39]
NEXTt
~I/ - E .w)· The a n a l ~s we re ca rried out for hydrogen a nd air fo r lhe
following range of para meters: 0.37 < (T... I Tb ) < 3.1 and 1O~ < Re" < 4.3 x
10 6 for ai r. and 0.37 < n : ./T,,) < 3.7 and 10· < R~" < 5.8 X lOti fo r hydro-
ge n. The analytica l resulls arc corre lated by Eq . 0 .213), where NII <"p is give n
by Eq. (3.30) or 0 .31). and the followi ng values for n art: obtained :

< n - - 0 .36 for cooling gases (H \)

T.

T•.
> \ for heating gas.cs (3 .42)
1""

With these values for fI , F.q. (].22a ) describes the so lu tio n for air and
hydroge n within an accuracy of ± 4%. Fo r simplicity. one Cd n take n to be
constant for hea ting as n - - 0.47; then Eq. (3.22a) describes the solu -
tion for air and hydrogen wit hin + 6%. T hese results have also been con-
finn ed cxperimentall y .tnd ca n be used for practical calculations when 1 <
(T~./ Tb ) < 4.
A large num be r o f expe rimental studies are available in the literature for
the he at transfe r between the tu be wall and the gas flow with large tempe ra-
ture differences and tempe rature-dependent physica l prope rties. The major-
ity o f Ihe wo rk dea ls with gas heating al constant walt temperature in a
c ircular duct: experiment al studies on gas cooling arc limit ed .
Th e resull s of heat transfe r measureme nt s at large temperature differ-
e nces betwee n th e wo rk and th e gas Row arc usua lly presented as

For full y deve loped tempe rature and velocity profiles (i.c .. L I d < 60), C
becomes constant and 1/ becomes independent of I ./d.
A number of heat transfe r corre latio ns have been developed for variable-
prope rty fuJl y developed turbulent liquid and gas fl ow in 3 circular duct .
.some of wh ich arc also summarized in Tables 3.6 to 3.8.
Comprehensive info rmation and correlat ions for the convectivc heal trans-
fe r and fr ictio n factor in no ncireular curved duelS and coils, in crossAow
arrange ments. over rod bundles. in various fillin gs and liqu id melals are
give n in [40). The comparison of the important correlations fo r forced
convcction in ducts is also given in [4J).

Examp l~ 3. 1. Air a t 4(rC flows t hrough a hea ted pipe section with •• ve locity of
6 o1/s. The length a nd dia me te r o f the pipe arc )00 em a nd 2.54 em,
rc~rce tivcly . The: ave rage pipe Wi.1! te mpc ralurc is 3fKY'c. Deter mi ne the
average heat Ira nsre r coefficie nt .

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 3 I'> EFFECT OF VARIABLE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 97

S()I~/jOtf :
Since the wall temperatu re is so much greater than the initiil l ilir
temperature, vanahle-propcrty now mus t be considered. From the Appendix.
the properties of air at T" - 4{rC ;Ire

rp - 1005.3 J/ ( kg . K)

k - O.0267W/ (m · K ) ~ _ 1.912 X 10 5 (N . s)/m 1

Pr - 0.719

The inside heal transfer cocflicient ca n be obtained from knQwledge of the flow
regime, thaI is, the Reynolds number,

pU..,d, 12,g X 6 X 0 .0254

Rr' b - --. - 899 1
1.912 x 10 '
"
Hence the now in the tube is turbulent . On the other hand. L / d - 3/0.02.'i4 -
118 > 60, fully developed conditions are assumed. Since Pr > 0.6. we can usc
one of the correlations given in Table 3.4. Hence Gnleli nsky's correlation. Eq.
(].34). wit h constant properties,

may be used \0 determine the Nus~cll numbe r.

f- (1.581" Re - 3.28) · 2

_ ( 1.58 In(899I) - 3.UW 1 _ 0 .008 11

hd (O .(lOSll / 2)(8991 - 1000)(0 .719)

N,l" - .. 27.7 12
k 1 + J2 .7(O.00811 / 2)" s(O .719 2/3 - J)

27.72 x 0 .0267 .,
- - 29. 14 W/ (m " K)
0 .0254

The hCil t Ir;mdcr cocflicicnt wilh variable pmpcrlics can be ca lculated from
Eq . (3.22a). whe re tI is given in Table 3.6 as tI - - 0.47:

NIl b - Nll q, 1: (T) -""

- 27.712( -"-
m) "".7 - 20 .856
3J3

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 Then

NUb/.:. (20.K5h){0.0267)
h - - - .. .. 21.9239 W/ (m 2 , K)
d 0.0254

As can be seen in Ihe case of a gas wilh Icmpc rlll ure-dependenl prope rtics.
heating a gas decreases the heat transfer ooellicient. The heat tran ~ fcr in the
tube is estimated to be h .. 21.9239 W / (m 2 • K)

Exampl~ 3.1:. Determine Ihe Iota I heal Iran5fe r coefficienl at )0 em from the
in lei of a hea t exchanger where engine oil flO'A's th rough the tubes which have a
diame ter of U.S in. Oil fl ow1i wilh a ~'c:loci t y of 0.5 m/ s and at a bulk
temperature of JtrC while the local tube waH temperature is We.

S6JuliOlt: From the Appe ndix. the properties of engine oil at T• .. JO"C arc

p - 882.3kg/ m' Cfl ~ 1922 J/ (kg ' K)

P - 0.416(N · s)/ m 2 k - 0. 144 W/ (m ' K)

Pr - 5550 }t_ - 0 .074 (N ' s)/ m l

The heat uansfer cocflicient may be obtained from knowledge of the Reynolds
number

pU... d, 882 .3 X 0 .5 X 0.0 127

Hr, - - - - .. 13.47
#J. 0.4 16

Since RI~ < 2300. the flow inside Ihe tube is laminar. We ca n ca lcu late the heal
transfe r coeffi cien t from the Sieler and Tate correlation , Eq , (3.25),

Nu T - 1.S6( Rd·r) l13 (Ld)'''(:~ )'.,.

as long as the fol lowing condi tions are satisfied :

(-",) - (0.416)
}t...
- -
0 .074
- 5.62 < 9.75

Rt:Pr:!"')'''( ", ) III~ .. [ 13.47 X 5550 x 0 .0 127]' '' (0.4 16 )U.14 18.7 > 2
( L p_ 0.3 0 .074

There fore the preceding correlation is applicable:

N UT - 1.811 x 18.7 - 34 .8

34 .8 X 0.144
.. 394 .6 W / ( m ~· K)
O.Din

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 36 EFFECT OF VARIABLE PHYSICAL PROPeRTIES 99

The Nusscll - Graetz correlation given by Eq. 0. 11) whic h is a pplicable wi th

cons tant heat flux boundary ct1 ndltion~ ean also hc: u~d ~ince

Rr"I'r" - 5550 x 13 .47 . 3164 > 100

Nr'H - I . 953(R(',,~)"' I .q53 X;5SOX 1347 - 28 .67

,. --.
d,
NuHk 2S .67 x 11 . 144
0 .0127
-.325 W/ (m 1 . K)

The Nussc lt - Graell correlat ion gi\'cs a more conservative answer.

Eltampl r 3_'. Water !lowing ,II ~ kg / hr will be heated frum 2U III 35°C b)'
hot wa te r ,II 140"C A 15°C ho t wa tcr tcmperature drop is aIlOYo·cd. A number
of 15·ft (4 .5·m) h"irpins of 3 in . (lD ... 3J IN! Ill. , OD ... 3.5 in .) hy 2 in .
liD - 2.067 in., OD ... 2.375 in.) doublc ·pipe heat excha nge r \\.-it h annuli and
pipes each con nectcd in se ri c~ wilt be used. Ho t wate r fl ows t hrough Ihe innel
tuhc. C,tk ula te: (,,) the he;It tr"nsfcr cnetlide nt in till,: inne r tul"ll.: ;lOli (b) the
heal transkr coc mcie nl inside the annulus: the o utside o f the annu lus is
insulated against hCOIt los......

Solution: (a) Wc first calculate the Reynolds num be r 10 delerm ine if the flow is
laminar ur turhulent . ;1Ild the n select the proper currelatiun Iu calculate the
heat transkr cocmcient. Fro m the Ap pendix, the prope rties o f hoI wal er al
T,, '" 13Z.SoC arc

I' ''' 932.4 kg/ Ill ' 'II'" 4268. 1 J / kg ' K

k ... 0.088 W / (m 1 . K) Il. ... O.2nR x 10 - ' (N . s l i m!

/'r .. 1.29

We now m<lke <III energy b;II:ll1ec 10 e;.I(;ul;lt e t he hot -wa te r l1I;lSS l10w r;lte:

( 5000/ 3600) ( 4171))

... 1.360 kit /S
4268. 1

wher e cpr - 4 179 J / (kg ' K) is nl Tn - 27.S~C:

4 X l.Jfl
1r X 0 .0525 X 0 .20li X 10 ' ... 1 5~.5n

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100 FORCED CONVECTlON CORRElATIONS FOR SlNGLE·PHASE SIDE

Therefore the How is turbulem and we ca n select a correlalion from Table J.4.
The PctukhQ\l- K!riUQ\I correlation is used he re :

where

f - (1.58 1n Rt - 3.28) - 2

z
- [1.58In(158.572) - 3.28r .. 0 .00409

(4 .09 X 1O - .I/2}(158.572 X 1.29)

NIl ..
1.07 +

3SS .b X 0.688
'2 - 4bbO.36 W/ ( 01 l . K)
~2-;;.06-:C7i'::XCC2".5"4C:X:::';I;;-
O

The effect of property variat ions can be found froOl &I . 0 .21i1) with" - n.25
for cooling of a liquid in turbulent flow (Table 3.4).
(b) Calculale the heal transfer coefficient in the annulus. FroOl the Ap-
pendix, the properties of cold water at Tb - 27.S~C afC

p - 996.8 kg / m] cp " 4179J / (kg· K)

k - 0 .614 W/ (m· K) JL .. 0.846 X 10 - 3 (N ..~ ) / 1II 2

Pr .. 5.77

The hydra ulic diame ler of the a nnulu ~ from Eq. (3. 17) is

D, - d p .. (3 .068 - 2.375) x 2.54 X 10 - 1 .. 0.0 176 m

4(0.0176)( 5000/3600)
() .. 15. 125 . 13
1t X (846 x 10 - )(0.002432)

Therefore the flow inside Ihe annul us is turbulenl. One of Ihe correlations can
be se lected from the tables. Th e Gnielinski corr elation is used hue. II should
be noted Ihal fo r the annulus. Ihe Nus.'>C1! numbe r should be based on the

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 3,7 SUMMARV 101

hyd raulic diameler (or equivale nl diameter ) calculated from Eq. (3. 19):

D, - --
4A ,
p.
4[~ / 4(D,'
~d.
- d; )[

[(0.0779 ' ) - (0.060) ')1

"'-----;=,;,--~-'-
O.l)6(B
- 0.0403 m

f - (L58InReb - 3.28) 2

- [1 .58 In(15. 125. 13) - 3.28 J

- 0.00703

(0.00703/2)( 15, 125 .1J - 1000)(5.77)

NUb - - 104.5
1.07 + 12.7(O.OO703j2)(5.77V.l - I)

"" --- -
Nu~k 2043.) x n.6 14
- 1593.54 W / (m !· K)
[)~ n .G40]

3.7 SUMMARY

Important and re li able correlat io ns, for newtonian fluid s in sin gle- phase
laminar and tu rbulen t fl ow through ducts have been summarized, which can
be used in Ihe design of hea t tra nsfe r equipment.
The tables cover th e recommendcu specific correlations for laminar forced
convection through ducts with constant and v;uiable fluid prope rties. Table
3.3 provides exponents m and 11 associated with Eqs. 0.2 1) and 0.22) for
laminar forced convection in ci rcula r ducts. Hy the use of this table, the effect
of vMiable properties in lamin ar fl ow is incorporated by the property ratio
me l hod .
T urbulelll forced conveClion correlations for fu lly developed fl ow through
a circular duct with constant properties are summarized in Table 3.4.
Gnielinski , Pctukhov and Kirillov. Webb, Sicichcr, and Rouse corre lations
are recomme nded for constan t-property Nussclt number eva luat ion for gases
and liquids. and the entrance correction factor is given by Eq. (3.36).
Recommended turhulent flow isothermal Fanni ng friction factor corre lations
for smooth circu lar ducts arc listed in Table 3.5. The correlat ions given in
Tables 3.4, 3.5. 3.7, and J.8 can also he utilized for turbulent flow in smoot h
straight noncireu lar ducts for engin eeri ng applications by thc usc of the

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102 FORCED CONVECTION CORRELATIONS FOfl SINGLE-PHASE SIDE

hydraulic diameter concept for heat transfer an d pressure drop calcu lations
as discussed in Section 3.2.3. Except for sharp-cornered and /or very irregu-
lar duct cross sections. the full y developed turbulen t Nusselt number and
fri ction fa ctor vary from the ir actua l values within ± 15% and ± 10%,
respective ly. wh en the hydra ulic diameter is used in circula r duct correla-
I jom.
When the re is a large difference between the wall and fluid bulk tempera -
tures, the influence of variable fluid properties on turbu len t forced convec-
lion and pressure drop in circular ducts arc taken into account by usi ng the
exponen ts m and 1/ given in Table 3.6 with Eqs. 0.2]) and 0.22). The
correlations for turbulent flow of liquids and gases with varia hie properties in
ci rcular ducts arc also summarized in Tables 3.7 .LOd 3.8.

NOMENCLATURE

A constant
Ar net free-flow cross-sectiona l area, 01 2
c" specific heat at constant pressure. J/( kg · K)
c po specific hea t at constant volume. J / (kg· K)
D, equiva lent diameter for heat transfer, 4A ,/ P... , m
D, inner diameter of a circular annulus. 01
Dh hyd raulic diameter for pressure drop, 4A ,/ P~ , m
d circular duct diameter, m
f Fanning fri ction fa ctor, 'T"~./ ~ PII ;,
G fluid mass ve locity, pU m ' kg/(m Z • s)
h ave rage heat transfer coeffic ien t, W/(m ~ . K)
h.. local heat transfer coefficie nt. W /( m2 • K)
k the rmal conduct ivity of fluid, W /(m . K)
L distance along the duct. 01
m exponent , Eqs. (3.21b) and (3.22b)
m mass ftow rate, kg/s
Nu. average Nusselt number. Ird / k
tl exponent , Eqs. 0.2Ia) and 0.22a)
Lt.c hydrodynamic entrance length , m
L,~ thermal en trance length . m
Pe Peclet number, RePr
Pr Prandtl number. cp lJ. / k ,.. a/v
Re Reynolds number, pu. md/IJ. , PlimDh/1J.
T temperature. °C, K
Tj film temperature. (T.. + Tb )/2, 0c, K
Ii velocity component in axial direction, m/s
11 m mean axial velocity, m/s
x ca rtesian coordinate , axial d istance, m
)' cartesian coord inate. di stance nonnal to the :ourfacc, 01

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 REFERENCES 103

Greek Symbols

o the rma l diffusivity o f flu id. m! Is

JJ. dynamic viscosi ty of flu id. Pa . S
... kine matic viscosity of fluid , m 2 /s
p densi ty of fluid, kg/m"
'7'... shea r stress at thc wall. Pa

Subscripts

(J arithme tic mea n

b bulk fluid cond it ion or prope rt ies eva luated at bulk mean temperature
cp constant property
t' equivalen t
f fi lm fluid cond ition o r properties evalua ted at film temperature
,., constant heat flux bou ndary condit ion
I laminar
i inlet condition
o o utlet condition or ou tcr
r refere nce condi tion
T constant temperature boundary cOIH.Jition
turbulent
w wall conditio n or wetted
x local value al distance x
00 fully developed condilion

REFERENCES

I. ~hah, R. K.• amI I..undon. /I.. L (I97NI l .amit/af FOfC~d COmY'f:II011 in Ducts.
Acade mic. New York.
2. Shah. R. K.. and Bhatt i, M. S. (It,lK7) [ ~ onlillar convective heat transfer In duct .....
In lIundbook of Singf,-Phas(' COII/wtit·(' 11/.'111 Transfu, S. Kaka~, R. K. Shah. and
W. Aung <cds. ), pp. 3. 1-3. 137. Wiley. N~'\' York.
3. Schlimdcr. E. U. (cd.) (1t,l1:I3) Heat Exdr.lIlgrr I)r fign Handbook , pp. 2.5.1- 2.5.13.
Hemisphere. New York .
4. Hausen. H. (195t,1) Neue Glcichungen flir die Warmelihcrtragung bei freie r udcr
crzwungencr Stromung. AI/g . Wa~rmt'l('(·II . 1} 75- 79.
5. Kakaii, S. (191:15) Laminar forced convcctlon in the combined entrance region of
duct~. In Natr.ra/ Cafll '~f/i()n : Fundam rntal.1 and Appli«Jliolls.~ . Kakaii. W. Aung.
and R. Viskanta <eds.l. pp. 165 - 204 . Hemispherc, New York.
6. Pohlhaus.cn. E. (19211 Der Warmeau.~lausc h Zwi~ h en festen Korpern und
F1li~~igkeilcn mil Kleiner Re ihung und Kleiner Wttrmclcitung. Z. Ang('w. Math .
/ltu h. I 115 - 121.

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104 FORCED CONVECTION CORRELATIONS FOR SlNGLE·PHASE SIDE

7. Delorenzo. B .. and Anderson. E. D. (1945) Heat Iransfer and pressure drop of

liquids in double pipe finlube cJ(changen.. Tram . IISME 67 697.
8. Stephan, K. (1959) Wannci:ibe:rgang und Druckabf<lll bcinichtausgebilde!er Lami·
nar Stormung in Rohren und evenen Spal ten. Chem. Ing. Tech. 31 773-778.
9. Dcisslcr. R. G. (951) Ana lytkal investigation of fully deve loped laminar flow in
tubes with heat transfer wilh fluid pro perties va riable along the radius. NACA
TN 2410.
10. Yang. K T. (1962) Laminar forced convection of liquids in tubes with variable
viscosity. J. Heat Transfer 84 353 - 362.
I J. Sieder. E. N., <lnd Tate, G . E. (1936) t·Ic<lltrilnsfer ,Hid pressure drop of liquids in
lubeS. Ind . EnK . Chem . 28 1429- 1453.
12. Whitaker, S. (1972) Forced convection he 81 -transk r corre lations for flow in pipes,
pas! flat plates, single cylinders, single spherc~, ilnd Ilow in packed beds ilnd tube
bundles. AICltE J. 18361 - 371.
13. Oskay, R., ilnd Kilkil<i, S. (1973) Effect o f viscosi!)· vilria tions on turbulent and
laminar forced convcction in pipes. METU J. Pllre Appl. Sci. 6 211 - 230.
14. Kuznetsova, V. V. (1972) Convective heat transfer with Ilow o f a viscous liquid in
a horizontal tube (in Russian). Tepioent!rgetika 19(.~) 84.
15. Test, F. L. (1968) Laminar flow heat transfer and fluid flow for liquids with a
temperilture dependent viscosity. J . Ht'Qf Transft'r 90 385- 393.
16. Wors~-Schmidl, P. M. (1%6) Heat transfer and frictio n fnr laminar flnw of
helium and carbon dioxide in a circular lUbe: al high healing ratc. Inl . J. Heot
Mass T ramfer 9 1291-1295.
17. Bhatti. M. S.. and Shah. R. K. (1987) T urbulent fureed convect ion in dUCI ~. In
i-IandlxXJk of Singl~ ·Pha.U' COll l'~ctil 't' Heat Transftr. S. Kak;u;, R. K. Shah. ilnd
W. Aung (cd s.). pp. 4. 1- 4.166. Wiley, New York.
18. Petukhov. B. S .. and Popov. V. N. ( 1963) Theoretic~'1 c<llculation of heat exchange
and frictional re~ istance in turbulent Aow in tube ~ of incompressible fluid with
variable physical p ropertics. Hi1:h TempcrafUre I{ I ) 69- 83.
IY. Pctukh ov. B. S. (1970) Heat transfer and friction in turbulent pipe now with
variable phys ical properties. In Admnces in Heal Transfer, J. P. Hanne tc and
T. V. Irvine (cds.), Vol. 6, pp. 504 - 564. Academic, New York .
20. Wcbb. R. I. (l971) A critical eyalualinn of analytical solutions and Reynolds
analogy equatio ns for heat and mass transfer in smooth tubes. Warmr mId
Staf!ii~rtro1:ung " 197- 204.
21. Sieichc r, C. A. , and Rouse, M. W. (]975) A convenient correlation fo r heat
transfer to constant and variable properly fluids in turbulent pipe flow. Int. J .
Hrat Mos.s Tmnsf('r 18 677 - 6S3.
22. Gnielinski, V. (1976) New equations for heat and nlilss tnlflsfer in tu rbulent pipe
and channel flow. Int . Chem . Eng. 16359- 368.
23. Kays. W. M., and Crawford, M. E. (981) ConL'rct;/l· !-It·ot and Mass Transfer, 2nd
cd. McGraw-Hill. New York .
24. Kaka~ . 5., and Yener. Y. (1980) Con ~c lwf! Heal Tra nsl rr. METU Publication 65,
Ankara, Turkey; distributed by He misphere, New Yo rk.
25. McAdams. W. H. (J954) Hf'ut Trarumiu ion, 3rd cd .. McGraw- Hill , New York.

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 REFERE NCES 105

:!6. Kaka" S. (l 9K7) The cffccI~ of tcmlX: (;11Uf\:·dqx: ndcnl fluid propcr t ic~ Oil con·
veetive heat transfer. In ff(mdb<;wk of Sin}!le. PlwM COIlI'reli/"(' ffrat Transfer.
S. Kaka\. R. K. Shah a nd W. Aung, fcd~.l, pp. IIU - I I(Q~. Wiley, New York.
27. Hause n, H. (1943) DaTslc liung de~ WarmeiihcrganGc~ in Roh rcn dUTc h vc rall·
geineinertc POlenzbczichungcn. Z. Ver. Dtsch. If/g. &ihrft Verfuhrl'lrslt'cll. 4
91 - 134.
2K Rchmc , K . ( 1973) A simple mct hnu ill predicti nG fric tion faclor~ of turbulent fl ow
in noncireular cha nnels. 1111 . j. 1-/(><11 Ma ss Tra llsfer 16 Q3J- Q50.
29. Malak, L Hejna, L and Schmid, J . ( 1975) Pre~s urc l os~c s and heat transfe r in
noncireular channels with hydrauli eilll~ \ mol.l th walls. /111 . j . HI'III Mllss rr(ll/sfer
181 39 - 149.
Tu rhlilt-Ill PorCt'd COIl/"('ct;O/J
J(I. Brundretl. E. ( IIn ll) MO<Ji fie d hydr;lIllu.: u i;lrne te r. In
j/J Clrannds (lnd Bundles. S. Ka ka<; ;Hld D. B. Spaldi ng, (cds'), V o i. I. pp. 361 - 367.
Hemisphere, New York .
31. Pe rkins. H. C. a nd WorS{\C·Schmid t. P. (1 965 ) Turbulent hea t and momentum
transfer for gases in a circular tubt: ill wall 10 bulk te mperaturc ratios to :..eve n.
Int. J . Heal Mass Transfer 8 IUII - I O' I .
32. MeEl1igot. D. M .. Magec. P. M., and L.!ppc rt. G. (1965 ) E lkct of l;u g<: t<:mpera·
ture grad icllt~ on ennveellve he at tran~fer: The downstream region . J . Hl'ul
Tram/('r 87 67- 76.
33. Colburn. A. P. (]93J) A met hod of ..:orrcl;lting forced convection heat transfer
data and comparisu n wit h fluid fril·l ul n. Trwl.'i. AICITE 29 174 - 210.
34. Hufschmidl. W" Bu rck, E., and R icoold. W. (1966) Die Bcstimmung Orliehcr und
WaTmeiibcrgang~·Zah1cn in Roh rcn I">e i Hohen Warmes\romdkhtcn. 1111 . J. I-/t'ul
Mass Tramfrr 9 53Q-565.
35. Rogers. D. G . (1980) Forced conveclio n heal transfer in ~ing k phlls\" flow of H
newtoni ;m fluid in il circul ilT pipe ('SIR Rcporl ("ENG .122. Prc tnrl<l, South
Africa .
.In. H ausen. I-I. (1974) ~te nde d eq ua ti o n fnr heattransfcr in tulles al turoukn t tiow.
W(lrll IP 111111 StojJUhenragu/JJ.: 7 222- 1.:' 5.
37. Humhlc. L. V .. Lowdermilk. W. H .. a nd D c~mon. L. G . (]95]) Measure ment o f
avcrage he at transfer and fri ction cnl.: 1Iicients for suo!;(lIlic fl ow of 'li r in ~ motllh
tubes at high surface and flui d tempe r,l\u re. NACA Repo rt 1020.
38. Barnes. J. F. , and J ackson. J. D. (1 ':1111) H ea l tr ansfer to 'Iir. carhon dioxide a nd
helium now ing through smoot h ci rcular tuhes under conditi\lIls of larg<:
surface/gas te mpe rat ure ratio. J. Metll. £II~. Sci. 3(4 ) 303-3 14 .
39. Dalle·Donne. M ., and Bowditch, I' w . ( 19h3 ) Expe rimental Joc;tl heal tra nsfer
and frictio n codficicnts fur subson ic ),I miniu tnmsitional and turbule nt flow of ;Iir
or helium in a tube a t high tempcraluTt:s. Dr;lgnn Prnject Rcrun Hi4. Win firth.
Dorcheste r. Dorset. UK.
40. Kaka<;. S .. Shah. R. K .. and Aung, W . (cds.) (1 9X7 1 Newdhook of 5l11K/I'·I'lIusl'
CO/wee lire H('1I 1 Trll/l.~frr. W iky, Ne ..... Ymk .
41. Kaka\. S., Bcrglcs. A. E .• and Fern.mdcs. E. O. (cds.) (IWI8) T ... 'O · P/r(ls(' Flow
NfUI udlunKffs. pp, 123 - 15K Kl uw C!. Dordrechl.

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MI
a::
w Ohapter 04
MI
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w
A Heat Exchanger
Z
o Fouling

..'"
MI
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A. K. Agrawal and S. Kakac

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Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 04 Contents
4. Heat Exchanger Fouling
A. K. Agrawal and S. Kakaç

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Effects of Fouling
4.2.1 Basic Equations
4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Heat Transfer
4.2.3 Effect of Fouling on Pressure Drop
4.2.4 Cost of Fouling
4.3 Aspects of Fouling
4.3.1 Categories of Fouling
4.3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling
4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling
4.4 Design of Heat Exchangers Subject to Fouling
4.4.1 Providing a Fouling Allowance
4.4.2 Design Features to Minimize Fouling
4.4.3 Design Features to Facilitate Fouling Control
4.5 Operation of Heat Exchangers Subject to Fouling
4.6 Techniques to Control Fouling
4.6.1 Surface Cleaning Techniques
4.6.2 Additives
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

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 CHAPTER 4

HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

A. K. AGRAWAL
Department 01 Mechanical Engineering
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0921

s. KAKA~
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University 01 Miami
Coral Gables, Florida 33124

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Fouling can be defined as the accumulation of undesirable substances on a

surfac e. In gene ral , the collection and growth of unwanted mate rial results in
inferior performance of the surface. f-ou ling occurs in natural as well as
synthetic syste ms. Arteriosclerosis serves as an example of fouling in the
hum an body wherein the deposit of cholesterol and the proliferation of
connective tissues in an artery wall form plaqu e that grows inward. The
resulting blockage or narrowing of arteries places increased demand on the
heart.
In the present context the term IOlllinR is used specifically to refer to
undesirable deposits on the heat exchanger ~urfacc. A heat excha nger must
affect a desired change in the thernwl conditions of th e process streams
within allowable pressure drops and continue to do so for a specifi ed time
period. During operation, the hea t transfer surface fouls resulting in in-
creased thermal resista nce and often an increase in the pressure drop and
pumping power as well . Both of th c~e effects compliment each other in
degrading the performance of the heat exc ha nger. The hea t exchange r may
deteriorate to the extent that it must he withdrawn from service for replace-
ment or cleaning.

&,ilers. EI ·aporawr.1 Il"d ConJemers. Edited h) Sadik Kaka\

ISBN ()·471·t>2170·6 (') 1991 John Wi ley & Su ns. Inc.

107

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108 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

Fouling may significantly influe nce the ove rall design o f a heat exchanger
and may de termine the a mount of mate rial em ployed for construction.
Special operatio nal a rra ngeme nts may be req uired to fac il ita te sat isfactory
performa nce betwee n cleaning schedu les. Conseq ue ntly, fouling causes an
eno rmous economic loss as it directly impacts the initial cost, ope raling COSI,
and heat exchanger pe rfo rma nce.

4.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING

Lowe r heat transfe r a nd increased pressu re drop re sultin g because of fo ul ing

decrease the effective ness of a heat exchange r. T hese effects a nd the basic
Ihc rmohydra ulic aspects of heat exc ha nge r design aTe discussed in this
section.

4.2.1 Basic Equations

Thermal analysis of a heat exchange r is gove rned by the conserva tion of
energy in that the heat released by the hot fl uid stream equals the heat
gained by the cold fluid stream. The heal tram ler ra te Q is related to the
geometric and flow parame te rs of the heat exc hanger as

Q - UA 111;" ( 4.1 )

wherc U is the overall heat transfer coefficient hascd on the heat transfe r
surface area A . Since the tempe rature diffe re nce along the hea t tra nsfe r
surface is not constant, an effective mean tc mp..::ra turc diffe rc nce ~ 7;" is
used . The ove rall heat transfe r coefficie nt de pe nds on the heat tra nsfe r
mechanisms on both sides of the sepa ra ting surface and heat conduction
through the surface itself. For a clean plain tubul a r hea t exchange r, th c
ove rall heat transfe r coefficie nt, based on the llu tsidc surface a rea of the
tube, is given by Eq . (2.9) as

( 4 .2)

whe re h, and h o re present the heat tra nsfe r coefficie nt s on the inside and
outside of the lu be, respective ly. The order of magnitude a nd ra nge of heat
transfer coeffi cie nts for various fl ow conditions a rc given in Ta bl e 2. 1.
The fri ctional pressure drop for a single-phase flow in the heat excha nge r
is usually ca lculated by

6P ~ 4f
(-L)(
d
-PU:',)·
2
(4.3)

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••XT
 4.2 EffECTS Of fOULING 109

where / is the Fann ing friction fact or. Varioul> graphs and correlatiuns to
determine the friction factor fo r single-phase flow are avai lable in the
lileralUre (I . 21.

4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Heat Transfer

A simple visua lization of fouling. shown in Fig. 4. [. depicts fouling bu il dup
on the inside and outside of a circular lube. It is evident that fouling adds an
insulating layer to the heat transfer surface . For a plain tubular heat
exchanger the overall heat transfer coc fficienl under fouled conditions Vr
can be ubtained by adding the inside and outside thermal resistances in
Eq. (4 .n

Thc overall hea t tran sfc r coefficlcn t for a tinned tube (based on the
outside surfa ce area ) is given by Eq . (2. [7). Fou[ing resistances Hr, or Rr",
also defined in Chapt er 2. are somell mes referred to as "fou ling factors."
The heat transfe r in Ihc unwanted ma teria l takes place by conduction .

• To

Tube Wall

Fig. 4. 1. t\ fll llied tuhc .

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110 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

Therefore the fouling factor can be related to the fouling thermal conductiv-
ity k [ and ihe fouling thickness t[ as

for a pla ne wall (4.5")

for a cylindrical wall (4.5h)

The fouling thickness is () when the surface is clean. The heat exc hanger
requires cleaning when the fouling thickness reaches a maximum value often
called the design value. In general, the magnitudes of t, and k f arc unknown
since the diversity of applications and operatlllg conditions makes most
fouling situations virtually unique. Therefore, in spite of its apparent simplic-
ity, Eq. (4.5) is not very useful in estimating the fouling resistance. It is
interesting {Q note that the tremendous research on single-phase and two-
phase heat transfer has markedly reduced thc uncertainties in predict ing the
heat transfer coefficients hi or h". However, the current uncertainty in
predictions and/or estimates of the fouling resistances greatly exceeds the
uncertainty of the other terms in the overall heat transfer coefficient
[Eq . (4.4)J.
V[ in Eq. (4.4) can relate to the clean surface overall heat transfer
coefficient IJ,.. [give n by Eq. (4.2)] as

(4.6 )
Uf

where R [I is the total fouling resistance given as

A"R ; R
R r, = - A-f+ f e ( 4.7)
,

The heat transfer rate under the fouled conditions Q r can be expressed as

( 4.H)

where the subscript f refers to the fouled conditions. Process conditions

usually set the heat duty and fluid temperatures at specified values; that is,
Qf = Q, and ~T"'f = ~T,"("' Under these conditions Eqs. (4.1), (4.6), and
(4.8) show

( 4.9)

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 ~ 1.000
8
~

~
a"
,•• 100
•
~
,
~

'"<
••
•• 10

~
•
••c
~

~
"•
Clean Overall Heal Transfer CoetflClent, Uc . W / l m 1 K)

Fig. 4.2. Effe c t of fou ling o n surract area.

where A , is the rC(luircd surface area if the hea t e xchanger remains clea n.
Ur R" in Eq. (4 .9) represe nt s the additiona l surface area req uired because of
fouling o f th e hea l exc ha nge r. For a ra nge of fou lin g resistances. Fig. 4. 2
shows the perce ntage of increase in t he heat tra nsfer surface area due to
fuu ling. Obviuusly, the added surface is small if Ur is low 11 to It) W /( m 2 . K»)
eve n though th e 10lal fouling res istance may be hi gh [R" .. 50.0 (m 2 . K / kWJ .
Howeve r, for high Ur [1000 to lO,tK.IO W / (m z , K)] even a small foulin g
resistance (H I' - O.5(m 2 • K) / kW ) ro.:sults in a substanti a l inc rease in the
requi red heat transfe r surface a rea. A 100% inc rease in Ih e surfa ce area duc
10 fouling a lo ne is nOI uncummo n.
The ~lYc ra gc total fo uling resistances speci fied in th e desig n of some 750
she ll-imd-Iubc he at exc han gers, by fi ve Jiffe re nt manu fac turors. arc give n in
Tabl e 4. 1 [31. Although fo ul ing resista nces V:lry for specific applicatio ns. these
statistica l values reveal presc nt-day in dustrial tre nds. It is int e resting 10 no te

TABLE 4.1 S~IIl~ Avenge Toll.! Fouling Rulslann R I" (m Z . KI / kW 13]

Tube SIde Shell Side

Vapor Liqu id Two phase

Vapor 0.37 0.51 0.48
Liquid 0.00 0.79 0.65
Two phase 0.5 1 0.67 0.5 1

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thaI the averagc total fouling rcsi.~tance with liquid flcw.·s, on t)(lIh Ihe lUbe
and the shel l sides of Ihe hca t cltc hange r. is tW il'e the corresponding value
with vapor fl ows. The average tolal fouling rc ~ "tances for the other fluid
combinations lie in hctwecn these two values.
Titble 4.2 shows the pe rcentage of Increase In the heat transfer surface
arca fo r a shell-a nd-tube heat eltchangc r with two-phase flow on the shcll
si de. Singlc-ph ;t ~ or two-pha :.c flow mOlY occu r 011 the tube side. For a given
fluid coml'li n:Hion the total fouling resistance is taile n from Table 4. 1. Typical
values of the heat transfe r coe fficients (Table 2. 11 arc u»ed and the tube wall
resistancc has bee n neglected. It is !tec n that if Ihc hC"I! exchanger involves
se nsible heating ur cooling of gases. fouli ng cl oc~ not contribute significantl)"
to incre'lsing thc requircu hea t tran»fe r surf:'K c itfea. A high increase of
abou t 25 % may take place . Huwever. if a liquid I~ used fo r r.cnsi ble hea ling
o r cooling. fou ling m;ty s ubst;tntia lly increase the required surfacc area. b)' a

TA HtE 4.2 Add ed Surfa H' Art'a ror Ty pical Fluid Cum billa lions

Tul1\; SiI.k: Gal> al High Prl"lo, uH:

II , - 500 W / (m ~ ' K l. Rrl '" 0.41'! (m ~ ' K )/ kW

Shell Side (Boiling o r Condenlo.Llinn )

Pe rce ntage Incre <i.'IC
Jr " V, I' in Area

Light org,mi c." IJtQC1 :n :u 2X7.3 10.0

Med ium tlrgan ic~ 5.0('11) 454.5 37,1 I 2 Ul
Sle am IIUIUU 47(1.2 .11'1 7.6 21.9
Tulle Side : Liquid W,Ll.;r
Jr, - 5,O()O W / {m! . n R }I - 0.65 ( 01" K) / kW

She ll Sid.; m o iling or Condcn'''d tion)

Pereentltge [ncreltse
II " V, I', in Arelt

Ligh t o rga nics 1.000 X.U.J 5411.5 54.2

Medium Mganic~ 5.1KI() 2.50U.O 9~ 2 .4 162.5
Waler 10,0("' 3.333.3 1.115': .6 216.7

Tuh..: Side: V;lporiling W att: r

h, - JO.OOO W / { m!· K ). R f , - 051 trll ~' KJ/ kW
She ll Side (Boiling o r Conde ll <;" tio n)
Percentage Increase
II " V, O· , in Area

Medium Mllanics 1.000 90'1. 1 621 46.4

W ate r, 10"" prc.~sur e 5.1XX) 3.3.\3.3 1.2.\4.tJ 170.0
Wale r, high pressu re JOJXX,I 5,lXII UI 1.4()K .'i 255.0

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 • .2 EFFECTS OF FOULING 113

fac tor of 2 or even 3. Similarly, with two-phase How on the tube side . fouling
may even dictate the overall design of the heat exchanger. Conseque ntly, any
attempts to increase the clean surface heat transfer coefficient on e ither side
of the sepa rating wall (includ ing rou gh o r extended surfaces) should be
examined ca refully by considering the effects of fouling.

4.2.3 Effect of Fouling on Pressure Drop

Interestingly. more heat excha ngers are removed from service for clea ning
due to excessive pressure drop tha n fo r the inability to meet heat transfe r
req uirements. As shown in Fig. 4.1, fouling always results in a fini te, although
sometimes small , layer. The c hange resu lting in the fl ow geometry affects the
flow field and the pressure drop (hence the pumping power). For example, in
a tubular heat exchanger the fou ling layer roughens the surface. decreases
the inside diameter, a nd increases the outside diameter of the tubes. The
effects of fuuling on pressure drop in the shell side are di fficult to Quan tify
because of the complex flow pas~ge.
As mentioned previously, the fouli ng laye r decreases th e i n .~ id c d iameter
and roughens the tube wall resulting in "n increase in the pressure drop.
Using EQ. (4.3), press ure drops inside a tube under fouled and clean
conditions ca n be re lated as

(4. 10)

Assuming that the mass How rates (/;r = pu ", A ,, ) unde r clean and fouled
conditions a re the same, EQ. (4.10) can ne written as

(4.11 )

The inside diameter under fou led con ditions d f can be obtained by
rearra ngin g Eq. (4.5b):

(4. 12a)

and the fo uling thi ckn ess f f is expressed as

(4 . 12b)

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TABLE 4.3 Added Prt'ssurt' Drop (Tube Side) ror Typical Fouling Materials

Thermal Fo uling - Percentage Increase

Conduelivily. k Thiekne5.\. / Percentage Area in Pressure
Material W j (m ' K)I3J mm Re ma ining Drop

Hematile 0.6055 0.24 95.7 11.6

Biofilm 0.7093 0.28 95.lI 13 .7
Calcile 0.9342 0.37 93.S IRA
Serpentine 1.0380 0.41 92 ..-': 20.7
Gypsum 1.3148 0.51 90.') 26.9
Magnesium
phosphate 2.1625 0.83 8:"5 47.9
Calcium
sulfate 2.3355 0.90 l<4.J 52.6
Calcium
phosphate 2.5950 0.99 82.9 59.9
Magnetic
iron oxide 2.8718 109 8 1. ::: 68.2
Calcium
carbQnale 2.1J41O 1.12 BO.i-l 70.3

~Assuming ruul ing resistance of 0.4 (m I . K)/ kW .

For a specified total fouling resistance . the tuhe diameter under fouled
conditions. ca n be obtained if the thermal com.luctivity of the deposits is
known. Since the fouling layer consists of ~eve ral materials. dat a on Ihermal
conductivity arc nOI readily available. Multip le fouling layers may also lead to
nonuniform thermal conductivi ty. Approximate thermal conductivities of
pure materials. constituting fou ling deposits. arc given in the secon d column
of Table 4.3 [3J. These val ues have been used to estimate fouling layer
thick ness in a 25.4 mm 00. J6-8 WG (22.1 mm 10) tube with a fo uli ng
resistance of 0.4 (m ~ . K)/kW. Although rare ly true. it is assumed that Ihe
foul ing layer is composed solely of one material. The flow area remaining and
t he percentage increase in the pressure drop arc give n in columns 4 and 5.
respectively, of Table 4.3. It is seen that for Ihe assumed fouling resista nce.
the pressure drop increases by up to 70% in some instances. In the se
calculations it is assumed that fouling docs not alfcct the friction factor (i .c ..
If = I r)' Moreover. the increase in the preSSUT<.' drop becau se of excess
surface area (required to achieve the desired hea t transfer under fouled
conditions) has nOI been taken into accou nt.

4.2.4 Cost of Fouling

Fouling of heal transfc r equipmen t introduces an addi tional cost to the
industrial sector. The added cosi is in the form of ([) increased capita l
expendit ure. (2) increased maintenance cost. (3) los:-, of production. an d (4)
energy losses.

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 In order 10 compensate fo r fouling. the heat transfe r area of a heat
exchanger is increased. Pumps and fan s arc oversized to compensate for
ove r-surfacing and the increased pressure drop resulting from reduction in
the flow area. Duplicate heat exchan gers may have to be insta lled in order to
ensure continuous operation while a fou led heat exchanger is cleaned.
High-cost materials such as titanium . ~tain1c ss steel, or graphite may be
required for certai n fouling situations. Clean ing equipment may be requ ired
for on-line cleaning. All of these items contribute to increasing the capital
expenditure.
On-line and off-line clea ning add to the maint enance cost. Fouling in -
creases the normally schedu led time in curred in maint ain ing and repairing
equipment. Loss o f production because of ope ration at reduced capacity or
downt ime ca n be costly. Finally_ energy losses due to reduction in heat
transfer and increase in pu mping-power rcquircments ca n be a major con-
tributor to the cost of fouling .
The annual costs of fou li ng and corrosion in U.S. industries, excluding
eleClTic utilities, were placed betwee n S3 and SIO billion in 1982 do ll ars
(Ga rrett -Price et al. [4]). It is clea r that the delete rious effects of foulin g arc
extremely costly.

4.3 ASPECTS OF FOULING

A landmark paper by Tabore k e t a1. (5J cited foulin g as the major unresolved
problem in hea t tran sfer. Since then the great finan cial burden imposed by
fouling on the induslrial seclor has been recognized. This has resulted in a
significant increase in the li terature on fouling, and va rious aspects of the
problem have been resolved . The major unresolved problem of 1972 is now
the majo r unsolved problem . This is because the large amount of fouli ng
resea rch has not broughl about a significant solution to t hc prediction and
mitigation o f fouli ng.
In the ne.'(1 section some fundam ental aspects that help in understanding
the types and mechanisms of fou lin g arc discussed. The commonly used
methods that aid in developi ng mode ls to predict fouling arc also ou tlined.

4.3.1 Categories of Fouling

Fouling ca n be classified a numbe r of di fl'c re nt ways. These may inclu de the
type of hea t transfer service (boi ling. conde nsa tion), the type of fl uid stream
(liquid, gas), or th e kind o f application {refrige ration, power ge neration).
Because of the diversi ty of process cond itions, most fou ling situations arc
virtually un ique. However, in order to develop a scientific understand ing, it is
best to classify fou ling accord ing to the principal process that results in it.
Such a classification, developed by Epstein [6J. has received wide acceptance .
Accordingly, fouling is classified into the fo llowing categories: particulate.
crystalliza tio n, corrosion, biofouling, and chemical reaction.

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Particulate Fouling The accumul ation of solid part icles suspe nded in the
process strea m onto the heat transfer surface resu lts in part iculate fouling. In
boilers th is may occur when unburnt fuel or a ~hes are ca rried ove r by the
combustion gases. Ai r-cooled condensers are oft en fouled beca use of dust
deposition. Particles a re virtu ally present in any condense r cooling water.
The mailer invo lved may cove r a wide range of materials (o rganic. inorganic)
and sizes a nd shapes (from the submicron to a few millimeters in diameter).
Heavy particles sell ie on a horizontal surface because of gravity. Howeve r,
other mechanisms may be involved for fin e pa rticles to settle onto a heat
transfe r surface at an inclination.

Crystallization Fouling A common way in wh ich heat exchange rs become

foul ed is through the process of crystalliza tion. Crystalliza tion arises primar-
ily from the presence of dissolved inorganic sa lt s In the process stream which
exhibil supersaturation during heati ng or cooling. Cooling-water systems are
often prone to crystal deposition because of the prese nce of sa lts such as
calcium and magnes ium carbonates, silicates, and phosphates. These are
inverse solubil ity salts that precipitat e as the cooling wa ter passes through
the condense r (i.e., as the water temperatu re increases). Th e problem be-
comes se rious if the salt conce ntration is high. Such a situation may arise, for
exa mple, because of accumu lation in cool ing-wlltn syslems with an eva pont ·
live coolin g tower. The deposits may result in a de nse, well -bonded laye r
referred to as scale or a poro us, soft laye r descri hed as a soft sca le, sludge , or
powdery deposit.

Corrosion Fouling A heat transfer surface exposed to a corrosive fluid

may react producing corrosion prod ucts. These eorrosion products ca n fo ul
the surface provided the pH value of the Auid is not such that it d issolves the
corrosion products as they are fo rmcd . For example, impurities in fue l like
alkali metals, sulfu r, and vanadium ca n cause co rrosion in oil -fi red boi lers.
Corrosion is part icula rly se rious on the liquid side. Co rrosion products may
also be swept away from the surface where they arc produced and trans-
ported to other parts of the syste m.

Blofoullng Deposit ion and/ o r growt h of mate rial of a biologica l o rigin on

a heat transfe r surface resu lt s in biofouling. Such mate rial may include
microorganisms (e.g., bacte ria, algae, and molds) and their prod ucts result in
microbial fo ul ing. In other instances organisms such as seaweed. wa ter
weeds, and barn acles form depos its known as macrobia l fouling. Both types
of biofouling may occur simult aneously. Marine ur powe r plan t condense rs
using seawater are pro ne to biofouli ng.

Chemical Reaction Fouling Fouli ng deposi ts arc formed as a result of

chemical reaction(s) wi thin the p roce s.~ stream. Unlike corrosion fouli ng, the
heat transfer surface does not part icipate in the reaction although it may act

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as a catalyst. Polymerization . c racki ng. and coking of hydrocarbons a re prime
examples.
It must be recognized that most foul ing si lUations involve a number of
different types of foulin g. Moreover. some of the fouling processes may
complime nt each other. For example, corrosion of a heat transfer surface
promotes particu late fouling. Signifiealll details about each type of fouli ng
are available in the literature . Some rscalc~ and Knudsen [7) and Melo et a1.
[8] a rc excellent sources of such information.

4 .3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling

Even without complications arising from the interaction of twe or more
categories, fouling is an extremely compl ex phenomenon. This is primari ly
due to the large number of variables that affect fouling. To organ ize thinking
about the topic, it will therefore be extremely useful to approach fouling
fro m a fundamenta l point of view. Accord ingly, the fouling mechanisms.
refe rred to as sequen tial even ts by Epstein [91. are initiation. transport.
attachment, rcmoval. and aging and are d e~ri be d in the following discussion.

Initiation During initiation the surface is conditioned for the fouling that
will take place later. Surface tempe rature. material, finish , rough ness, and
coatings strongly influence the initial delay induct ion or incubat ion period.
For example. in crystallization fou ling the induction period tends to decrease
as the degree of supersaturation increases with respect to the heat transfer
surface temperature. For chemica l reaction fo uling the delay period de-
creases with increasing temperature because of the acceleration of induction
reactio ns. Surface roughness tends to decrease the delay pe riod (IOJ. Rough-
ness projections provide additional si tes for crystal nucleation thereby
promoting crysta llization, while grooves provide regions for pa rt iculate depo-
sition.

Transport During this phase fouling substances from the bulk fluid are
transported to the heat transfer surface. Transport is accomplished by a
number of phenomena including diffusion , sedimen tation, and thermophore-
sis. A great deal of information avai lable for each o f these phenomena has
been applied 10 study the transport mechan ism for various fouling categories
17,81.
The difference be tween fouling species, oxygen or reactant concen tration
in the bulk fluid Cb and that in the fluid adja,cnt to the heat transfer surface
C,. results in transport hy diffusion. The loca l deposition flux md can be
wrillen as

(4.13)

where h I) is the convective mass transfer coefficient. hfJ is obtained from the

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Sherwood number (Sh = hud/D) which, in turn. depends on the flow and
the geometric parameters.
Because of gravity. particulate mailer in a fluid is transported to the
incl ined or horizontal surface. This phenomenon. known as sed imentation, is
important in applications where particles are heavy and fluid velocities arc
low.
Thermophoresis is the movement of small particles in a fluid stream when
a temperature grad ient is present. Cold walls attract colloidal particles while
hot walls repel these particles. Thermophoresis is important for particles
below 5 J.I. m in d iameter and becomes dom inant at about 0.1 p.m.
A number of othcr processcs such as electruphoresis, inertial impaction,
and turbulent downsweeps may be present. Theoretica l models to study these
processes arc available in the literature [1 1- 131. However, application of
these models for fouli ng prediction is often limit ed by the fact that several of
the preceding processes may be involved simultaneously in a particular
fouling situation.

Attachment Part of the fouling mllterial transportcu attaches to the sur-

face. Considerable uncertainty about this proce ~s exists. Probabilistic tech-
niques are often used to determine the degree of adherence . Forces acting
on the part ides as they approac h the surface arc important in determining
attachment. Additionally. properties of the material such as density, size, and
surface cond itions arc important.

Removal Some material is removed from th e surface immediately after

deposition and some is removed lat er. In general. shear forces at the
interface between the fluid and deposited fouling layer are considered
responsible for removal. Shear fo rces, in turn , depcnd on the velocity
gradients at the surface, the viscosity of the fluid. and surface roughness.
Dissolution, erosion. and spa ll ing have bee n prnposed as plausible mecha-
nisms for removal. In dissolution the material exits in ionic form. Erosion_
whereby the material exits in particulate form. is affected by fluid velocity.
particle size, su rface roughness, and bonding of thl.:' material. In spalling the
material exits as a large mass. Spalling is affected by thermal stress set up in
{hI.:' deposit by the heat transfer process.

Aging Once deposits arc laid on the surface, aging begins. The mechanical
properties of the deposit can change during this phase because of changes in
the crystal or chem ical structure for example. Slllw poisoning of microorgan-
isms due to corrosion at the surface may weaken the biofouling laye r. A
chemica l reaction taking place at the deposit surface may alter the chemica l
composition of the deposit and thereby change its mechanical strength.

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 4.3 ASPECTS OF FOULING 119

4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling

T he ove rall result of the processes IisteJ previously is th e net deposition of
mate rial on the heat transfer surfacc. Clcarly the deposit thickness is time
dependent. For heat exchanger design a constant fouling resistance. inter-
preted as the value reached in a time pe riod after which the heat exchange r
wi ll be cleaned, is used. Predicting how fouling progresses ove r time de ter-
mines the cleaning cycle. Sueh information is also requi red for proper
operation of the heat exchanger.
Predictive models arc based on the idea that the variation of fouling wit h
time can be expressed as the difference between the deposition rale IPd ami
removal rate 1jJ, functions (141:

( 4 .14)

Functions IjJJ and cPr depend on th e eve nts d iscussed in the previous
sect ion. Proper eva luation of these fun ctions will require comple te under-
stand ing of the phenomena involved duri ng various phases of fou li ng. Such
an approach is not practical since a large number of parameters arc involved
even in si mple fo uling situations. Therefore the current predictive models of
fou ling are semiempirica l. From a pract ica l point of view. such an approach
is justified since most fouling behavior can be represe nted by fou ling
factor- time curves as shown in Fig. 4.3. The s hape of these curves relates to
the phenomena occurring during the fouling process.

Fia.4.3. Typica l fou ling raetor- time curve.

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120 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

If the deposition ratc is constant and the removal rate is neglig ible or if
the difference between the deposition and removal rates is constant, the
fouling-time curve will be a straight line as shown by curve A in Fig. 4.3.
This type of linear fouli ng is generally re presented by tough, hard, adhe rent
deposits. Fouling in such cases will continue 10 build up unless some type of
clea ning is employed. As a special case, if the deposition rate is constant and
the removal rate is ignored, Eq. (4.14) can be integrated to yield

(4 .15 )

Equation (4.15), fi rst developed by McCabe and Robinson (1 5) in 1924,

represe nts the simplest of the fouling models. A widely observed form of
fouling is the asymptotic fou ling represented hy curve C. It results if the
deposition rate is consta nt and the re moval rate is proportional to the fou ling
layer thickness. thus suggesting that the layer's shea r st rengt h decreases with
time o r another mechanism de teriorates the stabiiity of the layer. Such a
si tuation will generally occur if the deposits arc soft since th ey flake easily,
The fouling facto r in such cases reaches an asymplOtic value. Assuming the
removal function 10 be proportional to the foulin g resistance (IP, = bR, ) and
the deposition function to be constant (<b tl - a). Eq . (4.14) can be written as

dR ,
- =a - bR J ( 4. 16)
dr

where a and b arc constants. The classica l Kc rn - Seaton (16) relation is

obta ined by integrating Eq . (4. 16):

( 4.17)

where Ri ( ... a / b) is the asymptotic fouling fac tor and () ( .., I /b) is the time
constant that indicates how qu ickly asymptotic fo uling conditions a re ap-
proached.
Falling-rate fou ling. shown by curve B, lie ~ between the linea r and
asymptotic fouling curves. Such behavior may resu lt if the deposition rate is
inversely proportional to the fouling thickness. A pe riodic change in opera t-
ing condi tions results in the sawtooth configu ratIOn shown in curve D. This
sit uat ion is typical of commcrcia l coolin g tower water.
Occasionally, particularly for new surfaces. a delay time (0 is observe<.l
before deposition occurs. During Ih is time the fouling resistance re mains
close to 0 while only microllucleation s ites are form ed. A I a certain point in
the fouling process, the nucleation sites become so numerous that they
combine into an integra l hlankct resulting in a rapid increase in the fouling
rate (5).
A number of se miempi rical mode ls have been developed over the years to
predict the nature of the fouling eurve in a given application. The ge neral

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 4.4 DESIGN Of" HEAl EXCHANGERS SUBJECT TO FOUUNG 121

TA.Bl[ 4.4 [freel or P.ram~lu5 on J.'oulin ~ 11 71

Paramcti:r Incrcascd Deposition Rat.:

- --- - -- -
Rl·moval Ratc
A:.ymptolk Fouling
Slickincs.., Incrca:.c~ Dccr.:as.:s In.:rcas.::.
Su rf,.Ct; tt;mpcralurc Incrt;:I.;t;:. Ouc:.tlunabk Incrc;lsc"
Tou ghncs..~ Questionable DcCrC3l'CS Increases
Roughncs... Incrca»Cs ( ? ) I nclca!>C~ Quc~ti.lIlahk
In·silu C{lntlSltI" I"crt;:' -.c~ Ou c~tltlnabk IncrciI-.c..
Ell-situ corrosiun Incrca~cs Questionable Incrcascs
Velocity Dccrca\C1i I ncrca:oC~ Dcc rca:oC~

applicabi lilY of Ihese mode ls is limiled ., inee Ihe va rious eonSla nlS or e<.>Clli ·
cien lS involved arc sit e de pende nl and would usually be unknovm . M Ul·h of
the curre nt fouling researc h is directed toward establishing [lrediet ive mod-
d s. Epslcin 16) has tabu lated a numbel of de position and re lllov••1 mudcb
devcioped ovcr the past several yea rs. The qualita tive dfects o f increasing
ce rtain paramclc rs on th e deposition and re m()\la l ra tes ;IIlJ the asymptotic
foulin g fact o r arc )oummarized in Tabk ~A 1171. Velocity is the o nly p.. ranlc·
ter whose increase causes a reduclio n in the :lsympto tic foulin g fa ctm even
though there m;w be some excep l io n ~ .

4.4 DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS SUBJECT TO FOULING

Altho ugh fouling is time depe nd en t. only a fixed value c:m be pre~c ri hcJ
Juring th e lte sign stage. The refore the operating characteristics and cleaning
sc hedules of the he at exchan ger depe nd on the design foul ing factor. Many
heat eXl· hange rs operate for lo ng pcriolh wi lhuut being cleaned while o ther..
might require frequent cleaning. Table 4.5. asse mbled by Uarre t· Price et al.
11 K). iden tifies th e type and exte nt of fou lin g thaI may occur 10 \'a n ou~
industry groups. Thi s info rmatio n h u ~cful in de te rminin g the impact o f
fouling whe n a parlieular hea t excha nger is designe d.

4.4.1 Providing a Fouling Allowance

If fouling is ant icipated, provis ions shoult.l be mat.1c during the design stagl..' .
A number or diffe rent approaches arc useJ to provide an a1l0wance for
fouli ng, all of which rcsuh in an excess sur fa et: area fo r heal trilnsfc r. Curre nt
met hods include spccifying the fo ulin g resista nces, th e clean liness fa Cl\Jr, Of
the perccn(;lgc ove r surface .

Fouling Resistance A common pracli.::c is hl prescribe a fo uling resistance

or fou li ng fa ctor las in Eq. (4 .4)] o n each side o f the surface whe re fou lin8 is
anticipated . The result is a lower over,,11 heat tra nsfe r coc ffi cicn!. Co n ~c ·

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122 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

TAHLt: 4.5 t'ouling of II tal Tl"ans ft'r Surfacu by Ind uslry Groups ( ls i

Type of Fuuli"g Thilt {kc ur.; in Heal

Industry Grou p Exch~n&c Equipment Usual EXle nt
Food and kindred Chemica l reaction Major
pmducb C~ta ll izat lon ( mIlk p rt )cc'~ln8) M :aJur
lJ u,r'lUling Mediu m
Particulate (gas side) (spr,l) dryinft) Minor/ major
Corrosion Menor
Textile mill Particulate (cooling Wille r I
products Biofouling (cooling waterl
Lumber a nd wfl(xI Cryllolall iz:llion (l iq uid. e' M,hng waterl MaJor
products including Particul:ue (process side. cooling Minor
p:lpc r and all ied wa ted
pmd uc t ~ Biofoul ing (cooling wate r l Minor
Chemical reaction (pfoce ~~ ~ide ) Minor
CorrosIon Medium
Chemical and ;! lIi ~' d Cryslll il ization (process suJe, coohng) Mediu m
------

quc ntly, excess surface area is provided to achie\e the ~pcc i fie d he.1I transfe r.
The heat exch;tnger will pe rform s<.lti sfa etorily ull til t he speci fi ed value of the
foulin g resistance is reac hed. afte r wh ich it must be cleaned . T he dea ning
interval is expected to coincide with th e plant 's regul ar maint enance sched ul e
~ that additional shutduwns can be avoided .
It is extreme ly d iffi cult to prcdict a specific fou ling behavior fo r most cases
since <t large num ber of var iables can mate rially altef the type of fouling a nd
its rate o f bui ldup. Sources of fouling res i stance~ in the literature arc rathe r
limit ed . in part , because of the re latively rece nt interest in fou ling research .
T abl es found in the standards o f th e Tubul ar Exchanger Manufacture rs
Association (TEMA) il()), re produced here as T;l bl es 4.6 to 4.10, arc proba,
bly the most refe re nced source of fouling faetor:-- used in the design of heat
exchangers. Unfortunat ely, the T E MA ta bles do nut COve r the large variety
of possi ble process flu ids, fl ow conditions, and hea t exchanger configurations.
These val ues a llow the exchange r to pe rfo rm sa tisfactorily in a designat ed
service for a " reasonable time" be tween cleanin g. The interval betwee n
cl ea nin g is not known a p rior i s ince it de pe nds on perfo rmance of the hea t
exchange r wh ile it is in service. Qu ite uften suffici en t excess area is provided
for the exchange r to pe rform sa tisfacto rily under fouled conditio ns. Propri-
etary research d,Ha, plant d;l(a, and personal or compa ny expe rience afe
oth er sources of fouling resistances.

Cleanliness Faclor Ano th er approach that allows for fouling is specifying

the clea nl iness factor (C F), <I term used in the ~ I c am powe r industry. The
cl ea nliness factor relates the overall heat transfer coefficients under foul ed

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 TABLE 4.6 TEMA Desiltn "'oulinlt R~sistan c~s lo r Industrial Fluids.
(m l . K) / kW 1i9]

Oils
Fuel oi l 11 2 0.352
Fuel oi l # 6 0.88 1
TrOl ns rorm c r o il 0. 176
E ngine lube o il 0. 176
Que nch oil 0.705
Gases a nd vapors
Man ufact ured gas 1.76 1
E ngi ne exhaust gas 1.76 1
Steil ffi ( nonOll he;lring) 0.088
Exhllust stream (oil bearing) 0.264- 0 .352
Re fr igcTil nt vapors (nil bellTinll) 0.352
Compressed air 0. 176
Ammo n ia vapo r 0. 176
CO ~ v;lpor 0. 176
Chlorine vapor 0.352
Coal nue gas 1.76 1
Natur,11 g;l ~ tluc g,IS 0.&1 1
Liquids
Molten hea t trans fer salts 0.088
Refr igerant liquids 0. 176
Hydraulic nuid 0. 176
Indust rial organic hem tra nskr media 0.352
Ammonia liqu id 0. 176
Ammonia liquid (oil bearing) 0.528
Ca lciu m chloride solut iu ns 0.528
Sodium chloride solutions 0.528
CO= liljuiJ 0. 176
Chlor ine liquid 0.352
Me than o l solut io ns 0.352
Ethano l solutions 0.352
Ethylene glycol solutions 0.352

and cl ea n conditions as

( 4.I X)

II is apparent from Eq. (4.1 8) th at the cleanliness factor provides a fou ling
a llowance in proportion to the ovcrall heat transfer coefficient under clea n
conditions. Usi ng Eqs. (4.6) and (4. 18). the cleanli ness factor and the tOlal

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124 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

TABLE 4.7 TEMA Design F()ulin~ Resistnm:es (or Chemical

I>mcessin;g Slrt'ams, Iml . KI / kW 119]

Ga~e~ and vap(J r!>

Acid gases 0.352- 0.528
Solvent vapors 11.170
Stahle (lve rhe,ul pnx!uct!> 0.176
Liquids
MEA ,md DEA solutions 0.-'52
DEG and T EG sulu tions IU:,) 2
Stahle side dr,!w and bottom produn 0.176- 0.]52
C!uslie solutions 0.352
Vegetable oil~ 0.528

TAIH.F. 4.8 TEMA lksign Fouling Resistances (or Natural

Gas-Gasoline Processing Strt'ams, em1 • K) / kW 1191
---'------
G ;t SC~
and vapo rs
Natura l gas (J. 170 - 0.352
Ovc rhc,ld prod ucts 0. 176 - 0.J52
Liquids
Lean oil 0.352
Rich oil 0. 176 - 0.352
Natural gasoline and liquificd petroleum g,N" 0. 176-0.352

fouling resistance can be related as

R r, = (4 .1 % )

Cf - (4 .19b)
1 + R{,U,.

Equation (4.1Ya) has uLL'n useu 10 obt;lin i ·ig. 4.4, which shows fouling
resistance ve rsus clean surface overall heal tran:-.fc r coefficient curves for
various clea nliness f(lctors. Figure 4.4 illustrates th at (I give n CF corresponds
to a higher tolal foulin g resistance H" if the ove rall heat transfer coeHicie nt
U( is low. Such a trend i .~ desirahl e for designing !,tt::u m condense rs where U..
is proportionul 10 th t:: ve loc ity. As shown in T abk .!.4, lower velocity ( hence
low Ur ) results in increuseu fouling. Although the cle anli ness facto r results in
favorable t rcnds, the desig ner is st ill left with the problem of selecting the
a ppropriate CF for a given application. Typica l condenser design!> are bascd

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 ~ ~ DESIGN OF HE..'.' EXC HANGERS SUBJEC T TO FOULING 125

TABLE 4 ,9 ,.t; MA lks ign Fouling R ClI i ~ t a ll('tli ru r Oi l Refinery Stl"t'ams,

( m l , K ) I kW 1191

('rude .md \'aCUUnJ uni1 g,,~e~ <lmJ \"Ip.. r~

Atmcl'op he ric towe r ovc r helld "'lilK'r~ 0.176
Ligh t n<l p hthal> 0. 176
Vacuum uve r head V;Lpn r« CU.5:!

Crude and \' ..( uum I Lqu id~

C rude oil

- JO t CI 1] (1"(, 1 20toI7'5~C
Velocit y. m/~ Veh::it)', mh

< (I.(, 0.6 - 1.:! > I ..! < U.n 0.0- 1. 2 > l.~
0521!1 {U52 O. 3.'i ~ O.52N O.J52 0 . .152
O .5 ]~ 0.3S2 0..15 ::: O.SXI O.70S 0.705
175 tll 2Jlr'C 2Jtr C <lnd Ove r
Velocity. mls Velocity. m /~

< 1.5 0.n- 1. 2 > I .~ < 1.5 0.6-1.2 > 1.2

0,705 0.5211 051,.; U .~ I (I. 70S ((,705
1.057 O.XX I O.tlK I 1.2JJ 1.057 1.057
----- -~

G ;rs.l1ine 0..152
Na phth'l iLm] light dis t illate« 0 ..1.52 - 0 .521\
Kerose ne t)J52 - t1. 52!'1
Ligh1 g a ~ oil t U5~ -O . 52~
!-Icavy gas oil 0 .52X - O. KX I
..leav)' fuel o ils tU!KI - I BJ

kpha h an d re~ iduum

V acuum 10wcr ht lu om ~ 1.761
AtmO""pherc tower IJ.cJ t1oms 1.2JJ
C racki ng ;I!I U coki ng u n it ~1 rca m ~
Overhead \'apor~ 0..152
L iGh t l)'cle o il 0.J52-0.52:':
l-!cavy cycle IILI 0.52X- O.7U5
Ligh t coker gas ni l 0.528- 0.705
tlea vy l'oker ga~ lI il 0.705-tI.AAI
Bl.l t 1tl nJ ~ slurry n il ( 1.4 ml s minimum) 0 .52X
Liglll liq u id products 0. 176

Ca til ly t ic Rcformillg. hydrocra c ki n ~. ~nd h) drooesulfuriz3tioll s trcam~

Rcfllrmer charge O.2fi.t
R donner d il ue nt O.2M
Hydrocracker ch"rgc a nd eill uent l> O.J5!
Rl'cyde gal> 0.1 71>
H ydrndesu lfuru<l l nm cha rge <1m] e tllu cnt " IJ ..W~

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TABLE 4.9 (CUll /lilliI'd )

Overhead vapor~ (1. 171>

Liquid product over 5U" A. I'. 1. 11.1 7(,
Liquid prod uct ~n_ 50° A. P.1. tUS2

" Dependin g o n chilrge. c h ;tract cri~ l ics. iHld ~torag\: hi~ t ') r). charge re~i~tance nL<I~ he
many t ime~ this value .

Light ell d ~ rfllo.:e s~i lLg ~trca m ~

O ve rh ead vapors a nd gases 11.176
Liquid prod ucts fl . 176
Ahsorpt ion L)il~ IJ.JS1-IJ.."ilX
Alkylation trace add st rc;ml\ II.J51
Ret'oiicr Sl re;Lm ~ lU52 - tLS2~

lube oil prllcc,sing ~tre;lIm

Fe\:d stock I).J51
Solvent feed mi., 11..'52
Solven t 11. 176
Extrilet' 1l.52H
R ilflinate 11.176
Asphalt II. K~1
Wa., ,I urnes' 0.521{
Relined luhe oil 0.176

~ P re('Oluti(l n ~ must he ",kelt In preve nt Win deposi tion (\ 1\ colo tuhe walls.

Visbreaker
()ycrht:iH..l vapo r 1I ..'i2~
Vishrt';t ker htlltom~ 1. 7111

Naphlh;1 hyurolre al cr
Feed (l.52H
EfIluenl 11 ..152
Naphtha, 0.352
Overhead vapor~ 0.2/}4

C al iLlytil· hydru desu lfUl'i£cr

('hiLrge O.7ftS - O.HIiI
ElIlue nt ttJ52
Hea t transfer ~par atilln Lwcrhead 0 ..151
Stripper charge Oj 2l'i
liquid product, 0.352
._ - - -- - -
HF a lk y u nit
Alkylate , deprop. hllltom ~. nL iLin iraclllln overhead
main fract ion feed tt 51l'i
A ll otha pruces~ strca ll1 ~ OJ52

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TABLE 4.10 TEMA Iffsian f oul ina R rsi ~ I :o n ('~s for W. I ~ r

Te mpe rature of
I-h:aling MCLhurn I Ifllu 115"(" l iS hI :W S~C

Te mperature uf Walt,: r Slfe: O"'cr 50"( '

W,ll e r VcI~>ci I Y. m/ s Wale r Vel.>cil y. m/ "

< 11 '1 > 0.9 < n.1l > II.IJ
Sea waler 01111..>( n.{)&! 0 . 17(, It17l>
Brackish wate r I U ~ ': 0 . 17(1 0.52~ U.352
CUlliing Illwer and
a rtificial ~ pra y pond
Tre:lled m:.keuf'l H I ' l> 0 . 17(, IUS2 1I.J52
Untrealed I).DoI U52~ ().~ I 11.705
Cit)' o r wdl wa ter 0 , 1~(I 0 , 116 0.352 11..\52
River ..... "Icr
Minimum 0 .)<; 2 0 . 176 O.52M IUS':
t\ vc r:,ge ().5~x 11352 O.7()5 O.5!X
M\J~l d y III :-i lt)' U S~ )( n .JS2 41.705 1152.'1
I-lard (over 15l1rains j gallon) () ~~.'I 0 .52.s (I,XX I O,tuoIl
Engme Jacket O. I U, O. 17f1 (I. )UI 11,17(,
D i ~t i ll cd Ilr do:-ed cycle
CondenS:lte o ti.'lS oJm.s O.U.SX tW XX
Treated huiler feed ....... Ier 0 ,) 7(' OJ IKX 0 .171'1 1I.17l1
Builer hluwdow n (US! 0 .J52 O.JS2 11.:'52

on a d ea nl inl.!ss facto r o f 0,/'10 to 0.X5. Howevl.!r, usc o f Ihl.! C'-: fur ~' t her
applica tion:- would requi re careful CV<lluation.

Percentage over Surface In Ih is :Ipproru:h the de:-igner simply 'Idds "

ccrtll in percentagc of clcan surface arca to account for fo uling. The adtk d
surface implicitly lixcs Ihe 10lal fouling re sista nce dependi ng on the clC:1I1
surface overa ll he,, 1 tra nsfer codlicien L If the hea t t ransfer ra le:- and lI uid
temperatures under clenn and fo uled ~\)tlditions a rc Ih e ~ame (Q , - Q, :tml
~ Tmf '" .11;",'>. Ihe perce ntage over ... urface (OS) can be obtained frum
Eq . (4 .lJ) as

(4 .20)

In a shcll -and-tubt: heal exchanger lhe addi tional ~ u rfat'e can be provided
either hy increasing th e lengt h of tulle , ur hy incrcasing th e numher of tu lles
(hence Ihe shell diameter). Th e rcsultllig change wi ll al so affect thc design
condition s suc h as fluw vclocit)·. numhc r of cruss paSSeS, or h,lfll e spacing .

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128 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

~ 24
"

"
,
S 20
Cleanliness Factor, CF

", 1.6
0.80
~~
.;
0
c
~ 1.2
•"
~
~

.'§ 08 0.90

~
15

~
~
0' 0.95

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Overall Heal Transfer Coefficient. Uc ' W / {m ' Kl

Fig. 4.4. C<lkul<lleU fouling re~ist<lncc b<lscd lin cle;mliness factor.

Therefore the new design, with increased su rface area, should be re-rated to
achieve optimum conditions.

Example 4.1. A double-pipe heat exchanger is used (0 condense steam <It <l r<lte
of IlJ.bS kg/hr at 500e. Cooling waler (bracki ~ h water) enters through the
luhes <It <I mte 0[0.9 kg/s <It lrre. The tube wit h 25.4 mm 00. 22.1 mm 10 is
made of mi ld sleel [k = 45 W /(m ' K)j. T he hcat transfer coefficient on the
sleam side. II" is 10,000 W /(m 2 . K).
The exit temperature of the water ean be ohtained from the heal balance:

(4.21)

wilh

IIf~ - 23X2 .7kJ/kg ell"" 4. 1:-: kJ/(kg' K)

113 .68
Q - 3600-(2382.7 X \O~) - (0.9)(4.1 ~ X 10 1)(Tool - (0)

Q - 75 ,240 W T,,,,, - JO"C

Although improved correlations lHe availablo.: [II. (or simplicity the heat
Iransfer coc/ficient on Ihe water side. h; is obl,li ned from the Oi\lus- Boeher

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 rclOllion 120]:

Nu, - ( 4.22 )

At th" mCiin tcm l>cralurc of NC. the properties of water au:

p - 1000.5 ka/m \

k - 0 .603 W / (m ' K)

Pr - 6.9967

pll""d i 4 x 0.9
Rt· - - - -
'" rrd,IJ. rr x 11 .022 1 x 1007.4 x 10 -1> - 5 1.471
"
Therefore

Nil, ... 294.4 or h ,'" 8033 W / (m 1 . K) iii 8000 W / (m 2 • K)

m·
W,lIer-side velocity. 14"" ... - ' - - 2.35 rn /s
p,A;

Fouling Resistances The inside and o utside fouling resistances are ob-
tained from Tahle 4. \0;

1
HI' - 0 .176 ( 01 . K) / kW brackish wat er below 50"C. velocity overO .Y m/s

U'o - 0 .088 (01 2 . K) / kW closed cycle conde nsate

Using Eq . (4.7), the tot al fou ling resistance is obtained as

R" ~ 0.2903 (m " K) j kW

The overall heat transfe r coefficients and the distribution of the rmal
resistances under clea n and fouled cond itions are summarized in Table 4 .11.
For assumed values of fouling resistance.'). the hea t transfer coefficient , under
foul ed conditions. is on ly one-half of that unde r clean conditions. It is
int eresting to nOle that unde r fouled cond itio ns the heat transfe r resistance
due to insi de tube fouling . dominates all uthe r resistances. In this example .
the heat transfer surface area shou ld be increased by 103% to obtain the
desi red heat transfer rate under foul ed condi tions. Increasing the surface
area by such a magnitude may be expen~ ,ve. An alternate solution would be
to design wi th lowe r fouling resislanccs and arrange for cleaning and / or
mitigation techniques to control fouling boec Chapter 5).

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130 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

TABLE 4.11 Oouble-Pipt Condens er (Eu mple 4. 11

Fouled

D i~t r ibution of re sh t ,mce~. ":"i,

Wate r side
11r , - XOOI IW j ( m! ' KII n.x 25. 1
Insid e fn uling n ) o;.JI R" - O. 176(m 1 . K)j kW)
Tube wall 13.9 h.9
Outside fouling II 15. 31 R,,, - 0.088 (m : . Klj kW)
Ste,ml side
IJr " - 10,1100 Wj (m :' K)] 35.3 17 "
Ove rall hc at tr<ln~fo:r !':octlicic nl.
W j (m! . Kl 3534 174-1
Mean tcmpe rature differenec. ~C 2x.85 2KH5
SUrf,KC 'HC'I. m ~ fI .737Y I 4Y52
(1031Ji- increase )

Cleanliness Factor If a clea nliness facto r of O.XS (a typical value) is used.

V( ca n be obtained fro m Eq. (4.1 8):
V, _ D.X5 X 3534 - 3004 W j ( m l . K)

Using Eq. (4.19a), the equivalenl tut,, 1 (0\11111 & resistance is oblained as
0.05 (m 2 . K)j kW. which is rather sma ll compa red to the va lue obta ined
from the TEMA standards (Table 4.10). The surface area under fouled
condi tions is obtained as OJ~682 m ~ corresponding to an increase of onl y
17.7%. It is clear that the lack of propcr foulin g Ja ta may Icad 10 significantly
differe nt hea t exchanger designs.

Percentage over Surface If 25% ove r surf:u.:e (a typica l value) i1> pre -
scribed, the total fouling Tesislance is obtamed as 0.07 1 (m z , Kl j kW
[EQ. (4.20)), substantially lower than the eorrc ~ ponding value from Ihe
T EMA standard!> (abo ut one- fourth).

TA8LE 4.12 Relationship between R f " C F. and OS

[Exa mple 4. 1, U, - 3SJ4 W I (ltl l . K)I

R". (m 1 . K)j kW CF OS, %

O.IlS (U15 17.7

0. 10 0.74 35. 3
0. 15 O.M 53.0
0.20 0.59 70.7
0.25 0.53 "".4
0.30 0.49 106.0
0 .35 0.45 123.7
UAO 0.4\ 141 .4

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 Seemingly different methods that allow for fouling essentially do the same
thing; that is. they increase the requ ired heat transfer surface area. As
J i ~ussed earlier the total fouling rcsistano.;, cleanliness fill'tor, and percent-
age over surface C;IO he re lal ed 10 eaeh ot her through Eqs. (4.7) and (4.1X) to
(4.20). The relationship for Example 4.1 is presented in Table 4. 12.

Examplt 4.2. To increase the hcat H ,tn~fcr surface area, the plain tuhe in
Example 4. 1 i~ replaced by a low-finned tube (with fins either 011 the inside or
the outside). Fins inereaS4: the aV;li l'lh l<.: ~urf,ICC area by a f;lClnr nr 2.\}.
A~sume 100% fin efliciency. identic,ll heat transfer coeflicicnts (h, ,tnd II).
w:lll re~i~tanec~, ,Hid in~ide foulin g r ~' , i ~t;Jnee~ fm plain and finned [uhe~ .
Fouling on the shell side CHn he negle rt ed.
Table 4.13 shows various condition, ,rnu resulls fOf lhis example. The heal
Irilnsfer rate is reflected hy the product VA,./I .. A tinned tuhe results in higher
he,l\ trilnsfcr Ih<ln Ihe plilin tube simply t'oeciluse of increased ~llrface area .
Under ele,Hl en ntli l iuns Ihe heiLI Iran ~lL"r incre ases hy 50"; if lin~ iLre used on
Ihe inside :.lnd by 30% if fins arc used o n the outside. Fins arl' mo re cfl'cetivc on
th e in~ide because of a re llltiYcly lower heal transfer cncftid cnl (henct hi}!heL'
thermiLI resist,Llled on the in~ide . Unde r roulcu eondilinn~, the inere .. ~e in th~'
heat transfer with fins on the inside and oUlside of th e tuhe is ilS':;' and 1(/'1.
respeetiyely. In this example c.~lernal IIIlS arc not yery elfcctive ~inee Ihe hC,LI
tra nsfer increases hy only IW~;, eve n tho ugh Ihe out~iJe ~ urlKe "re,L i .~ in ·
creased by 1<)0%. As a gene ral rule, cnhancement is ell"cClive if donc on tIl('
~ide with dominant Ihermal resistance . II ~ h ould be reeognil.cd lhal idenlical
fouling resistances have been used for pl;lln ilnJ hnned tube~. Such ;Ln ;Ls.~ump·
tiun may no t be v,[lid if th e lins hale a significant elket on the foulin g
eharacleristies. Mmeovcr. eil~e of cle,ming shou lu a lso he considered when
finned surfiLces itT e used .

TA BLE 4.13 Fouling in Plain and Finned Tube t Eumplc 4.2)

Ou.lntity PI .. in Finned In,ide Finned Out side

,/", mm 25.4 25.4 25.4

d,.mm 22.1 22.1 22 .1
Ir" W j (m !' K) KOOO iltMIO HOtKI
Ir o' W I (m !' K ) 10.000 1(1,000 In.mll
k. W/(m ' K ) 45 45 45
Areil rillin
A "IA "r 1.0 1.0 2.9
A ,/A' r 1.0 2.'l 1.0
A "IA , 1.14'13 OJQ6.\ .n:UJ
u,.. W I (m : . K ) 3534 5296 1586
V, A ,./L, W I l K · m) 21-12 421 307
Percenlagc increase 0 '0 .10
R I ,. (m! ' K) / kW 0.170 0. 176 0. 17/)
V, . W / (m! ' K ) 2[)ol .1.%7 K22
Vr A "I L. W / ( K . m) 164 .l (jq 19(1
Peree nlage increase I!,
0
"
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132 HEAr EXCHANGER FOULING

4.4.2 Oesign Features to Minimize Fouling

Fouling mOlY nOI be avoided in many si luation ~ . However, its exte nl can be
minimized by gO<Xl design pr.lctlcC . If CXCC"' ~ I VC fouling is expected. for
example. in geOlhermal applications, direct-cont act hea t exchangers should
be considered. In shcll-,lIld- tube heat c)(ch,lIlgc rs proper allocation of the
flu id strellms to the lutle side and the shell side is very important. In general
a fouling-prone fluid stream should he placed O il the tube side since cleaning
is easier. This is due to ease of deaning th ~· tubes. Moreover, it is less
e.'(pensive to provide fouling-re sistan t mate rial \)11 thc tube side.
The designer o ft e n has seve ral com binations of ope rating parame ters that
will meet the design thermohydraulic re(luireme nts. This opportun ity should
be fully exploited to select parame ters that mitig.lte foulin g. In gene ral.
higher !luid velocity and lower tube walite mper,llurc impede fo ul ing buildup.
A tube-side velocity of I .H m /s is a widely ;Jccepted ligure . Ope ration above
Ihe dew point for acid vapors and above freez ing for fluid s eOlllaining waxes
prevenls corrosion and freeze fouling from occu rring.
In shell-antl-tuhe heat exch;lllgers. the veln!':i!y disl ril'lution on the shell
side is nonuniform bccause b,dncs arc pre:-.cn t Fouling d cpos it ~ tend 10
ac(:umulate in the battle-to-she ll corn c rs where the veloc ity is low and the
flnw recirculatory. Figure 4.5 illuslrate:'; the ohserved fou ling o n the shell side
of IwO ~nlilll test heal exchangers that dilfer in their h;lme spacing and bame
window size 121\. Both heat exchangers we re oper:l1c d with the same shell-side
fluid , crossflow velocity. and surface temperature. Fou li ng deposits were

Exchanger El
Well·Deslgned Tube Bund le

-~-
ExCllanger E2

Wide Bailie SpaCing Bundle Large Bailie Cut 8urldle

Fig. 4.5. Sketch of observed fouling d c po~i l s in two dllkrent heat exchanger configu-
rations [17].

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heavy in the region of low velocity. Gilmour [22\ suggcS\!'. thHt hatHe cut !\ o f
20'i't:· to 2Sr;,.. of the she ll diamet er are ,I ppropriatc to minimize fouling.

4.4.3 Design Features to Facilitate Fouling Control

A good de!\ign pract ice alone may not cnmpletcly climinatc fou ling. It !\hould
therefore be expected that the heat exchanger wi ll require deaning at certain
time intervals. T he cleani ng eycle C;lI1 he extended if on-line cleaning (dis-
cussed later) i!\ employed to control fouling. Assurance for continuous
cleaning can also result in requ iri ng a smlllkr fouling allowance. On-line
cleaning sy!\tems arc avai lahle and nll l\t easi ly insta lled when the plant i!\
initially constructetl. Unfonunillciy . .~elcc t l on of the appropriate cleaning
procedure is often an "a fter the fact" Jecision. For proper operation of the
heat exchanger, features Ihat facilitate dea ning, he nce beller fouling control.
shou ld be considered during th e design -;tagc.
Horizontal hea l exchange rs arc easi..::r to clean than vertical ones. The G.
H . and K types (TEMA stamhmlsJ , LTC normally oriented hor izonta lly while
other types can he orienied horizontall~ or vertically. A heat exchanger wit h
removahl e hea d!\ :LOd a straight tube would be easy to clean. Space a nd
provision for removing tube huntlks need to be available. Valve:s isolilting the
exchanger a nd connecting clea ning s~rv i ce hoses should be incorrora lcd.
thus fac ililaling un,)'itc chemical cleani ng.

4.5 OPERATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS SUBJECT TO FOULING

Specification of CXCCioS surf,ICe area III the heat exchanger. becauioe of

anticirated fou ling. leads to operat ional problems that may accele rate fouling
hui ldup. For example. if the now ra le i... maintained at the design value, the
heat transfer at the slilrl of the operation will usua ll y I:tc high reioulting in
undesirahle temperat ure trends. Simi larly. to achieve thc design va lue of heat
transfer, the flow rate (hence veloeily) would be re duced and the tempera-
ture increaseiJ. As discussed earlier. luwcr flow velocity and highe r surface
temperature result in increased fouling. The followin g example illustra tes the
effects of fouling on heat exchanger op~.-'ration under twO dilfcrent conditio ns.

Example 4.3. A 10t:11 fouling rcsistanre of U.176 (m ~ . K) j kW IS u.<,Cd to de'lgn

thc condcnM: r in Example 4.1. Ctln~iJcr its opel';lIion with (ll) thc water n\)W
r;lte milintilined ilt thc design value Uti kgj ... :llld (h) the 111;,11 tran ~rer rale
maintained at thc design "altlc 7;,240 \V ,
For ~implicity, Ihc .... all thl'rlllal l e ,i~lancc and curv;lturc of Ihe tubc ,I re
ignored. Thcrdorc the dc,lll ..,urf,u:c ",crall heat Ir,lt\sfcr cuc1llcicllt V, I ~

u, ~n()(J
.--
1(I.ililO
,lr U. - 4444.4 W /( Ill "' K)

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134 HEAT EXCHANGER FOUUNG

The fouled surface overall heat transfer COCffiC1CnI is

1
- - - + 0.000176 or Vf - 2493.M W / (m 2 . K)
Vj 4444.4

The design surface area i.~ obtained from Eq. {.un ,IS

Q = 75.240 W. VI - 2493.8 W /(m : . K)

T herefore A,-
1.()456 m! (A, . - O..~XoX m ~ .IJ\' c l ~urfacc - 78.2%).
The heat exchHnger is designed 10 provide a heat transfer surface a rea of
1.0456 m ].

Operation at Design Water Flow Rate If the water flow rate is main-
tained at the design v:l lue. the heat transfer ratc wi ll be highest when the
surface is clean. A higher heat transfer result~ in a higher wate r ou tlet
tcmpcnllure. The heat transfer fate and the exit tempe rat ure can be ob-
tainet.! from the following equiltions:

(4.23)

+ + R (, (4.24)
V, h, II"

The known parameters in Eqs. (4.23) and (4.24) arc

....I f - 1.0456 m 2 In, = 0.9 kg/s C" = 4 1RO J/ (kg' K)

l~n .. ]O"C " , ~ SilOO W/(m' . K) II " = 10.OOOW/ (m 1 . K)

For a specified \l..)lal fou li ng resistance. the fouled overall heat transfer
coefficien t lif can be obtained from Eq. (4.24). T he reafter. the heat transfer
rate Q and the wate r exit temperature TOUI can be com puted iteratively from
Eq. (4.23), Deviations from the design values of t he waler exit tempera tu re
and the heat transfer rate for different fouling resistances arc depicted in
Fig. 4.6. It has been assumed that th e conden~ing temperature is constant
(5(fC). Under clean condilions the heat exchanger provides 42% more heat
transfer resulting in a water exit temperature goC above the design value. As
the fouling builds up the heat transfer ra te a~ well as the exit water
temperature decrease.

Operation at Constant Heat Trans fer Rate Because of anticipateti foul ·

ing the heat exch,mger is designed to provide 7W; ~ more surface area at the
start of operation. Therefore, to achieve the tic:.ign heat transfc r rale whcn
the heat exchanger is placed in opera tion under dea n conditions. the waler

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 •• OPERATION OF HEA T eXCHANGERS SUBJECT TO FOUUNG 13S

50
'"
• "
, 30
c
~

•
~
"
"•• •
~
20 ~
i
Q

~c 2 Outlet
Temperature
,0
~
0

, DeSign Value •
"•
~

Q
0 0
i..
, Heat Tfansts. '0 a

-.0 , 0 30
20

'0 '0
Total Fouling Res.sta~. R" ' 10 ' , (m 1 Kl f W

Fig. ".6. Effect of fo uling on out lei tempera ture a nd heat t ransfer.

flow fillC (hence the velocity) n cclh to be il djusted . A common practice

<although not recommended) a do pt c d by plant operators is to reduce the
mass flow fa lC. The resulting changl' in veloci ty affects the tube-side he al
transfer coefficien t Jr , and the water (luI le t temperature T" ...,. T he waler flow
rat e a nd the exit temperature to achIC\'c the design heat Iran!'fcr ralC ca n be
computed from Eqs. (4.23) and (4.2·U. However, the tubc ·~idc heat transfer
coefficie nt " , should be re lated to Ihe design heat transfe r coe fficient 11 ,1
[ - 8000 W / (m' . K)] "

I" III
., )'" (4.25 )
h,/" ( I;' J

The known par;mH!tcn. ill Eqs. (4 .2,"\) tu (4.25) a rc

() = 75,240 W A, = I.O-t50 m~ CI' = 41~ J/ (kg · K)

h" - IIl,OI)() W I l 01 : . K )

In" ~ (J .t) kg/s

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 " '20

p
<'
8

•
Q
"", >
, "",
• .:r,1>\e\
,4
#.
60

'0

•~
0 0
Desogn Value
0
~
~
~
0
-. '0

-8 60

- .2 '20

0 '0 20 3.0 '0

Total Fou~ng ReSIstance, R" )( 10 ' 1m 2 KI / W
fl,_ 4.7. Effect of fouting on outle t tcmpcr:ttu rc lind W(llcr flow r'l tc.

Fo r a specified R I • Eqs. (4 .2.1 ) to (4 .25 ) ca n he used with a trial-a nd-c rror

method to obtain /;1 , and 7;... " The resul lS arc !>hown in Fig. 4.7. When th e
heal exchanger is placed in ope rat ion unde r clea n cond itions (/(, - 0). 37%
less wate r How is req uired and the exi' tempera ture of the wat er increases hy
11 .7"C. A higher water temperature as well as a lower w,t ler 110w rate
increase the tende ncy of the heat transfe r su rface to fou l. This exa mpl e
demonstrates thai adding the hea l transfer su rface area, allowing for ant ici-
pated fouling. te nds to acce lera te t he fouling ralC.
11 wou ld be desirable if. during th e initial ope ratin g pe riod, the wat e r
velocity cou ld be maintained at the design valu e. This ca n be accompl ished
by recirculating some of the wa ter as shown in Fig. 4.1'< [171 or hy floodin g the
condenser. The additional capital costs of the pumps and piping requi red for
recirculation shou ld be bala nced agai nst the adva nt age of reducing foulin g in
the he:1I exchange r.
Pe rforma nce of th e heat exchange r shoulll be mo nitOred during opera tion.
Based on these observations, a proper clea ning sched ul e can he established.
If prope r fouling data a rc ava ilabl e. the cleaning schedule ca n be l1ascd on :1
rational economic cri te rion . Somerscalcs [231 provides a discussion of some of
these tcchniques.

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 Reclrculalion

Pump

'O'C Cooling
T~
Water
0 - 75,240 W T.

A ... I.0456m'
SO'C SO"C
Steam Conden

FiX. 4.8. 1 1Iu ~tratlvc example of rccirculation.

4.6 TECHNIQUES TO CONTROL FOULING

There arc a number of strategies for cont rol of fouling. Additives that act as
fouling inhihi to rs ca n he used while the he a l exchanger is in operalion . If il is
not possible to stop fouling , it becomes " practical mailer to remove it.
Su rface cleaning C;l n be don e ei ther on line or off linc . Table 4.14 [2 1J
provides a summary of the various tech niques used 10 contro l fouling.
Following is a d iscussion of some of these lechniques.

4.6.1 Surface Cleaning Techniques

If prior arrangemen t is made cleaning can he done on line. AI other times.
off-line cleaning must be used. Clean ing ml'lhods can be class ifie d as continu -
ous clea ning or periodic cleaning.

TABLE 4. t4 Various T«hniqut's 10 Control Foulinx 1211

On-Line Techniques Oll -Lin c Techniques
Usc and conlro l of Di~ .I~"<!mbly and
appropriate addi ti vcs manual cleaning
Inhihil{lr~
Anl iscalilnls Lancc \
Dispurs ant~ I.Il/uid Jel
Acids SI..:am
,..\I r j..:1
On-Linc ("!ciming Meeh<lnical ckaning
Sponge balls Dri lls
Brushes Snape r~
Sunie horns
Soot blowe rs
Chains and scrapers Chemical cic;ming
Therm;JI ~hoek
Air bumping

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13 8 HEAT EXCHANGER FOULING

Continuous Cleaning Two of the most com mon techniques are the
sponge-ba ll and brush syste ms. The sponge-ball system recircu lates rubber
balls through a sc parate loop fceding into the upStream end o f the heat
exchanger. The system requires extensive installation and therefore is limited
to large facilities. The brush system has capture cages at the ends of each
tube. It rellui res a flow-reversal valve which may be expe nsive.

Periodic Cleaning Fouling deposits may be removed by mechanica l or

chemica l means. T he mec hanical methods of cleaning include high -pressu re
water jets. steam. brushes. and water guns. High- pressure water works well
for most deposits, but frequent ly a thin layer of the deposit is not re moved
resulting in grea te r affinity for fouling when the bundle is returned to service
[5. 24J. High -tempe rature stea m is useful for hydroca rhon deposits. Brushes
or lances arc scraping devices attached to long rOlls and sometimes include a
water or steam jet for flu shing and removing the deposit.
C hemical cleaning is designed to di ssolve deposits by a chemical reaction
with the cleaning fluid . The advan tage of chemical cleaning is that a hard-to-
reach area ca n be cleaned (e.g .. fi nned tuhes ). Hnweve r. the solve nt se lected
for chemica l cleaning should not corrode the surface.

4.6.2 Additives
Chemicill 'H.ldi t ivcs arc common ly used to minimize fouling. The effect of
addit ives is hest understood for water. For various types of foul ing Strauss
and Puckorious [251 provide the fo llowing observations.

Crystallization Fouling Mineral s from the wat er arc removed by softening.

The soluhi li ty of the foulin g compounds is incrc,lsed by using chemicals such
, IS acids and polyphosphates. Crystal modification by chem ical additives is
used to make deposits easier to remove.

Particulate Fouling Part icles are removed m e~' hanically by fi ltration . Floc-
culants are used to aid filtrati on. Dispe rsants are used to maintain particles
in suspension.

Biological Fouling C hemica l removal using wn tinuou s or periodic injec-

tion of chlo rine and other biocides is most common.

Corrosion Fouling Add itives are used to produce protective film s on the
metal surfacc.
A numtlcr of additive options may tle availa ble depending on the type of
fluid and applica tion. Additional informa tion on add itives is given by Marne r
and Sui tor [24].

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 NOMENCLATURE 139

NOMENCLATURE

(/, b constan ts in Eq. (4.16)

A hc;)t transfer s urfaec arca. m!
A" cross-sectional area, m ~
C,. concc ntra tion in the Iluid. kg/rn '
/'" speci fi c heat .1I c(m.~ tant preSSII!"C. J /( kg' K)
C, concc ntr,ltion <It the heat tra mkr )our faee. kg/ m"
CF clea nliness fac tor de fined by b .l. (4.ltI)
n diffusion wc flici e nt . m"/s
d tu be di.ulle ter. m
f Fanning friction fa ctor. dimen:--ionless
It heat transfer coctlieie nt. W / h n: K)
It" mass trlln)oft;r cocllicient m /~
It (~ heat of vaporization. J / kg
k Ihe rmal comjuclivil Y. W / (m . K)
L length of the heat tra nsfe r surf'H."e, m
m fluid mass nnw rale. kg/ s
m" fouling spt'('ies uqx"ilion flu .\ . kg/ h n! . S)
Nil Nusse lt number. lul / k. dimerNOlllc~s
OS over surface defined in Eq. (-L!Ot r;,
:1 P pres:.,ure drop. Pa
I'r Pra ndtl number. Ilc,,/k. din1Crh iolllc~s
Q he;rt transfe r rale, W
Re Reynolds numbe r. JII/ ",t//Il. d i 1Tle n ~ i o nl css
Rj fouling resist::lIlce, (m~ . K)/ kW
R (, total fouling resistance. (m! . l--:)/ kW
Rj asymptotic fo uling resista nce. l m~ . K)/ kW
SII Shcrwoud number. hnd/D . urmensilllllcss
T te mpera tu re. ac, K
.l T,,, clfectiw mean temperature diffe rence. QC, K
I time. s
If fouling th icknes.... r11
'II delay time. s
U overall heat tra nsfer coefticienl. W j (m e . K)
"m a\'c ra gc fluid ve locity. mjs

Greek Symbols

f' fluid de nsily. kg/ Ill '

Il viscosi ty. kgj( m . s)
Ib d fouling dCl)Osi tio n function, (Ill ' . K) j kJ
¢, fo uling remuv,,1 fUIH:t iun, (m C K)/ kJ
o lime consta nt . s

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CONTENT. N.'"
NEXT
140 HEM EXCHANGER FOUUNG

Subscripts
, clean condi tion

"f d esign condi tio n

fouled condition
inside
inlet
'"
0 outside
oul out le t
p plain tube

REFERENCES
l. Kaka". S .. Shah. R. K .. ,md Aung. W. (cd~.) ( 1IIK7) Hrlrldbook of Single PIlUS{'
CO/wI'nin' Heal Trllll.lil'f. Chaple rs J illld 4 . WI ley. New York.
2. Kern. D. Q . (11,150) l)rlX.e:J~ H eal TrUlLlfer. McGI .lw·Hill. New York.
3. ChuQoweth . J. M. (1987) Fouling problems in hl'at cxch'lIlge rs. In lI('aI Transfer
In 'Hi§Jt T.I·("hl1o/vf.:}' alltl Power E'I!:III('{'rm/:. W-J. Yang a nd Y. Mori (cds.). pp.
406-419. J.kmi~pherc. Ne ..... Ynrk.
4. G;mcn-Pt,iC!!. B. A.. Smith. S. A.. W:JIIS. R. L.. Knudsen. J . G .. Marner. W. J.,
,lIld Sui~or. J. W. (lIIK5) Fou/ing of Ht'(lt 1:,[(·IIUII1f/'r.I·: Clwractt'rLI·tics, ("lI.\t.~.
Pn'r'l'lIIion, ( ·Olltml. and Remoral. Noyes. Park RIdge. N.J.
5. Tabor'ck. I ., Akoi. T., Rillcr. R. 8.. ,tnd Palen . J . W. (11172) Fouling: The m<lJor
unresolVed problem in heal transfer. Orem. Ell): Prof.:. 68 59 - 67.
6. Epslcin. N. (1'l7R) Fouling in heal c.K hangcrs. In Iil'a/ Transfer 11)7X, Vol. n, pp.
235 - 254. Hemisphere. New Yo rk.
7. SnmcrSC<llcs, E. F. C, <lnd Knudsen. J. G . (cd., .) ( 19K I ) Foulill}; vf NI'III TfllI/4f'r
Equipm/' /II. Hemisphere. New Yo rk.
8. Melli. L. F .. Bnll. T. R.. ~nd Bcrn<lrdo. C A. ( e d~.) (]9NS) FOII/illg Scil'llCl' lind
T(,c/IIIU/OK)I. Kluwcr. Dordrechl.
9. Ep~lelll. N. (19M3) Thinking ~b()ut heat trLIn~rt.:r fouling: A :\ x :\ mll1rix. NI'II!
Tmmil'r £/If.:. '' 43 - 56 .
10. Epstein. N. (111M!) Fouling in heal exehanger~. In Luw ReYllolds Nlllnm'r Flow
N('(J1 E.rc/WIIKUS. S. K"k<l ~. R. K. Shah. ilnd A E. Bergles (cds.). Hemisphere.
New York.
11. Friedla nder. S. K. (1977) Smok(' . Dlls! lind Na :!'. Wile y. New York.
12. Whitmore. 1' . J., a nd Meisen. A. ( 1977) E~lilll,ll ilJn of lhermo~ and ditlusio·
phorelic parlicle deposition. e ll/I. J. Chl'lII . Ellx 55279-285.
13. Nishin, G .. Kit .. ni, S .. ,md Takilh,lshi, K. (IY7·H Thcrmnphorelic deposi tion of
ih:rosol p,lrticics in ,I he,lI-cxch,1I1gcr pipe. llUl . ' ·:IIf.:. Chettl. Pm.. Tksign Ol'/". 13
408- 415 .
14. T<lbmck. J., Auki, 1'., Rillcr, R. B., and P'llc n. 1. W. (1972) Predic tive mClhlM.!s
for fouling hehavio r. C/I('IIJ . £II/: . Pmw . 68 6'l -7K.

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15. McCabe. W. L . and Robin:-on. C. 5. II !)::!") Evaporator stale fo rma tio n. Illd .
f."IIK. Chem . 1647K- 479.
16. Ke rn, D.O., a nd Scalnn. R. E. (I 959) A thellrc tical analysis of thermal surface
fouling. Brtt . Clrt!1I1. Eng . 4 25K-2b2.
17. Knudsen. J. G. (1984) Fo uling of helll ... ,changen;: Arc we S(llvi ng the prohlem'!
Cheftl. En/-:. I'rog . 80 61- 09.
IK. Ga rret ·Price. B. A., Smith. S. A ., W :lIIS. R. L.. and Knudse n. 1. G. ( 19K<!)
Industria] fou ling: Proble m characte riz'lllr)n. econo mic assessme nt . and review of
prevention. mitiga tion. a nd accommodat IOn tec hniques. Repon PNL-4RR3. Pacific
Northwest l...;lhorattlry, Rich land, Wash ,
19. Stundouls of Ihe Tubular Exchulll:.·r l·tf,mllf"ctllrf!fs AssvcialiOlI 7th cd. Tuhular
Exchange r Manufacturers AssucialiOIl. Ne w Yurk. IYI'!K.
20. Inc ropera. F. P.. and De Witt . D. P. ([Q/iS ) IlI/fOt/l/flW" 10 /feCiI Tflmsfl!f. Wiley.
New Yurko
21. Che nowe th . J. M. (1988) Ge ne ral dc sl~ n (If hea t exchangers fo r fouling con-
dilions. In foulin g Scit!nl.·1! al1(l Tt!dllwl{J~f)'. I.. F. Md.]. T . R. ikru , 'Llld
C. A. Bernardo (cds.). pp. 477- 41)4. Kl uwcr. Dordreehl.
22. Gilmour. C. H. (l9bS) No fooling - no fuuling . ("/reftl . [irK. I'm~ . 6 1 49- 54.
:!l Somersc'llcs, E. F. C. (l1}!\M) Fo uling In TlI'IJ· I'lwJf· Floit' 11('(1/ I':.rl"il(lll/:'·f.l':
Tht'rmol·!-I}'(/r(Jl/lic FIIII(/lllllf'lJ/(I/5 (lmi /) ,"IKI! , S. Kaka\;, A. E. Uc r g l c~, allJ E. O.
Fernandes (cds.), pp. 407 - 4hO. Kluwcr. IJnrdreehl.
24. Marne r. W. J. , and Suitor. J. W. (11)1'71 Fouling with eonveClive heal transfe r.
In Hmld/}()()k of Sill~II?·I'}WJI' Cmll"ef lll·,· III'al Tra1l41!f. S. Kaka~. R . K. Shah. and
W. Au ng ( e d.~ .), Ch,lpter 21. Wiley. New York.
25. Strauss. S. D .. and Puckorious. P. R. ( 191'14) Cooling-water treatment for wntml
of scaling. fouling , <lnd corrosIon. I'o ....."r 128 S 1- S24.

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MI
..,a::
MI
Chapter 05
..,Z
A Industrial Heat
Z
o Exchanger Design

..
\I

MI
Practices

a:: J . Taborek
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• Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 05 Contents
5. Industrial Heat Exchanger Design Practices
J. Taborek

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Heat Exchanger Types, Their Characteristics and Selection
5.2.1 Shell and Tube
5.2.2 Double Pipe or Multitube Hairpin
5.2.3 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
5.2.4 Gasketed Plate Exchangers
5.2.5 Matrix and Plate Fin-Tube Exchangers
5.2.6 Conclusion
5.3 The Strategy of Overall Design Optimization
5.3.1 Process Specifications
5.3.2 Preliminary Problem Analysis
5.3.3 Detailed Thermohydraulic Design
5.3.4 Mechanical-Metallurgical Design Aspects
5.3.5 Architectural Considerations
5.3.6 Maintenance, Operation, and Control Considerations
5.4 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers: Characteristics of Constructional
Components
5.4.1 Shell Types
5.4.2 Tube Bundle Types
5.4.3 Tube Passes
5.4.4 Baffle Types and Geometry
5.4.5 Tube Diameter and Tube Length
5.4.6 Tube Layout
5.5 Comments on Condenser Design
5.6 Comments on Reboiler Design
5.7 Calculated Example: Butane Cooler
5.7.1 Process Specifications
5.7.2 Heat Exchanger Type and Fluid Allocation
5.7.3 Thermal Profile Analysis: Possible Configurations
5.7.4 Selection of Construction Elements
5.7.5 Preliminary Estimation of Unit Size
5.7.6 Design and Results Evaluation
5.8 Design by Computer Programs
5.9 Optimization and Expert Systems Nomenclature
Nomenclature
Appendix 5.1: Step-by-Step Calculations
Acknowledgment
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

MAIN PAGE
 CHAPTER 5

INDUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER

DESIGN PRACTICES

J. TABOREK
Center lor En61gy SllJdies
University 01 TelUls
Austin. Texss 78758

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Whil e the Ihc rmohydraulk Dc rformann: of hea l exchange rs is treated exte n-

sive ly in the litera ture. Ihe opt imum design for indu!'lri,.1 a pplications must
re tlcct seve ral additional c ril e ria , im po~c J by interre lated d esign (.;OnsidC T<l-
lions. These include J cmands, rcst riclion .~. and ohjectives or disci plines such
as mec hanical: me tall urgica l: plant -a rchitectural ; a nd operillion. fuul ing, COIl-
trol , a nd ma int e nance. Th is chapter focuses on the int e rac tio n of the various.
often contradictory aspects of the dc ~ig n process. The princ i p l c~ o f ~ uc h
design a TC illustrated by a detailed clI!cula ted example o f a process stream
cooler, starting fro m basic specifica tions a nd progrcs.<;i ng through the sug-
gested ste ps to the fin al design and its possible alternative)_

5.2 HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS, AND

SELECTION

Th e ~lcc t io n of hea t exchanger typc(<; ) that would he sui table for a given
applica tion is the tirs! ite m in th e dC!>lgn proceSS. Often a certai n t)'rc is
vi rtually prede termined by experience and process cond it ions. bul in a
gene ral case the designer would surve)' the availabl e choiccs. Th ese arc
dc.scrihcd in most ha ndhooks 12. 41 and arc me ntioned he re only I1ric fl y for
comple te ness.

Bot/rrJ. CI"(lp<J'(I!O' J artd CnmlrrtJrtj. Educ-d h) ::',,,..hk Ka~..,;;

ISBN 0-471·62 170-6 t'" 1Q<ll1ohn Wik:y &I Son ~. tnc

'43

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144 INOUSTRIAL H EAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTICE S

5.2.1 Shell and Tube

The universal pupu larity of shell ·and· tube heat c;(changers is based on the
wide range of applicability, namely,

I. Any temperat ure and pressure from vacu um to high ( mate ria l limi ts)
2. Applications include single ph ase, condensation, and boili ng
3. Size from vel)' small to limit s of transJX)rtation
4. Pressure drop ca n be adjust ed within an extremely wide range o n the
shell side through shell type and baffle d e~ i Bn
5. Vcry rugged, but also heavy and bulky (largc volume/area)

5.2.2 Double Pipe or Multltube Hairpin

These types were originally used as small-sized cl assica l cou nterflow heat
exchan gers: prese nt applications arc oft en o f thl.! rnul titube type with rad ial
or longi tudin al finn ed tubes.

5.2.3 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers

The sca rcity of suitable cooling waters. high eosl of their treat men ts, and
environ mental consideratiuns increasin gly favo r the use of air as t he final
heat sink. The ai r coole r consists of a finned lube hank (4 10 10 lube rows)
and an air blower located before the tube bank (forced draft) o r ope rating in
suction (i nduced draft) . Because the heat is discharged to the atmosphere, no
limit s on the air o utl et tempe rature exist las is nftc n the case fo r cooling
waters).

5.2.4 Gasketed Plate Exchangers

Origmally developed for the food indu stry b~cau ~<.: of \!ase uf disassembly
and cleaning. mode rn des igns wilh " herri ngbone" ~ haped grooves arc appli-
cable in many ind ustrial processes. Some adVa nl i\gcs and limi tations include
the fulluwing:

I. Vel)' high t.:ocftkients but also high prt.:ssurc urop; fo uling is decreased.
but is restricted to small pa rt icles
2. Main limita tions arc pressure (no vacuum, 10 to IS ba r maximum) and
temperature (usually 150"C) because of the gasket materia l
J. Sizes sma ll to very large, with extre me compactness
4. Pl ate material is usua lly stainl ess stce l or titan ium

5.2.5 Matrix and Plate Fin-Tube Exchangers

A folded shee t metal m,tlrix, usually aluminum. is sa nuwiched betwee n
separating plates to which it is solde red or bfll zcd. forming a system o f

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 5.3 THE STRATEGY OF OVERALL DESIGN OPTIMIZATION 145

crossflow passages fastened to headers. While the design is most compact, it

docs not permit cleaning and is therefore restricted to clea n fluid s, often
gases or cryogen ic liquids. The rectangular shape restricts pressures to about
10 bar.
A variation on this design is the so-ca lled plale fin lube, in which o ne fluid
is inside small channels (tubular or rectangu lar) and gas, often air. is on the
pia Ie side. Typical usc is for automotive radiators and in refrigeration service
with nonfoul ing fluids.

5.2.6 Conclusion
From Ihis survey, the follow ing criteria of heat exchanger se lection stand oul
as most importan t:

I. Pressure limitations exclude plate and matrix exchangers above Clbout

10 har and in vacuum .
2. Tempe rature above about 1SO"e excludes plate exchangers because of
gasket material limitations.
3. Fouling and cleaning conside rations exclude matrix and plate fin -tube
exchangers.
4. Low pressure drop limitCllions will exclude mOSI types except shell-and-
tube and air-cooled exchangers (tube side ).
.5. For applications where th e above criteria arc of no importance, any
des ign type is applicable and shou ld be considered on merits of cost
effectiveness.

Howeve r. the shell-a nd-tube heal exchanger remains as the clearly most
versatile type and therefore will be tre ated here in greater detail.

5.3 THE STRATEGY OF OVERALL DESIGN OPTIMIZATION

The overall optimum design of a part icular heat exchanger encompasses a

variety of problem areas that involve bot h quantitative and quali tative info r-
mation and interpretation of results. We shall focus on the fo llowing logica l
design modules and follow the heat exchanger design process in principle. to
demonstrate what is conside red the "integra l" approach:

J. Process specifi ca tions

2. Preliminary problem analysis
3. Detailed the rmohyd raulic design
4. Mechanica l and metallurgical design
5. Architectural design aspects
6. Operational. control. and maint ena nce considerations

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NEXT
 Design me thodology requires that the precc ui ng items be solved " in
parallel" ; that is, the de ma nds of anyone discipli ne must be conside red with
respect to all others in an interactive proceSS [1\. To illustrate this, let us
consider that a panicular heat transfer process is "uspccted of heavy fouling.
Fouling results in direct cost through large r ~ urface a nd possibly more
expe nsive ma te rials. as well as the indirect cost of clea ning with the possible
proble ms of control and production int c rruption . Thercfore all other design
aspects wi ll become suhservie nt to the solution o r minimization of the fouli ng
problem. and all the following design modules wLl I be involved interactively:

I. Ca refu l scJection of th e fouling resistance I.)r ,Irea over-surface

2. High fl ow velocity and design geome try consideratio ns to minimize
fouling and to fa cilitate clea ning mainte nan(;e
3. Tu be mate rial se lection to minim ize fou ling corrosion
4. Architectural placeme nt of the hcat e xchangc r fo r case of cleaning "on
location." or re moval of tube bundle for exte rnal cleaning
5. Conside rations for propcr controls bctwccl1 ckan and fouled condition

Other simi lar examples c:m be cited. such ;1~ design of condensers with
nonoonde nsiblcs. in which the gas removal techn iques virtually d ictate the
selection of uni t geometry.
It is nOI un usual for some of the "prefe rcntial" require me nts to posc
con trad ictory de mands on the overall design. For example. an o rga nic strea m
would preferahly be placed on the shell side. because of a belle r heat
transfer coe fficie nt. I-I ow~ver, the stream exh ibi t ~ fou ling. wh ich is easier to
accommoda te on the tube !>idc. Th i!> !>i tuation ca lls for a weighted compro-
mise, freque ntly requiring th e eva luat ion of alte rnative designs to optimize
the ove rall effects.
The foll owing section!> dellne in greater det ail the problem!> perti ne nt to
the ind ividual design modulc areas.

5 .3 .1 Process SpecifIcations
The major role of Ihe process engineer is to supply all sueh informa tion to
the heat exchanger designer as is needed for pr(lpCr design. thaI is:

I. The type of heat exchanger. if such i!> uncond itiona lly desired (a ir-cooled
heat excha nge r, hori zontal conden se r. e tc.)
2. The temperatures and pressures of both ~ Irell m s; acceptable ra nge of
seasona l temperature flu ctuatio ns (coolin g water. air)
3. Flow rates of flu ids and composition for lI1i.xtures in conde nsation or
boiling
4. The corrosivity of flui ds. e nvironmental haza rds. and si mil ar

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 5. The pcrmissible pressure drop <Thi:. item i ~ th e most import ant. as it
often virtually determines the d esl~ n.)
o. The fouling resistances of both lIuids or area overdesign factor (This
spec ification can have a substanl i;d crfect on the design . Careful selec-
lion and coord ination wi th the Ihermohydraulic des ign. such as the
effect of fl ow velociti es and tuhc wa ll te mperature, is required.)
7. T he tube diameter and length (W hile the process engineer may have
reasons to specify e ither or both Items. they arc ofte n specified wit h
lillie or nn justification and the effec ts on fhe hCal exchanger design
ca n be detrimenlal.)

5.3.2 Preliminary Problem Analysis

It is a mOst use ful practice hI perform a preli minary analysis of any heat
exchange r design problem. Th is should inc ludc:

J. Approximate siLeo Values o f th e heal transfer codlicient s can be

estimated from literature sourees suc h as prese nt ed in T abl e 5. 1. From
these. togeth e r with the mean tempera ture differe nce. Ihe exc han ger
siLe ca n he determined in fi rst appru.-:inwt ion. Thi s will :.erve as a guiJe
for subsequent decisions as well a:. justi fication for allocation of eng i-
neeri ng eH·ort. A small unit wi th standard operating cond itions wi ll
require not more than rout ine aHenlion. while ,I large unit aud / vr <I
complex process. such as conde nsation wi th boiling coolant. may need
an extemive a nalysis.
2. The distribution o f the thermal TI.:sistam::cs under clean and fuuled
cond iti ons should be determined at t his ... tage from the preceding data .
Often o ne of the resista nces will he contrul ling. req uiring :.pccial
attention.
3. Ident ificat ion of most rest rictive con~ id c ration s. This will usually deter-
mine some desig n feature and focu~ the atlenlion toward item)' ident i-
fie d as needi ng specia l atte ntion. Typically. such items wi ll incl ude the
follow ing:
(a) Low pressure drop of gas stre,lITlS or condensing vapo r~ in v;tcuum;
such streams would preferabl y be alloca ted on the she ll side.
where the designe r can control the pressure drop with many
options in unit Iype and baffle ~ clecti()n.
(b) Thermal profile: for exa mple. i... counte rflow lIeee ...... ary because of
cluse temperature approach. or can multitube pa~s design be
considered .
(c) Whcn fouling is a substantial resistance. the design effort must
cunee nt r;lIe un defensive me<lsurc .~ (flow veloci ty. mate nal se lec-
tion . etc.) and case of cleani ng.
(d) High pressure or corrosivi ty WIll placc such strcams on the tube
side because of materia l cost.

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TA8U~': 5, 1 T y pic.• 1 ,.'ilm lI u l l'na n.'lft: r t;(Wfficil: nIS and FoulinK Ru isl.a nct:s
ror S ht:lI-ud -l'ubt Ihal ExchanltU5
Foulong
R nl~lanec
Range ,
Fhm! ("onU,llOn W j (m 1 K~ (~W j(m !' KJI
~M,Me ht:lIl lr~n~ fe r
Wall" L"~lIId 5.UOO - 7.!W O. I - U.!.S
Amlfllm':, Liliuld "-,11--. 0- )(.01.0 11 _0. 1
Llflh, orglln"" I.,qu.d 1.'>111 - 2.101 n I - Il~
Mcd ium "rglln~ LI~u.d 750 - 1500 U ] 5-U.4
Itea'1· tJr&~nio LiqUid
I-klliong 2S(l - 7~1 O~ - I.I)
<."<.I0 1on l 150- 4110 0 .2- 1.11
LiqUid
Ik~tf!lll IUl.I - Jl~.I o ~ - .\U
{"..... Ionll flO I ~f) OJ .l.fl
G;a~ 1 _ ~h:""tJ.,. KlI - 1 2~ ll _fl. 1
G" III h,II dh, 2,\(1- 41111 u-u.]
GlI' lUll h.ff "m 501l _1!OO 0 _0. 1
("(lnden~ong hca' "an~f... r
S' cam. ;Imm<.ll1l:' N.. nOll(unlkn) ,t>1o; 11.11011 - ] HIt_. U- II.I
LI,hl ""amOo I'u. o: ('1 >n'f)llJlen1. ILl hOI,
.,1". n" nltncnnUcn_" hk ~ . U.I _ ~ . 11I1lI II _II .I
LI ~ht \lrt!~nl(' II I hoi!' 4'", nOn(\illd"" Nhk 7511 _ I.lUI 11 - 111
MeuiUlIl "r~anlf' l'u I", ur II,,,,,,,..
,""nue n" "11
ranl:<'. I h:., ~h~ I j OIl - 4.11IY1 o l - fl ..1
Nar r"w oonu<'I1"" g ra"~e.
I har"k NI() 2.l1Il() 0.2 0.5
Light muhicomllllno:n, MCllium CHmlcn~ing r :,"~.: ,
mi~tu,o:. all en nuen." hlt I t>;o, :ab<. 1.I UJ - 2j UlI 11 _ 11 2
Mo:dlum muille.:)mpllncni Mcuium comlc:n"ol: ranic.
mi~ l u.c . all c.: H1(kn"hk I h... IIh~ f~lI" - I. S(1IJ 0 . 1- 1) J
I-k:.,,), rnuilioompuncnl Meuium "-unuen~'''" rangc.
mi~1Ulc . all en nuc ns,hlc I t>al :.h!!, .11111 _"")1) O. 2 - 11.~
Vapor;t;ng he.II tran~fcr
Wale, " "'),urc < ~ t>:I' .. b) .
JoT - 25K ~.I)t)() IIUI(JO n.J 0.2
Waler P'c ....'ure ~_ lltO b.ll .,b<.
JoT - ;!tIK ·1,1100- 1S.OOU U 1- 0 2
Ammooill P,e ~u,c < JII 1>,.. al>~.
JoT - 10 K 11.1 - 1) 2
<"1.}m po n..-nl.
"UI ...
prtS-'U'c < ]() ha r abo; .
JoT - 20 K 1l1 _1l 2
1"',""....... !>o,lo nl: 'alll....
p,cs-,urc 21"1- ] 511 b,1I am.
~T - 15 - 211 K II 1_11.,1
Mculum nrgan~.,. N,," .......· III" Io°I·anl ....
p,cs-\urc < ~ h'" am..
~ T.... , - I.~K 1~.1 _ 2.51.1 111 - 11..1
:"';o"""",· IIO.Io°I,;on,C.
P'C S-\U'C < 20 har abo;.
~ T_, - I ~ K II ~ - u II

148

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 5 .3 THE STRATEGY OF OVERALL OESIGN OPTIMIZATION 149

4. Identification of prohable alternat e designs. Some of the previously

mentioned items may oflcn POl>C con trad ictory demands, rcquiring
compromises. which can usually he identified at Ihi ~ stage. The poten-
tial use of enhanced su rfaces can <llso be established.
5. In adequate o r poor specifications. Perhaps the most important item o f
the preliminary survey is to recognize if the given specifications arc
suspect of bcing incorrect or at 1cil~t requiri ng additional investigation .
Exaggerated fou ling. leading to overdesign of more than 50% compared
to clcan conditions. is a typica l example.

5.3,3 Detailed Thermohydraulic Design

The raison d'elre for the heat exc han ge r de~igner is to obta in a global
opt imum within all the demands and re ~l r i ction s with respect to ini tial and
operating cost. reliabili ty. and maintenance case. This will req uire interac-
tions with the other disciplines of mechanical and metallurgical design and
the overal l pllillt architecture.. as men tioned earlier. Some representative
items arc brietly discussed.
1. F()r shell-and-l ube heat exchangers. the selection of the shell construc-
tion type and bame d{;sign, toget her with allocation of the st reams to shell
and tube sid e, arc the primary decision s. Usc is made of the results of the
preliminary design estimat ions; however. Ih{;se were based on heat transfer
performance on ly. wh il e compliance with the maximum permissible pressure
drop as well as full pressure drop utili zation must be confirmed th rough
dctailctl llcsign invcstigat ion.

T
E
~ Il/j,JI\
I ~ J
~ I{\/f~';I ~
One·Pass Shell DIVided Flow

[1(f-r:I~ ~
T
F t- ~~~~/:".::'~
r'- /-....../ ..... J V
I X

1.. Two.Pass Shell

with Longi1udlnal Baffle Crossflow

Fig. 5.1. Sclected TEMA shc ll !ypcs.

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150 INDUSTRiAl HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTICES

-",

FIxed Tube Sh~l Heal E~Chang(lf

U·Tube Exchanger

Rear· Head ~
+-
___ _ ____ s
="~,
--, Stat<onary·
Eo' Hoad End

=- -

Pull· Through Floatlng·Head Heat Exchanger

Fig, S.2. Typic;11 shcl l·a nd ·whe he;ll cxt:hangcr types.

Shell type and lUbe bund le construction ( Figs. 5. 1 and 5.2) will he
determined from conside ration of three require men ts:

(a) The lowest-cost s hell is the U tube , fu llowed by fi..:ed tuhe shee t
construction . If foulin g is no proble m ur cleaning can be done by
c hemical means and fl ow- te mperatul c conditions pe rmit two o r
more tube passes. the U tube will bt· the prime choice. This is

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 typica lly used (or steam- heated (ksigns (steam tube side). If tube-side
brush cleaning is requi red and/ o r a sin gle tube pass is a considera-
tion bec,lUse of coun terflow. th e fixed tube sheet will be preferred.
unless excluded by restriction s of thermal expansion .
(b) If the stream temperatures and heat transfer coeffici ents result in
large differe nces betwee n the temperature o f the shell and tubes. the
diffe re ntial the rmal expan)o ion must be accommodated as otherwise
the tube-to-tuhc sheet joins wuuld be damaged. Again, the U tube
will be the prime choice for cost reasons. Fixed lube sheet design can
accommodate only minor expan~ion stresses. For large diffe rences of
wa ll te mperature ( > 5()OC. apprllximately), " floating head " construc-
tion mu st be used. as described later.
(c) Shell type selectio n also affects the pressure drop. The TEMA J and
X shells will produce a greatly uccreased pressure drop compared to
the I:' shell.

2. Selection of possible alternates of constructional clements such as tube

diamete r and le ngth . tube layout , and pitch, as well as considerations of
e nhanced surfaces.
J. The speci fi ed pressure drop controls to a large extent the design of
mflny heat exchangers. especi:llly in no-ph ase change. Th e desired criterion is
th a t the available pressurc drop should he ut ilized as much as possible. as the
co nve rsion of pressure drop to heat tran"fer will resu lt in a smaller unit [2, 51.
Under no circumstances should a dc)oign be "pressure drop limited:' in
which case. the size of a heat exchanger has to be e nlarged for the purpose to
accommodate pressure drop limits. rc~u lting in heat transfer overoesign.
Such design conditions a rc not read ily noted from computer-based designs.
which oftcn do not ide ntify int e rmed iat e Jesign solutions and the rest rictions
which force the design into lllrger size,. All previously mentioned design
cle me nt s may e nte r as optimization r arame te rs. but on ly few arc usually
controlled hy the comrute r program logic le.g., baffle spacing. tube passes).
thus requiring human intervention for a ll ot hers.
4. Pressure drop in peripheral connections. nozzles. a nd so fort h. In some
low pressure drop she ll designs the pressure drop in the pe ripherals is a
predominant part of the towi . requiring care ful attention.
5. Provisions fo r minimization o f fouling as well as ease of cleaning. These
a rrangements ca n incl ude a v:'lfie ty of ill: ms. ranging from the obvious ( flow
velocity. baflk design, materia l) to Ihe more complex, such as the quality of
water treat me nt and its fl uc tua tion. fl uid storage history. possible con tami-
nants. and so fOrlh. Even mo re important. each design should be checked for
pe rformance under init ial cl e;1Il condi tilll))O. in orde r to highligh t thc various
effects o f the spe(:ified fouli ng and to a ~!-o ure that prope r controls havc been
provided.
6. Ve nting of nonconde nsible ga ~e~ 1.:,111 be a dominant design require-
me nt.

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 7. Tube vibrat ion is a potential problem. Ht)wever, the use of modern
computational methods makes it possible to produce a design virtually free o f
tube vibration.
These arc only examples of the nume rous cons iderations facing the
designer of heat exchangers, emphasizing the need for close inte raction with
the other suhsel design modules.

5.3.4 Mechanical - Metallurgical Design Aspects

Some of the most costly e rrors in heat exchange r design are commi lled in the
area of select ion of the mechanical and metallurgical design clements, which
include [9]:

I. The se lection of proper materia ls for welll.!l.I and nonwetted surfaces of

the hea t exchanger, as well as for the pres!.ure and nonpressure part s.
This analysis includes conside rations for co rrosion, life expectancy,
fouling mitigation , and numerous other problems. Nol always is the
least expensive materia l the most economical. For example, stai nless-
steel tubes will increase th e initial cost, but may he lp reduce fouling
and eliminate the need for tubl.! n:placcmcnl.
2. Every heat exchanger design mu st eomplr with an ohen hewi ldering
array of national and intcrnatiomll codes, wi l h frequently confusi ng and
contradiclory spec ifica tio ns [6].
3. General mechan ical design integri ty: tube shl.!el design, lube-to·tube
sheet joints, t1 anges, welds, and the like.
4. Some aspects of tube vibrat ion integrit y arc intimately connected with
thermal design per se (baffle spacing) and may require special construc-
lion design provisions (U ·tuhe support platc:-;, flow distributors. etc.).

5 ,3.5 Architectural Considerations

Arch itectural considerations include items connected wi th placing heat ex-
change rs within the overa ll plant system. Typic:11 problems include Ihe
following::

I. Integration of the heat exchanger within the piping system. The cost of
piping in a large plant is so considerable Ihat Pilrlicu lar design aspects
of the heat exchange r may he :'iubord inated . For exa mpl e, the slrategy
of piping layout ma)' favor a stream entering and exiting on the same
side of a heat exchanger. thus perm itting on I), an even number of tube
passes.
2. Vertical versus horizonlal o rientation. Soml' heal exchange r procer....es
arc orientation dependent, especially boi ling and condensation. which
arc gravity dependent , resulling in preference to vert ical orientat ion.

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 5.4 SHELL-AN O-T UBE HEAT EXC HAN GE R S 153

However. the cost of ve n ica l erec tio n. design for wind and se ismic
loads. is usually high er than for horizontal. Cleaning on the tube s ide in
place favo rs horizontal locat ion al"O. because o f case of access. These
conside rations may compete with othe r pote nt illlly fa vorahle dcs igns
such as condensa tio n in vc rtieal llownftow ami up- fl ow boiling.

5.3.6 Maintenance, Operation, and Control Considerations

A large number of items fall into the gt"lleral ca tegory of ope ration. mainte-
nance. and cont rol. From these we note the fo llowing [9J:

l. Heat exchange rs designed to fuu li ng cond itions will ove rpe rform at
clea n conditions. If streams such a~ cooling wa ter or air a rc involved.
the hcat exchange r is w'ually desl!:ned to 95% o f the worst su mm er
cond itions. thu s Clbsorbing a n auditional uvcT<.ksign tl uri ng the rest of
the year. Thi s ove rpe rformance is ,lcce pt ahlc o r desirable only in cases
such as powe r plant cO lld e n sc r~. heat recovery un its. and similar. In
most other cases it has tu be ci thn absorbed by downstream un its. if
acceptable. or e liminated hy a ppronria te control s. T his is oft en ditflcu lt
and in any casc requires careful cun.'.idcration. Decreay,c of flow rates
of se rvice fluid s likc cooling Will er will accompl ish t he cont rol. hut wi ll
lead to dec rease d now veloci ty and hence increased fou ling. Rec ircula·
tion o f fluid s, suhmerge nee of pa rt of the heat exchan ger surface. a nd
simil ar measures arc reso rted to in serious cases .
2. Provisions fo r therm al ex pansion he twee n the shel l and tuhcs. which
a rc subjected to different t e mperat ur c~ and arc often made (lut of
di ffe rent m a t e ri;JL~. is esse ntia l to mil intain the integrity of tuhe-to-t ube
sheet joints and other connecting element s_ Leakage :md structura l
damages can develop if thi s it em i~ not prope rly att cnded to hy ;)1[
subd isc iplines of design. It mu st ind ude start-up and shut down cOlu.li -
tio ns and account for pump failure~ of individual streams.
3. Provisions fo r case of access to the exchange r for cleaning. tube re pair.
gasket re placement . and ge neral In spection arc esse nti al for nrope r
mai ntenance.

5.4 SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS, CHARACTERISTICS OF

CONSTRUCTIONAL COMPONENTS

It is im port ant that the designer of ~h e lJ - anJ - tu be heil t exchan ge rs he

fa miliar wi th the characte rist ics of the constru ction al clement s and th eir
effect s on th e ove rall pe rfonnance. a)' shcll-a nll-t uhe exchange rs arc designed
on a "custom hasis": t ha t is. every design consists of intlividu il ily se lccteu
compon ents. as described in deta il in 14}. This is cont rary to many othe r heat

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154 INOUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTICES

exchanger types, like plate exchange rs, which un: ··modular." meaning that
predetermined constructional c lements are used .

5.4.1 Shell Types

T EMA standards 131 list a number of shell·anJ·tuhe hundle types that arc
internationally recognized as representing the ba,ic general design types. The
most important ones are shown in Fig. 5.1. and their characteristics arc
briel1y described as follows:

E shell: This typc is a single· pass shell (inlet and outlet nozzles arc on
eithcr side) with any number of tube passes, odd or even. With a
single·tubc pass a nominal countcrflow can he: ohtained. For compari·
son of pressure drop between the variolls types, we designate the
E·shel l relative performance by the numbe r I.
F shell: This two·shell pass unit has a longitu di nal dividing partition . It is
used when units in series arc requireJ, wit h each shell pass represent·
ing one unit. With two tube passes a nominal counterflow is obtained.
The pressure drop comparison number is k. that is, eight times that of
the E shell for the same shell diameter.
J shell: Fluid cntry is centra lly located and splil into two parts. This shel l is
used for low pressure drop designs, as the w mparison number is 1/8.
X shell: This type has a centrally located l1uid entry and outlet, usually
with a distributor dome. Crossftow is over the entire length of the tube.
Consequently, pressure drop is cxtremely luw. It is used for vacuum
condensers and low'pressure gases.

5.4.2 Tube Bundle Types

The most representative tube bundle types arc :-.hown in Fig. 5.2. The main
design objectives here arc to accommodate therma l expansion, to provide for
ease of cleaning, or the least expensivc construction if other features arc of
no importance.

U Tube The U tuhe is the least expensive construction bec<luse on ly one

tube sheet is needed. The tube side is difficult to clean by mechanical means
because of the sharp U bend. Only an even number of tube passes can be
accommodated, hut th ermal expansion is unlimit ed.

Fixed Tube Sheet The shell is welded to the tube sheets and there is no
access to the outside of the tube bundle for clean ing. This low·cost design
opt ion has on ly limited therma l expansion, which can be somewha t increased
by expansion bellows. Cleaning of {he tube is ca.. y.

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 54 SHEll·AND-TU6E HEAT EXCHANGERS 155

Floating Head Seve ral designs haw been developed that permit the tube
sheet to "float." that is. to move with thermal expansion . The classic type of
pu ll-through fl oati ng head is shown in Fig. 5.2. which permits tube bundle
removal with min imum disassembly. a:-. requ ired for heavily fouling unit s. The
cost is high.

5.4.3 Tube Passes

On ly the E shell with one tube pass and the F she ll with two tube passes
resu lt in nominal coun terflow and have the highest temperature effectiveness.
All multitube passes require a temperature profile correction (factor Fl, o r in
some cases. si mply ca nnot deliver the desired temperatures because of
temperature cross. In sueh cases either a single tube pass must Oc used or, as
alternate. multiple unit s in series (higher cost).
Generally. a large r numbe r of tuhe passes is used to increase the tube-side
flow ve locity which resu lts in II higher helll transfer coefficient (within the
avai lable pressure drop) and minimizes fouling. However. the pressure drop
steps arc large. that is. from one to two tube passes the pressure drop rises by
a f.!Ctor of K If, for archi tecturll l reasons. the tube-side fluid mu st enter and
exit on the same side, an even num hcr of tuhe passes is mandatory.

5.4.4 Baffle Types and Geometry

The purpose of placing bames into the tube bundle is (J) to support the tubes
for structural rigidity. preve nting tubc vibration and sagging, and (2) to divert
the flow across the bundle, to obtain it higher heat transfer coefficient. The
most common ly used batik Iypes arc shown in Fig. 5.3 and described briefly
as follows:
Segmemal baffles divert the tlow most effective ly across the tubes. How-
eve r, the name spaci ng and cut must he chose n very ca refully. as otherwise
ineffective flow patterns would resu lt . as shown in Fig. 5.4. Optimum baffle
spaci ng is somewhere hetween 0.4 and 0.6 of the shell diameter, with a battle
cu t of 25 % .
Douhle {lfId triple segmental baffles increase the longitudinal How compo-
nent. thus lowering the pre ssure drop. which is approximately 0.5 and 0.3 of
the segmen tal value.
No luhes in tire wil/dow construction elimi nates th e tuhes that are other-
wise supported by only every second bame. thus minimizing tube vibrat ion.
However. fewer tube~ can he loca ted in a give n shell diameter. Heat transfer
effectiveness is high.
Rod or grill bajfies arc formed by a ~ rid of rod o r strip supports. The flow
is es,'\Cntially lnngi ludinlil. resulting in very low pressure drops and the
highest effectiveness of pressure drop tn heat transfer conversion. Because of
the usual dose baffle spacing. tube vihrat ion danger is virtually elim inated .
This construction ean also he u .~d effectively for vertical condense rs and

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 156 INDUSTRIAl HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTICES

Tuple Segmental No Tubes ,n Window

Bundle
r--
.
- - I!!
,,- t
, •,
•, Internal

'- -'-+"-" . Support

..- - ., ,
S,ngle Segmental Double Segmental ! J
I,- t' - :I 2
2
, ,
r-. - - -~
,
,,
k _ _ , _

,
_
''
...
,,~ -- "' - -
! --
.t !
•
I
Intemal
Support
, 3
, "! Inlernal
,
----1 2
'-- ---,
-
,
! - 2
, .
• - r .... ..,_ J

! :l -
'
1
,
!,
"
Support
2
,- - ,
,, ,
, ,
..... _ •• J
"' - -,- - ~
!, 2 t-1 - 2

Single
Segmental
Ballles
Double
Segmenlal
Baffles
Triple
Segmental
"".os
• No Tube
,nW,ndow
• Inlemal
SupPOrt

Fia.S.J. Baffle types

Eddies

M~n
Flow

"".e
i--LBC---i

LBH LBH
=<
LBH •
t:!C - , lBC 1> 1

Fig. SA . Schema tic now l hrough bame lube hunule,_ Effects of baflle cuI height
(LBH) 10 haflk spacing (LBO ralio.

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 5_ 4 SH ELL. AN D-TUB E HEAT EXC HAN GERS 157

rchoilers as the re are no "dead " How areas common to segmental designs
(Fig. 5.4).
Disc-and-ring (dollghmu ) bajJfes arc w mposed of alte rnating outer rings
and in ne r discs, which direct the fl ow radially a e ros.~ the tube field . The
potential bundle-to-she ll bypass stream j.., thus eliminat ed : the re arc some
indications that this baffle type is very eff ective in pressure drop to heat
transfe r conve rsion [5]. At present , these bames are rarely used in the Un ited
States but arc ve ry popul ar in Europe.

5.4.5 Tube Diameter and Tube Length

Small tube diame ters (8 to 15 mm 00) arc prefe rred for grea tcr area-volume
density, but arc limit ed for cost effect ive ness to about 12 mm and for
purposes of in-tube cleanin g to 20 mm . Large r tube diamete rs arc often
required for conde nsers and boilers for the best performance.
Tube length affects the cost and ope rat io n o f heat excha ngers. Basically.
the longer the tube (for any give n total surface). the fewe r tubes arc needed .
fewe r holes arc drilled and the shell di(l mo.:t cr decreases. result ing in thinn er
lube sheets and lower cust. There arc. o f (·ourse, scveraiiimit s to this general
rule. best expressed Ihat the shell -diamc le r- Iubc- lenglh ratio shou ld be
within limits of about t to Ti. The Ol <Ui.imum tube length is sometimes
dictated by archit ectural layouts and ult imately by transportation 10 abou t
20 m.

5.4.6 Tube Layout

T ube layout is charactcrized by the included angle be twee n lubcs, as shown
in Fig. 5.5. A layout of 300 results in the greatest tube density and is th erefore
uscd, unless other considerations d ictate otherwisc . For example, clear l a n e~

-
Flow

c4 V 30
Flow

".

~ ~
,,~ Flow

90
50'

Fig. 5.5. T ullc laynut angles_

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n in. or 7 mm) are required for e xte rnal cleaning. usi ng a sq uare 9(f
or 4Y
layout. Tube pitch L p is usually c hose n so that the pilCh rellio L p/D", is
between 1.25 and 1.5.

5.5 COMMENTS ON CONDENSER DESIGN

The following ge neral comments should be hdphll for design o f conde nsers,
selection of construction type, fluid allocation. a nd other design practices
(see also Chapte rs 10 and II).

I. Conde'lSaliofl modes. E...e n though dropwi'e condensation aHracted

conside rable research atte ntion beca use of the high heat tra nsfer coef·
ficient s obtainable, il ca nnot be relied on 10 t.e sustainable for long
pe riods of time on industrial surfaces. Thus all condense rs are designed
to film condensation principles.
2. ComJemulioll mechanisms wul f(o .... regjml':~. De pending on the flow
cha racteristics of Ihe ...apor and Ihe conde nsate. the designer must
dete rmine the tlow regim e app licahle along the vapor flow path. At low
vapor veloci ties the so-ca lled "gravity controll ed" or Nussclt flow regime
exists. At high vapor ...e locities, the ..... apor shea r controlled"' regime
wi ll predom inate.
3. Desllperlrearing . Some ... apor slrea ms enter I he condense r superheated.
If th e wall temperature is below the de w po int. condensat ion will tuke
place and the dcsuperheating process will proceed at the rate of the
condensation. Otherwise the desuperheating duty must be calcu lated as
a single· phase process.
4. Sllocoolirrg. It is some times desired to subL"ool the condensa te slightly
before further processing. This can be accomplished by raising the leve l
of the condensate so that it would be in cont act with the cool tubes. I-"or
la rger subcooling heat applications it is more efficie nt to alloca te a
se parat e unit (see Fig. 11.l21.
5. COflsfmcfiolw/ comideratiom. Some guidelines and practice s mu st be
observed for design of wcll-funClionin g condense rs:
(a) Ve rtical in·tube condensation is ...ery cfrcCli ... e, but the tube length
is limited as il may fill up with condensate. Thu s the size of such
conde nse rs is restricted, as othe rwise la rge s hell diamete rs would
be required.
(b) Horizontal tube-side condensation is less effective and muc h more
difficult to calculate because of the stratification of the conden-
sa te. Posi tive tube inclination must be use d.
(c) Horizontal shell -side condensat ion is ...ery popular as it is well
predicta bl e, pe rmits use of large surfaces, and the extreme ly low
pressu re drop required for vacu um OIX'r<lIions can be obtained by

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 56 COMMENTS ON RE80iLER DESIGN 159

proper unit selection (TEM A X shell). Low finned tubes arc

cll'ectivc for organic ),treClm~ and ecunum ica l. if the condensing
side re~ista nce is more than aoout !l()% of Ihe total. Steam cannot
be conde nsed on convention al low finned tubes because the high
surface lension uf the water re tClins condensate in the fin valleys.
6. If noncondcn ~ ihlc gase~ arc prese nt in vapors, the condensi ng coeffi -
cie nt will vary an order of magnitude be tween vapor inlet and outle!.
Stepwise ca lc ulation is uncond itiunally required. Furthermore. the unit
construct ion must he suitahl e for clfeetive removal (venting) of the
gases. which wou ld otherwise ;u::;; umulate and render the conde nser
inoperat ive.

5.6 COMMENTS ON AEBOILEA DESIGN

The fullowing cummen ts may be useful ill alerti ng the designer of shc1l·and-
tube vaporize rs to some ve ry crucial problems. especially as applied to the
process industry (sec also Chapter 13).

I. Nucleate ooiling is very se mitive to surbec temperat ure. pressure, and

fl uid type. Si ngle·component fluilh arc vaporized on ly for power. cryo·
genic. and refrigera tion cycles. All oth er boi ling processe~ involve
mixtures o f IwO or many componcn t ~ (e.g .• gasoline). The nucleate
hoi lin g coefficient decrl~ a scs dra),tically if even a sma ll amuunt (10
mnl % ) of a second fluid is involved .
2. While nucleate boi lin g cons [itut e~ the basis of all vaporizer caJculll-
lions. in heal exchangers it is present only in com hination wit h flow
(convective) boiling. This makes. the industrial boil ing process less
se nsitive to the restrictions of nud eate boiling. especially mixtures.
3. A serious problem in industrial boilers is the need for a steady outflow
of vapors. This is easily accomplished in kettle · type and vertica l tube·
side boilers. where vapors have a natural escape. However. it becomes a
problem in shell-side boilin g, when; vapor pockets can accumu l;lIc ilt
the top tube s heet. Boiling in long. horizont al baffled shells exhibits the
sa me te ndency toward vapor pocket formation. in cither ca~e. the
drast ic d ifferences in the heat transfer coe ffi cient within the boiling and
the vapor region~ ca n ge ne rate thermal expansion forces which may
cause serious problems. Conscqucrllly. it is l>a fer to follow the laws of
gravity and design buile rs with unrc),trict ed vapor escape upward.
4. The effect s of fouling in boi lin g processes can be absorbed by either hut
stream tempe rature control (steam heating) or by an oversized area. In
the latter (u sual) case. the procc"-S as designed is upsel at clea n
condit ions when higher temperature differences will exist. These arc
ge nerally more difficult to ahsorh than in no.phase-change operations.

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160 INDUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTICES

Special controls may be necessary. such as inlet stream control valves

used in thermosiphon reboikrs. where dryout conditions would render
the unit inoperative.
5. Enhanced surfaces arc very effective in Illl(." leate boi ling, where they
promote the onset and enhance the rate of Ilucleation. Thus low finned
tubes wou ld boil at much lower superheat temperatures than plain
tuhes. Elaborate surfaces composed of sint (: red materials and simulated
cavity surfaces have been developed, whi\.:h exhibited heat transfer
coefficients up to \0 times higher than pl ain tubes. In cases whcre
nucleate boiling, especially at low tcmpera ture differences is predomi-
nant (e.g .. cryogenics), these surfaces have inuecd shown a remarkable
performance. When e mployed under conditions where How-boiling
effects arc predominant. the surface enhancement is diminished. How-
ever, the surface increase due 10 finned tubes appears to remain
efTe\.:tivc cve n in Ilow boilin·g. The designe r ~hould be warned that the
entire area of en hanced boiling su rfaces is extremely competitive and at
this time still in the developmental stage; prnven experimental data arc
the only assura nce.

5.7 CALCULATED EXAMPLE: BUTANE COOLER

To demonstrate the application of heat exchanger design systematics. we will

follow the design of a ligh t organic liquid cool cr. from basic specifications
through a preliminary estimate to the final prod uct. The se rial approach to
design. as previously stipu lated, will be noted.

5.7.1 Process Specifications

The following uata arc s upplied for thermo hyd ra ulic design and rcflect the
ini tial input of metallurgical. architectural , and (lpe rational requirements.
Hoi strewn. Liquid II-butane at 35 bar pressure and 52.5 kg/s flow ratc is
to he cooled from an inlet temperature of I D OC 111 a minimum of JRoC for
delivery to a storage lank Ie" = 2960 J /(kg K)). From previous plant
experiences no fouling of this stream is expected. despite the fact that TEMA
fouling tables would suggest 0.00018 (m 2 . K)/W. The pressure drop ava il -
able is IUU kPa ( 1 bar).
Coolallt. Well-treated cooling tower water [C ,. = 4178 J/(kg ' K)] is avail-
abk at 2rC (su mmer) and J70e (winter). The out let Icmperature should not
exceed 4SOC because of excessive evaporation in tht' cooling tower. A fouling
resistance of O.O{xlIH (m 2 . K)/W is suggested together with 25% surface
overdesign. whichever is smaller, under the con uition that the flow velocity
(tube) be kept at approximate ly 1.5 m/s. A maximum velocity of 3 m/s is

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 5 .7 CALCUl.JI TED EXAMPLE: BUTANE COOLER 16 1

also suggested to preve nt erosion. A pressure drop of 100 kPa (1 IXlr) is

available.
COllsrmerioll speeijiclUions. A maxim um tube length of 10 m is required
because of space restrictio ns. Thc tube material is 05 Cr alloy. Finned tuhe.~
are acceptable if so indica tet.l by design. 1\ !>i nglc·t ubc pass is acccptal:tk o nly
if substantial advantages ca n be shown: an eve n number of tube passes is
prefe rred. A horizon tal posi tion is requin.:: d for case of cleaning.

5.7.2 Heat Exchanger Type and Fluid Allocation

Beca use of the high pressure of the bu!<lnc. shell-aml-tube r..:onstruction is
req uired. Note that ot herwise a plate heat exchanger wou ld have bee n a
viable alte rn ative. Water will be placed inside :.traight ~ -In . tubes for ease of
cl ea ning . The allocat ion o f th e organic on the shell side is also favorable
because o f th e possible usc o f tinned tuhes.

5.7_3 Thermal Profile Analysis: Possible Configurations

Th e hot ou tlet temperatu re of J8°C and the cold ou tle t te mperature of 45°C
maxi mum determine the exchanger configur;l\ions to be considered . First we
calculate the heat duty from the fully spcci lied hot stream:

Q - 52.5 X 291)0 x ( I D - ~8 ) - 11.65 MW (5. 1)

The coolant outl e t te mpe rat ure under fouled conditions is ,Issumcd to be
45°C. Th is assumptio n requires a water fl ow rate of

11 ,650,000
155 kg/s
4178 x (45 27)

Thrce arra ngements arc theoret ically possi ble ( Fig. 5.6 );

I. Straight counte rflow, 1- 1 pass exchanger. Th is would be the best design

if sufficient water ve loci ty can be obt ained in a single- tuhe pass.
2. Two units in series, each with two tube passes. This design is more
expensive .
.l. Si ngle 1-2 un it, one shell pass, two tube passes (] - 2). This design
would permit h igh tube veloci ty. but a two-tube pass unit. with one pass
in parallel with the hot stream . will result in te mperature overlap, 45°C
ve rsus 38°C for th e water outlet. In order to obtain a rCiisonablc LMTO
correctio n fa ctor F =:: 0.8, the water outlet temperature should be equal
to the hot strea m outlet, 3S°C. This. ill tu rn . will require a higher wa te r

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 113 113 113

~
Ql
:;
<C
Q;
a.
45 45 45
-- -- ---
E
Q)
38 38 3B 3B~=------7-----~-~-~
I-

27 27 27 1-------""''
155 kg/S 155 kgjS 255 kgjS

Area Area Area

Counlerllow Un.( SerlBs , (1-2)

2 (1-2) (38'C T"",)

Fig. 5.6. Thermal p!otile of (he (hree possible solutions.

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 ~1 CALCULATED EXAMPt..E. BUTANE COOlER 163

fl ow r:lle

11./150 ,IIO(J
If I , - 7:c:;;;-~, - - - "" 2.'i5 k g / ~
417g X (JH - 27)

S uch a high demand on cooling water would be very eJC pc nsive (coolin g
!Ower and pump capac ity) and for th is re ason this d esign option may be
Questionahle.

5.7.4 Selection of Construction Elements

We proceed now with the selection o f the construction elemenls as Ihe ncxt
sle p towa rd design .

I. Shell type: A single' pass E shell , fiJC ed tu tle shee t design can he
il!>sumed beca use the te mpe rature d iffe rences a re small , but it should
be checked later during thc mechanica l design ph ase: for possible
inclus inn of e xpansion bellows.
2. Tube QII/jidt, (/iameler om//mglll : Ass ume i· in . (J1)· mm ) tubes with 16
mm ID for ea5C of m..:chaniC:1 1 clea ning. Sta rt wilh the maximum
permissible k ngth o f 10 III and adjust if require d .
3. 'lilbe lo},ollt: Sta rt with ~W and a r itch ratio o f 1.25: adjusl Ihe pitch
r:lIio if required fo r pressure drop.
4 . 8afJIes : Sta rt wilh segmental , baftle spacing of approximatciy {I.6 of
shell diame te r (normally used). Howeve r, because of the large fluid
fl ow and rathe r low permiss ible pressure drop. we aSsume 500 mm :
bil me CUI is sc t to 25%.
5. Noule.f : Assume the nozzle d iame ter as 25 % of s hell diamete r a nd
check the pre~~ ure drop .

5.7 .5 Preliminary Estimation of Unit Size

First we estimate the ind ividual he at tra nsfer coefficien ts. This mc thod is
preferable to est ima ting Ihe overall cocllicicnt <I S the de signer can gel a feci
for the relative mag nitude of the resistances. Tables for the est imat ion a rc
aV;lilablc in various handbooks: o nc of th c best is shown ;IS Table 5. 1, based
on [2]. From that table we gel (o r our eXil mplc:

11"'''I~1 - 7000 W / {m 1 . K) and Ir h,~'''''~''n", - 1500W/ (m !' K) (5 .2)

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164 INDUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTIC E. S

With the specifi ed fou ling resistance we can now estim ate the overall U:

W / (m ~' Kl (m ~' KJ;W %

Water 7000 U,m()14 15

Water rouling
,,-Bulanc
5556
tSOn
OJIl)(ltg
0.00067
l'
67

Towl rcsistancc O.IXX}99

Ove rall coefficient U - 1000 W/ (rn : . K)

Notice the dis{Tibu(ion of the resistances, which suggests that the butanl' IS
the controlling factor and wil1 dominate future design aspects.
We need to calculate the LMTD from the foUl" given in let-outlet tempe ra-
tures.

(11 3 - 45) - (38 - 27)

113 - 1 1.lOC
1<, ( 45 )
]X 27

Next we calculate the require d exchange r area A.

11 .6511,IMIO ,
A ~ =cc---'c-= = 37 ~ m -
31.3 X 1000

The problem now is to convert this area into reasonable dimensions of the
fi rst trial unit. The objective is to find a shell diameter D, which, with a given
tube le ngth L, would contain the correct number uf tubes N, of diameter
D,u,
A = 7TD",N, L (5.4 )

The total number of tubes N, (i.e., the number of hules in the tube sheet) can
be predicted in fair approximation as a function of the shell diameter by
taking the she ll circle a nd dividing it by the projected area (in flow direction)
of the tube layou t pertaining to a single tube A I (Fig. 5.5): P

"IT (D, ) l CTP (0, )2

N - (CTP) - - - - 11.785( - ) ( 5.5 )
t 4 AI CL (PR) 2( D,,, ) 2

where LI' is the tuhe pitch; PR is the tube pitch ratio - L,I/D,,,; A I -
(CL)(Lp) ~ and L" - (PR) X (D,o)' if preferable; CL is the tube layout
constant, - 1.0 for 9(f' and 45°: ... O.H7 for 300 and 60°. The constant en>
accoun ts for the incomple te coverage of the shell diameter by the tubes, due

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 COOLER 165

to necessary clea rances between the shell and the outer lube ci rcle and lube
omissions due to tuhe pass lanes for muhituhc pass designs. Based on th e
Hxed tube sheet (the most common dc"ign). t he following va lu es arc sug-
gested:

One tuhe pass: CTP - 0 .93

Two tube passes; CTP '" 0 .9

~o ur tube passes : CIP - O.HS

Equation (S.5 ) will predict the tu be coun t with in S% for sin gle tube pass.
15-10-25-0101 tubcs. PR - 1.25 to 1.4 and fo r D, between JOn and 1000 mOl
(010:;1 common application). Th e accurill"Y will <.I eacasc somewhat when
deviating from this range, but will he full } suflicicnt for prelimin ary estima-
tion. More exact estimalions arc 4uite complie,t!ed and arc b eSI documcnt eJ
in [0].
Suhst itut ing Eq. (5.4 ) into Eq. (5.5 ). we C;lTl express the shell diameter D,
OI S a function of the desired are,l A. wit h the tube length L and the tube
layout dimensions L I" PR o and V ,,, as para mete rs:

D - 0.637
, {[f; [(AI I I'RI ' IDwl]' ;'
~
'L
CTP L
15.6)

Substituting fur A = 372 m 2 • D,,, = 19 mm. L = 10 m. and PR = 1.25.

Jir layout . we ge t D, = 647 mm . rounded off to 650 mm.

5.7.6 Design and Results Evaluation

Sum marizi ng the sclected constructional par,tmeters, we ge t th e followi ng
initial spec ification . which can be used as input into a com pute r rating
program or for manual ca lculation:o.:

Shell diOlmcte r = 650 mm

Tube length = JU m. single tube pass

Tube diameters D", = 19 mm. D" ::: 16 mm

Baffle spacing .... SUO mm. bafnc CUI 25 %

Cilleu latio ns were performed on it simple prog ram ]8] using an IBM
compa tible pc, suit ahle for Cduc'II ;onal purposes and based on methods as
documenled [4]. See also the ge neral comment S abou t computer programs
that follow. The resu lts arc shown in Table 5.2.

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166 INDUSTRIAl HEAT E.'oCCHANGER OESIGN PRAC TICES

TABLE 5.2 Summary or C. lcu lalion Ruull s

Fim Tnal 11th Tnal T....o Units

Item 0 - 1J (I - I) (1 - 2)
C:t'«.' ,\I A2 B

Tube type
Tuhe d i:Hlle tcf. mill
Shell diame te r. mm
,.
Plain

M il
,.
Finned Finned
25
."
~"
Tulle Icngt h. m mil 1Il.1l 4.0
T ube p itch ralio 1.25 1,474 1.25
Balik 'pad nil. mm .~IIII .<;UO 5UII
Num ber of lul'les "'2 J66 355
T,)t;.1 arc: •. m ~ J55 5 42 ~ 288 / unil"
Mc an lempcr<l tu re ditl'cre ncc. QC 3U J I ..1 21}.:\ I
I-leat t ntn ~ rcr coc llicient. 'VIi l (m 1 . Kl
Shett 2.2h.~ 1 ,9~" 1.9SW
T ul'le (in~ id el 5.!J<'M II. 'X)() II.JOII
o,.~' ra tt 1.1.12 737" 73M"
I'rc~~ urc d rop. , he ll . kPa ,I< 7.
I' re~~ urc drop. luhe. kl'"
Flow vclucity. IUOC. m/s
2"
1.211
"
72
2.9
lU4
2.9
He;.1 dU ly n;<luirell. MW II .M II .hS 11 .65
I-leill dul y deli vered . MW 1257 12.50 12.47
Safe lY fa Clor, 'l; { I \lr 1
F"uted d e an 7/:\0 7/4~
Dislrihution ( If res istall ce. 'ii.
Fnulcd - clC:11I
Shell 50-M J7~6X " J7 ~ f1K"

Tube 22 - 30 9 ~ 16" 8 ~ 1 5"

Tuhe (oullllg 24 II 4 5~ OU 45 ~ W
Watt and lin 4_4 1} ~ 16 " IO ~ 17 "

However. tu dc m on!)tra te the d e ta ils of the ca lculationa l process, manua l

stcp·hy-slc p calculations by simplifie d eslinl:ltio n me thods were al so per-
form ed . Th ese are shown in Appendix .'i. I. \0 that the co ntin ui ty o f th is
allaly~ i ~ wuu ld nu t be interrupt ed . No te that wh ile the cal culational process
and sc(luenCes ;lfe .. imil;t r to tllO~e pe rform ed hy th e comput e r program. the
numer ical values frum the c::'limillio n mt~ t hods will be somewhat diffe rent
than toose o llill ined by th e more sophistica te d procedures in the program.
The evaluation of th e comput e r solu tion caws indicates the followi ng;
ClIse A / : Si ngle tube pass, plain lube::.. The he.1I dut y i::. ach ieved . bu t the
shell -side pressure drop is slightly higher than desired. Also. the water
vclocily is lower (1.2M m/ s) than requ ired fo r fou li ng preve ntion (1.5 m /s).
The predomina nt resista nce on the o rgani c stream side suggests th e use of
low finn ed lu llc~. used in case A 2.

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 58 DESIGN BY COMPUTER PROGRAMS 167

Case A2 : Same.: as case Al exce.:pt linn~d luhcs, 19 mm 00, 13.8 mm 10,

tin height 1.5 mm , fin thickness n.5 mm. outside surface 0.15 m2/ m, 90- 10
Cll-Ni. The tube pitch had 10 be ine(l,:ascd to 28 mm (PR = 1.474) in order
to comply with the shell-side pressure urop. The unit is smaller than case AI.
600-mm shell diameter with only 3r./) tubes versus 602 tubes. All design
conditions are satisfied: the water velocity is 2.9 m/s.
Case B: This is the two units in serks solution. each with two tube passes.
The LMTD correction factor F = 0.94 is acceptablc, resulting in a mean
temperature difference of 29.3°C. The tube diametcr had to be changed to 25
mm to satisfy the pressure drop. All ot her design requ irement s arc also
satisfied . Howeve r, the cost of the two units will be much higher than for
case A2.

5.8 DESIGN BY COMPUTER PROGRAMS

A predominant number of commercia l heat exchangers arc now designed by

computer programs. Howeve r, the main advantage of computers is Ihe speed
of caku lations, whilc design clcments specificatiun, evaluatiun uf results, and
eventually alternative design deci si() n ~ arc sti ll made by the engineer. Two
types of compute r programs arc in common usc:

I. Performance rating programs. where the geometry of the exchanger is

fully specified and the program calculates the the.:rmohydraulie pc.:rfor-
mance. Such results may be thc fi nal product if chel.:k rating i ~ the
objective; alternately, the de~i gner may keep changing se lected specifi -
cations of geometry or operatio n. fo r example, bamc spacing and type ,
tube length , tube pitch. an d so forth, until a satisfactory design is
obtained . Thi~ method was used in the calculated example presented
earlier. It has the advantage thaI the design engineer is in full control
of the design process (interactiw design) and is aware of th e constraints
that need to be modified. A ve ry important applicatio n for rating
programs is investigation of performance of des igns (or existing ex-
change rs) for alternate.: operating c ondition .~, such as partial loads,
seasonal changes in temperature. dean cond itions, and so fo rth .
2. Design programs, requiring {hat only spec ification of the heat transfe r
process and basic clements of the unit geometry be supplied . I-or
shell-and-tube exchangers these are usually tube dimensions, fixed or
maximum length, shell and bank type. and oth er possible constntints.
The program logic then perform:. ca lcu lations with systematic variation
of the free parameters (usua lly :-.he ll size, haffle spacing. tubc passes )
until a configuration is obtained which satisfies the requirements.

However, such a result is rarely the best sol ution . For example , the
designer, after evaluating the result. may suspect that a dift'ere nt shell or

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168 INOUSTRIAl HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTICE S

baffle type, tube dimension or tube type (finn ed) would produce better
results. The program is rerun until the best solution (or a compromise) is
selected. Well-constructed design programs should display intermediate re-
sults at each step of the design process. in order to permit a cheek o n the
criteria by which the desig n was gener;ued. For example, a design may be
rejected by the computer on ly because of a millor difference in pressure
drop, which a skilled engineer would have accl'pled, but which may have
remained hidden in the program output.
Thus computer programs permit investigation of many '1lteTnat ive designs,
a task not practica l by hand calcul ations. but f(lr truly de pendable results,
careful scrutiny of the results by a n experienced designer is still required.

5.9 OPTIMIZATION AND EXPERT SYSTEMS

The early optimization schemes which became popular with the eme rgence
of computers were based un mathematical so l utiun~ to an objective function
of optimization, usually a complex function of th{' cost (initial. operating,
amortization. e tc.), which W;l S hard or impossihk 10 specify. Furthermure.
intermed ia te solutio ns from th e optimization pnx:css were usually nOt avail-
able, thus bypassing the crucial engineering judgmen t. While such optimizil-
tion systems are no t any more used for general design, there will he spec ific
applications with well-defined operational parameters, where optimiza tion
logic ca n he superimposed on the general design logic and produce valid
results.
All expert system is a more appropriate variati!)n of the recently introduced
concept of a rtificial int e lligence. The followin g comments arc restricted to
the application of expert systems in the field of heat exchange r design. anti
should not be generalized.
Int e rpre ted in this se nse . expert system means the inclusion of heat
exchanger performance ra ting criteria, which ,I Te iden tifie d by the predeter-
mined computer program logic (presumably compil ed by experts) and acted
upon hy the program automatically o r. preferahly. displ:tyed on the scree n for
actions by the user. This meaning can best bc illustrated by an exa mple.
Let us assume that the performance rati ng of a heat exchanger is available
from a compe tent computer program. The expert s~'s t e lll would the n analyze
the results and identify suc h problems as may be inconsistent with the
preslored rules, codes. or practices in the follow ing ca tegories:

Basic thermol1ydraulic speciftcalioll.~:

I. Heat duty, pressure drop. flow velocity. and so on

2. Combinations of the preceding
3. Temperature profile e ffective ness

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 NOMENCLATUAE 169

Good (Je.fij.m proc/ ices :

I. Utilization uf pressure drop

2. Pressure d ro p consumed in pen phe rals (nozzles, etc.)
3. Large parasit ic bypass streams. clcarances
4. Incllicic nt ba ffle design , tube layout. o r o ther inconsiste ncies

Meclianical design -related subjeclS:

l. Nozzle velocity and impinge me nt devices

2. Inte ractions de pende nt on shell s ize. tube diame ter, and tube length
J. The rmal ex pa nsion provisions wi th respect to specified geometry
4. Analysis o f provisions for tube vibrat ion
5. Complia nce wi th codes

FOIIIIIIX :

I. Flow velocity ve rsus good practice

2. An;llysis of performa nce undo.:l dt:!an ve rsus fo uled conditions; heat
du ty. ovc r -~ urfa cc. out let tcmp..:ratures
J . De .~ig n geollle t ry cleme nt s a.~ ~ u e h may affect fo ul ing. for example,
t'laJllc Iype. ~ paeiTlg or ha tlk nil

T he at'lilil)' l)f the p ro~ r am 10 identi fy sue h it e ms will of coorse depend on

the Quality Ilf tho.: program per se and the amoun t o f pe riphe ral infu rma tiun
IIl(ludcd. Pre'e ntl)" availahlc program:- ;ITC able to supply answe rs to only a
tra..:tion Ilf t he previously me nt ioned prohk ms as "warn ing me s."'lge~." It wil l
he up In a new gcncTilliu n or compula programs 10 provide informatiu ll llf
~ u l' h a n<l ture and qu ali ty tha t expe rt ~ys t erns could be used c rre..: t i\'el~·.

NOMENCLATURE

A hc;1I tran sfe r surfae..: a rea. m;

A, luhe in side cross-seeliona l a rea . m 2
AI !low a rea (projected) of the tuhe layou t. pertai ning 10 one luhe , m ~
II , crosstlow area at D,. m ~
CI . luhc 1<I)'ou \ coml"n t
CTI' tuhe count c;lk ulation const;lIl t
V, slid I i n ~i d e diamete r. mm or m
0" tuhe in»ic.lc di a me ter. mm or m
0 ,,, IUhc oU\ 50i de diamete r, mOl or III
k th e rm.tl com.l uct ivit y of t he fl utd . W/ ( m . K)

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170 INDUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRAcnCE S

L tube length, mm o r m
Lp tube pitch. mm or m
,il, she ll-side flow rate, kg/ s
tn, tube·side flow rate. kg/s
Nh numbe r of baffles
N, numbe r of tubes
Nu Nusscil number. hO/k
N,c numbe r of tube rows crossed in excha nge r
N,CI numbe r of tube rows crossed in baffle
N,c number of tubes at D,
PR tube pilCh ralio, I.p/ O,v
p, Prandtl number. CpJ.l./k
He Reyno lds number - pVd/J.I.
p de nsity of fluid . kg/ m·1
J.I. viscu:-.ity uf fluid . (N . s)/m 2

APPENDIX 5.1: STEP-BY-STEP CALCULATIONS

A sa mple manual calcu lation for the first trial of the example. with the
following specifications will be de monstrated:

Tube diame te r 0'0 - 19 mOl. Oil ,. 16 mm

Shell-side diameter Os - 650 mm
Tube le ngth I. .., 10,000 mOl
Tube layuut 30°, pitch Lp = 23.75 mm
PR (pilch ratio) - L ,'/O", ... 1. 25.

Hut fluid: Liquid butane at 35 bar, she ll side. flow rate 52.5 kg/ so At 75°C
temperature. the properties arc as follows: density 504 kg/m 3 , Cp = 2960
J / (kg ' K). viscosity JJ. - 95 X 10 - 1> (N . s)/m 2 , Prandtl number p, = 3.11,
conductivity k - 0.09 W /(m . K).
Colli fluit/: Wa ter, tube side, flow rate 155 kg/ s; at average temperature
36°C, the prope rties are as follows: density 1000 kg/ m \ C" = 4 178 J /(kg . K),
conductivity k - 0.62 W /(m . K). viscosi ty JJ. - 0.00077 (N . s)/m l .
The req uired duty is 11.65 MW and LMTD - J l.3"c.
The estimated performance fro m Tabl e 5. 1 is now to he confirmed and the
pressure drop c hecked that it is within specified limits. Subsequent adjust·
me nts must be made if ei ther one is not in the range.
I. Calcu late the number of tubes N, from Eq. (5.5):
CTp .... 0.93 CL - 0. ' 7
0.93 0.65 2
N, ... 0 .785 0.87 1.252 X O.OI9 ~ ... 629

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 APPENDIX 5. 1 171

nle flow area through the lubeS is

629
4 - 0 . 1265 m!

The now velocit y is

III , 155
v, - pA , 0 . 1265 x 1000 - 1.23 m/ s

No te: for the fir ~ t trial . Ihis is close e nough to Ihe desi rable 1.5 m/s.
2. Tube-siue hea t transfe r
2. 1. Calculate thc R cy no ld~ and Prand tl numbers

"VO" IOUU x 1.2;\ x 0.016

RI', - - 25 .55H
~ U.lKXJ77

Pr, -
C"p..
k - 4 178 x {) .00077
(162
.. 5. 19

2.2. The he:!t transfe r coellieie ll1 hy the Dittu s-Boe lt e r equation i~

k
Ii - U . 02 4 - Rf' :' ''l'r,''~
iJ"
U.02
- 0 .024 X - - X 25.558!1~ X 5. 11)04
0.0 10

- h01~ W / (rn = ' K)

t'ompan:lltu Ihe I.·slimatcu va lue frurn Table 5. 1 of 7000 W/( m 2 . K), whic h
agrees fairl y we ll .
.1. Tul1c-., idc nuid pTes~ure drop
:\.1 . The frictional prC S:-'UTC drop j./I" is

'p /, - f -
p(V,), ( L )
2- -nIl

The friction factor 1" is calculat cd from the Filone nko correlation (Darcy
Jcfi nition) as

{ - 4 X [ l ..'i~ ln(Rd - .1 .21'1 1 ~ .. 0.025

woo x J. 23 ~ III
J.p" .. U.025 x X - - .. II.H20 Pa .. 1l.12 har
2 0.016

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172 INDUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER OESIGN PRACTICES

3.2. The tube-:.ide pressure drop in a heat exchanger must include the
following additional items:

I. Flow expand ing from the inl et nozzle into the header and turn (9U") in
the heade r
2. flow contraction into the tulles ilnd expansion rrum the tubes
3. flow turn (9(f1 and con traction into the outlct nozzle

The !J.p through these components is usually expressed as the momentum

change coefficient K in terms of the tube-side velocity

Ka = 1.5 K" - 15 K, '" I [K - 4

The total tube-side pressure drop is thcn

HO) X 1.23 1
= II ,SlO +4 X 14 }\46 Pa '" 15 kPa
2
far below the permissible IOU kPa.
4. Shell-side heat transfe r
Shell-side ea[eula tions an: not a:-. straightforward a~ lube-side calculatio ns,
because the shell fl ow is complex. combining cro), ~fluw ilnd barne window
now, as well as bllffle -shcll and bundle-shell bypass ~ treams and complex now
pa1terns, as shown in Fig. 5.4 . The calculational method used here is a
simplifica tion suitable for manual calculations and ed ucational purposes. A
more sophisticated method, based on the Be ll - De laware method, is docu-
ment ed (4] and was also used in the computer prugram [8] used to gencratc
Table 5.2. This is a nonreiterative method and can bc performed by hand-held
calculators with moderate difficulties. Higher accuracy is obtained on ly by the
reiterative version of the Tinker stream analysis method, as described in 141,
requiri ng a ralher !>Op histicated computer program .
4.1. Calculale th e crossfl ow area at shell in side diameter D, - 65() mOl.
The number of tubes at r,

0, 650
N, c - - -- = 27 (rounded off).
L"o 23.75

Nexi we must assume hafllc spacing. Norma lly 11.4 to 0.6 of D. would be
selected. However, the large fl ow rate in a long excha nge r and tight tube
layout (PR ., 1.25) will probably require large barne spaci ng. Assume Lb =
500 mm.

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 APPENDIX 5 I 173

The crossflow area :H she ll di:lllle tl." n, jl<> then

II ... - (D, - N" IJ" ,) I ...

= (11 .05 - 27 x lU ll\}) x (1.5 - O .(JhX~ Ill !

4.2. Determine the c rossflow flow vducit), ;lIul Re ynoldl<> numher

,i, ,
- 1.52 m/ s
pA , 504 x I U)(~5

Thi)' is a reasonably i/vcrage value lur organic liquids, perhaps somewhat

on the high ... id e. This will be te'ted b~ the IlTe,'urc drop (:Iiculation ,

"V, IJ". 504 X 152 X (1.1111)

HI', - 15.1 .11110
II OUUUlJ5

Pr , is givcn in input as :\. 11 .

4 .3. The heat transkr (odlicic nt ( an he (alt'ulated frnm th e cst ima ti nn
equation ;1' givcn hr T .. hord, 141:

Nu ... O.2H(':" " 'r:" = 11 .2 )( 15.1 ,('HIIJ, I(, X :U I" , = 4U7

Nllk 4117 X 0.119

h ,- 11/27 W / (1I1 ~' K)
V ,,, (Utili

Th" c\)mparCl<> rC:.LMlTlahly well wilh thc IIlt1gh cl<>t i1l1:1 tc nf 1500.
5. S hcll ·~i d e prel<>~ure drop
Estimation IIf the pressure Lirop " much mUTe dillicult th ,lI1 for heat
transfer as haltle turnaround in the \\lI1llnw re(luires rat he r sophisti c:!led
treat ment and in general .1p il<> more 'cll"t ivl' tu predict a~ it is proportional
to V ~ compared to he:!t tramJer whic h I' prtllxlrtinnal to V"" , There is no
quick and si mple l'Qi1l1ation method fO I the , h e ll ,~ ide pre !'~ ure dn)p in Ihe
present liter,Hun:.. A new methtld b,"cd Dn ide,l] tubl.' hank flow ,md a
simplified estimati(lIl of the t",lIle winlh w,' prc "sure drop is presented he re .
The gellcnt! pressure drup furmulil I ' h .. ~cd o n no ... slluw vcil)(.:iIY al shell
diameter f) ,. as e .. lculat ed in l<>cction 4.:!. I ; - 1..52 m i s, and the number of
tube ruw~ cros~ed

N". '" N",,( .V" + I)

where N"" is number of tube row!'> IT\I''~ClJ wilhin {Jne hallle and Nt> is
numher of hallle s.

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174 INDUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER OESIGN PRACTICE S

f-."or Nrrl we assume that O.751J, is in elfectJve crossllow. before the

window turn. The tube rnw distance in crru;sllnw di rection is I ' ll for YW
layout and O.M67LI' fo r J<f'.
The numhcr of baffles is dete rmined :IS

rounde d off to the n",xt lower int ege r

IU
- I .. lY
0.5

O. 75 lJ,.
0.807t l
)

0. 75 x 0.65
== - 24
O.H67 X 11 .02.175

N r, - 24 x (II) I I ) - 4HII

The s hell-side pressure drop is composed of the crossnow pa rt plus the

window turnaround:

where K ... is the mome ntum change coefficient f UT thc batfle window turn .
usually a....sumed a ~ twu ve locity head. based for :-.i mplicity on the crossflow
ve loci ty.
The frict ion fac lo r for cms..,tlow in ideal tube ba nks can be looked up in
many standard references (4J and handbooks. Not e that we arc using here the
Darcy- Blasi us de finition more common in the lit e rllture than the Fannin g
definitio n and rcl:lled as fnll = 4h . For pitch r,lI l\) 1.25 and Ne , ~ 153.DIKI.
f nll "" u.25.
The vc l<x:ity head (VH = I)V 2/2) is determined as

5()4 X 1.52 2
VH =
2

'men the pressure drop is

6p , = 0.25 x 582 X 4S() + 2 x 5H2 x 19 = lll .956 Pa "" 92 kPa

Th e nozzle pressure drop on the shell side wi ll have much lower re lalive
mag nitude than on the tuhe side. because o f the ra ther hi gh preSsure drop in

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 APPENOIX5.1 175

the segme ntal baffl e. We sim ply add 10% as a sa fe ty factor

/:J. p, .., n /. 1.1 "" 101 kPa

T his is close to the des ired 100 kPa.

6. The ovcra ll clea n hea t transfer coe ffic ie nt is then

U ~ [--'- 1'
II , +
I D,,,
~
II , D"

1397 W/ ( m 1 . K)

T he tube wall resistance is o m iu ed here for simplifica tio n and is apprm:i-

ma lcly 3%.
T he ove ra ll coefficient under specified fouli ng is

v1 .., [ -U1
C
~
+ R I, (D
0"
1] ' [ - 1 + II.OfHII X( 10
1397 16)1-'
1076 W/ ( m 2 . K)

The di ffe re nce be twee n U~ a nd V, sho uld be no more th an ahou t JY/'o,

highe r va lues suggesting fo uling ove rspccifica tio n.
In o ur case the clea n ve rsus fo uling safe ty facto r is

U. I Jtn
F - ~ - - - - I .2() (or 2() Ok )
I V 1076
J

The hea t duty unde r the fo ul ed condit ion is

QJ = Ur A LMTD - IU76 x .172 x 3 1.3 '"' 12.52 MW

This represents a sa fety facto r bd wee n the requi red and actu al dut y of

12.5 2
F, = - - = 1.()7 (or 7%)
11.65

Close r adjustme nt by using sho rte r tuhes o r sma lle r she ll di a me ter is in
this case hard ly possible because of sta ndard incre me nts in tube le ngth a nd
she ll d ia me te rs.
Of substa nti a l inte rest to the desi gne r is the d istrihutio n of the resista nces.
This a na lysis will indica te whc re the majo r resista nce is -she ll. tu be, fo uli ng
- and gives a clu e to the designer where improveme nt s arc justifi ed . T he

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176 INDUSTRIAL HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PRACTICE S

calcula tion is pe rformed as fo llows (adjusted to uutside tube):

1 1
TOial resiSlanee fouled VI - 1076 - O.()00930

1 1
Shell-side resistance - ... - - = U.000519
h.. 1927

Tube-side resistance - 1
h,
(0,")
-
D"
_ ( _ I ) x (~) ~ 0.000 197
6033 16

Fouling tube-side resistance = O.OOO IH X ( ::) = 0.000214

The nltio of individual resistances to the total IS calcu la ted as R ,/R [o:

0.cXXJ5 19
Shell side = = 55.8%
0.000930

0.000197
Tube side = = 2 1.2%
0.000930
0.000214
Fouling tube side = - 23/1%
0.000930

The shell -side resistance is dearly dominating. Use of finn e d tubes should
be investigated.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The major part of the work for Ih is chapte r was performed during the
author's stay a t the U niversity of Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany,
as recipient of the Senior Scie nt ist Award from th e Alexande r V. Humboldt
Sliftung.

REFERENCES

I. Soler. A. I. (1986) Expert syslem for design integration: Application to the total
design of shell and lube hea t exchangers. In Th~rmal / M~h(micol Heat Exchanger
Design-Karl Gardm:r Memorial SeSSIOn, K . P. Singh and S. M. Shankman (cds.),
HID Vol. 64. ASME. New York.
2. Bell. K. J. (1983) In Heal Excha nger Design Handbook. E. U. SehlUnder (cd.), Vol.
3.1. He misphere. New York.

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 REFERENCES 177

.1 TEMA Slal/dards (l9K/n. 7th cd. TE1\M. T arry1<>wn, N.Y,

~. Taborck. 1. ([983) In Heal £XChUIIJWI IAsixlI Handbook (1983>. E. U. Schliindcr
(cd.), Vol. 3.3. H emisphere. New Ymk.
5. Taborck, J .. and Sharif, A. (1987) EII'cctjvencss of pressure drop to heat lTansfer
conversion for various types of shell ~idc Oow. Prese nted at the ASMEj AICHe
Nat. I-leat Trilnsfcr CunL, Pittshurg h (to be puhli5hed in H l!!a/ Trulll/n Eng.l.
6. Hew Exc/ulII!{t:r Desi!{11 Halldbook (J983). E. U. Schliindcr (cd.). Vol. 4.2. Hemi·
sphere. New York.
7. Tahorck. 1. (lYXX) Strategy of heat exc hanger dcsign. In 1"''()·PhaJI!! Fluw Hl!!u/
Erchullxers. S. Kaka r;. A. E. Bc rg l c~ . and E. O. Fe rnandes (cds.). Kluwc r. Dor-
drccht.
X. T abo rck. 1.. ST[X Shell and Tunc Prog r(lm. IBM PC compatible.
9. YokeiL S .. A Wurkmg guide IU Shell·wii/· Tuln' H!'U1 Exchangrrs. McGraw·Hili. New
York. 199().

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MI
a::
w Ohapter 06
MI
Z
w
A Fossi I-Fuel-Fi red
Z
o Boilers: Fundamentals

..'"
MI
and Elements

a::
o
l-
J. B. KittD Jr.
M. J. Albrecht

e
a::
..
o
I
MI
a::
w
-..o
~

Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 06 Contents
6. Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boilers: Fundamentals and Elements
J. B. Kitto, Jr. and M. J. Albrecht

6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Background
6.1.2 Current Practice
6.1.3 Objectives and Overview
6.2 Fossil Boiler System
6.2.1 Input Requirements and Operating Pressure
6.2.2 Power Cycle
6.2.3 Types of Boilers
6.2.4 System Approach
6.3 Major Steam-Water Boiler Components
6.3.1 Enclosure Surfaces
6.3.2 Superheaters and Reheaters
6.3.3 Economizers
6.3.4 Steam Temperature Control
6.3.5 Steam Drum
6.4 Steam-Water System
6.4.1 Circulation Methods
6.4.2 Boiler Circulation and Flow
6.4.3 Furnace Heat Flux Evaluation
6.4.4 Circulation Evaluation
6.5 Two-Phase Flow Circulation Limiting Criteria
6.5.1 Flow Instabilities and General Velocity Limits
6.5.2 Heat Transfer and Critical Heat Flux
6.5.3 Steam-Water Separation and Drum Capacity
6.6 Other Evaluation Factors
6.7 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Appendix 6.1: Key Heat Transfer Parameters—Superheater, Reheater, and
Economizer
Appendix 6.2: Sample Correlations for Two-Phase Multipliers and Void
Fraction in Steam-Water Flows
Appendix 6.3: Sample Critical Heat Flux (CHF) Correlation

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

MAIN PAGE
 CHAPTER 6

FOSSIL-FUEL-FIRED BOILERS:
FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

J. B. Kino, JR.
Research and Development D,vISion
Babcock & Wilcox Company
All iance, Ohio 44601 ·2 196

M. J. ALBRECHT
Fossil Power Division
Babcock & Wilcox Company
Barberton, Ohio 44203-0351

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Fossil -fucl-firctl hoilcr~ arc pcrha p~ ...olne of Ihe most compiex pieces of hea t
c.'(c hangc equipment curren tly supphctl -strc tching materials ;IOU tksign
technologics to their li mib. Their hasic fun ction is to conve rt water inlo
slc,.m for e lectricity generation anti pn.x:css ap pl iralio ns. Howeve r. th ey aTC
also being ca lled upon to hurn an CWT wider variety of fuel s. dispose of
refu se, enha nce oi l recovery , recover waste heat, and reduce pollution. Many
pussible Ir,uJc-olfs ca n be made in Ih e JC'> lgn of boiler.. to ilCt'ommuUa lc loca l
a nd worldwide vil rial io n ~ in applica tion: fue l. reliability. effici c ncy. e nviron ·
ment al protection. customer prdc n:nce~. and .1 va rie ty uf economic and
politicoll factors. As a result. many dilkre nt approilChes (0 wat e r-tube boile r
d e~ i gn have evolved ove r the pa., l 150 years 10 meet these diverse needs.
Operating pressu res. (,.)'cling requ iremcnts, unit .~izes . stca m ~ watcr circu la ·
tion option s. fucl tiring methods. a nd heat transfer surface arrangeme nts vary
wide ly. eve n whil e m;lny of th e fundame ntal technologies remai n common to
all dc ~ig n s.

'~ I ''')U T ile Bahcod.. &. W ilc,,~ CO Illf");on y.

8m/not. F.'lJ{>01I..Iwr.\ "",/ ( ·",,,I,·,m·,,. E<I,k ,! h) S;"J ik ""k""

ISBN 1)..47t·"~170·" lI.' tw l Juhn Wiley ,,,,- "';"'''. Inc.

179

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180 FOSSIL-FUEL -FIAED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AN D ELEMENTS

Chaptc rs 6 to 8 present an overview of intern ... tiun... l ;lOd technical boiler

design praCliccs, especially as they apply to large utility hoilers. This chapter
provides a summary of the design process and tedmolagy fundamentals, with
particu lar emphasis on steam - water two-phase fl ow and recirculat in g boi ler
design (where wate r is only partially evaporated eaeh time it passes through
the unit). Th e focu s of the di scussion in thi s chapter is a modern subcritical
pressure, drum-type hniler typica lly fo und in the United States, Ca nada. and
the United [(jngdom.
Chapler 7 explores se lected aspects of once-lh n1ugh boiler design where
wat er is eva porat ed continuously 10 dryness in in dividual hoiler tuhes. A
hi storical overview is followed by di scus!.io ns of ~pC(.: i <l 1 des ign issue!'" sliding
pressure operation, operating and start·up charact eri stics, and se lectcd two·
phase- flow topics. The om:c-t hrough boiler de sign Iypical of units found in
Germany is th e basis for Ihi s di sc uss ion. Both ( 'haptcrs 6 and 7 provide
extensive li:-.ts of refe renceS from the United Stal cs, th e United Kingdom,
Gcrmany. and Japan .
Finally, Chapter H provides a detailed cxnmple of th e design proeess
fo llowing the boiler design practice of the Pcopk\ Rt:public of Ch ina (PRCJ
and, by association. the Soviet Union . Th e rclatiom hips hctween the various
design i ss u e.~ arc prese nt ed in this English sum mary of the detailed design
procedure s from the PRe ami USSR, which arc iu clltifieu in the rck rences.
The exa mple provided comhi nes ana lyti cal methlllls. empirica l corre lations.
and experience-based '" rul es."
In order to permit each chapter to be rciativt' l~ complcte, there is some
limited ove rlap in the introductory material to ea ch

6.1.1 Background
Since at least the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans. stea m generated
from boiling water has been used for a v;!riety of a pplications to provide heat
and power. In itially, boiling wilte r was used for hC:lli ng applications with an
occasionally innovative hut most ly ornamental mechilllical power U!>C. It was
not until th e Ind ustria l Revolution wi th the development of pract ical stearn
engines such as those of Savery an d Newcomen (Circa l70U) II. 21 th at steam
and boilers became widely used to ge nerate power for transportation and
industry. Today. boi lers and the steam lh ey produt,t: gene rat e electrici ty, heat
and cool st ructures. provide energy to chem ical proces.<;cs, enhance oil
rccovery, process food, among others.
Boilers arc basicall)' cnclosed spaces where wa ter can be heated and
continuously evaporated 10 steam. Early designs were little morc than empt y
vesse ls (" shell'" or ketlle boilers) to which w,ller coulu be added, heat
externally appl ied. and steam removed at a pre!',~u re sligh tly above atmo-
sphe ric (e.g., the Haycock hoi ler circa 1720). S~}()IJ de signers learned that
large gas- to-water contact ,lrCitS were nct'ueu to gent'ritle incrc<l~ing qU illll1'
ties of steam al higher efficiencies. T his led 10 hoiler designs with the
combustion products pas:-.ing through tul'ICl> which wac surrounded by water:

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"fire-tube" type boil ers. Eve ntually. t he need for higher pressures and Iilrger
capacities led to the introd uction o f " water-tube" type hoilers where water
and steam passed through the tuoc ' . wh ich could more easily withstand the
higher pressures.
Since that time. ooiler:-. have evolved in to very large. complex machines
which use the most ildvilnced theoretical analyses and adv1lOced materials.
New designs arc constant ly striving lor higher efficiency and lower costs. The
largest fossi l-fired ooilcrs huilt today nperate at supereritical steam pressures
I> 22.1 MPa ( > 32UX psiil)] providi ng 126U kg/s (or 10 million Ibm / hrl of
steam ft ow at 5MJoC (lfl5()" F). The ~t eam can he reheated once or twice to
566°C before ultimately being Da s~' d to the condenser. These lilrge units
produce noo MW~ . Fuels have expanded greatly from gas. oil. coa l. and
wood to include nuclear fiss ion. municipill refuse. oil s hale. and biomass.
among OIhers. The evolu tion in the desig n of fossi l-fuel-tired boile rs ha!'. been
led oy ex tensive innova tion in theOl) . design, and m,lt cri als ove r the past 150
years. These innovations arc far too numerous to covcr here in depth. To
more fully underswnd the evolution !If hoil ers and the ir design. sec 13. 41.

6.1.2 Current Practice

Today's fossil·fired roilers arc very diverse in design depending on the steam
U.<.C requireme nt s. fuel. and pruce.''- needs. Sizes range from 0.1 to over 12f'tO
kg /~ (1000 to about \0 million lbm / hrl ~ t eam flow. Prcss ure~ range from 11
lillie over I atm to over the critical pre!o>surc. However, rcgardless of the size
or application. hxJay's boiler des ign re mains driven by four key fitetor~:

1. Efficiency (hoiler and cyc-le)

2. Reli ability
J. Cost
4. Environmental protcction

It is these factors that have been combined with spccitlc applications to

produce the diversity of dc"igns in .~e rv icc today-from small p:lckagc hoilers
used to supply stC:1 1ll in ho:.pi tal s to the largest electric utility boiler. from an
oil-refinery heater to a marine powe r hoiler. However. regardlcs!'. of the unit
size. application. fu e l. or design. ;.]11 of these units share ,I number of
fundam en tal or key clements upon which the site- and application-:-.pecilic
dc",ign i:-. hased . This is espec ially trm: for the steam - water side of the systelll
which is the focu s here.

6.1.3 Objectives and Overview

This chapter provides a general fram ework for the evaluation of fos.~j l -fuel­
fired boilers with particular cmphasis on steam- wate r thermo-hydraulics. In
many arC<IS of the complex evaluat Ion process. fund ,Lmental relitlionships
have not yet been fully developed or tested. However. a general overall

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182 FOSSlL·FUEL·FlRED BOILERS. FUNDAMENTAlS AND ELEM ENTS

approach to evaluatio n is providell , Full c'"aluatiun will usually rely on fi eld

da ta and empirica l m ode l ~- mu c h of which :u ..: proprietary to ind ividua l
companie!!- IO permit des.ign of reliable, efficient. eost·cffective boilers. T he
deta iled evaluat ion of a boile r presents some of the sim plest geome tries for
two-phase fl ow evaluation-ve rtica l upwa rd flow nf Steam and wate r under
constant heat fl ux co nd itions beginn ing with sutx:oukd wate r. However, full
evaluation is greatl y complica ted by multi ple Circuits. hund reds of tubes,
be nds, nOlluniform axial and ci rcumfe rent ial he<l llflg of tuhes, and unheated
areas.
II would he impractical 10 providc a complete descript ion of the evaluatio n
of boi lers in a short chapte r. even when discussmg just steam-water fl ow.
The appro.lch t'lke n here is 10 focus on the ke) or fun d'lment al ele menl s
common to a ll boi le rs and to illustra te the ir ~ ppl ica tio n to a 820· MW~
coa l-fi rcd utility boile r usc;J in a large el cctric power station. This typical

•• rr
., Re""a!

Enclosu re Rool TlIbot.

fla! Stud
Consttuctoon

I
i
I
,

f ix. 6. 1. Coa l · l i n,~ d util ity nn!k r,

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boiler is shuwn in Fig. 6.1. The ovt'rall eva luation process is presented in
more de tail in (3-111.
T he following sections make up t he bala nce of this chapte r. Section 6.2
provides a genera l discussion of the dt fferent types of boile rs and how they fit
in to the overall plant design process. Section 6.3 provides a description and
eval uation of each of the majo r boiler componen ts. Section 6.4 specificall y
add resses evaluation of the componen ts that arc cooled by two-phase flow ,
whi le Section 6.5 iden tifies the limiling criteria. The cha pt er concludes with
Sections 6.6 and 6.7 which ide ntify ot he r selected factors for conside ration.

6.2 FOSSIL BOILER SYSTEM

6.2.1 Input Requirements and Operating Pressure

The boi le r evaluation begins with the iden ti fica tion of the overall application
require me nts specified in Tabl e 6. J. These arc ge nera lly se lected in ,In
ite ratlVc process balancing initial capital cost, operating costs (especially
delive red fu e l), steam process needs. a nd opera ting expe rie nce. Operating
steam pre~"u re is a key parame te r. For industrial boi lers, determination of
the outle t Sh;:am pressure can be contrulled by: (I) process tempcral ure or
pressu re needs. (2) the need to avoid process Au id leakage into the
steam - water system or vice versa. or (3) the maximum allowable metal
te mpe ratures to avoid gas-side corrosion o r erosion .
For indust rial or utili ty power boikrs, outlet steam pressure and tempera-
ture arc set by the desired power cycle and ope rating efficie ncy. H ighe r
te mpe ratures, highe r pressures, and the addition of stea m re heat sections
te nd to improve the ove rall thermal efficiency. However, these must be
balanced with the initial capi tal costs. long- term fuel costs. availability.
maintenance costs. unit operating mode ( i.e_, hase versus cycling load), and

TABLE 6. 1 UK- Derived Sp«ifieation Rt'(lui~ments for Boiler Des ign

Specified Parameter Comments

Stearn use requirements Flow rates. prcs~urcs. temperatures- for utility
boilers. the particular power cycle and turbine hCai balance
Fucllypc and analysis Comhustion eh;lI ;u': lcrislies, fouling and slagging
characteristics. a ~ h analysis. etc.
Feed-water supply $ource. amllY'!>is. and econom izer inlet lemp<:ralun::
Pressure dro p limits Gas side
Government regulations Incl uding emission contro) requirements
Site-specific factors Geography. !>Casuna! cha raclcristics
Steam generator usc Cycl ing. base load. elc.
Cuslomer preferences Specific design guidelines such as now cond itions.
eQuipme nl prefere nces. and steam gene rator c11iciency

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184 FOSSIL-FUEL-FIREO BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

other operating costs. Higher pressure and temperature operation tends to

increase the initial capital costs. The interaction of all of these factors with
the overall power plant design process arc addressed in greater depth in [71.

6.2.2 Power Cycle

Even after the last 150 years of power system development, the basic power
cycle used in steam-water systems remains the Clausius-Rankine cycle [12,
13] shown in Fig. 6.2 (solid line). Obviously, higher steam outlet temperatures
and pressu res provide higher thermodynamic efficiencies. This cycle has been
modified (at least for utility boiters) to further increase efficiency by adding a
section to reheat the steam between turbine stages (dashed line). This version
of the cycle is commonly used in utility boilers. Additional cycle efficiency is
sometimes obtained through the use of two reheat stages in the turbine - boiler
system. "Feed-water heating" (or regenerative heating) has also been added
to the cycle to preheat the water before it enters the economizer section of
the boiler system. This is used primarily in high-pressure utility boiler designs
in order to increase the ove rall plant therma l efficiency. With reference to
boiler evaluation, this significantly increases the temperature of water enter-
ing the economizer section of the boiler and limits the potential heat
absorption in this section .

Superheating :r-Reheating
,I
Saturated LiqU id~
,I
, \ , I
1 Evaporation
I I Ideal
Expansions
Preheating

Saturaled
Vapor
., Condensation
~~------~~~~~-~

Ideal Compression

Entropy_

Fig. 6.2. Basic Clausius- Rankine cycle with the addition of reheat (dashed linc).

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 El1thalpy. kJ/~g

800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200

1200

liDO 600
Nole: I psi ~ 0006895 mPa

1000

500
000

p
~
SOO ~
ai ~
:; 400 ;;;
"iii
4i
a. 700 -
!E
E
<l)
>-
:::
600
300

500-

400 200

300 400 500 1300 1600

E01halpy. Blu/lb
30%
32% 38%
BACK Economizer
Evaporator Steam Superheating
[Waler Heallngl
CONTENTS"'; ~
U1 Fig. 6.3. Temperalure-enlhalpy diagram for boiler heal addilion.
 186 FOSSIL FUEL FIRED BOILERS FUNDAMENTALS AN D ELE MENTS

From a boiler eva luatio n perspective. the te mpe rat ure - enthalpy diagram
shown in Fig. 6.3 (for a hig h. pressure. single re heat unit) provides a use ful
summary of design informatiun about the unit w nfiguralio n. A s water is
converted from subcooled liquid to supe rhea te d !>Ie;lm in a typical unit. the.
re lalive hea t pickup of the econo mize r (water hetlting to just below s.1t ura·
lion), evaporator. and supcrhealcr a rc 30%, 32'"c, and 38% , respectivcly.
Rehe ating the sleam (dashed line) increases Ihe 100ai hea l absorption by
approximately 20% marc . Fo r cycl es with higher inilia! ope rating pressures
(usually supcrcrilica l), a second stea m re heat operation may be added.
Boile rs c;m he designed for suberitical or ;; upcrcritica l pressures. AI
suberit ica l pres,surcs, a majo rity o f th e furnace e ndo:,ure is cooled by t .....o-
phase boi ling heat transfer phenomena . A small portion of {he e nclosure will
operale at subeoolcd liquid conditions wilh the il!->soc iatcd liquid convection
hea t transfer phe no me na . Steam - wate r S(:par:lt ion equ ipment is typically
employcd 10 provide sa turated (o r dry) steam from the evaporalor surface to
the sc parat e supe rhea te r surfaces. Suocritica l bo il e rs must be configure d to
sa tisfy t .....o-ph;lse- flow a nd hea l Ira nsfe r limi lS wh ich as~ure sa fe and re liahle
be hrlvior. Operation is re lative ly straightforward . compared to supen.:r illcill
boil e rs. Industry-acce pt ed wat ~ r c he mi stry limits ,Ire less stringent. and the

30r--------------------------------,
Fi~ed Pressure

If. Subcritical
:l: Pressure
Supercrillcal
~ Pressure
~ 20

~
•
j Variable Of SilOIng Pressure

"
I
o 20 60 80 H'"
Load. "
I' ig. 6.4. S'rmpk w;lH: r-wall ope ra ting pr cs~urc ror V;HI<lhlc or sliding pressure boiler
IlpcrOl. ion.

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 6.2 FOSSIL BOILER SYSTEM 187

steam - water pressure drop inside Ihe lubes is less of lm issue on these units.
In supercritical constant pressure uni ts, once~through single-phase flow is
ust.::d to cool the furnace enclosun; <l nd must he adun:ssed in the detailed
evaluation. In this <lpplieation, both Ihe steam drum and the internal steam
separation equipment c;m he elimina tc d. The overall power cycle dlicien,-)' is
increased hut at it enSI of higher initial capital. more precise operating
requirements, and more stringent water treatment requirements. Finally,
variahlc-pressure boilers where the operating pressure varies with load (sec
Fig. 0.4) arc heing im;lalled in Europe and 10 a lesser degree in the United
States [14, 15]. In the laller case. the owrall steam-water circuits must he
designed for the issues of both suhlTltical ami supercritical pressure opera-
tion. As will he discussed later. the uperating pressure also sets tht.:: types and
sizes of heat transfer surfaces 10 he mduded in the boiler contlguration / .

6.2.3 Types of Boilers

Modern hoiler equipment consists ur a complex eoniiguration of thermohy-
draulie circuits as shown ill Fig. 6.1 Namely:

I. Ecunllmizer (feed-water prehe at ing)

2. Evaporator
.1 Stt.::am drum (steam-water sep;tration. where needed)
4. Steam superheater
5. Steam reheater (between turbi ne stages. where used)
o. Steam attemperalOrs (steam te mperature control)

They also incorporate firing equipme nt ;tnd arc interconne(:ted with fans.
controls. pollution control equipmt.::llI , fllel preparation equipment. and duct-
work among other auxiliary equipme nt in order to provide a complete steam
supply system. While the term hoiler originally referred to the section where
evaporation from saturated liquid took place, the terms hoiler and steam
KClicralOr have come to refer to all of the steam - water components. These
components arc then optimized for a specific fuel. desired flow rate, and
desired steam conuitions.
Fuels play an especially significan1 role in the overall boiler conflguration.
The variety of fuels used requires it number of Jifferent combustion tech-
nologies and different convective he at transfer surface configurations to
address corrosion, erosion, slagging, fouling and/or cleaning. Even for a
single fuel such as coal. a number of Jifferent combustion methods may be
useJ: pulverized coal, cyclone. stoke! and/or gr:lIe, fluidized bcd, and so on.
Each firing method requires a diffe re nt waler-eooled enclosure shape and
size. Figure 6.1 shows a pulverized-fuel- fireJ utility boiler; Fig. fl .5 shows a
typical bark-fired industrial hoiler wit h traveling grate stoker combined with
oil- and gas-firing capability. A tYP ical oil- or gas-fired package boiler
(prcassembled) for industrial and commercial application s is shown in
Fig. 6.6.

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188 FOSSIL-FUEL·FIREO BOILERS FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

Boiler Steam
Bank Drum

Air Heater '

Dust
Collector

Sand
Classifier
Induced
Draft
F"

Fig.6.S. Multifuel inJu~lrial hoiler wilh sit)ka tirio)! (hark. oil. or gas) [3].

Beyond the open combustion furnace. convl,xl ive tube banks remove
additional energy. Where thc combustion products (m flue.: gas) arc n:l<lIivcly
free of any ash, tighter tuhe spacings and highe r gas velocities arc used to
minimilC thc cost lind SilC. Whe.:re high a)'h level), a rc pre.:se.:nt in th(: Ilue gas.
open spacing is used to avoid plugging of the tubl,'; hank with ash and to
penni! cleaning equipment acc(:ss (th(:se t:ombustio(1 systems and differences
are covered in more detail in [3. 5. 10. II j).
The variety of hoiler systems has been classifkd in i.I number of ways: end
usc, type of fuel , firing method, operating pressur...' . and t:irt:ulation method.
among olhers (sec a lso Table K I for a more compre hensive lisl of dassifica~
lions). From a Ihcrmohydraulit: perspective, the gen e ral breakdown shown in
Table 6.2 [I til provides a reasonable starting point.

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 6_2 FOSSIL BOILER SYST E M 189

i Steam Out

;';:;;;~~),/ Steam Drum

Water Inlet 10 Drum

Tube Bundle
Convection Bank

Open Furnace with

Water-Cooled Walls .
Roo!. and Floor
o

Burners - Ht++++ o

t'ig.6.6. Small oil · ,md ga~-li rcd package hoi ler.

Util ity hailers (Fig. 6. 1) a rc used fo r generating electricity in large cen tral
power stations and arc designed to opti mize the ove rall thermodynamic
efficiency a t th e highest pffisiblc avai lability. Industrial hoilers (e.g ., Figs. /l.5
and 6.6 ) arc ge nerally used to supply stea m to processes or manufaclUri ng
a ctivities a nd thus a re designed tor: (I) process-cont rolled (us ua lly low)
pressures, (2) high re liabi lity with minimum mllint c nance, (3 ) usc of aV:li lHblc
fu e ls (process waste, if possible ), (4 ) low capi tal cost, and (5) minimum ovcra ll
ope rati ng COSI. A key factor in boiler conl-igunllio ns is the relalivc amo unl of
energy needed to first evapomte th..:: liquid and the n. if necessHry, ~ upe rh ea t
the steam. This controls the quant ity of heat transfer surface de dicat ed to
each function and the overall arrangemen l. This rela tio nship is depende nt o n
pressure and is illustnlle d in Fig. 6.7. From a thermohydraulic perspective,
industrial boilers te nd 10 differ from modern utility boi le rs in the following
ge neral ways:

I. Newer large utility boilers typically ope rate at hig h pressures [> 12.4
MPa ( > IlWO psial] for thermodynamic cycle effi cie ncy while indust ria l
hoilers typica lly range from 1.7 to 12.4 MPa (2..'50 10 IXOO psia).

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190 FOSSll-FUEl·FtRED BOILERS FUNDAMENTALS AN D ELEMENTS

TABLE 6.2 Boilt r Class ifica tiolls

Utility
Subcrit iea l pressure
Recirc ula ting
Na t ure or thermal o r gra\'it)'-induced circula tion
Pumped or forced o r controlled circulation
Pump-assisted circu lation
Once through
Supc rcrit ical pressure
Industrial (steam supply and / or fud -usc domin.lIl!' no rchellt)
Thermohydraulie basis
Recirculating
MUltiple drum ixliler h,tnk
Single drum
Once through (se lected e a ~es )
Fuel
Oil Refuse
Wood - biomass Byproduct gas
Waste hca t Pe tro leum coke
Coal l-iqu()r (ehl'mieal renwcry)
Gas O thcr
Firing me thod
Oil- gas burne r Pulve ri zed COil l
Stoker (seve ral types) Fluidized bed ().eve rlll types)

Industrial Utility

Reheat
(SenSIble)

Supe.-heat
(Sensible)

Evaporation

Feed·water
Heating
(senSible)

Pressure. MPa
Steam Temperature, ·C
0.9 .., 103 '9 ,
,<0
SAT ' 00
'"
Filt. 6.7. Rel,lIive boi lc r surrace heat a bsorption for clilkrel\t operllting pressu res.

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 6.2 FOSSIL BOILER SYSTEM 191

2. Industrial boilers frequently have separate boiler banks (see Fig. 6.5) to
generate steam because the fumace enclosures alone do not provide
enough surface area.
3. Reheat of steam is usually not used in industrial units because of higher
capital cost and lower economic justification.
4. Pump-assisted circulation is less frequently found in industrial units.

Boiler manufacturers have a relatively limited number of standard designs

in order to minimize engineering and fabrication costs. These boilers arc
usually designed around a number of pre-engineered components to permit
maximum flexibility, Most field-erected boilers are custom designed to meet
specific fuel and application requirements, although standardized modules
are being used more frequently to minimize erection costs.

6.2.4 System Approach

As with most complex engineering problems, there are a variety of hai ler
evaluat ion approaches that can be used to meet performance requiremcnts.
These include the multiple iteration:. commonly found in thermal design
situations where "real world" complexities and nonlinear interactions prc-
vent a straightforward solution. Boiler evaluation can be approached from
two directions: () as a steam-water heate r or (2) as a flue gas cooler. For the
former perspective in a typical boiler. water at about 246°C is converted into
540"C supe rheated steam. In the latt er, the combustion products arc cooled
from over 1650°C to about 330°C just upstream of the air heater. In most
instances, the fuel combustion requirements and gas-side parameters take a
leading role in many of the configuration decisions. Thus the overall process
focuses on the gas-cooling approach. From the steam flow requirements and
thermal power cycle heat balance, the quantity of fuel needed and the
enthalpy gain in all boiler sections are established. From here, the process
becomes one of adjusting the steam-water circuitry to accommodate the
cooling of the gas while checking the thermohydraulic parameters to ensure
that key criteria are met. The overall process includes the following genera l
steps:

I. Specifying the steam supply requirements and other parameters (see

Table 6.1)
2. Evaluating heat balances and heat absorption by type of su rface
3. Performing combustion calculations
4. Configuring the combustion system
5. Configuring the furnace (combustion zone) and convection pass gas-side
(temperature limits and material property trade-offs)
6. Specifying the air heater
7. Evaluating the circulation system
8. Verifying overall unit performance

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192 FOSSIL-FUEl-FIRED BOILERS - FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

Ste ps 4, 5, and 7 are of cen tral interest here. For furthe r d iscussion of the
overall process, !>eC Chapter H.

6.3 MAJOR STEAM - WATER BOILER COMPONENTS

As shown in Fi g. 6.1 . the steam -water circuitry of ;1 modern high-pressure

recirculating (or drum) utility boiler consists of an integrated system of [3.5.
6. 101,
I. Enclosure su rfaces: (a) furnace: boiling; (h) convection pass: steam
cooled or boi ling
2. Superheater: primary and secondary
3. Rcheate r
4. Economizer
5. Attemperator-steam tempe rature control
6. Drum

Each of these compone nt s wi ll now be dis.cus.'>ed. incl uding its fun ct ion.
arrangement. size , spaci ng, thcrmohydraulic con..-iderations, and materials.

6.3.1 Enclosure Surfaces

T he furnace in a large pu lverized-coal boiler is a large e nclosed space for the
combustion of the fuel and fo r the cooli ng of th e products of combustion
prior to their ent ry into the tube bundles fou nd in th e convection pass.
Excessive gas temperatures ent ering these tube banks could lead to unaccept-
able fou lin g. slagging, or eleva ted metal temperatures. Heat transfer to the
enclosure walls is hasically controlled by rad ia tion. T he enclosure walls arc
cooled by boiling water (subcritical) or high-velocity supcrcritical pressure
water. The convection pass enclosure is composed of the horizon tal and
vertical-down gas Ilow passages shown in Fig. 6.1 where most of the super-
heater, reheat cr. and economizer surfaceS arc located. These enclosure
su rfaces can be wate r o r steam cooled: the heat transfer to the enclosure
walls is predominan tly controlled by convection. The objective of the wate r-
o r steam-cooled wall is to maintain wall metal tempera tures wi th in the
allowable limits.
The furnace enclosure is usually made o f water-cooled tubes in a mem-
brane const ruction (membra ne walls or panels): closely spaced tubes with
cen terlines slightly la rger than the tube outside diameter con nected by bars
continuously welded to each tube (see Fig. 6.8). Furnace enclosure-s may also
be made from tange nt tube construction or closely spaced lubes with a
gas-tight seal usua lly composed of insulation or refractory and lagging. The
convection pass enclosure also uses either a membrane or a tangent tube

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 6 _3 MAJ OR STEAM _ WATER eOILER COM PO NENT S 193

~
.~
~
./

./

./

t' jlo(. 6Jl. Memhrane PllllCI c(J n ~tru c lion .

construction. These tube panels arc connected togethcr in paralle l flow by

inl et ,tIld out lei headers. The memh rane walls and cas ing provide a gas
(pressure) tight, continuous, ri gid construction for the fu rn <lCC. For a mcm·
hrane construct ion . the tuhe wall and memhra ne surface are exposed on the
inside tu the combustion process whi k insula tion and I<lggi ng (sheet metal)
arc rmwided nn the outside to protet·t the boi ler. minim ize hea l loss, and
prot ect operati ng pe rsonnci. The lU be" arc usually prefahricated in lo ship-
p••hle memhr;lIle p<lnel modules fo r delivery and ereclio n in the field (sec

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N.XT
 TABLE 6.3 Typical Component Dimensions
Pa nel-to-Panel
Tube Outstde Tube Centerline Typical Flue Gas
Dt3meler. Ce n terline. Spacing. Inlet Temperature,
Component mm mm mm ·C CommenlS

Furnace waler wall

Thermal cireulalion 51-76.2 63.5-95.3 1650-1900 Membrane wall construction
Pumped circulation 31.75-381 44.5-50.8 1650-1900 Membrane wall conSlruClion
Once through 22.2-34.9 38.1-47.6 1650-1900 Membrane W311 constructIOn
Furnace dIVision wall 50.8-76.2 60.3-76.2 1650-1900 Membrane wall construction
Supe rhea tef 50.8-76.2 ~ 1200 Radian1 plalen
JOS -61 °
(See economize r commen!;)
1005-1215 Convect ive pe nda nI
Convective horizontal
Reheater 50.8- 76.2 240 940 Convective penda nl
Economizer 44.5- 70 44.5-50.R (See comments) 450-540 Spacing: erosion velocity
(gap between tube,) (e~i( 330-370) dependent: in-line arrangement

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 6 :3 MAJOR STEAM - WATER BOILER COMPONENTS 195

Fig. 6.tn. Opcning:-, in the~e panel.~ :I re pnlVided for hurners. observation

doors. slag or ash Temov<ll equipmelli . <lnd g<l ~ injection ports. Th esc open-
ing.<;, plu~ [he ge nera l hoi ler arrangemc nt. result in a numher of tuhe sha pes
allli heated-unhc<lted sections that :HC geometry speci fi c and need 10 be
accounted for in the design. Typical UlIllenSIons for e nclosure wall tubes arc
provided in Tahk: (d . To minimize Cl )~ t s, manufacturers normally ~ta ndard ­
ile on certain tube sizes. centerline di :-. tilncc~, anti tube shapes. The thermo·
hydraulics of thi.~ portion of the boiler arc discussed in de tail in Sections 6.4
and 6.5 .

6.3.2 Superheaters and Reheaters

Supe rheaters and rehca ter:-. in utility builers increase the tempe rature of
sa turated or ncar-satura ted steam in Of(Jer 10 increase the thermodynamic
efficie ncy of the power cycle or to pr(wide thc desi red process conditions. In
general terms. they are simple sing le-phase heat exchangers with steam
nowing ins ide the tubes and nue gas rassing outside the tuhes. generally in
crossnow. The key criteria in the de:-.ign of these heat exchangers Llrc :

1. Limiting tuhe mctal temperatul e:-. to helow acceptable val ue... to mcet
<lllowabic stress and corrosioll - e T()sion limits
2. Controlling steam outlet tempc l ;lIlm::'" within the specified kvel over
the range of boiler operating I;o!ll.lilions
3. Main tain ing pressure dwp on the steam s ide wi thin allowable limits
(esPl!cially for high -pressure suhcritical boilers )

The main tli(ference between supe rheaters and rehe.Hers is operating

pressure. In a typical recircu lating d rum boikr. the outlet pressure of the
surcrhcatcr is lH MPa while the rehedter inlet rressure is {lnly 4 MPa. The
volumetric nuw rat es for the fe he,lIe r wi ll thus be suh:-'lanti,llly higher than
those of the superheater though the mass now rate th rough the reheatcr is
I()'"'k- to 15°;'" less than the surc rheah:: t" because of steam extrncted from the
hi g h - pre:-.~ure turbine to prehc,lI th e k eu water.
The mechanical design and location of supe rheate rs and/ or rcheate rs is
.~et by the control range of operal inn. (lllliet temperature requircments.
overall cycle therma l characleristin. louling ,lnd slagging c ha rac t eri .~tic~ of
Ihe fuel and cleaning equipment. If ll!gh outlet ~ t eam te mperatures or high
ahsorplion ( "It, ) arc n':lluircu, some of the heal transfer ~u rfan; mily hilve to
he exposed to radia t ion from Ihe fu rnace. There arc four general arrange-
men ts flH supe rheaters: pendant-plat c n. pcn<ianl. inverted, and horizontal.
The locations of these (except invlTt<.:d) arc shown in Fig. 6.9; typical tullC
sizes and lube spaci ngs arc provided in Table 6.~.
The thermohydrau lic design of supc rhcate rs is ;1 compk x trade-uff be-
tween competing v<lriilblcs Including ~ lT ucturHI and materiHI requirements in

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 Pendant ConveC1ion SH 01 RH I

Steam Drum - --+!1t+1ra::11 Steam· Cooled

Root

Downcomer5 --+t--tl
Superheater
Steam·Cooled
Walls

Horizontat
Convection
SH o r RH

Junction Header

Platen·Type Superheater J Furnace Walls

6.9. u 3(i~ r ~at transfer surface~.

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 Counterflow Parallel Flow Combined Flow
(a) Ib) (e)

Steam Steam Sleam

r
Inlet Inlet Inial

Gas- 0,,-_ Gas_

LeaStAlea Largest Alea Intarmeaiale Area

Higl1est Metal Temperature Lowest Metal T emparature Moderate Metal T emperalures

Fig. 6.10. Sample superheater circuils.

rn

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~I
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198 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

order to provide a minimum cost design which mee ts steam temperature

control needs. Thc key variables th at arc optimiled include:

I. Material cost: surface area, tube thickness. and tubing cost

2. Steam·side pressure drop: limited by possible boiler design conditions,
operating cost, and cycle e ffi cie ncy
3. Gas-side pressure drop : ope rating cost
4. Tube spacing to handle th e expected and worst -case fuel ash deposits
(cleani ng, fou ling factor , erosion lim its, e tc )
5. Steam veloci ties to minimize tu be metal tem peratures
6. Control of outlet steam temperat ure

The hea t transfer evaluation o f superhea ter:-. and reheaters is re lative ly

straightforward: single-phase gas flow over a tuhe hank heating ~ turated or
s uperheated steam. General heat transfe r equ ations, fa ctors, and assump-
tions for superheaters and reheaters arc provid ed in Appendix 6.1 . Parallel-
flow, counterflow, and combination-flow co n dj t in n ~ arc encou ntered as the
trade-off is made between mate rial cost and heat exchanger cllicie ncy hee

560r-_ ___..

I' 560 OutSIde Tube Wall

~ Temperature

i tnSlde Tube Wall

Temperature
•E
~
540

520
Maximum Flu td Temperature. 5tO· C

Clrcumterenual LocatIOn. Ii , loegl

Fig. 6.11. Supcrhcil tc r tu be walllcmpt:ratun: profilc.

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 6,~ MAJOR STEAM - WATER BOILER COMPONENTS 199

Fig. 6.10). A complicating factor in the evaluation of superheater metal

temperatures is radiation from the boiler furnace to the first few tube rows at
the furnace exit and the cavities between the tube banks. Nonuniform
heating can result in a nonuniform tube wall temperalUre distribution such as
is shown in Fig. 6.11. The additional 4WC could limit the design or require
more expensive materials.
The thermohydraulic design of steam reheaters basically follows that of
the superheater except, of course , for the lower steam pressure. The flow
velocities arc typically kept high enough so that the temperature drop across
the steam film is HOOC or less. An additional design limitation is the allowable
pressure drop. Normally, the total pressure loss through the reheater and the
reheat steam piping and fillings is limited to about 10% of the inlet pressure.
About half of this is reserved for the connecting piping and fillings with the
remainder available for the n:heater tubing and headers.

6.3.3 Economizers
Economizers arc simple countcrflow heat exchangers for recovcring addi-
tional energy from the combustion products after the superheaters and
rehctlters but before the air heater, increasing the water temperature after
the final regenerative feed-water heall::r . and minimizing temperature differ-
ences between the saturation temperature and the feed-water temperature.
The tube bundle is typically an arrangement of parallel horizontal serpentine
tubes with botb inlet and outlet headers as well as the IS(f bends exposed to
the flue gas stream. The watcr flow is usually counter to the flue gas flow.
The typical range of tube diameters is provided in Table 6.3. The tube
spacing is set to ensure the highest g.l.~ velocities which do not exceed the
allowable erosion velocities. The bundles have historically been bare tubes
configured in an in-line arrangement with appropriate cavities for soot-blower
equipment placement. Recently, some extended surface economizers have
been used. Thc economizer location is illustrated in Fig. 6.1. Carbon steel is.
typically used for this piece of equipment.
From a thermohydraulic standpoint while economizers typically experi-
ence crosstlow conditions. economizers arc evaluated as simple counterflow
heat exchangers with the combustion products flowing over the outside of the
tubes and subcoolcd water flowing inside the tubes. The methods for evaluat-
ing economizer performance arc similar to those for superheaters and
rcheaters. The following guidelines may also apply:

I. In high-pressure boilers. nonsteaming economizers are frequently used

and the maximum water outlet temperature is limited to a temperature
that is below the steam saturation temperature.
2. The tube outside metal temperatures arc normally fixed in reltltion to
the acid dew-point temperature fo r the particular products of combus-

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200 FOSSIL·F\JEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

tion (temperatures at whieh acidic combustion product constituents

condense),

6.3.4 Steam Temperature Control

The objective of the steam tempera ture con trol system is to maintai n the
superheater and reheater ou tlet tem peratures within a narrow range regard·
less of changes in boile r load or normal fluctu ations in the wide va riety of
opera ti ng variables. Stea m temperature reductions of 20°C can red uce the
plant heat rate (cycle effi ciency) by 1% in high· pressure power boilers (above
12 MPa). Tempcrature excursions above the nominal design levels may
damage su perhca tcr, rchea ter, a nd turbine component s which arc tempe ra·
ture limited. Typical operat ing practice allows fluctuations of ± 5 or 6°C in
the superheated steam ou tiet temperatu re. Factors affecting the superheat
control include load, fou ling a nd /or slagging, feed·water change. and bu rn·
ers out of service. among others.

TABLE 6.4 Steam Tf' mptra turt ConlrolMf'thods

General Method/Alternate Options

Attempera tion ( reduce energy per unit mas!> of !>team flow)
Direct-contact spray at te mpcrator (possible I OC;lIio n ~ )
Inte rmediate between primary and secondary su perheater or reheater
Upstream of supcrheiltcr and rehe;lter
Downstream of superheater and reheater
Indirect attempcrator (vi;1 heat exchanger)
Steam drum heat exchange r
Separate shell -and-tube heat exchanger
Superheate r surface design (see Fig. 6. 12)
Gas recirculation (adjust heat absorption in rurna n' and /o r convect ion pas.~)
Tempering: gas injcctcd at top of fu rnace
Recircuhllion: ga~ injected at ool\om of furnace
Secondary air stream gas injection
Flue gas proportioning (parallel convection passes With controlled HQ\I,' splitl
(sec Fig. 6.1)
Combustion control (adjust furnace heat absorption)
Tilting hurncrs
Burner rows out of service (0005)
Operating procedures
Exccs.~ air
Soot-blower control
Feed-wa ter temperature (once-t hrough uni ts)
Separately fired superheater

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 On-line steam ou tlet tempera ture: control is achieved hy either reducin g
the ene rgy per unit mass of steam dir..:ctly by cooling or dilution with water
or s:l.I urated steam (referred 10 as an c mperation). or changing the relative
absorption of heat between reheater. :-upe rheater. and furnace, A numher of
these methods a rc listed in Table 0.4 a nd arc d iscussed in more uetai l in [3.
5. 10]. In large utility boilers. attcrnperators wit h direct wat er or steam
injection arc typically used for dynamic control hCC;IU SC of thei r rapid
response . In most uni ts. they arc comhined with o ne or mOTe of the other
me thods to optimi le the te mperature control fo r th e ove rall rower cycle.
Attemperators arc usually installed ,1\ the inlet of superhea ter sections or
hetwee n superheater sections to con trol the final supe rheate r outlet metal
tcmpe r ature~.

To a limi ted degree. superheater st'ctinns can be designed and posi tioned
to provide some na lura l compensation in final su per heater outle t tcmpcra-

Finat Steam Temperature

SuperheeterS rn Series

20 60 eo '00
Steam Outpu t. %

l-i!l..6. 12. i{;rdi;ulI and convective su perheater tempcratur~' char ;ICKristic\ 131.

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202 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS ' FUNDAMENTAlS AN D ELEMENTS

ture which would othe rwise vary with lo;ld . In a supe rheater section exposed
to the furna ce (radiant superheater), hea t input is rel atively constant with the
load , Thus. as steam flow (load) increases, the heal input per pound of steam
declincs. In a superheater section away from th e furnace (i .c., gas convect ion
dominates: convection superheater), the heal input per unit area increases
wi lh increasing gas \'clociIY (and load) and stearn tempera lures climb with
increasi ng load . By matching convection and radiant superheate rs. a rel a-
tively constant oUl lel slea m te mperature ca n potentially be maintain ed over a
give n load range with minimal allempe ration (sec Fig. 6. 12).

6.3.5 Steam Drum

Subcri tica l recirculating boilers arc provided wi th a large cylindrica l pressure
vessel or stea m drum in whi ch the sa turated StCCl 1l\ is :,eparated from the
two-phase mixture leaving the boiler tubes. The se drums can be quite large
with diameters ranging from I m to severa l metl.!Ts and with lengths ap·
proa(hing :"In m. They arc fahricated from thick pl ate!> th at have bee n rolled
into cylinders with hemisphe rical heads.
The prim ary function of the drum i!> to hou)'e the equipme nt necessary to
separatc the steam- water mixture into sa turated Meam. which is sent to the
steam-cooled surfaces in the hoiler, :wd sa turated liquid for rec ircu lation tn
the furna ce circuit s. Additional func tion!> include :

I. Mixi ng the feed watcr with the saturat ed li<I Llld aftc r steam se pa rat ion
2. Mixi ng the chemical s :idded to control corrmUl1i
:"I . Purifying the steam to remove impuri tie:- and re~ idual moisture prior to
transfe r to the supcrhC<lIer
4. Rcm()\';ng a port ion of the boile r wate r to control boi lc r water che m-
ist ry (i .e .. blowdown)
5. Containing limi ted water storage tn accommodate !.ome cha nges in the
hailer load Icve I

Typica l boiler stea m drum in te rnals a nd the ir ;I rrangement arc shown in

Fig. 1'1 . 1]. In high·pressu re wili ty boilers, the cyl"illlll! IIr cc ntrifugal aClion
ca used by the steam - wa tl' r se parators is used un ive rsa lly to scpa ratl' most of
the: water from the steam. The rcdueed density dill erence hetwee n the stea m
and water at pressures above 12 MP.. and the very high flo..... rates make other
methods unecono mical. Scrubtx:r or d ryer clemen ts (closc ly spaced corru·
ga ted plates or screc ns) arc then u!>ed tll remove t hl' remaining moisture and
residua l impurities prior to steam exit from the d ru m. Feed-water pipes arc
installed along the d rum length to provide uniform mixing of the feed water
with the wat er discharge from the se parators, prinr to !.e nding the wate r tn
the downcomer ou tl et tubes o r pipes. Manu factur ers usually standardize on
certain drum diamete rs and intcrnal arrangeme nt.. and th en vary the drum
lengt h 10 accom modate d iffere nt size haile r!..

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 Steam Outlet
CoronectlOrlS

Cyclone
SepafatOl'S
(Pnmary)

Wllter Level

Manilold
Ba••
Plates

Steam - Water
Inlel
Downcomer / CoroneclOl'

Fig. 6. 13. Typica l ste;lm drum internals.

6.4 STEAM - WATER SYSTEM

The purpose of the Steam - wate r now circuitry in fossil-fired boi le rs is

twofold:

I. To genera te high -purilY supc rheah:d steam from subcooled inle t feed
water at the specified now rate, tempe rature, and pressure
2. To pro tect metal compon ents from tempera ture- related failure

The objective of the boiler design is to mee t both of these requirement s at

a minimum cos!. The second purpose is particularly import an t because it

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 204 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

establishes many of th e eva luation criteria of the major steam-water compo-

nents. The evaluation becomes an iterative process of componen t speci-
ficatio n, mate ria l selection, and criteria verificat ion to sct the fina l boiler
configuration ca pable of supplying th e desired steam 110ws.

vfi.4.1 Circulation Methods

A number o f me thods have been developed to circulate watcr and steam
through the boile r system . T hese systems arc u ~u ally classified by the means
used to control the circulation through the furna ce water wa lls. Five of the
most commonly used systems arc s hown schcm<lt ica lly in Fig. 6.14 and may
be broadly classified as either "recircu lating " or "once-through" types. Recir-
cula ting syste ms basically imply tha t, at a ll IOi.ld leve ls, the water is only
partially conve rted into steam in the evaporator tubes (i.e., furna ce walls in
la rge boile rs). The residua l water is then recircula ted hack to the in lets of the

Superheater
(SH) SH

Drum

Economizer Econ
(Econ) Furnace Fum
Clrc
Walts
Pump
(Fuml
Orifices

tal Natural CirCUlation I b I Forced Circulation

SH SH SH

Separator
(Sep) Sep
Furn Fum
Fum Clrc
Pump

Orifices
Econ Clrc
'000
Pump

Ie) Once Through (d) Once Through WI1h Ie ) Once Through With Part·load
Superimposed Recirculation Recirculation

Fig. 6. 14. Builer circulation systems (note that ho; )lIer feed pump precedes each
sysl c m).

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evaporator tubes for further he ating. In once-through systems. water is boiled
complete ly to dryness floo olo stea m by weight) in the evaporator circuits
during a t least full-load opera tion , The e ntire evaporator flow is the n se nt to
the supe rheater. The speci fic ci rcul ati ng systems incl ude:

Natural (or Thermal) Recirculation (Fig. 6.140) The Llitference in mean

densit ies be tween the subcooled water In the downcome r-supply tubes and
the heated furnace evaporator tubes (the rmal driving head) produces suffi-
cient driving fo rce to overcome the fluw resistances in the steam - water
ci rcuit. A drum is used to sepa rate the steam- wate r mixture before the
stea m is sc nt to the s uperheate r and th e wat e r is returned to the evaporator
tubes. Flow is adjusted during the design stage by appropriate ly sizing the
number a nd di ame ter of all tubes to provide adequate now rates for all load
conditiuns. Relatively large diameter tubes a rc used to minimize frictiun
los.~es. Flow rates vary directly with heal inpu t (fuel firin g rates) and tend to
compensate automiltically for local heat input upse ts. Drums arc required for
steam- wate r separation. This system has bee n used fo r subcritieal pressure
boile rs.

Pump-Assisted (or Controlled or Forced) Recirculation (Fig. 6.14b) To

suppl eme nt the thermal driving head, one or more pumps arc added to the
cin:ulat ion loup 10 increase the availahic driving head. Orifices a re sized and
installed at the e ntrances to the furnace wall tubes in orde r to distrihute the
flow unifo rml y. The mass flow rate in the furnace tubes is relative ly inde pe n-
dent of load and local heat flux va riations. Drums arc required for
stea m-wat e r sepa ra tion. Th is syste m i~ used in high-pressure subcritica l
boilers.

Pure Once-Through Circulation (Fig. 6.l4d The boiler feed pump pro-
vides the e ntire driving head to force the water through the econumize r,
evaporator. and supe rheate r. Water is continuously evaporated to dryness
and then su perhea ted without a ny steaTll - water separat ion. Thi s circulation
method is a pplicable to all ope rating prcssures (subcritical and supercritica])
although it is not usually used helow R MPa because the la rge change in
specific volume upon evaporatiun at low pressures results in e xcessive pump-
ing power. High-purity wat c r is required since a ny residual solids will deposit
in the boiler when 100% by we ight stC;t m conditio ns arc reached. The flow
rate is proportional to firing and the furn ace wall design is more sensitive to
upsets and nonuniform tube- to- tube heati ng. Special hypass syste ms arc
needed to start the units although stcilm drums arc not required. Oncc-
through circulation is somet imes refe rred to as Bensen o r Su lzer monotube
systems.

Once-Through with Superimposed Recirculation (Figs. 6. l4d and e)

Developed to overcome low-load and sta rt -up limitations of pure once-
through designs, these systems permit partial recircu lat ion of fluid to the

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furnace walls to increase the fluid vclocif)' in these tubes. In constant·pres-
sure supercritical units, part of the furna ce flow is continuously mixed with
the feed wate r to increase furnace pime! flow except at the highest loads. For
suberitical or variable· pressure units a t low load ~ ( < 60% to 70% of maxi-
mum continuous rating), a limited number of large external steam-water
separa tors (refer to the later discussion about Fig. 6.49) a re supplied to
recirculate water to the furnace tubes to maintain the tube mass fluxes.
Orifices can be used to distribute flow a nd trau itional drums arc not reo
quired. These systems are applicable to any pressure ra nge.

The se lection of the approp ria te circula tion !>ystem for a specific applica·
t ion involves balancing the competing effects of unit pressure. size, planned
operating mode, required maneuverability, speci'ic application requirements,
a nd economics. as well as manufacturer and uwner ph ilosophies. A more
deta iled comparison of the different circulation systems is provided in (17).

6.4.2 Boller Circulation and Flow

Sample System Flow Circuitry A typica l steam - wate r ci rcuit fur a large
suberitica l natural circulation drum boi ler (excluding reheater) is shown in
Fig. 6.15. Feed water enters the bottom header (A) of the economizer and
passes upward in the opposite di rection to the flue gas and is cullected in an
out let header (B) wh ich can also be located in the flue gas steam. T he water
then fl ows through a number of pipes tha t connect the economizer outlet
header to the steam drum. It is somet imes appropriate to run these pipes
vertically upward (8 - C) through the convection pass to the economizer
outlet headers located at the top of th e boiler. These tubes are then aVllil;lblc
to servc as wate r-cooled supports for the horizontal superheate r and rcheate r
when these banks spa n too great a distance for end support. The feed water
is injected into the steam drum (D) where it mixes with the water disc harged
from the steam-wate r sepa rators before e ntering connections !O the "down·
comer" pipes (D - E) which exit the steam drum.
The water travels arou nd the furnace wa ter-willi circuit to gene rate steam.
TIlt! wa ter flows through the downcomcr pipes (D -£ ) to the bottom of
the furnace where "supply" tubes (£, - F) route the circulating water to the
individual [ower furnace pane l wall headers (n . The water rises through the
furnace to an ou tle t header (C), absorbing energy to become a two·phase
mixture. The two-phase mixture passes through the furnace wall outlet
headers by means of iI nu mber of "riser" tube ~ (C-D) to be discharged into
the d rum where the mixt ure enters the steam -water separators. The
steam-water sepa ration equipment re turns an essentially steam-free liquid
wate r to the downcomer inlet connect ions. The residuil] moistu re in the
steam that leaves the primary steam se paration devices is removed in sec-
ondary steam separators and " dry" steam is discharged from the drum to the
superhea ter th rough a number of drum outlet ronnections ( H - / and H - J).

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 64 STEAM - WATERSVSTEM 207

5 uperh ea Utd
R Sleam

,L ~emperator
[A ~'107A
I Steam·
p
r-
a K
c
Steam·

-
Cool'"
---'ii I - Cooled

-
-0-
G Rool\
Convection
-
--
I L
Pass

-",
~
- - Steam·CooIed
Enclosure
Superheater

~@~lllffil
-
-
To J
, N p,
) J
I
I
M
QB I I
,
L
:
Supeme

Eoono"""

- Furnace
Wails:
I
I
I
,,
A

,-
~

'''''' W .
"
Two·Phase I ,
Cooling I
,,
,,
I "
I
J Water CirClJII A·B·C·D

~//
Two-Phase Clrcuil D ·E·F·G ·H
Sleam CircUits H ·/-L ·M·N ·O ·P·O·R
E H.J·K·M ·N '() ·P-O-R

J F

"ig. 6. IS. Sullcritical nalural-cireulatton hoiler "Ie.lm - ..... ater cireuitl)' (rchealer el('
cluded he re ror clarity).

The steam circuitry serves the dual function of cooling the convection pass
enclosu re and ge nerating the required supcrhe:u e r steam conditions. Steam
from the drum passes through mUltiple connect ions to a header ( I) supplying
the roof tubes and. separately, to headers (J ) supplying the membrane pane ls
in the horizontal convection pass. The steam fl ows through these membrane
panels 10 outle l hea ders (K). Steam from these oUllet headers and the roof
tube outle t headers then supply the cooli ng for the ve rtical convectio n pass
enclosure (L - M). Stea m fl ows downwan.l th rough these pa nels and is col·
lected in an out let heade r (M) just upstream of the economize r bank .
Steam flow now rises through the prim ary superheater and discharges
th rough the outlet header (N) and connecting piping equipped with a spray
aftempcra lor (0). It then e nlers the secondary superheater inlet header (P).

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208 FOSSIL·FUEL-FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

flowing through the su perheater sections to an ou tlet hea<.lc r (Q). A <.lis-

charge pipe then terminate!>. at a point outside of the hoiler e nclosure (R)
where the main steam lines route the steam fl( )w 10 the cont rol valves and
turbine.
Alternate flow circuitry arrangements arc possibl e. Some of these arc
discussed in Sections 7.2 and l'l.2.

Furnace Wall Circuit Evaluation The furna c!'; wall endosure circuits arc
perhaps the most critical areas in a boiler. High (onstant heat flu .>.: conditions
make uninterrupted cool in g of furn'lCe tubes e:'>.<'c ntial. Inadequate cooling
can result in rapi<.l ovcrheHting. cycling thermal :.trcss failure. o r material
fai lures from differcntial tuhe expan<,ion . SuHi eient conse rvatism must he
engineered into the system to provide adeqUlHc eiooling even during transien t
upset conditions. Specified operating par:lmcter~ mu st be mainta ined. Simul·
taneously. the rated ste,lm-flow conditions must he maintained at the drum
outlet. Any of the circulation nH:tho<.ls <.Iisl,:usseJ III Section 6.4.1 may be u:.e<.l
to cool the furna ce water·wall tubes. In evaluatlllg the circul,Hion method
select ed for a particular situation. a common sel of thermohydraulic elemenls
can be usc<.l with unly minor vari,l\ iuns 10 a(.;l:ount for the different sy:.tems.
T he fundamenta l elements eva lu ated to ensu re proper cooling include:

I. Evaluat ion parameters:

:t pplied heat l1ux <.Iistribu tion
l"ircu l:llion calcu lation lind balancing of prc~su re drops
2. Selected limiting cr iteria:
instabilities in two-phase Haws in parallel l"I Tcuits
gene ral velocity limits
heat transfer r<ttes and critical heat Hux
steam - water ~pa ration and drum capacit}

The evaluat ion procedure then becomes an ile r.Hive process of selecting
standardized component:. (furnaccd membrane ra nel s. <.Irums. hc;tders. etc.)
to meet the desired performance limits at the lo ..... est possible cost.
The ba lance of this section focusc:-. on the e\<tluation parameters of hea t
flux <.Iistribution and circulation mass flux distribution. Section 6.5 focuse:. on
the lim iting cri teria.

6.4.3 Furnace Heat Flux Evaluation

Once the system steam parameters. fuel type. and fud flow rate arc SC I. the
evaluation process begin:. by sell ing the furnan.' geome tl)' .. nd assessi ng the
resulting heat flux dist ribution. The <.Ie sign and therm:tl evaluation of boi ler
furnaces is an ext reme ly complex process that doc:'> not curre ntly lend itself to
exact ana lytica l solutions by theore tical me thods ;tlone. Nevertheless. the

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 6.4 STEAM ~ WATEA SYSTEM 209

(a) Single Wall (b) Opposed Wall

(c) Tangenllal

(d) Turbo (e) Cvclone

Fig. 6.16. Sample util ity tKliler rurnace cnnfigurations.

furnace must be configured to achieve the desi red furna ce ex it gas tempera-
ture (FEGT) before the flue gases pass into the close ly spaced convection
surfaces and thc hcat Hux distribution must be established in order to permit
the full evaluation of the furna ce wall tube ci rcu it s. Seve ral differe nt furnace
configurations have been developed to hurn the va riety of fu els used in large
utility boilers (sec Fig. 6.16). Manufacturers usc a combination o f field data ,
operating experience, plus interpolation and extrapolatio n based on funda -
mental relationships to establish proprie13!), design methods for the applica-
tion of these furnace configurations. These basic des ign techniques arc now
being augmented by advances in compute r numerica l model ing techniques \ 0
perm it extrapolarion to new. untested geometries and fuel s, and to permit
parametric optimization of existing designs.

Basic Furnace Conflguralfon Approach The furnace geomet!)' and vol-

ume are set by the characteristics of each manufacturer's combustion eq uip-
ment , fucl input, fouling-slagging characte ristics, and the manufacturer's
standardized components [3, 5, 18, 191. The basic approach includes:

1. The furnace depth (burner wa ll to burner wa ll in Fig. 6.16b) is stan -

dardized by manufacturers and is ge nerally dependent on the burne r
combustion characteristic.'i,

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 2. Depending o n the fuel slagging characterist ics flow, medium, high, o r
severcl, the speci fi ed value of heat input per unit furnace pl ;1I1 area is
sc i and used 10 define Ihe furnace width in order 10 avoid excessive
furna ce slag accum ulat ion and 10 minim ize pnllutant formatillll .
3. The desired FEGT is sci by the ash c harach:mtics to minimize slagging
of the convection pass surfaces « 3H1 1 mOl cen terline spacing). A
typicalt cmpcra lure ra nge is 100510 llhO"C (the morc seve re slaggi ng
cha racteristics, the lower the exi t te mperatu re).
4. Using proprietary procedures, the he ight l I t thc furnace is defined 10
provide the desired ex it te mper;Hure. DqX' llding on th e need for
supe rheater or reheater absorption, platen ,"urf<u:es, furnace division
walls, ;tnd wing wa lls may he added 10 ab"Orh part of the energy to
re duce the FEGT to the desi red leve l.

The dramatic impact that fucl ash charactcmtics and current design
praclice have on furnace size is s hown in Fig. 6. 17.

,,,weB
L---.J
1180

'SOH

O.8 SH

Bitumlnous·CoaI Bituminous and NOlhern Plains Llglllle

Design 01 the 1960s Subbotum.flOUS Coal SOOMW
800MW SOOMW

(a ) [0 ) [0)

f ig. 6. 17. Furnace size comparisons IH, IV. D. ,.od A ,Ire the bil"C t.lim e n ~i() n.~ Ilf lhe
cu rrent SOO· MW bi lum innus--coal boilcr-diagr:lI11 (M )

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Heat Flux Evaluation The eval uation of the pulverized-coal-fired furnace
performance [3. 5, 18-23) to obtai n the furnace wall heat nux dist ri bution
and FEGT involves the modeling of a number of complex simulta neous
interdepende nt processes [20) as shown in Fig. 6.18. The complex ity of this
problem precludes a direct ana lyt ical !>Olut ion from a theoretical hasis. Three
general approaches are used to provide an eng inee ring solut ion:

I. Empirical proprietaT)' design methods based on opera tin g experience.

fie ld data. and extrapolat ion and / or interpolation based on fundamen-
tals
2. Sem iempi rical methods that comhine the results of physical flow mod-
els to evaluate the flow fie ld with multizone radiation computations
3. Advanced numerical computations that s.olve the fundamental equa-
tions for reaction ki ne tics. fluid flow. and hea t transfer

At present. on ly the proprietary methods can predict the furnace perfor-

mancc with suflieient accuracy (a t least within their range of validity) for
design purposes. Simplified well·stirred reactor imd plug- fl ow models are
insufficient to meet the highly complex now and reacting conditions.

Computational Models Advances in numerical computa tio n models show

promise in aidin~ th e evaluation process. While still insufficient to provide
accurate answers indepe ndent ly. they can current ly be used to aid in para-
metric optimiza tion st udi es and extrapolat ion and /or inte rpola tion from the
available field data. A number of pulverized-coal boile r furnace models arc
currently being developed [20, 24-261.
A g(.l()(j overview of th e application Ilf an advanced numerical model for
furnace performance eva lu ation is pr\widcd in [20 ]. The evaluat ion was
performed on :I 575-M W supercrit ic:ll pressure boiler firing high-volatile
eastern U.S. bituminous coa l. A schema tic of the furnace is shown in Fig.
6.1911. The model assumcs a no-slip condi tion between particles and the flow
st ream and simplified combustion equations. To address radiation heat
transfer. a discrete transfer me thod is used. The resulting heat flu x di stri bu-
tion is s hown in Fig. 6.19b.

Proprietary Methods Given the fuel type, !iring rat IO, and fUl .~ .... config-
uration , proprictary methods [27J generate local absorption rates in the
furnace. Figu res 6.20 and 6.21 show typital heat Ilux distributions for the
ve rtical and horizonta l directions.

Nonuniform Heat Flux As ind icated in Figs. 6.20 and 6.21, the axia l heat
Ilux applied to the furn ace tubes is nonuni fo rm over the height of the
furnace. The heat flux applied to the tuhes in the furnace wall is a lso
nonuniform in the ci rcumferential direct ion. As shown in Fig. 6.22. the tubes
a re exposed to the fu rnace on one sid..: while the opposite side is typically

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 ~~~~, ?"--=~'l. Complex Coupling Phenomena
' ~c'.:.~ - g' between Subprocess Modules
Gas Flow
Field Module

Gas VelOCities

Change in Gas
J. 1----- Panicle Size ~. ~ ComlV\sition and _ _~ 02/. , NO.
and DenSity
-:K ' ~F E~haIPY ~ /~
Number and Ve lo Clly_ Heterogeneous Gas Composillon Homogeneous
01 Par1lcle!> Chemistry Module and Temperature ChemlSI~ Module

Numoer and Parllcle Size.

locallon of TemperalUre , ilnd Transfer
CompOS l11on
Panicles
/'

CONTENTS
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NEXT
CONTENTS

NEXT Fig. 6. 1R.

 Gas
Tempering
PorlS

/~
o 0 0

Burners
000
o 0 0
0
0 g
o 0 0
000
0
0 g

(a) Geometry
BACK "-l Fig. 6.19. F urnllCC heal fl ux analysis [201.
(b) Flal PrOlecled Heal FI ux DISlnDu\ion,
. W/ m1

CONTENt;

NEXT
214 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

00,--------------------------,

\
50 \
\
\
\
40
\
\
E
\
:if \
•'"
r "-
•u
30
"- "-
•c
5
~ ................... _- ,
20
Maximum /
Burner Continuous /
Zone Rating /
/
/
/'
/'
10 ..-
/~ Upsel
./ Noncontinuous

- ./
./

0L---------OO~,c--------C0~.~2--------~0~.3C-------~0,
Rates

Average Absorplion Rate. MW I m ~

Fij,t.6.20. Sampli.: venical furnarc heal flll\ di~lrihutilln [27].

insulated to minimize heat loss. The re;,ulting he,l t Ilux distribution depends
on the tube nuts ide Jiameter. wall thickness, and ce nterline spacing, as well
a~ the thidnc~s and malcrial~ uf thc metal bars (wch) connecting the luhcs ,
The fluid temperature and insidc heat transfer wclticient have secondary
effects. Thi~ distrihutioll call he evaluated using a variety of tinite-difference
or finite~demcnt prugram~ plus a uniform nat projccted heat flux. A typical
distribution is provided in Fig. b.n.

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NEXT
 6.4 STEAM - WATER SYSTEM 215

Burner s
_,__'- J __ _l ._.l
--,I

; -:::..-~======~_.-f~08'2
,.. '0

06

L ,;-T-r-;--, - t-
0'
Plan

fig. 6.21. Sample horizo nt~,1 fu rnace: wall "bsorpt ion distribution (local to average
heal fl ull ratio R I , ) 127J.

'°r-=::-- -- - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - ,
Heal Flux

JIIIII
'" \
0 .8
,

0 .6

0 ..

0.2 .--
-. - - . 1.22

O '---~20~--~'O~--'60f.c---C80f.c---'cooL.c---'J.20~O>--~"·O
Cireumferenliallocation. 9, (deg)

Fig. 6.22. Typical membrane lu be circumfc rcrllial he al flux distribut io n.

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216 FOSSll·FUEl·FIRED BOILERS FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

Upset Factors In addition to the reproducible hcat IlUll dist ribu tion eva lu-
ated in the preceding paragraphs. tests have shown thaI a noncontinuous
variation of absorption rates ca n be superimposed O il the steady patterns.
These deviations are caused by un bala nced firing . \' ariation~ in t ube surbcc
condition. differences in slagging. load changes. s(lOt-blowe r operation. and
other va riations in unit operation. A typical upset heat flux distrihulion is
shown in Fig. h.20. These proprie tary upse t faCfOrs arc typically a function of
vertical- horizontal location. firing method. and fuc l and furnace configura-
tion. They are typically se t from operating expericnce.

6.4.4 Circulatlon Evaluation

General Principles of Natural Circulation Th e n rculation evaluation in a
natural circulation boiler provides th e flow rates in th e furnace wa ll panels.
sizes the various con necting components (supplies. risers. and downcomcrs).
and veri fi es that the limiting design parameters arc met 13. 5, 271. A
simplified circu lation loop for natural circulation ho ilcr is shown in Fig. n.23 .
The motion of fluid in th is or a ny circuit can be described hy the
Navic r- Stokes equ at ions. Such a direct solution . howc\·cr. I ~ too cumplcx tu

Steam

F,ed
Water

Furnace

Pump
(ASSisted CD
Circulation )

Sutx:ooIed
Wa1er

(AsSlsled Clrculallon)

Fig.6.ZJ. Natu ral -circu lation boiler steam - wate r c ircuit (27).

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 6. STEAM _WA.TER SVsrEM 2 17

provide a workahle approach. In their place. consideration o f the hydraulic.

thermodynamic. and expa nsion theOries resulls in the general equation for
circulation eva luation which assu mes steildy. incompressible flow :

[ pressure changes around ci rculation loop " 0 ( 6. 1)

Alternately, this takes the form :

+.6.1'''''''" ............ + ~I',,,.r'") (6 .2)

whe re Z and z arc the total and inc.:rcmcn tal vc n ical elcva tion, respectively .
Note that for natufal c.:in.:ula tion systems. .6. PfHJmr> and li. /~'nl;"" arc sct
equal In (I while in pump-assisted systems. these arc added to providc
additional fl ow distribution. a/\><:ll illctudc~ thc nonrecoverable prc:.surc luss
fro m expa nsions. contractions, fi llings, bends. steam- water separa tors. and
othe r d rum intcrnals.
Explic.:it solution of Eq. (0.2) for Ihe local flow rates is nOI currentl y
practical because of the complex it y of the fl ow circuits. thc nonunif(lrm hea t
inpu!. and the nonhomoge neous nature of two-phase fl ows. As a result . 10.: .. 1
values for thc hea t absorption. average density. fri ctio n losscs. accelera tion
losses. and loca l nonrecove ra blc I O~M!s i.l TC numerically integra ted for th c
overall ftow circuit at a number o f flow rates until a now is klcntified that
sat isfi es Eq. (6.2).

Pressure Loss: Two-Phase System The loca l pressure gra die nt at any
locat ion in the syslem ca n be represe nted by

- (~/;) - - ( ~» (::>z) + aI',

luca l I""' .....'s
( 6 .3)
~yd""lali.·

Numeric .. 1 or stepwise integration or Ihis equat ion around a now ci rcuit

and selli ng the overa ll pressu re drop equal to 0 <i .e., steady Slate) provides
Ihe system now rate. Equal ions for each compone nt a rc needed ror single·
phase amJ t.....o-phase fl ow.

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.!leT
218 FOSSIL-FUEL-FIRED BOiLERS: FUNDAMENTALS AN D ELEMENTS

Usi ng one of severa l sepa rated fl()'A.· models fo r two-phase fl ow. these
compone nts become

(6.4 )

( 6.5)

+ ( 1.0 _ X} 2/., )
( 6.6)
(I.O - a)

I.o - a)
(9 - angle from horizonta l)
1"[

( 6.7)

( 6 .8 )

where 4> is a two-phase mu ltiplier. While 6P, usually represents just the
irreversible pressure loss in single-phase flow s. the complexity of two-phase
flow s results in the loss 6 P, typically represe nt ing the reversible and irre-
ve rsible losses for the fi ll ing in the fo llowing discussions and in Append ix 6.2
128-34 1-
To defin e each of these local losses, it is necessary to define 4>Eo. a. and
~. Unfortun ately. these fac tors arc not well defined because of th e complex
nature of two- phase fl ows. Even for the simplest case of two-phase upfiow in
a ve rtical tube . a conse nsus does not currentl y exist for the two-pha se
multiplier and void fractio n th at should be used in different si tuations:

I. Pre-CHF versus post-CHF fl ow regimes

2. High versus low ve locity
J. High vcrsus low pressure
4. High versus low steam frac tion (by weight)
5. Vertica l ve rsus horizontal or incli ned orientation
6. Small ve rsus large tube diamet ers
7. Friction ve rsus acce leration versus hydrostatit· components

Specific corre lations and evaluat ion approaches can only be used where
experimental data under similar conditions provide confidence in the predic-
tion. Collier [28] and more rece ntly Koehler and Kastn er 134J provide

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 Constant Heal Flux
Consta nt Pre ssure

Two·Phase
Acceleration

1
Single-Phase
friCtIon

,$o."3\~
(;<'

"'i#~
", Single-Phase
Hydrostatic

Mass Flu. _

f-'ig. 6.24. Pr cs~u rc dro p cont flhu tiom; for two-phase vertical upward How.

overviews of the available corrda lions for void fra ction a and two-phase
multiplier ¢i.o. Th e multiplier for tittings and local resistances (II provides
addition al unce rtai nly hccausc th e full physical understanding of the be hav-
ior of two-phase flows in this arc;, is no t ye t complete . The work of Chisholm
129- 3IJ. Gcigcrl32]. and Idclchik 1331 docs provide some guidance. Appendix
6.2 provides severa l sample (hut nOi recommended) corre lations cove rin g
1>Lo' ct, and ~) for consideration.
The relative magni tudes of the hydrostatic, acceleration, and friction
pressure losses in a ve rtical tube with upflow at consta nt hea t !lux and
prcssure arc shown in Fig. 6. 24.

Circuit Evaluation The furna o.: volume and configuration arc established
by the fuel and comhustion syste ms; standard ized components a re then
configured around the required \·olume. Based on the total steam fl ow rate
.lfid furn ace design, the water-wall e nclosure tubes arc connected into
heade rs of conve nie nt size for assembly a nd shipme nt. En gineering standards
based on prior e xperie nce and e ngineering a nalysis se t th e preliminary size of
the drum, drum internals, downcomers, supplies, and rise rs. The balanced
flow for each circuit of the flow system is evalua ted for the available pumping
head and applied heat flu.\: distrihutio n. For natural circulation systems, the

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220 FOSSll ·FUEl·FIRED BOILER S: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

sizes and numbers of the compone nts arc adjusted to meet the required
c rite ria. T he va riuus luad levels ,md upe ratlng conditiuns at which these
a na lyses arc conducted a rc dependent on the hoiler type and projected
operating require me nl!..
Two bilsic a pproac hes cil n be used in the circulation eval uation. In the
firs!. the downcome r fl ow (an he uscd as the d riving head to overcome the
flow r(!sistancc (frktio n. ac(clt.oratiun, and hydrostatic a nd local pressure
differ..:ntials) in the eVaporator ci rcuits. Alt c rn;l!ely. the d iffe rence in density
between the downcome r pipe and the evaporatllf sections can be used as the
driving force to o\'crcomc the fl ow rcsisl<l nces in the downoome r (less
hydrostat ic pres.o;urc). supplies, hoile r tuhes (Ie ~s hydrostatic pres.<;ure). risers.
and tlrum in te rnals. The latte r concept C<ln he refe rred (0 as the '"avai lable
.11' '" method where the aV;lilable ~ P in any sect inn of the boiler circuitry can
be dclinell ;15
Avai lable Il P = net d riving head - hyd raulic resistances

Ne t driving he;,d - equivale nt hydrostatic pressure in an equal

ve rtical length of downcomer

Hydra ulic resista nce - sum of hydrostallc. accele ration. friction,

and local losse:-. in circuit be ing evaluated
Where natura l circu lation is used. the "avai lable Ill''' method is fre -
q uen tly usefu l heca use it pcrmit~ sizing of the areas (and thus th e Ilow
resista nces) uf the supplies, rise rs, anti downco mers to billa nee th e flows 111
all evapora tor circ uit s. T he pressure d rop ve rsus fl ow cha racteristic th a t is
used to bahmce the cvaJXIrator driving he;l(.1 is thcn t hc frictio n a nd loca l
resistances in the downcomc r aft er appropriate correct ions. However, bot h
the " av:lilable Ill' '' me thod and downcomer driving head me thods are used
and wi ll provide equivalent results.
The eval uation process begins hy assemhli ng of a ll t he physical geome try
info rm.llion fo r the preliminary hoi le r circuilS. the applied heat fl uxes (refer
to an earlier sectio n). and the required steam flow condi tions ,1\ maximum
cont inuo us load. Assumption s arc made for a numhe r of flow cond itions such
as average maximum desircll oUllet steam quality (percentage steam by
weight) hased on operati ng expe rie nce. The pressure drop eva luation and
ci rcuit balancing processcs thc l1 proceed . Be LL UM: of the complex geome try
and nonuniform heat flux dist ribution . the circulation calcu lation becomes a
multiste p proces.~ of combining e le me nt s wil h common endpoin ts. geome-
tries. il nd heilt input into subclrcuits a nti est ;l~li sh ing the uP o r "avai lable
Ill) " ve rsus flow characteristic for eac h suhcircuil. Figu re 6.25 illustrates how
tubl!s ca n be combined to ge nerate a to tal flow cha racte rist ic. The diagra m
shows a simple furn ace wa ll pa ne l with a burner ope ning and assumes tha t
the re is no significa nt fl at-projected hea t flux variation with width . All of the

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 64 STEAM - WATEASVSTEM 221

c:;==;;:::=::;::> CuUet Header

,,
'I

II ~Itt I
SUBCIRCUrTS
Straight Tubes - Fully Heated
Number 01 Tubes

",
Burner It Bent at Burner - F ulty Heated
",
Opening ttl Bent at Burner - NO! E)lposed to
Fult Heating
".

tnlet Header

' \FlowEoI". C,,,",,

~
~

~ --.\ \ -.-
-.- \ Cha racterl SllC

.~
~
~
~
<

rio, rio , rio . m ~ m, -t-m. -t-m.

I. ) (b ) I,) (d)

"' iK. 6.15. Typic il tlow i;l;llancing usi ng a~arlai;lk ~ P apprt\:rch .

tulles arc connected to the same inlet and ou tlet headers. :lIld thus have
simi la r inlet and outlet pressun.." (i.e., same .1.P). Bcc,Hlsc of the phy~ical
geometry, th ert arc three diffe rent types o f tubes of s ubcircuil ~ .. ~ shown: (I)
straight fully heated with 1/ 1 lu~ s: (2) fully hea ted tuhes. he n! at the hurner
wilh 1/ 11 tubes: and 0) straight with IMrtially heat ed length wi th "111 tuhcs.
Further subeircuit groups could be ddincd if there an: othe r significa nt
physica l dilferenee!> or if the re l' a significa nt horizontal ch'11lgc in thc hea t
flul( dil>lribution . The " :Jv:Jilab1l' .lP" (net diffe rence between thl' hyd roslill il.:
head of an eq uivalent length o f dowllcomer and the t ube clement now
rCloi!<>tr11lee ) is the n evaluated a ~ a fun ction of the total flow rate for c,lch
group of /I simil:tr tubes. This is pe rformed for the applied nonuni form :txial
heal flux dislrihution hy nume rically int egra tin g t he pressure losses in c;lch
subc in:uil. Th e resu lting " available 6 p " versus mass fluw ratl' (';1, kg/ hd
curve is shown for e<lc h subeircuil in Fig. 6.25-curvcs (al. (1)). and (c) . For
each va lue of "ava ilable .1.P:' the mass flow from all three suhcircuits arc
summed 10 prOlluce an ove rall ur en tire circuit f1 uw charac teristic as shuwn in
curve (til of Fig. 6.25 .

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 These circuit s :Ire then combined in a ,i mihlr f;lshion IU provide now
chllr:lct c ri ~tic:o.
for progre s~ ively large r uni h unti l the whol e hoiler flow
characteristic I:' cV;llu;lIed. The final billa ncc is 'lI..'hicvcd by grap hica ll y
comparing the pressure drop c haractcrislll; IIf the downcomeT or ot her
compone nts with the remai ni ng aV;IHahle pre"urc drop as shown in Fig. 6.26.
The " tlnal availahle pressure drop" c urvc fur the c ntire hoiler circuit Ics:. the
downcome r syste m is plull ed. The lIow res"'ilnce curve (pressure drop less
the hydrostatic prcs:.urc c h ;lngc ~ ) for the do\\o ncllmc r sy:.tc m (i .c " " remai ni ng
fl ow resistance" curve) j, also plou ed. The boi ler now Tilte is then establi:.hed
to be the int e rsection o f the two curves (~ )i nt A) where the driving force
c(llwl:. the I.. "t n::-.i:-.tancc in th..: circu it. Th e nuw ral e for each individualtuhe
1.: ,111 then be back-calcu lated. This provide ~ ;111 of tile circuit and subcircuit
IIow rates for comparison to the va rious lim iling c riteria.
G ive n the cumplexity uf this proces~. computer cOlIc!> arc u ~e d lu cilkul;l\c
pres... urc drops. 10 estahl ish [he suhcireuit 11m\. characte ristics. and IU sum the
rcsu hs tn provide an overall nnw dwraclcri"l ll·. T he computer mO(IcI" can he
designed to :-.olve the now distrihution usin g the preceding appro;u:h ur they
can ite r,tle unt il Ihe sum of Ihe pre ~~ ure drllps in Ihe syslem is equal In (J.
Once the ~y:-. l c m now di~trihution is eSl at'lli ,h c ~1. th e resu hs a rc compared to
th e original ;a!>~ umptiun s wi th auditiun .. 1 itl'ril ltOn ~ t eps required if there arc
any sign iticanl deviat ions. The resulti ng pre)':-.ul'c drop distribution for a
19. 7· MP" n;l\uT,,1 cireul;ltiun hoilr.::r is ),lu lw lI in Filol . 6.27. In thi!> figure the

,,
I
I
I Balance Flow Aate

Mass Flow Rate -

"'ig. 6.26. Fln;ll nalllr;ll-clrculatiun !')'slc m ha lil nci ng of <I~ailahl c driving pressure drop
and rcm;lining now rcsislancc.

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 6 .4 STEAM - WATER SYSTEM 223

.'0
~:
0017 MPa Steam SeparalOf and Risers

Furna ce Tubes

Ii
0048 MPa

~ E
~~ 0.028 MPa Suppli es and Downcomer
•

Oowno orner 0.303 MPa

H..d

Gravity
o 2tO MPa
Head

Fite. 6.27. Pressure dropd islribut lml - 19.7.MPa drum boiler.

downcomer h ydro~aa t ic head (o3()3 MPa) is compa red to the hydrostatic

he:ld in the evaporator tube!> and ri:.er... to iden tify the ilva ilablc pumping
head . This pumping head is to used to overcome the friction. accele ration.
and loca l pressure los.~s in the supplies. risers, furnace tubes, steam - water
sepa ration equipment , and downcomer. Figu re 6.28 shows the same informa-
tio n in the form of the loca l stat ic pressure in th e circulation loop as a
function of locatiOn (see Fig. tl .23). S,;-gi nning in the drum at the drum
operating pressure. the lOCal slatic pre s~ure increases as the subcooled liquid
flows toward th e bottom of the boiler through the downcome r, reaching a
maxi mum :11 the downcomer ou tlet. The IOClll sta tic pressure then fa ll s as the
water and then stea m- water mixture ll\lWS through the suppli es, furnace wall
inlet headers, evaporato r tubes (wall tuhes), a furna ce wall ou tlet headers.
risers, and the stcil m- wat er se parators in th e steam drum.

Limits O nce th e ci rcu lation rilte hil ~ been established for a boi ler. the
operating conditions arc checked against se\le nll lim iting criteri a. Among
these are: (l) instability and genera l vciocity limits. (2) cri tica l heat flux
(CHF), and 0 ) stea m- wate r sepaT<lIiun and drum capaci lY.

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224 FOSSIL. FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AN D ELEMENTS

separator
O<om
Furnace Wall Outlet Header

I Downcomer Pressure Gain

Evaporator Tube
Pressure Loss
Downcomer
Outlet

Fumace Wall
Oowncomer Inlel Header
Outlet
Drum +0.3 MPa
Pressure
Stallc Head -

Fig. 6.28. Stcam - wutcr circuit statk p rcs.~un.: va ri;lIion.

6.5 TWO-PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION LIMITING CRITERIA

6.5.1 Flow Instabilities and General Velocity limits

Furnace enclosure steam- water circuit evaluat io n is partia lly driven by the
desire to generally avoid the possibiiity of two-phase instabilities [35-42J.
Under some operating condition s. the sudden cha nges in flow direction,
reductions in flow rate. and osci llclling fl ows can ca use:

1. Unit control problems

2. Complete dryout of the boiling film
3. Depa rture from nucleate boiling (DNB)
4. Tube metal temperature osciiiation and lube waii thermal fatigue
5. Mechanica l vibrat ions with mechanica l fati gue
6. Accelerated corrosion attack

Several authors [35- 37, 391 have provided detailed overviews of this subject;

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 6 .5 TWO·PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION UMITING CRITOM 225

TARtE 6.5 Classification of .' Iow Instability

na~, Type
- - " - -- ----
Sialic lI1~t"hihlics
Fundament;ll (or pure) st~ t ie in ~ t ilhililll:!<. Flow exc ursion or Lcdine8g instabililY
Boiling cr isis
Fund;l mcnl,11 relaxation instabil ity Flow pall ern Iral"lsil ion inslabllily
Cnmpound rela)(alion Instability Bumping. geyscring. or c hugg ing

Dyn:lmll· in" ;lhllilie!<.

Fundamental (or purd dynamic Acouslic oscillalions
in~tah,III'c' Densily wave ~illatH)os
Cnmpnund dynamic i n ~lahil itic !<. Thermal oscillations
BWR iombilil),
Parallel channel in~tahi l ll)'
Compound dynamic inl>lahili ty <l!<. Pressure drop oscillalio ns
!<.Ccondary phCnllmCna

thu s only a focu sed review will be provided here. Of the 10 common types of
illsl;lbilitics li~tcd in Table tl.5. thre e h llVC been found (0 be of must interest
in hoiler eval uation: excursive (including Lcdinegg) instabi lity, boili ng crisis,
and densi ty wave osci ll;ltions. The tirst two arc sta tic instabi lities evaluated
using steady-state equations while Ihe last is dynamic in na lure req uirin g the
inclusion of time-dependent factors. The boiling crisis or critical heat flux
phenomenon i~ trcatet.l sepa ratcl~· in the paragraphs dealing with heat
transfer and crilica l heat !lux.

Excursive Instability Evaluation The cxcursive instabil ity is characterized

by conditions wherein small pcrturhations in operat in g parameters result in a
large change in flow rate to a se rar;"c steady-stale level in multitu be panels.
Excur:.ivc instabililies can be predicted by eval uating the Lcdincgg criteria
lJHI. Instability may occur if the slope of the pressure drop - fl ow characteris-
tic curve (internal) for the tube hccnmcs less than the slope o f the supply (or
applied I pressure drop-tlow charal"teristic curve:

( 6.9)

The stable anu un stable situation), arc ill ustrated in Fig . 6.29. As shown in
the ligurc for unstable conditions. If the mass tlow drops below poin t B then
the fluw nlte will continu e to fall drama tically becausc the applied pumping

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 I
&
"•
j
lal Stable Mass Flux -

I
~
: ~Applled
I Internal
I

(b ) Unstable Mass Flux

F·i~. 6.29. Pr c~~u r c Jrllp c h u r"c[cr i ~ li cs illuslr~' \ln~ Lcdmcgg instability.

/
/
Flow Circuit WI1h /
Increased Inlet /
Resistance /

\
/
//

, /

1 /
/
Pumping
I Curve
, - --jl-- __j'~ . j ChafaClenstlc
• I b

I I

Flow CurvEl Characteristic

Unstable _ _ _ _ -'
j. Region I

Mass Flux. G - -.

Fig. 6.30. Two-phase p rc~s u rc drop \'cr~ u ~ now curve ' howinS unstable region-con-
stant pressure and heal input.

226
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head is less than th e value needed to move the Huid. For slightly higher mass
How rates (highe r th:ln point B) , a dramatic positivc flow excursion will oceur
becau.'\.C the pumping head exceed~ the now syste m requirement.
In most systems. the first term is gene rally positive and the second is
generally nega tive: thus Eq. (6.9) predicts stability. However, in two-phase
~)'s tcm s, the rmohydraulic eondition~ may combine to produce a local area
whe re [(o!i. p /l)( ;)' n l crn~11 is negative and the pote ntial for satisfying Eq. (6.9)
a nd ohservi ng an instahility ex ists. A heated tuhe flow c ha r'lete rist ic showing
a potential region of instabil ity is illustrated in Fig. 6.30 where multiple flow
rates can occur for a si ngle applied pressure difference. Operatin g at point b
is unstable with small disturbances l"l!sulting in a s hift to point (lor point c.
More intense disturbances could re~u1t in !low shifts between points a a nd c.
For the relative ly small slI beooling found at the entra nce to tube panels in
drum boilers and relatively low exil ~ I eam qualities. nega tive slope region s in
the j, P versus G curves arc typically not ohserved for positive flow cases.
However. for once-through boilers with high subcouling at the panel inlet
and evaporation to dryness, negative slope regions in the upflow portion of
the pressure drop characteristic may occu r (sec also Fig. 6.24). Steps can be
taken to avoid operation in any region wh e re the circu it inte rnal lj j, PloG :s;
O. Genera l effects of houndal)' condi tion paramete rs Ilrl the ~ P ve rsus m'ls.s
flow curves include :

Parameter Increased Effect on j, P Cummcnt

Heat input Decrease More swble

Inl e t j,p Increase More stahle
rressure Increase More stable

Density Wave Instability Density wave instabilitie s involve kine matic waY!;
propagation phenomena . Regenerative fcedhaek hetwee n the !low ratc. va-
por generation rate, and pressure drop produce self-sustaining alternating
waves of higher- and lower-density mixtures that travel through the tube.
This instability can occur in single tuhes that contain two-phase flows .lOd is
uf dynamic (time-dependent) behavior.
Density wave oscillations in hea ted tubes arc more frequentl y encountered
at lower pre ssures. At highe r pressures. critical heat flux or hurnout is
frequently observed before such imtabilitics have become a signifi('a nt issue.
De nsi ty wave oscillations can he predicted by application of feedback
control theory. A number of compu ter codes have been developed to provide
predictions uf densi ty wave usciliatLons. In addition, instability criteria have
been devcloped whieh used a series of dimensionless parameters to reduce
the complexity of the evaluation .

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228 FOSSlL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND CL EMENTS

A pote ntial ly useful se t of d imensionless parameters arc those proposed

by Friedly and his co-workers [421. T hese paramctl'rs Include

.1 ;,,,,, I ' fle

Ja - ink t subcooling J,lkob number = ( 6. 10)
i I~ I 'I

X,. - quali ty paramete r -

.., ('. 11 )

~ Pe)(il
R" "" pressure drop rat io = ( 6.12)
a pi nlct
Figure 6,] 1 is a s,lmple stahi lity ma p using Ihcl<.L' cri te ria. The ma p is the
resul t of the nume rica l stabili ty evaluation and :. hows promise fo r fut ure
adapt ion in stahility assessme nt. NOle thai Ihe "ex it"' pressure d rop ean
include the boi le r tuhe, r i ~e r , drum , and q 'clonc pressure losses wh ile the
"i nlet"' pressure drop may include the downct)mer ami supply pressure
d iffe rentia ls.

'0r----,------------------

8 Density Wave
Unstable
~
~" c
Q
•
~
6
•
*
~
0
0

~ i
c

•,•• ~

• , / FunctIOn 01 Ja. R D2

.,
~

£
"x
w

2V Stable

5 20

EXit Quali ty Parameter. XvV.,

"
•
,,' j.!!.6,3 1. Friedly ~Iahir it y m;,p [-I :n

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 Given the complex geometry and heat input in the furnace wa ll, compute r
eva luafion will be required to detine the appropriate ope rating boundaries.
However, with the gene rally reproduci ble axial heat flux di stribu ti()n, the
computer-model-generated instabilit y crit eria for design may then potentially
be recharacterized hy a pressure drop ratin (e.g., single- phase to two- phase )
and ope rating pressure fur the ge ne-nil design usc. The allowable ratio would
include a safe ty margin and could also be adj usted for field experience.
Effect s of the opera ting pa ram e t e r~ on the density wave instllbility include:

Parameter Increased Change in Stability

Mass flux Improved

Hea t nux Reduced
PreSSure Improved
Inlet I1P Improved
Outlet 111' Reduced
Inlet subcooling Improved

General Velocity Limits In addition to the minimum required mass flux to

avoid instabilit ies, additional minim um mass flux es (or inle t velocity limit s
wi th subcool ed liquid) nMY also be set to add ress a number of issues (3}.
Field .lIld labora tory data arc require d to se t appropria te limits tha t can
be influenced hy ope rating pressu re, t uhe diamete r, and heat inpu t. Typical
velocity riln ge~ arc on the orde r of: vertical tubes- O.3 to 1.5 m/ s: hor izontal
or inclined tuhcs- I.S to J.!) m/s. Based on experience, higher and I()wer
values may also be used.

6.5.2 Heat Transfer and Critical Heat Flux

Since the overall pcrformancc of the furmlce How circuits is controlled to a
I<lrge exte nt by the fu rnace radiation . the objective of the two ·p h a~e-ftow heat
transfer evaluation is to preve nt the tuhe metal from overheatin g and failing .
Boili ng heat transfer coefficients arc usually high enough ~o thut tunc Ill etal
temperatures are kept at acceptahle: leve ls as long as boiling condi tions ilre
maintained in the coal-fired furnace lubes. Thus limit s arc set hyoperating
conditions that prevent a breakdown of the boiling process: crit ica l heat flux
(CHF) or departure from nucl eate hOlling (DNB).

Convective and Boiling Heat Transfer The heat transfer mechanisms

that can oecur in fossil boiler smooth oore tuhes are defined in Fig. 6.32 and
are discussed in (28, 37. 43 - 471. Figure 6.32 illustr;lIcs a vert ica l strai gh t

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230 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS, FUNDAMENTALS AN D ELEMENT S

Sleam
S 10Q<i11, sew· . '~
:
:;
::
:
~ Bul ~ Flu, d
ConSl'}nl : : Temperalu re
Slartot ,
He')l F,1m BOIhl19 ' CHF
11"-·- - -':i.f-
/~--
Flu.

Nucleale
""',,'. Ins,d e TUDe
Tem per3 1ure
.1~ Sut>OOOlOO
.'!!' ~B~· 1
;
IA Boohng :'
COnvll(:llOf\ '
Wal e r 370 42 7 482
Temperah.. re. C -
· Stea m by We.ght

Fig. 6.32. Boiler lubc hcal tr an~fcr.

boile r tube with subcooled inle t tempeTature cond itions ilnd with an applied
hea t lI ux . W:ller is shown evaporating from suht:uolcu conditions to super·
heateu vapor. The inside tube wall temperatufe and hulk iluid temperatufe
arc also show n to the right. The sudden increase in the tube wall tempera·
ture shown is a result of the deteriorat ion in boili ng hea t tran sfer associated
with th e C H F phenomenon 10 he discusse d latCf.
The water entering the furnace tubes is suhwolcd. a nd thus a limited
amoun t of force d convection may take place ncar the tube in tel. Heat
transfer coefficients may be eval uated us ing a variety of techniques-one of
which is provided in Appendix 6. 1. The cunve(·tion zone is followed by
subcoolcd , nucleate , and convective hoi ling regions. For subcooled boiling
(up to x = 0), a variety of correlations tlTe avai lahl e to characte rize the heat
transfer process. Typica l arc those of Jens and Lo tte s:
( 6.13)
and Thorn et a1.:
(6. 14 )
where P is the absolutc pressure in bitT, 6.T,,,, = T~ - T.... , in 0c. and q, is the
heal flux in MW / m ~. The onset of sub(:oolcd boi ling and nucleate boiling are
discusscd at length in [28J alo ng with the cvnl ualion of partial hail ing
coml itions.

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 6 .5 TWO·PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION U M InNG CRITERIA 231

Heat transfer in the saturat ed hoiling region occurs by a com plex combina-
tion of bubble generation ilt the tube surface (n ucleate boiling) and direct
evaporation at the stea m-water interface (convective boiling). At lower
qualities. nucleate boiling do minates while at higher qualities. convective
boiling dominates. The most widely used nucleate boiling correla tion in this
region for any boi lin g application is that proposed by Chen 146. 47J. While the
Chen equation is frequently recommended fo r use in sa turated boi lins
systems. the additional precision provided is not necessarily required in Ihis
application. especially in light of ot her no nquan tified variables such as the
effect of tube-side deposits. For general evaluat ion purposes. most flow
boiling correlations provide reasonable a pproximations for usc in the satu-
rated boili ng region to characterize the hea t tran sfer process.

Post-CHF Heat Transfer As shown in Fig. 6.33. substantial Increases In

the tube wall metal temperature arc possible if boiling is int errupted hy the
CHF phenome no n. Since boiler systems arc effec ti vc1~' constant heat flux
machines. the magnitude of the temperature rise is dependent on the
difference between the hoiling and post-CHF heal transfer coe ffi cie nts. The
magnitude of the increase wjJJ be coOlroJled by the heat flu x, mass flux .
pressure. and quality at which dryout or CHF occu rred. In recirculating
boilers, post-CHF conditions arc avoided by design. In once-t hrough designs,
however. CHF must occur at some klCation and the associated temperature
increase must be accounted for in the design. Since the pe:lk tcm pera lUre
increase occurs JUSt downstream of the dryout loca tion, it is thi~ peak
temperature and its location that must be consclVa tivel y estim ated. Down-

Enlhalpy. Blujlb
760 BOO 840 880 920 960 1000 1040 t 080
'O~
5~ Pressure. P 20.7 MPa
Mass Flux . G • 950 kg /( m ~ 5)
x 0% Heal Flux. ,,. 0 030 MW j m ~ X " 100% 9~
~
"
500
, 0·0 ...... 0 <l 0.50 MW / m'

iE
450
''a...
~ t:AdJ-... ... (
10~§~(S:. /
InSide Surface
Temperature:
)'<:5>~Q>.. :
~-~<t><:O_o_o_O-O
_0#
850 ~

~
~
E
~• 400

3~~~-"
,___~66/:~~/::~~~~~~~~~~
I--

1800
;
~ ,- ~

A Bulk Fluid Temperature ..........

____-c~________~~______~~__--"6~
2000 2200 2400
' 750

Enthalpy. kJ ,Ikg

FiR. 6.33. Tu be inside surface temperatures for a boiler l ulle which c)!.pc ric nccs CHF
condit ions- two separate heat fl.u)!. conditions shown.

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232 FOSSIL·FUEl·FIRED BOILERS FUNDAMENTALS AN D ELEMENTS

stream temperatures arc of secondary concern. This is discussed more fully in

[48-5 11.
The assessment of post-CHF heat transfer is beyond the scope of this
discussion . However, Scruton and Chojnowski [4HJ provide a comparison of
many of the avai lable empirica l correlat ions with high-pressure water data.
The key results included:

I. None of the curre nt empirical model s provi de 11 good estimate of heat

transfer in this region.
2. Groeneveld and De lo rme [49) provide the model that best fi ts the data,
but it is very complex.
3. Kimber and Sulton [50} provide a modified equa tion that is simpler. but
less accurate.

For additiona l discussion of this issue, a recen t assessment is provided

in [5 1).

Critical Heat Flux Objective. Critical heat flux (CHF) is perhaps the most
important design parameter in the furnace wall circuit eva luation . CHF is the
term used to denote the se t of operating conditions (G. P. ¢ . and .r). where
the transition from the relat ive ly high heat tran sfer rates associ ated with
nucleate or forced convective boiling 10 the lowe r rates resulting from
transition or film boiling occurs (sec Fig. 6.32). It is used here to encompass
the phenomena frequently refe rred to as depart ure from nucl ea te boi ling
(DNB). burnout , dryout. boiling crisis. and so forth. The usual objective in
the recirculating boiler evaluation is to avoid CHF conditions whi le in
once-through boilers the objective is to predict their location. In this process.
the heat flux profile or level. tube orientation. operati ng pressure. and inlet
enthalpy are usually fixed, leaving mass flux/ loca l quality/ inside diameter
surface as the more easily adjusted variables.
Overview. The hundreds of experimental and theoretical studies that have
been conducted on the CHF phenomenon since the 1950s attest to th e
complexi ty of this subject: for selected articles see (37, 52-64). A number of
survey articles have been prepared that provide a ll overview of this wealth of
mate rial with selected papers listed here in the refe rences. A review of these
papers leads (0 the following conclusions:

1. CHF is a ve ry complex combination of thcrmohydraulic phenomena

that are not yet sufficiently well understood III provide a comprehensive
theoretical basis. A piecewise approach will probably be necessary to
address the range of phenomena observed.
2. Thousands of CHF data and hundreds of correlations defin e the CHF
condition well over limited ranges of conditions anti geometries. How-
eve r. some progress is being made to develop more genera l evaluation

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 6.S TWO·PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION LIMITING CRITERIA 233

procedures for at least the most studied case- a uniformly heated

smooth bore lube in upftow.

Because of lhis complexity, equipment manufacLUrers have developed proprio

etary databanks and associated correlations to accurately define the range of
conditions for specific equipment design .

General ModeJ A number of mechanisms have been proposed for the

onset of CHF conditions in vertical upftows [52, 57- 62]. From a general
perspective, these fall into the two categories or regions shown in Fig. 6.34.
In this figure the local heat ftux (W / m2) at which CHF conditions (either
departure from nucleate boiling (DNl3l or film dryoutl occur i!' plotted versus
the corresponding average local steam quality (percentage steam by weight).
At lower heat fluxes and/or steam qualities, a fully wetted tube wall
condition and boiling arc maintained. Under slightly subcooled and low
steam quality (x) condition s, DNB occurs with the creation of an insulating
steam layer adjacent to the tube wall (region I). This may be caused by

1
"
,E
[JSt"m CH'
Location
}s.. Nole
0

0
•
0
CHF Location

Steam
~
~ Water • Water Film
0
,
"
~
Departure from
Nucleate Boiling Film Dryout
••
I
(ONB)
Region'
Region II

Steam Quality, X , % SBW ..

Fig. 6.34. Generalized CHF function fo r a vertical tube with constant upward flow
ratc al constant pressure- two separat e CHF phenomena shown (note: limiting
quality region).

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high-vapor generation rates where bubble crowding, bubble shie ld ing, or
steam blanketing prevents liquid repl e nishme nt al the tube wall. The micro-
layer under bubbles evaporates resulting in te mpera ture excursions. AI bigb
qualities (region II ) where annular flow prevails, it is ge nerally accepted that
CHF is the result of dryout of the liquid film o n the tube wall . The liquid film
flow rate is a ba lance between droplet deposition fro m the steam core,
fe-en trai nme nt of liquid from the film, film fl ow rale, a nd fil m evaporation
rate. When the fi lm fl ow rate drops to 0, a tempe ratu re excu rsion occurs.
Sign ificant ly more complex behavior is observed in ho rizonta l and inclined
tubes where a va rie ty of flow patterns play a more important role. An
example is s hown in Fig. 6.35. Figure 6.35a illustrates an idealized C HF

Critical Heat Flu)(

la l
1
--e Applle(!
/ Heat Flu)(
-_ ../_-----

CritICal Heat Flu)(

Ralatiooshlp

o Steam Quatity. X - __

Temperature - - Bulk Fluid /

Relationship ..-, - - - Top Surlace /

1 I
I \
\
- ,
Bottom Surlaca - .... - /

(b) /
.......... J.. •••••• • \
\ .../ ......1--
o 100%
Steam Quality. X - - - _

(0)

Flow_

Fig. 6.3S. Interpretation of hnril.Ontal tube C HF-l'unstant pressure and flow rate.

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TABtE 6.6 CIIF Parametric Effects

When u ~ in g the e~it qU:l lity ' Ipproach 10 ..:: ~alu<JlC CI-I F conditions. the rollowing
on Ihc heil! flu:>. and quality haw b':L'n
ctrcc! ~ ob~crved. Only the indicatcd ~ariahlc
r hange~ in each e<JM:.

Figure
Pn:~~ ure (ahuve 10 Ml',iI Re dlKed 0.]0
M;ls$ Flow ( Lu ..... ) DccTl'a'c b.]7
(ll igh) Iller.:,!,,: 1>.37
Ouality 1).:n..:::1 ....:: 0,:\7
Angle rrom vertical DCCTl';I'C ( G and x dcpcndem) b . .3~
I n~idc diameter l >Cne;l\":
Leng! h No ~igl1l j ican1 ctfcCl on long tubes
Circumfere ntial hl'a! flux ln cre;t ~c Ooeal..t dqx:ndcnt) o.:W
(q,p<-' .,~/,~ .'w,., ....,)
Axial heat tlux Dccrl"""~ !local. heat flux gradie nt
(q,P<-,.,k/(/J"V""'K") depend':l1t)
Internal fining or multilcad Incn';I,,' fl,4()
rihhed horl' tuhes

versus stea m quality curve and the ;Iprlied ;lxial heat nux uf the leSt section .
Figure 63.'ih illustrates the associateJ ~ke ted tempera tures (hulk !luid. top
inside tuhe wall. ,lIld bottom insi de tuhl.! Willi) as a function of 10ealil)l1.
Finally. Fig. 6.35c illustrates a possible !low pattern in the heated s{;c tion. It
should be noted that the sudden inen.:ase in C HF at int e rml.!di;1le stea m
qu alities is associated with a transition in !low pattern to annular How.

Parametric Effects For the upwanl-Ilowing water inside tuhes. the key
variables that <I!Tn:t the C HF phenonH:n <l include:

Operating conditions: pressure. m,, ~" flux. and steam quality

Physicill p,Lrameters: insidl.' diamet er. inclination. heat flux prolile (cir-
cumferential / axial). ink! geome try, and tuhe hOfC
surface (smuot h bore or rilled tuhes)

The effect of ine fC ilSinl!t {;;tch of the parameters while keeping th e othe r
p<l rame ters constant [including loca l 4uitlity (x) at CHFj arc listed in Tahle
6.6 with select e d effects ill ustrat ed in Figs. 6.Jfl to 6.40. In geneT,, 1 for
high-pre~sure utility boikrs. increasing pressure (Fig. 6.36). increasing local
steam quality (Fig. 6 ..17). or inclining:1 tuhc (Fi g. 6.JtO tends to decrease the

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 Pressure. MPa
14 16 18 20
--
-
40
1400
I 2000

.E

~
0>
.iii
A
N
.r.
..: 1200
V - .

lob3 Mw~m~ I: ---

>. 30 .c:.
.D ...... 1500
E of! Cii

I Ij'
til "0 I
Q) c 1000
'"
Ui
V
<'Il
4J 20
Vl
:J
0
0.31 MW j m 2 . E......
0> .c:. 01
~ : Unsafe I
c:
~
800
t .- ""><
Q)
u
(i)
10
:::-
'0
0
/'\
Safe
L.---' - 1000 :J
u:
a.. 4i
?- > 1\ ( Unsafe --
VI
II>

\
<U
600 ::z
~\
VI
Ii> VI
::l
0 :z'"
0 \ I ., , Sat: "
\
\1\ -
\ \

. \ 400

~ "-
- 500
'"
\
\ , \,
\

""
\
\ \
,
\
\

• • , ,•
\
. 200
\
•, • , •,·
\
\
A B

0
I
2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 o 10 20 30 40

BACK 1 Pressure. pSl3 Qualily, Percentage Steam Dy Weight

CONTENTS Fig. 6.36. Effec t of pressure Oil CIIF fJJ. Fig. 6.37. Effe cI of mas s flux a nd Quality on CH F [3].

NEXTJ
 Mass Flux = 1360 kgj(m< sJ
250 250
Venical o 7S '"
s) E
"'-
'"J:: 3:
200 200 200 !!:
.c Mass Flux ~ 410 kQ / (m' s) 060
>i.
"'-
~ Vert' al ~o';mo'" ~
u..
iii 150 150 iii

~.~
0 150
~ 0.45 4l
I
a 30° from ".-,,
,;
::l
Hor'zental \
\ I
I , ;;;
<,J
u: 100 30' Irom 100

\
100 '4 U
Hor,zontal 030
iij
~ Horizontal
HOllzonlal
1i 50
5_°20 50
¥ 0 20 40 60 -40 -20 a 20 40 60 -40 - 20 0 20 40 60
U Steam Quality, X. % SSW Steam Qualily. X, % SBW Steam Quality. X . % SSW

Fig. 6.38. Effect of Inclination on CHF 111 18.6 MPa (63).

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 238 FOSSIL.FUEL.FIREO BOILERS· FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

1.0
1.0

'""'" HN IF\ulI ymbo'

.-
Non P",.., o.8 Heat Flul(

......... Non " ,>nod

N°
0.8 Umlor n. .

.,e 0
• P... "e, 0

°•
Average
Average
~ Peal<
,
\
~ ~ o.6

\
0.6 ,;
.; ,"
if"
Ii:
0.4 \ •• 0 .4

~
~ l:
l:

\ o2

°°c.,.
0 .2

0
- ro 0 20 40 60 80 '00 0- 40 -20 0 20 40
Quality. X . '" SSW Quality. X. '" sew
(sl Vertical (bl Inclined from Horizontal

Fig. 6..39. Elfccl of no n unifo rm circumfo:rential heali ng nn C U F (<i"". ~ /<i .... c - 2)

1641.

" Solid Symbols- Upstream CHF ' .2 mooth

~
1.0 1.0
Tube
SOlid Symbo1S - Upstream CHF
,,00
..
•
...... 0.8
~
VertlC3l Smoolh
' "be 0.8 E·
1000 '::(

J
~
•
""
~CO--V:'::ibbed)
-06 0.6 •
if
~
~
.... 0.4 04 --- --------, ,•••
,•• 0.2
, 30" 500

0.2 RIbbed Tube

'"be

Steam Quality. X . ,., saw Steam Quality. X . '" ssw

fa ) VertICal Tube POSIIJ()n I b ) Inc~neo Tube Angles

Fig. 6.40. Effect of ribbt-d bore geometry- IK.n ~1I'a . 41.4 7 MW / m! IfiJ I.

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 6_5 TWO·PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION LIMITING CRITERIA 239

allowable heat Hux, while the effect of changi ng mass flux depends on the
initial mass Hux level.

Ribbed Tubing The effect of rifling ur multilead ribs as shown in Fig. 6.40
is very important in boiler design. The mu ltil cad ribbed tube shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 6.41 permits much higher steam qualities to occur in thc tubc
circuits for the same boiier load. This permits a reduction in allowable
in-tube velocities with the associated rl!duct ion in capital and operating costs.
This ribbed tube configuration was the resuit of tests on a large number of
devices including twisters, springs, anu various grooved, ribbed, and corru-
gated lubes to improve CHF performance. The multilead spiral rib was found
to have the most satisfactory overall performance, balancing CHF improve-
ment, increased pressure drop, and other effects. The ribs generate a swirl
How resulting in a centrifugal action which forces the water to the tube wall
and retards reentrainment of the liquid. The steam blanketing and film
dryout at CHF cond itions are thus prevented until substantially higher steam
Qualities are reached, as shown in Fig. 6.40. From these figures, an additional

Fig. 6.41. Rihh.::d bore tube.

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 N
.b
o TABLE 6.7 Typical CHF Correlation Methods (Vertical Uniformly Heoted Tubes)

Method Author Rderence Parameter Range Accuracy

Equations-Rowand heal transfer Bowring 71 0.2 .:s; P .:s; \9.0 MPa

regime implicit 2 .:s; D, ~ 45 mm RMS 7%
0.15 .:s; Lr .:s; 3.7 m Base data
136 .:s; G :0::; 18,600 kg/(rn 2 . s)
(water)
Equations-flow and heat lransfer Kalla 67 0.05 $; P $; 20.3 MPa
regime explicit I::;; D;.:s; 38 mm
om $; L :-;; 8.8 m
5 s L/D .:s; 880
0.(00) :-;; PR/Pr $; 0.41
(water included)
Graphical-flow and heat transrer Shah 68 0.03 :-;; P .:s; 21 MPa
regime explicit 0.0012 ~ PIP, $" 0.94
6 .:s; G :S" 24,300 kg/(m 2 . s)
-260 $; XCIIF :0::; 96%
(waler included)
Tabular methods Groeneveld 66 0.1 s P ,.;: 20.0 MPa \4,40\ data points
1 .:s; D, ,.;: 92 mm 40.6% ± 10%
0.08 s L ~ 6m 66.5% ± 20%
- 15 :::; x ~ 100% 92.35% ± 50%
)0 ~ G ~ 7500 kg/(m 2 . s)
(water)
USSR sland(lrd 72 3 ~ P .:s; 19.6 MPa
tables 4 ~ D ~ 16 mm

CONTENTS
(I)

~ ~
BACK I 750 .:s; G ~ 5000 kg/(m 2 . s)

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CONTENTS (water)
,- --------------------------------------
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evaluatio n parameter is needed if th e advan tages of rihhed tubes are to he
u~d - minimum mass flux to gene rate swirling flow.

Critical Heat Flux Evaluations A wide variety of correlations ex.ist for the
estima tion of the CHF condition in smooth bore tubes wi th uniform heating
165 -72 1. Thco;c include mathematica l correlatio ns that do not explicit ly dif-
ferentiat e be tween flow - heat tran sfer regimes. mathematica l correlations
based on Hnw- heat tnmsfer regimes. graphical methods. ilnd tabular meth-
ods. Five of thc ca ndidate correlations are identi fi ed in Table 6.7.
These correlations tend to fall into o ne o f three a pproaches:

I. Local conditio ns: CHF = f (local val ues includ ing x); these need to be
corrected for upStream conditio n ... and nonuniform axial heat ing.
2. Quality boiling length: unique combination of boiling length and qua lit y
at CHF define dryollt condition: averages heat input over boiling
length.
3. Powe r: C HF = f (inlet conditions and geome try).

From an eva luat ion ~ta ndpoint. corre lations must ullimately provide loca l
parameters that identify CHF condit ions. includ ing specific location. Thus
correlat io ns such as those o f Groeneveld may ultimately provide more useful
information than o ther form~.
Groeneveld's corrc!ation for vertical tubes \;lkes the form :

whe re CHF(P.G . .d is interpo lated from the tables for D, = 0.008 m pro-
vided in Appendix 6.3

KI = diamet e r correction for 0.002 :$ D, :$ 0 .016 m

~ 0 .79 for D, :> 0.016 m

K2 - bundle correction facto r - 1.0

K .\ = grid space r factor - 1.0

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242 FOSSIL·FUEL-FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENT S

K4 = heated length factor "" 1.0 for long boi le r tube conditions or

De'. )
K ,,= cxp ( L
Ks = axia l flu x dist ribution factor

(BLA indicates boiling le ngth average) fo r x > 0

tPUX ' AL

1.0 forx < O

K" = flow factor (upflow or downflow : I.n for ve rtical upflow)

This corre/mion by Groenel"eJd, a. . well as Ih l' olle hy Kalla. cannO/ ycl be
recommcfl(ied for IISC in C!'lIllIatioll . Whe n these corre lat ions a rc compared to
large-diameter tubular dala he twee n 14.5 and 20.7 MPa . they lend to
overpredict the experimenta l Jaw by 10% to 100% in some cases. These
differences probably represe nt the low availability of published da ta with
diameters greater than or equal to 37 mm and an ove rsimplified diame te r
correction factor. Groeneveld also provitles for linear intcrpol:Jtion betwee n
the wide range of 15.0 and 20.0 MPa whic h may introduce e rrors. Howeve r. it
docs form the basis for future refineme nt. In practice. boi le r manufacturers
depend on extensive. proprie tary CHF datahases a nd correlations cove ring
their specific opera ting variable ranges.
A number of crite ria are used to assess th l; ,wailable critical heat flux
safety margi ns in 11 pa rticular tube at different e levatio ns. These incl ude:

minimum heat flu x at CH F conditions

CHF ratio -
upset heat flux

Flow ratio -
mass flux al C HF cunditions

Quality margin = CHF qualit y (% SeW)

- maximum design quality ( %SBW)

,I
The C HF ratio is ill ustrated in Fig . 6.42 fo r smooth tube (dJ'J/dJ A ) and a
ribbed bore tube (dJ( -/<b A ). a nd is used to as!)css the margin of safety in
furn ace designs. It indicates the increase in Inca l heat input which can be
tolerated before the o nse t of CHF conditions. T he "u pset heal flu x" is the

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CONTI!NTS .'Xl
NEXT
 08

"E
,
,• 0'
,
~" 0.-
I
••
Upset ,,/
02 Heat Fl u~

G ~ Mass Flu~. kg / (m ~ s)
O~ __L -_ _ ~L- _ _ _ _ _ _~~
o ~ ~

Hopper Furnace Height m

Slope

ria· 6.42. Maximum he,ll lIu ~ ttl ;Iv(lid C H F- 19 ..l M POI .

highest local heat fl ux that em hI.! experie nced al a given boi ler panel wall
location. T he flow ratiu provide' a measure of the tolerable flow reductiun
before the o n ~c l of C H F (sec Fig. 6.43 ). The smoOlh l ube flow ratio is
GAIG n; the ribbed bore tube fluw ratio is GA/G(.

6 .5.3 Steam - Water Separation and Drum Capacity

The objectives of t he stea m-waIn separation equipment and drum in feciT'
cuhlling boilers include:

1. Removal of moistu re from the steam to prevent therma l damage to the

superheater
2. Removal of stea m from the water e ntering the downcomcr 1u minimize
:my d ecrease in the c ffccti .. c the rmal d ri ving force
~, Prevention o f the carry-O'o't'r of solid s and contam immts in It) the su per-
heater and tu rhi ne where they ca n form damaging deposit s

General Steam - Water Separation Fundamentals In low steam flow

situations, natural steam separation by gravity at the stcam - watl'r interface
in a dru m without the usc o f othe r internals is potentially suffic ient depe nd -
ing on the drum sizc, steam flow rale. and the application or end usc of the
steam, Possible limit curves for this arrangement h<t~ed on data and ana lysis
arc provided in Fig, 6.44 , These l'urves ass u me a rcl<ltivcly uniform distrihu-
tion of inlet flow over the drum le ngth ,

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 '500

M.n.mom DesIgn
Mass Flow Rate
G. - - - ---;:-
- G,
~ 1000
~

!1 Smooth
TubeCHF
it"
~ 500

O L-~~ ____ ~ ________ ~~

o 25 50

Hopper Furnace HeIght. m

Slope

Fig.6.43. Min imum mass flux to avoid CIIF- 19.J MPa.

>0 50
Number on Curves ~A \\)
, .z1.. {f\

*••••
~ , '0
Represent Hetght
01 Steam Space
0"
(f\ l'3 \\'J

..
~ •
~
6 130
0 .1 6 I'f\ ~2.!) \\l
0.6' {fI t2 \\'J
E
•• 6, 6
;;20
"~ •
~
~ •

~ 2 >0

o o ~__~=-
o 2.000
__4.000
~~~~__~~~~
6,000 8.000 10.000

o 200 400 600 800 ' .000 1.200 1.400 kPa

P"
Absolute Pressure

Flg. 6.44. Nnlural Sleam- Watcr separalion cup. cs for 0.25% moist urc 1771.

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 steam
Out Corrugated Sleam
Steam
long Tangential
Sleam-Water Inlet r .j Separalors OUI
Out Curved Arm
Injector
\
~ I II
Walel Water
..... ..

) @i ~
;
'- ... ...

Inlel
Diverging
I

~,
Body
Water
Steam - Waler Oul Waler
Baseplate with Vortex SlabhZlng Waler Inlel Steam- Out
SWIrl Vanes Cone and Plate OUI
Waler Water
Oul Inlet
Conical Cyclone Separator Enclosed Tangental Entry Turbo Vane Sepa1ater Curved AIm Separator
wlthOul Secondary Separalor Separator with Secondary wilhoul Secondary Separator withoul Secondary Separator
Separator (d)
(al Ie)
( b)

"'ig. 6.45. Typical steam-water separatOfs for high·pressure boilers.

CONTENTS

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~ONTENTS I '"
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246 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

Tesl Cond,t,ons
E ConSlant Pressure
Br eakaway
2' Constanl Drum Water Le"-Iel
R ",~
£ Constant Wale, Flow
1;
~~+~-~
Entraonment Region

Vapor Veloc'ly. Vo

I a) ldea~zed

Steam Flow, 1000 kg 'N

100°r-__-T5____""~.-C'~5~--;""---·'r5----_,
iI
.
E " I
~
• I
,>
D

.I
i
9, " ~I
•
u
•~, llr!
>
~
,/dIi ,',~,/ 0200
Pressure
ps,a ItA MPal
I
'" b_
;r:.
9 260
0 365
g 365
ps,a 11 .4 MPaj
ps,a 12.5 MPaj
ps,a 12.5 MPal
05 50 ps,a {3 .8 MPal
8 550 ps'a (3 .6 MPal
~ 735 ps'a (5 .1 MPal
t:. 735 ps,a {5 .1 MPal

,oo, o~--cO---oo_--~~==~==~==~==~
10 W W 50 ~60
Sleam Flow. 1000 Ib t hr
(b) Data

Fig. 6,46. Moislu rc ca rry·over curves for iI ~I Cilm - walcr scparlilOr [741.

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NEXT
 6.5 TWO·PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION UMITING CRITERIA 247

In most large power boiler applications, such nalUral separation tech-

niques arc far too inefficient on a volumetric basis for l'conomical usc . For
these applications, proprietary design stea m separation equipment has been
developed with steam purity limits of less than 0.25% carry-over [3, 5, 73-811.
A typical arrangement of these drum internals for a larger boiler is illustrated
in Fig. 6.13. As shown, the steam-wat er sepa ration equipment consists of
bllsically two clements: (I) primary se parators where the bulk of the steam
anti war.cr are separated and (2) secondary separators or scrubbers, which
remove the residual moisture from the steam. The primary separators usually
usc centrifugal force to separate the water. These will be discussed at length
in a following paragraph. The secondary scrubbers usc large surface-area-to-
volume geometries such as closely spaced corrugated plates or wire meshes to
provide a tortuous path for droplet impaction to be used to remove the last
significant levels of moisture present. These scrubbers are usually limited by
nitical mass !low velocity, which sets an upper limit on the flow per unit
cross-section area. These limits plus any pressure drop arc determined
experimentally for specific geometries.
Centrifugal force or radial acceleration is used almost universally for
steam - water separation in large high -pre ssure boilers. Four different separa-
tor designs arc shown in Fig. 6.45. Th e overall performance of this type of
equipment is influenced by flow rate, pressure, length, aperture sizes, water
level . inlet steam quality (mass fraction), interior finish. and drum arrange-
ment. While performance data for these specific designs arc proprietary, the
general trends arc shown in Figs. 6.46 to 6.48.

05 25

0.4 20

#
0.3 15
,,
•
u
0
;>
>
q
~ <-
~

""
0.2
- 10
""
0.1 5

0
-- --- / 0
6 a 16
10 12
"
Inlet Quality. X . % " 20

Fig. 6.47. Etfcet of inlet steam quality on steam-water se paration in a steam separa·
tor (77).

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248 FOSSIL·FUEL-FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

0.6 JO

05 25

0' 20
#
*
"
u ~~
0.3
" <>•
0
~
~
<>• 02 10

0. '
- 5
"Y-

O ..... 0
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Water Level, L. II)

Fig. 6.48. Effect of water level on stearn - water separation (771.

I. Mo isture carl)'-over with steam: incrca ~e s gradually with steam flow

until a brcllkaway point is reached wh ere a sudden rise in carry-over
occurs; increases with water level rise until flooding occurs (a typical
operating range is ± 0.15 to 0.20 m but this is dependent on the type of
primal)' separa tion equipment); increa sc ~ with steam quality.
2. Carry-under of steam with water: declin es with increasi ng water level;
declines with decreasing inlet sleam quality.
3. Pressure drop (Pink' - PdJUm ): increase.., with mass flow and steam
quality.

Recently. the usc of steam- water separat ion equipment on variable oper-
at in g pressure boilers and once-through boile rs has become attractive to
facilitatc low-load operat ion and start-up and/or shutdown. In pl ace of it
large horizontal drum found on recirculating boilers. one or more sma ll -
diameter vertical (or integra]) steam separators arc used. The cenlrifugal
steam-wa ter separation is designed directly Into the vertica l cyli nder that
also serves the same purposes as the drum. An exa mple of such a ve rtical
se parator is shown in Fig. 6.49. These arc Iypically connected directly to the
top of the downcumer pipes. When not needed for steady-state or near-fu ll -
load operation, these units can he hypassed.

Steam Separator Evaluation The theoretica l ana lyses ava ilable so far
have not yet provided a comp[ele ly satisfactory framework for evaluating the
sepa rator equipment pe rfo rmance, as wou ld be expected for this complex

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 6 .5 "TWO·PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION UMITING CRITERIA 249

Sleam Waler
Inlel ConnectIOn
Sl eam Oullet
Connection

Drip R'ng
Upper·Level
Gage ConnecTIOfI
$plral Am, - --1-1=

tJU-Arr""'~" Vanes

Lower· Level

fi g. 6.49. b llcg nol Sh:illll ,- w;lt c r scparallir [1\ II (COllfll'.<;)· "'''Sll'r II'J,(,(,/I")'

.<,it ll ation. II nwcvc r. t he fo llowin g have heel! identified as the key nondimcn-
~ional parame te rs in eV:ll uating pe rfunnancc:

(0 .10)

p",V,lV j,
Weber num be r (IV,' ) ... c.::--,-~ ( 0. 17)
u
PJ - P.,
De nsity ralio ( IJR) .. '-'-- '-! ( o. I X)

R c)'no ld ~ numhcr (Rt') ( huhhlc a nd total now) (6.19)

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250 FOSSIL-FUEL-AREO BOILERS: FUNDAMENTAlS AND ELEMENTS

where

Pm - ( XI'fll + I 'f ) -". ( 6.20)

,(~s,~e~a~m~m~a~s~s~n~o7w~)~X~(~s~,c~a~n~,~s~p~c'~';~f'~,_,~o~lu~m
~c~) (6.2 1)
V.< - - ve rtical free-flow ~ rca

D" - hydraulic di ameter of free-fl ow area (6 .22)

In addition, the breakaway moisture ca rry-ove r has been found to be a

function of the modified vol umetric flu xes (j~* and jl) for steam and liquid
as shown in Fig. 6.50:

(6 .23 )

(6.24 )

(6.25)

where C and M arc eva luated for each physic'll design.

As indicated in the previous section o n ci rcu lation, the pressure drop of
two-phase fl ow through a fittin g is extreme ly complex. A first approximation
to help corre late the data for separators is to usc the homoge neous model

200 ,
LOO
"0 t
'"
/';
'"
,oa r Entrainment Region • Onset of
Flooding
000 o 200 pSla (t .4 MPa)
Line

0.60 o 365 pSla (2 .5 MPa)

o 550 pSla (3 .8 MPa)
0'0 to. 735pSJa (5' MPa )

lO;.~";::;0='~0=0=60:==0=e=o=,=oa=='=2~O:-:'- 0C,".60:::C'
0.20

0 L, 7 '80 2'. 00

';1,'

Fig. 6.50. Steam- water separator ll00ding curve [74J,

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 6.5 TWO·PHASE FLOW CIRCULATION LI MITING CRIT ERIA 25 1

two-phase multiplier times a loss coefficient (see Eq. (6.8»):

(6.26)
where

( 6.27)

K,,~f( P ) ( un ique for eac h physical steam se parator design) (6.28)

In applying ~tea m -wa t e r ~e p a rat or~ to a particu lar design, the objectives
arc: ( I )!O select the appropria te numbe r of steam - wale r separators that will
provide less than the speci fi ed stea m ca rry-ove r and still obtain mi nimum
ca rry-under at the total steam mass flow rate and (2) to defi ne the pres~ ure
drop in the separa tor. Two fu nctional rela tionships are required -one for
prc~~ ure drop and one fo r maximu m steam fl ow capability. Based on the
foregoi ng discussion. these correlations might take the fo rm :

;l P = f ( K " , x, p, G) (6.29)

m.,(max) = f ( Fr", . We, DR,i~· . it) (6.30)

where Frm is a modified Froude numher. We is the Webe r number, DR is

the liquid-ta-vapor de nsity ratio. and i: and il (Ire the volu metric flu xes for
vapor and liquid de fi ned in Eqs. (6.23) and (6.24), respective ly.
T he maximum stea m Row pe r sepa rator [m / max») defin es the minimum
numbe r of sta ndard uni t~ required and the 6 P is used in t he ci rcul ation
calculations. Give n the highly uniq ue na tu re of each se parator design and th e
current th eoretica l state of the art. the performance levels should be expe ri-
ment ally determi ned prefe rably under fu ll-scale, full -How, and fu ll-pressure
co n dition ~. The funct ional rda tionshi p for m,(max) changes with differe nt
prima ry steam separator geometries for each manufacturer.

Drum Capability G iven t he !low limitations of the standa rdized

!>team- water sepa ration equipment. the boiler drum is sized to accommodate
the number of separators ncceSSlIT)' for t he largest expected boiler load
(maximum steam fl ow ratc). The dru m d iameter, in increme nt al steps, and
le ngth arc adjusted to meet the spiKe requirements at a min imu m cost. A
typ ical cross sectio n is shown in Fig. 0. 13.
An evaluat ion limit is the maximu m stea m "ca rry-unde r" into t he down-
comer. Ca rry-unde r or transport of ste<lm into the downcomers is not
desirabl e since it reduces the avail able the rma l pumping fo rce by reducing
the density at the top of the downcome r. Ca rry-unde r perform ance is a
function of physical arra ngement (both furnace connectio ns and stea m drum

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252 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELE M ENT S

internal a rrangements), operating (drum) pressure, feed-water enthalpy.

free·water surface area, drum wate r level, and sepa rator efficiency. Empirical
correction factors for specific designs arc dcvclorcd and used in the circula-
tion calculations to accoun t for the stea m void age e nt cring the downcomers.
The steam is event ually completely condensed after it travels some d ista nce
into the downcomer. Howeve r, the ave rage den!>!t)' in the top portion of the
downcome r is still lowe r than thermal eq uilibrium would indica te.

6.6 OTHER EVALUATION FACTORS

The range of additional eva luation factors th at in flu ence the boiler design
and more specifically the steam- wate r system is quite extensive and a
comprehensive summary goes beyond th e scope of the current work. Some of
these factor s with particula r refe rence to thermo hyd rau lics include:

I. Steam - water mixing: Steam pre heating of ..... at er and water atlempera-
tio n of stea m a rc used extensively; appropr ia te componen ts need to be
ca refully designed .
2. Steam - Yl'ater mixlllre distribution: In somc instances, it is necessary to
collect. mix, and then redistribut e two-ph3se mixtures evenly to avoid
problems in downstrea m components.
3. Effects of deposits : Fouling deposit s occur inside all boiler tubes. They
influence heat transfe r to the wat er. providc sit cs for chemic:!1 concen·
tration , and ca n ncga tively impact prcssure drop and CHF conditions.
Ripple deposits are especiall y important in supe rcritical pressure
hailers.
4. Water chemi.\·try: Virtually all hoilers employ some fo rm of interna l
water treatment. The chemicals added and those that arrive with the
feed water ca n influe nce steam - wat cr scpa rat ion, hea t tnmsfer rat e,
CHF phe nomena. and local corrosion.
S. Sta rt -lip alld operatioll: Boilers on ly opl! rate at fu ll load part of the
time. More commonly. load changes ocw r fr equ ently includin g: hot
overn ight sh utdowns, weekend shutdowns. pe riodic downtimc for main-
te nance, emerge ncy shutdowns because of mechanica l prohlems, as
well as regular cycling- peaking powe r dut )'. Special start-up proced ures
and bypass systc ms arc ncedcd fo r thcse kinds of scrvices. The start-up
ra te of the boiler a nd load change rat e~ are closely tied to materia l
stress limits in selected boil er component!'. such as the drum and out let
superhea ted steam heade rs. The control ~yste m s and strategies can he
quite com plex.
6. Supercnt;cal flllid heat tral/.~fer: Heat tran~ fer to superc ritica l pressure
wate r nea r the critical point poses additiona l chall engcs. Rapid fluid
property changes make special heat transfe r ratc evaluations necessa l)'.

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 NOMENCLATURE 253

Additionally, ahhough true two-phase fl ow docs not exist. a pse udocrit-

ical fi lm boiling phenomenon simi lar to the degradatio n of heat tra nsfer
at C HF can occu r.
7. In clined w be.S: Steam and l or wate r in horizontal o r inclined tubes pose
a particular problem in avoiding steam-water se paration and stratified
flows. Such a situation could lead 10 tube ove r-heating. chemica l
deposition. and corrosion .

6.7 SUMMARY

The furegui ng discussion hll s provitlcu on ly the bridest framt'wo rk for thl;:
initial understa ndi ng of fossil boiler thcrmohydraulic evaluat ion. Modern
ut ility boi lers and the power p l ant~ tu which they supply steam represe nt
some of the most complex machines that have been developed. Evaluation
techniques and material properties afC stretched to their econom ic limi ts and
furth e r advances will continue to be mal.lc to meet the challenges of in-
creased eltkiency and reliabili ty at 11 lowe r cost. However, these utility boilers
do share wi th the smallest ut ility boiler ;1 core group of two-phase-flow
fundame ntals covering heat transfer clOd fl uid flow that can be used to
understand the ove rall eva luation process. T hese fundamenta ls have been
prese nted here in at least their broadest te rms with refe rences provided for
furth er study. However. full eva luat iu n of eve n the two-phase Ih ermohy-
drau lics still requires exte nsive fie ld experience and empirical data 10 permit
safe. cost-cffective boi ler designs.

NOMENCLATURE

u SliD". dimensionless
A Surface area. m 2
b SliD", dimensionless
8 Constant or coeffi cient. as noted
C Constant or coefficient. .IS noted
C" Drift fl ux parameter
c,' Specific heat at constant pre~sure. J/ (kg . K)
D T ube diameter, m
D, Free-flow area hydraulic d iamete r, 4(m inimum frec -How
arca)/wetlcd perimeter. m
DP Circuit compo)';itc p r cs~u rc loss, Pa
DR Den sity ratio. dimension less
f Friction factor. dimensio nless

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254 FOSSIL·fUEl ·FIRED SOlLERS FUND.t.MENT ALS AND ELEMENTS

E Paramete r. as noted
F Correction factors, as nOled
Frm Modified Froude numbe r, dim cn .~io nl css
•
g,
Gravitational accele ration, m /s~
Proportionality Constan t in Newlon's second Jaw of motion - I
G Mass nux, kg/(m 2 . s)

"
H
Local heat transfe r coe fficie nt , W / (m ! . K)
Pumping head, consistent un its, Pa. o r parameter, as noted
Enthalpy per unit mass. J j kg
J Supe rficia l volumetric flux, GX /PI o r CO - x)/ PI{ ' mJ / sj m 2
Ju Subcooling Jakob numbe r. .:li,ul> '"filii 1,/lI" dimen sionless
k The rmal conduct ivity, W / (m . K)
K Loss coefficient, dimensionless
K" Separator loss coeffici ent, d ime nsionless
KI - Kb Groeneve ld correction coefficients. dimensionless
I. L Length , m
LMTD Log mea n te mperature diffe rente, K
M Stea m- wat e r separator brea kaway con stant
m Mass fl ow nil e, kgjs
Number of tubes
"N" Nusselt num be r, hO / k, dime n ~io nl ess
I' Pres."ure. Pa
I', Pra ndtl numbe r, CpIL / k, dimensionless
Q 1·lca t transfe r rale. W
R Mean bend radius. m
Re Reynolds number, pDV/ p. . dime ns ionless
Re' Modified Re ynolds number, set· Eq. (6.1- 11) in Appendix 6. 1,
dimensionless
RI Hea t transfe r fouling factor, (m ) . K)/ W
R, Friedly pressure drop ratio, dime nsion less
S· Area ratio, dimension less
S, Ho ri zontal pilch between tubes pe rpendicular to flow , m
S, Vertical pitc h between tu bes parallel to fl ow, m
T T e mpe ra ture, GC
U Overall heat transfer coe fficie nt. W / (01 2 . K)
Speci fic volume, m·l/kg
"V Ve locity, m /s
V, Separator superficial stea m ve locit y, m/s
W'~I Relative velocity. mjs
We Webe r numbe r. I}..,V/ O/o / u
x Steam quality by weigh t ( ma ss vapor quali ty)
X, Friedly qual ity pa rameter, dimensiunless
X Ma rtinell i pa ra meter (It), «UJ - x) ld()9( vf/L')O-·~(P.,/J.l. t )U. 1
Z Vertical elevation or height , m

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Greek Symbols

a Local cross-section void fraction

6.i ,,,I> Subcooling enthalpy, J / kg
,p General pressure drop, Pa
,Po Pressure drop from fluid accele ration, Pa
dP! Pressure drop from fr iclion, Pa
tIoP1oc ;Ol (tIoP,) Pressure drop from local discontinuities, Pa
tIoP= Pressure drop from change in elevation (hydrostatic), Pa
9 Angle {inclination or around tube circumfere nce}
~ Dynamic vi.-.cosity, kg/ (rn . s)
p (Ii) Density, kg/m ·1 (p mean value)
Surface tcnsion, N/m
" Heat Ilux, MW /m2
Two-phase multiplier !luid all as a liquid, dimensionless
Two-phase multiplier fo r discontinuities, dimensionless
1.0 - (rr/4u), dimensionless

Subscripts

b Bulk fluid condition

, Convection term
d Downcomer property
t Fluid
furnace Furnace value
t.
, Difference between saturaled liquid and saturated vapor
Gas
GO All fluid as a gas or vapor
Inside tube
In lel condition
Local loss component
L Laminar or liquid
LO All fluid as it liquid
Metal or homogeneous mean
'"
o Outside lube
out Outlet condition
peak Local maximum valu e
, Radiation term
., Steam separator
sat Salurated condit ion
T Turbulent
w Wall condition

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C;ll.~ 7iumllt'J (Uld I)owrr 11 0 117- 126.

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21. Scruton, B., Gibb, 1., and Chojnow~kl , B. (1985) Com'cntional powcr ~tati()n
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26. Pai, B. R., Michelfelder, S., and Spalding, D. B. (1978) Prcdiction of furnace heat
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2/:i. Collier, J. G. (]9S]) Inlfouuction to two-phase flow proble ms in the powe r
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BoslOn.
32. Geiger, G. E. ( 1964) Sudde n cont ractIon los.~es in single- and two-phase no ......
Ph.D. Thesis. University of Pittsburgh .
33. Idclchik, I. E. (1986) Hot](Jhook of Hydralilic Resistance, 2nd c d. Hemisphere,
Washington, D.C.
tube ~ . In
34. Koehler. W., and Kastner, W. (19P;1l) Two-phase pressure drop in boiler
Two-Phase Flow Hem Exchangers. S. Kaka<;, A. E. Bcrglcs. and E. O. Fcrnilndcs
(eds.l, pp. 575- 593. Kluwcr, Dordrecht.
35. Boun::, 1. A., Bcrgles, A. E., and T ong. L. S. (]973) Review of two-philsc
instability. Nile. £"8. Des. 25 165 - 192 .
36. Berglcs, A. E. (lIISI) Instabi litie s in two-p hase systems. In Two-"hast.' flow allli
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383-422. Hemisphe re, Washington, D.C .
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38. Lcdincgg. M. (1938) Ins tabili ty of flow during natural and forced ci rculation . Dil'
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39. Kaka~, S., and Veziroglu, T. N. (19851 Two-phasc flow in~tabilit ic s in boiling
systems: Summary and review. In Alil'oll(·...s in Two-Phase Flow and H ...ol Transfer,
S. Kakac;; and M. Ish ii (cds.). Vol. 2. pp. 577- 667. Klu .....cr. Dordrecht.

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258 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

40. Gurgenci. H. et al. (11186) Pressure drop <lnd rJcn~ity wave thresholds In bniling
channels. ASME Paper K6-WA/ HT-73.
41. N<lkanishi . S .. and Kaji. M. (11186) An OIpproxim<lllon method for con~trueti(ln of a
stability map of density wave oscilla tions. Nilc. EIIM . DC)". 95 55-64.
42. Friedly. J. c.. Akinjiola. P. O .• and Roberlson. J. M. (1979) Flow oscillation in
boiling channels. AlelzE S),fflIJ. Su. 18975204 - 2 17.
43. Jens, W. H ., a nd Lolles, P. A. (I 95 I) Analysis of heat transfer burnout. pressure
drop and density d<lta fo r high-pressure wa teT. Reporl ANL-4627. U.S. Govern -
ment.
44. T horn, J. R. S.• Walker, W. M .• and Fallon. T. A .. a nd Reising, G. F. S. (1905 )
Boiling in subeoole u wate r during now up heated tubes of annuli. Paper pre-
sented al the Symposium on Boiling Heat Tr<ln ~fcr in Steam Generating Unit~
<lnu Heat Exeh<lnger.~. M<lnchester, UK, IM echE P<lpcr 6. September.
45. Davis. E. J .• <l nd Anderson, G. H. (\%6) The Incipience of nucleate bniling in
forced convect io n now. AICIIE 1. 12{4) 774-781)
46. Chen. J . C. (l1J66J Corre lation for boiling heat transfe r to salUriited fluids in
convective fl ow. Ilid . Ell/: . Owm. Pror. DeI. lA'l. 5 .'21-329.
47. Elelstc in . So, Pe rex, A. 1.. and Chen. 1. C (]'i,:-: .I) Analytica l re presentation of
convective boiling functions. AIChE 1.30 840-1)4\.
48. Scruton. B.. a nd Chojnowski, B. (1982) Post drYllut heat transfer for s t~' am water
tlowing in vertical lubes III high prc!>su re. 1-hul Trallsfer 1982 . He misphe re.
Washington , O.c.
49. Groeneve ld. D. c.. and Delorme. G. G. J. (1971») Prediction or thermal nonequi-
librium in post dryoul regime. Nud. Eng. Dt'J . .1617- 26.
50. Kimncr, G. R., and Sutton. C. (19711) CUmp<lTl'>llll Ilf p().~t dryout hea l trimsk,
correlat io ns with expe rimental data. U KAEA Report AEEW-R I26b.
5 1. Koe hler. W .. and Kastne r. W. (l 9R8) Post CHF hea t transfer in boiler lubes. In
Two-Phase Flow Heal Exchangers. S. Kaka~ . A. E. Ber g le ~. and E. O. Fcrnandes
(cds.), pp. 553-5 73. Kluwer. Dordreehl.
52. Hewill . G. F. (197M) Critielll heat flux in now bllllillg. Heal Trrm4er 1978. Vol. b.
pp. 143- 171. Hemisphere. Washington. n.c.
53. Butterworth. D .. and Schock. R. A. W. (1982) Fluw boil ing. Hra l rr/Uufn 1982.
Vol. 1, pp. 11- 30. Hemisphere. WilshinglOn , D.C
54. Kallo. Y. (\98b) Criticlli he<lt flux in huiling. !fj'U! Tnm:-./rr 1986, Vnl. I. pp.
171- IBO. H emi~phere. Washington . D.C
55. Kalin. Y . (\983) Cri tica l hellt nux in lun:ed C\lnve<:live Ilow. Pme . ASME -1SMf~
77lermal £"/:illeeri",,, COIIf.. Vol. 3. pp. 1- 10. ASME, New York .
56. Tnng, L. S. (1972) Boiling Crisis ami Criliw/ Ikal Flux. U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission (TID-258B7). Washington. D.C.
57. Collier. J . G. (1980) COII!"cctil 'e Bol/in/: alld Cow/t"/l.l"a lio/l, 2nd cd .• pp. 236-300.
McGraw- Hill. London.
58. Tong. L. S.• a nd l-tewin. G. F. (1972) Ovcr<lll vie wpoint of !low hoiling CHr
mechanism. ASME Papcr 72- HT-54.
59. Bcrg1c ~, A. E. (I1J71J) Burnout in boiling heat Iransfer. 11 : suocooleu illld low
quality forced convection system. Nuclear Safer}' 20 671-689.

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 REFE RENCES 259

bOo Be rglcs, A. E. (1979) Burnout in bOIling heat trans fer . II I: H igh qua lilY sysle ms.
Nlle/eur SII{t'fy 20 671 -~9 .
61. Govan. A. H. (1987) Modeling of uryou l in vc rt ical upnow. UKAEA Repon
AERE· RI 2SIMJ, Apri l.
62. Kitt o. J. B. ( 1900) C ritical heat fl u.\ and the limiting quality p he nomenon. fie Uf
TrutU!a-Or/llluJIJ 19XO, A IChE Symp. Sl: r. 199. pp. 57- 7M.
63. Watson. G. B.. Lee. R. A. .•md Wiener. M . (1974) Criticlll heat flux in inclined
a nd vertic.~1 smooth and ribbed tubCl>. PrO<..·. Fiflh 1m . H l'ul Tru /lsjf!r CUll/.. Vol. 4.
pp. 275-279.
M . Kill o. J. 8. , <lnd Wie ne r. M . ( 191S2l Effects of nonuni form ci rcumfe re ntial hea ting
anu incl ination lin eritit al hL:a l nU\ 11\ smooth and ribbed bore tuhes. Heal
Trlllls/I'r 1981, Vol. 4, pp. 297-302 . Hem isphe re. Wash ington, D .C.
05. Groeneveld, D. c., a nd R ou~sea u . J . C. (19101 CHF and post·CHF heat tr<lns fer:
An assessment of predictio n me thods and re(ommend<l l ions for reactor safelY
cod cs. In nit' AdmlICt's /II TWf}-!)}w .II· Flow Illid Heal Trall5fer, S. Kaka ~ and M .
Ishii (cds.!. M;lrl inu.~ Nijhutf, The l! 'lgue.
66. Groeneveld. D. c.. Cheng. S. C .. ,Ind Di);m, T . (1980) 1986 AECL-UO critical
he at flu)( lookup I<lblc. Hl'al Tram/a Elig illl'er/II!; 7(1 :IIlU 2) 4fl- fl 2.
07. Katlo, Y., and Ohnn. H. (]WI4) An improve d ve rsion o f the gene rali zed cnrrela-
lion of c ritical heat lIu)( for the forced convective boil ing in uniformly hcated
vcrtica l tuhcs. 1111 . 1. Hew Mu.u TramJer 27(9) 1fl4 1- Ifl4K
OX. Shah, M. M. (11)79) A generalized graphical method for predi ctin g CHF in
uniformly heateu veniealtubes. 1m . J. 111'11 / MII.H Tmn.ljl' , 22 557- 56,11.
o~. BelYilkov, I. I.. Smirnov. S. I. , ;11lt! Rom.mov, D. F. (l(83) lovesliga tio n of
dete rioration in the he<ltlran~fe r in uniform ly hemed largc diamete r tubc~ dur ing
vertica l mot ion of the heat transfer mediu m. EIII'ry(OIt1(IJ"hirlo)·IUH.'lIit' 3 IO- IJ.
70. Chojnowski. 13. , and Wilson. P. M. (]974) C ritical hea t nux for largc d ia me ter
~te"m ge nerator tuhe ~ with e ircum lcre ntlal variahle and unifor m heati ng. IJUl('
Fifth 1m. Ika/ TmflJ"/l'r COIlf.. Vol. .:I . pp . 260- 262,
71. Bowring. R. W. (1 972) A simple h ul accura le round tube. uniform heat flu)(
drytlUt correla tio n over rrcs~urc ran ge 0.7- 17.11 M N / m ~ ( 1IKI -2.'i11O psi,,). UKAEA
R c p<)TI AEEW-R-71:19.
72. Tabular dala for calcula ting bUfliliu t when boiling water in uniformly heated
rou nd tubes (] (76). T('J)I(}('m'ry(I'lica. ZJ(I}) IMJ- 92. Trllnslation in Th('rmuf Engineer-
ill}!, pp. 77 - 71l_ Scpternlh:r 1977.
73. Ca rM.: n. W. R., and Willi,lms, II . K (19KII) Met hou o f reducin g rarrylJver and
reducing pressure drop through ~le am ge nerators. E lectric Po"'e r Research
Ins t itute ( Rcpon NP-16lJ7), Palo A ltt). Ca lif.
7~ . Carter, H . R .. and Prue ter. W. P. (191«)) [vll luiltion and correlat ion of t he ctfects
of operat ing cond it ions 00 the muisture carryove r performance o f ce ntrifugal
ste am wa ter sepa ra lOrs. Pmc. S)'mp . I'o/yplwse Flow and Trallsport Tedllwlog),.
ASME, New York .
75. Ulton. A. M ., Prue ter, W. P .• a nd Wall. 1. R. (1985) A study of geometric ~a lin g
o f curved -arm primary sle am - water s.cp ara lOr ~. Heal Tra llsfer-[Xm"er 1985.
AIChE S~mp . Scr. 245.

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260 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS' FUNDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

76. Mil1ingltln. B. C. (1 98 1) A haekground III C)'don i~' -.c paralion of steam from wate r
in the powe r gene rat ion indu\try. Report No. MF / I'I I/ IK Dept . of Meeh. Eng .,
Univ. of SoulhamplOn , Southampton (UK),
77. Cuuiter, E. (191'19) MoiSlure se paral illn and steam washi ng. In Waler Tt'chnfJlrJ!,,)'
fo r nrt'rml/f POWl" SySlt'lPU, P. Cohe n (cd ,). pp. 10· 1- 1043. ASME, New York.
78. Gardner, G . C. Crow. I. G ., and Ne ller . P. H. (1973) Carry·under performance of
drum.~ in high· pressure cin:ulation huilers. /" o~ ·. In.vl . M f.charuca! f."ngim'l'r.J
187(1 4) 207-2 14.
79. Thomas, R. M. (191\0) Rules for modelling the ~ teOldy·s t 3te earry·under perfor.
m,lnee of boiler drums usi ng Freon· 12. ASME S{If:'ria ll'ublicltIiOIl !-ITO Vol. \4.
pp. 27-36. ASME, Ncw York.
80. C he n, X.. and He, X. (1986) An experimen tal stud y lin t hc scpar<ltm on ~ ubcri l i ·
cal low ci rculation ralc boile r. In Two ·PlIl/se FloI'. (/Iul llt'lII Trans/a : Chi/w -U.S.
'),ogre.l".f. X. Che n .wd T. N. Vczi rogJu (cds.), PI'. 453- 407. Hemisphc n::, Was hing·
IOn, D .C.
8 1. Gorzegntl, W. P. ct :.1. (1 9RX) Supcn::ritieal on ...... ·,hrough unit design trends. In
imprOI"f'(/ Coal Fired Po .... ~·r 1'11I1I1s. A. Armo r, c t :1I (cds.). pp . 2·95-2. 121'1. Elecrric
Powe r Rese arch Institute (Report CS ·558 1·S R). Pli lo Alto. Clilif.

APPENDIX 6.1: KEY HEAT TRANSFER PARAMETERS -

SUPERHEATER, REHEATER , AND ECONOMIZER

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (see also Cha pters 2 and 3)

0 " In( 0 ,,/0 , ) D" 1.0 0"

+ + - -+ R - (6 . 1· 1)
2k", /), h, I' /),

Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient On-line - Smoot h Tube: Gnlelinskl

Formulation) [1]

(6 . 1·2)

(6. 1·3)

II, - interlube rad iation conductance (2) (6 .1·4)

Fd "" (sec Fig. 6 . 1- 1) (6.1·5)

1-' - 1 0+
A . [( -4b0.7)(
1}
6/ 0 - 0 .3 )]
(b / a + 0 .7)2
(6 .1·6)

(6. 1·7)

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NU T - -:-::---=-:-:-:-;:-:=..--::-",'--'--:7:- (6 . 1-8)
1.0 + 2.443Re. - 0 I( 1', 2/3 - 1.0)

(where SI - horizont al pi l ch pe rpend icu l ar to flow) (6. 1-9)

.1',
b - (where .\'2 - pitch in di rect ion of flow) ( 6. 1-10 )
/)"

(whe re G - mass flux in empty convectio n pass cross section) (b . l - ll )

w
w - I .() - - (6 . 1· 12)
40

P, - ( kc, ~ ) (6 . 1-1J)

All properties arc eval uat ed al the avcrage bulk flui d te mpe ra ture:

1.0

,,'
~ o.g v ----
/
~
~

"15.m
0 0.8

~c
~
e- 0.7
o;
m
I
:I:
0.6
o 2 4 6 8 10
Number of Rows Crossed
FiR. 6.1 · 1. Tube bundle convection heat transfe r correction facto r [21.

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Inside Heat Transfer Coefficient for Turbuler;;' Flow (Heating only-
Smooth Straight Tube: (Petukhov - Kirillov Correlation (3):

(6.1-14)

f= (1.82Iog l "Re - 1.64) (6.1-15)

GO,
R!' - - - (6.1-16)
!' r

Pr =
c,,!, ) ( 6. 1-17)
( k r

All properties are evalu;lIet! at Tb except for Po- I> ;11 the hulk fl uid tcmpcr.Hu rc
and Po- .., at the wall temperature . Sec also Chapter 3 for addit ional correla-
tion!> for forced convection through ducts, and the conditions under which
they arc applicable.

Fouling Factors- R,o and R ,,: Experience Dependent (sec C hapte r 4)

Total Heat Transfer (sec Chapter 2)

Q = U" 'A,,' LMTD· F(T

LMTD - log mean temperature difference ( 0. 1-19)

f~ ' F = the LMTD cro!>sflow correction fa ctor for most serpentine

bundle arrangements is approximately equal to I .U (6. 1-20)

NOTE: additiona l nomenclature is defined in the main text.

REFERENCES
I. Schh.i ndcr. E. U . (cdJ (14K.'i) 111'(1/ f j 'oIJIIIJ}:('r f), -.,illlJ HUIII/hook, VlIk 2 and 3
(2.5.3). H cmi~phcre. Washington. D.C.
2. Steam: IIJ Generutlun utili Use, 3':.1t h cd. The Babcoc k & Wilcox Company. New
York.
3. PClukhov. B. S. (1 970) Heal Transfer and fri cti \lIl in turbulent pipe Ilow with
variable physical prtlpcrti c~. In AC/f"U/JeI's in Heat TWfujer. J. P. Hartnett and T. F.
Irvine (cd~.), pp. .'in4 -.'iM . Academic, New Ynrk .

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 APPENDIX 6 .2 263

APPENDIX 6.2: SAMPLE CORRELATIONS FOR TWO-PHASE

MULTIPLIERS AND VOID FRACTION IN STEAM - WATER FLOWS

Pressure Loss Coefficients - Two-Phase - Fittings ( .p ) (includes

reversible and Irreversible losses)
The loss cocfticie nt for tw(}-phase flow in fittings has not becn well estab-
lished [1 - 5). Three cases arc of interest: 10S$ in a bend , loss in a sudde n
expansion (into an outle t headed, and loss in a sudden contraction (out of a
header). For the case of bends. the fo llowing correla tion has been formulated
0
for 90 bends:

<l>H = 1.0+ (PI - 1.0) (8X(1.0-X) + X2) (0.2·1 )

P,

(Chisholm pa rame ter (I] ) «(,.2·2)

(6.2-3 )

where R equa ls the radius of the bcnd . f)i equals the inside tube d iamcte r,
and KLO is the loss coeffi cie nt for the entire flow as a liquid (see (5 ) .
For sudden expansions. an a pproach that has been suggested for the
tw(}-ph ase mu ltiplier and loss coefficient incl udes:

(IJ _ C - 1.0)
1.0+ - - (6.2-4)
( X X~

K - 25°( 1.0 - S° j( 1.0 - x) ' (6.2-5)

where

small area
(6.2·6)

(6.2·7)

(6.2·8 )

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264 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIREO BOILERS: FUNOAMENTALS AN D ELEMENTS

For sudden contractions, a possible approach is the application of the

homogeneous mUltiplier:

(e-')l
¢ =
(1.0 + " { x
" I
(0.2-9)

K = (1.0 + single-phase loss coefficient) (6,2-10)

Actual values of the entrance and exit loss cOl' lficicnts depend on specific
tube-to-header geometries. Accurate coefficient values have to he obtained
from experiments.

Pressure Loss Coefficients and Void Fraction for Smooth Tubes

(pre-CHF)
Given the uncertaint ies and caution stated in the main text , the following
correlations [6-8} for void fraction and two-phase multipliers arc presented
for prel iminary consideration. For void fraction . either a homogeneous void
fraction or a drift flux model is typically used. The homogeneous void
fraction (used in the acceleration pressure drop term PI, fo r example) is:

I '!I X
(6,2-11)
/:/ (1 .0 - x) + I ·~ X

For cases where phase slip needs to be accounted for (hydrostatic head.
for example), the equation of Rouhani (taken from [7]: version of
Zuber- Find lay drift flux model (9]) is sometimes used for void fraction ,
alt hough it does not adequately address some mass flow effects:

(6.2-12)

C,, = I.O+O .1 2(I.O-x) (0.2-13)

= relat ive velocity (6.2-14)

Other correlations for void fraction are listed in 16, 8).

As with void fraction correlations, no two-phase multiplier correlation
provides consistent and accurate predictions over a wide range of parame-
ters. One empirical correlation frequently cited for vert ical and inclined

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 REFERENCES 265

boiler tubes is that of Friedel {7, 81:

3.13 FH
rbio = E + Fr · ((J4~ 003'
I. . We· - .
(6.2- 15)

E = ( 1.0 _ .\. ) ! + X 2 ( PlfGO ) (6.2-16)

p~fLO

(6.2-17)

}-/ =
(- )"'' ( - )"'"( 1.0- - )'"
PI

fJ~
J.tl<
J.t I
J.t ~

j). .'
( property parameter) (6 .2-IX)

c; !
Fr * --, (6 .2-19)
1-:DPlI

C 2V
We· (6.2-20)
PI/if

fJl/ = (X/'K+ { I.O-X)I '1 )- ' " (6 .2-2 1)

where f(;o and fLO a re the frict ion factors for all of the fluid as a gas and as
a liquid, respcctively. As with the void fraction , 11 0 two-phase multiplier
correlation can be selected for all applicatio ns. Significant deviations can
occur witho ut a database cove rin g the general operating conditions of
inle rest.

REFERENCES
I. Chi~holm. D. (1 973) Research note; Void fraction during two·phase now. 1. Mecll
EIII-: _ Sci. 15("\) 225- ::!36.
2. Ch isholm, D. (lIJHO) Two-phase Ilow in hends. In l. J. Mufllpflll-l"!' Flow'" ]6J - ]67.
3. Chi~ hol m. D. ( 1983) Gas- Liquid !low In pi peline systems. In Hum/book uf Fir/ids ill
Morion, N. P. Cen:misinotf and R. Gupta (Cdd. pp. 483 - 513 _ Butterworth. Boston.
4. Geiger. G. E. (1964) Sudden C(lnt ra(! ion losses in single - and two-phase now.
Ph .D. Thesis, University of Pittsburgh .

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NEXT
266 FOSSIL·FUEL·FIREO BOILERS: FUNOAMENTALS AN D ELEMENTS

5. Idelchik. I. E. (lq86) Handbook of Hydraulic Re~'lj'lance , 2nd cd. Hemisphere.

Washington. D .C.
6. Collier. 1. G_ OWIl) Introduct ion 10 two·pha~ now problems in the power
industry. In TWQ ·Pha~ FloM.! and Heat TraflSfer in the Power and Process Industries,
A. E. Bcrglcs. el al. (cds.), pp. 226-255, 573- 579. Hemis phere, Was hington, D.c'
7. Koehler, W., and Kast ner. W. (1988) Two·phase pr c.~s ure drop in boiler tubes. In
TM,!Q·Pha~ FloM.! Heal Exchanxers, S. Kaks'i, A. E. Bergles, and E. O. Fe rnandes,
(cds.). pp. 575- 593. KJuwer, Dordrechl.
8. 5<:hlUndcr, E. U. (cd,) (] q85) Heal Exchanger 1k.IIKfI Handbook , Vois. 2 and 3.
Hemisphere, Washington, D ,C,
9. Zuber, N., and Findlay, J. A. 09(5) Average volumetric concentration in two-phase
l1ows. 1. Heal Transfer 87 453- 468.

APPENDIX 6.3: SAMPLE CRITICAL HEAT FLUX (CHF) CORRELATION

As indicted ea rl ier in the main text of this chapter, none of the existi ng
publicly available critical heal flux (CHF) correlations can be recommended
for general use at this time , For large-dia meter tubes and pressures over 14.5
MPa, eve n the best corre lations can of 'erpredic/ the actual CHF data by 10%
to 100% . To address this complex si tua tion, equipmen t manufacturers have
developed proprietary databases and correlations for specific conditions.
A variety of correlations have been proposed for CHF in smooth lubes,
Some of th e better known correla tions arc listed in Table 6.3- 1. For illustra-
tive purposes only, the method proposed by Groeneve ld [1 - 4] is supplied
here. As was indicated in Section 6.5.2, Groeneveld 's corre lation for CHF
takes the form of a lookup (able (included here as Table 6.3-2), This table
identifies CHF values as a function of pressure. mass flux , and local steam

TABLE 6.3·1 Sel«tro CHF Correlations

Number Reference Author Year Type

I 1- 4 Groeneveld 1988 Tabular methods with corrections

2 5 Katto 1984 Multiple explicit equ ations- heat
tr;lnsfer illld flow rCllime
de pendent
3
• Shah 1979 Graphica l- heat tr a n ~fcr and flow
rellime dependent
4 7 Bowring 1972 Explicit equations
5 8 USSR standard 1976 Tabular methods with corrections
method
6 9 Doroshehuk 1975 Single equation - less reliable
at high qualities and large tube
diameters

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 REFERENCES 26 7

l.juali ty. These va lues appl y to a si ngl\! speci fic geometry:

Long vertical !'.mooth oore tuh\!

U,1I0S m inside diameter
Uniform ci rcumfere nt ial and ax ia l hea ting
Upward co·current flow

For cond itions not exp licitly listed in the look-up table, interpolation is
recommended hy Groe neveld to obtain the heat !lux for CHF cond it ions
[CHHP.(i . x)j. This hase v;lluc can he adjusted for ot her geometry and
heating si tuations hy mult iplying il hy a se ries of corre lation facto rs K .
th rough K ,,:
C HF I .()('\L "" C H F(P.G.\)·K.·K 2 ·K,·K4·K ~ ·K h (6 .3 ·1)
For tuhular section:. with SI\!am - wa tcr fl ows. Eq. (6.15) in Section 6.5.2
provid\!s the corre lation factor equ ations.

REFERENCES

l. Groe ncvcld. D . C. and R ous~c;,tu . J C. (1~83) C IiF and post·C HF he:11 transfe r:
An ;L~sc.~~ mcnt (If prediction mcth ntl~ and rccom mcnd.Hion s fur reaelor silfct y
n"lllc .... In The AdnmC('S ill T ....o·P/III,,· Flo ... (Ind H t QI Tr(JIIsjer. S. Ka ka<;: and M .
Ish ii (Cd~.). M,lrI iIlUS Nijhoff. T he (-I'I!;Ue .
2. Groeneveld. D. C. Cheng. S. C. and Doan. T. (lq86) 1986 AEC L· UO cri lica l he at
nUll IllO,)ku p table. Hell! Tram-fa Ell\: . 1( I a nd 2) 46- 02 .

.1. ( irnencveld. D . C. (lqH2) A gene ra l ("!-IF predict ion method for W' lter ~uitllhle for
re,lttllT acciden t ,mal ysi~. Ce n tre d'Et udes Nucic3ires de Gn.::nobic. Report
DRE/ SlT j SETRE/ Xl·2·E/HGR . ( ircnohJc.
4. Groencveld. D . C .. and Smock. C. \\' (1986) A comprehensive examination of he,Ll
tr.tn~fer correlat io n ~ ~uitubk for rC..l(\or safety analysis. In ."'llilripJwse Sne/lce alld
rt'clllllllfIK}". pp. IX I - 274. H cm i ~phcr(;. Wu~hingtl!n . D.C.
5. Kilttl!, Y.. ;md Ohno. II. ( IWW) An lmpf(l~'ed vcrsio n o f th e general ized correlatio n
of nitical he;1l flu:>. for th e fORed wnvcet ivc boiling in uniformly heated vertical
tube,. 1111 . J . HI'al MU ....f rruruj'er 27(') 1041 - 1048.
Sh<lh. M . M. (lIn!) A gcne ralizo.'d grLIphieal me th od for predicting C HF in
f) .
un iformly he<lto.'d ve rti e<ll tu be~. 1111 . J. Ht'al MI1.u rrl.lll.lj£'r 22 557-56K
7. B(1wrtng. R. W. (lq72) A simpk hut ;u.:curalc round tuh e. uniform heat flux dryout
correlat ion ove r pr6su re range 0.7- 17.0 MN / m2 (]()(1-2500 psial. UKAEA Re·
port AEEW· R·7HIJ.
X. T 'lhular d3ta for c'llculuting hurnout whcn hoi ling water in uniformly heated round
tuhes. T('/,IOt" laR,'licu 23( 9) 9(1- n. Tr,lnslalilln in Thalllal EIIK. 77-79. September
1977.
IJ. Dornshehuk. V. E .. Lcvi lan. L. L. . ;lnti LUll ~m;m . f . P. (1975) Recommendations
for calculating burno ut in it round tube wit h u n ifo rm heal releasc. Thermal Eng.
22( 12) 77- 80.

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 268 FOS$IL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: ~NDAMENTALS AND ELEMENTS

TABLE 6.3·2 Groeneveld eHF look.Up Table (kW / m l) (Appendix 6.3 Rerere nces I 104 )
Ma "
Flu.
l'rc"ore G
kP ' ~i / m" .> - (J.:";O -0.40 - 0.:10 -0.10 11. 15 - n.w -0.05 O.IM)

1 '1.'11 3,430 2.045 1.2111)

""
lOU "
50 4.1Mj/; '-500 2.4«() 1. 71M)

'"' UKI 4 lUI '.200 3.lI1I1 2.2(111

Hill 21111 .~. t,I.1 4.'100 3.!ltxl Hffl
_.500
""
~ A(1I1
.lIMI 5,/'1110 J."
'00 51MI 7. 21111 h.:l1Nl ,.,." 3.bOU
7~1 ~.I XMI 7,noo ~.QOO 5,500
'''' ,.""
,.,
,00 I.\tlll
),SUIl
II,II(XI
'1.t~1I1
,",00
M.~
,.".,
7,000 5..'\00
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'.""
'.","
7,7m n.oon
,.,
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4.IUIl
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11,4(11'
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0."'"
1(11) 5.IIOU 11.!>I1I' IU,/'>IIII '1,5111) K.(WlII
ifill 75(111 I ~. fXlIl 11,5(111 11 .000 Ul.5(1)
,
""
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().273
6,.144
~.I)m

4. 11111
J,50(l
.1,(J1)()
2.400
2.700
t.J5U
I,'IU)

,.,'''' 1(111
2(MI
fd'l7 4,11(111 -I.2m
-."",,
3,200 2.-1(111
2.71111
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JO()
IlA!J.I;
(>.571
6,721
.' .4110
I>.lXJIII
". bllIl
,.-
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3.5UI
4.0UO
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'4,\(;0
.W<>
150 7~n 7 ..", ) .2(10 ",bllIl ~,nm
1511 I ,W) X,OUI) l,IItIU 7,200 5.5IKJ 5,l1KJ
'.>00
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""
I.5CIII
2.1 •• 1
1I,6on
Q,21M1
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7."""
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4,IXMI
5,111111
751111
10,200
IO,71MI
11,200
III.lUJ
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11,1100
10,400
b,OUU
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5,000
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'1 •.~ (x)

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4.'155
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4,111MI
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'""
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SI MI
7j()
(I,17K
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n,n JIl
5,41)(J
~l,m
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4,45U
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3,(0)
3,I5U
.\3m
'"' ,\91 111
4,O()U .1.40)
'"'
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lOll
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,"""
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7 •.170
".IUO
6.:!11t1
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" . .uXI
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""
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75()5
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7."
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5.742
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lOll 5,IIIM) II,XXII 1>.I~)7 1>, 120 ~,2"7 4.1(45

"'"
.\0,)
750U <,1,'19(1 ".'1<,111
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"".
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4592
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to ,142
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l."
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.W I,IU) h.521 11.2110 4,()OO J,<j(iII

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2.!XXl
6.8t.2
7.1/10 '.w. '.300
4.154 4,11111
4,lOU
-."
4,100

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 APPENDIX 6 .3 269

O""lot)
IW~ 1110 II_I~ 11 20 IJ 11' 114" O<,j) I) r ~) 117u lU;U 1l'10

,., - -- - - -
1.lnl ~m ,", m, 71 11 41".1, HI! 4~4 _HI} 225
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 270 FOSSll·FUEl·FIRED BOilERS FUNDAM ENTALS AND ELEMENTS

TARLE 6.3·2 (Collt/mud)

M~~,

FI".
1'",,,,,,.., (i
H'a - ().~o - O.,'IU ·- (un - II III ·-I).lle; II.IMI

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6,4(1)
1>,500

BACK CONTENTS NEXT

 APPENDIX 6,3 271

Qualny
IJ.I)5 (I, !II O,I~ 0.20 11.2 5 lUl l 11.411 1),50 o.(~) 0.70 IU(U (I'MI

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l.~h(j 1.1>25 liKI 5511
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BACK
BACK CONTENTS
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NEXT
 272 FOSSIL-FUEL- FIREO BOILERS: FUNDAMENTAlS AND ELEMENTS

TABLE 6.3-2 (Continued)

Mass
F'hu
Pr essure G
k l'~ k,/m l . -O,~I - 0.40 - Q,3() -0.20 0.15 - 0.10 -0.05 o.m

,,...,
0.500
"" 9.683 8.477 '.800 '.'00
'.000
'.100
'.=
6."'" b.40U

'.500 ""
'.000
':1.\154 11.71>7 11.100
'.200
6.700 6,3111.1

,"""
1.500
l.~(_.

uro
10,207
10,6711
11,119
9,O:u!
9,543
10.015
..'.200'"
8,757
11,000
'.000 '.200
'.200
6."'"
6.7())
6.""
().250
6.200
,,'"
I,SIJ()
jJXIO
4.0:10
1],93'1
n,ms
10.11<13
11.714
11,637
IO.4~9
'.000
7,529
7,645
6.7W
6,836
6."'"
6.=
6.=
6,100
6. 100
1.500 S.oon 11,4)) 12, 493 11.239 11.500 '.500 6.900 6 •.100
"00
2.000
2.000
2.000
.."
'.500

'00
9.1>32
'1,749
9.8.\6
15,137

'.""
1'1.692
8.764
14.317
7,495
7.629
7,729
13,06'"
h,421
6.550
6,646
'.000
4,511 1
S,870
'.OW
4.130
5,420
5.>00
7.100
,.""
4,97'0
6.300
J,2JO
4,1fXI
5.200
2.000
2,11110 ""
300
':I.9!IH
10.124 "''''
9.nH.H
7,'J02
1I,05R
7.100
7,450
6."'"
'.000
'.<00
6.""
7.350
"'"
0.0'"
7,2CXl
b,7llU
h,~10

2.000 500 10,)72 9.)49 1:1.343 ,."'" '.'00 '.600

'.BOO
7,500
' .000
7.200
7,2OU
2.000
""
urn
10.056 9.6411 8.66. 11,100 11.100

•.'.300"'"
2.000 10,<121 \I.9M 11,971 11,200 8,100 1."", 7,71~
2,0(J0 I ,SOO 11.414 HI,4<UI 9,536 8,SOO '.<00 ' .800 ?,JS?
2.000 2,tXlO 11,876 10,9}4 10,064 OJ,OOIl 11,700 '.500 'i'" '-000
2,UOO 1.000 12.73~ 1I ,I!4O 11,047 'I,S32 11,'144 11.I3~ ,."" 6,...
'.000
2,I MMI ' .000 13,537 11,~ 11,964 10,713 '1,1160 11,251 '.000
VOl
2.000
5_
,~
\4,m
16,08J
13,41(9
1~,JQ9
12,8..1('
14.1176
11,551l
13,507
10,000
111.300
'.500
• .500
'.500
5.500 .....
5.000

3,0110 M,II5.11 11,031 7,207 4,650 '.2'00 3,930 3Slt)

'""
6."'"
1.000
3,000 '00
8,993
9,093
8,18 1
11,291
7,351!
7.410
/),518
6.620
6,038
6.500
5,573
6.000
5,I0fI
BOO
'.""
5.""
HIIXJ
"" 9,267 1I,4]!.4 1.665 1.300 ''.500
.200 7, 100 6,700
1.000 100 '1,424 1I,6!'i7 7,Ml '.oro '."" "''''
7 ..1.52 7,029
HOO
1.000
500
75U
9,710
10,036
8,973
9,334
8,161
11,527
'.000
,."'"
'.000
8.>00
8.000
!!,lOU'.'"
I!,IUO
7,645
'.BOO
1.000
1.000
I,OU()
1,500
10,30(1
IO,9OOJ
9,671
10,299 '."'"
9.505
'.500
'.800
11,300
S,700
S,lOU
8,248 '.""
7,Q07
7,711
?,2M
3,000 2.000 11,440 10,885 10.099 9,200 <;1,100 '.000 '.® '.900
~,OOO 1.000 12.429 11.977 11.206 10,010 "00 '.000 '.500 8.000
1.000 ' .000 13,351 12.997 12,2]9 10,947 1U,500 '.000 7,027 6.592
,1,000 5.000 14,228 13.966 IJ.22 I 11.837 10,800 8,505 1."" 5,810
MOO '.500 10,281 16,234 15.518 1),919 00.200 8,623 7,035 5.246
M,OlIJ 7,4111! 6,1195 4,676
'."'" 4,125 3,1150

'""
'.500 6.""
'.500 .'1,250 7,658 7.055 (',4 32 5,669 5.100 5.000 4,71.1
'.500
'.500
'00
200
8,374
8,5119
•."'"
7,784
,,,,,
7, 174

,,.,
6,535
6."'"
0.000
0.000
5,600
6.""
5,300
6.""
'.000
6.000
'.500 100 8,7113 8.202 7.100 '.000 ,."" 6,490 6.367
."'"
,'.800 '.JOO '.100
'.500
'.500
'.500
500

""
<).136
9,539
8.562
8.973
•.""
1.006
7,700 7,100
'.00'>
7,106
6,777
6.7R3
6.089

.=
4,500
'.000
UOO
2.000
9.9 1ft
lO.bl7
11.273
'1.357
10,073
10,741
1I.6!'i6
9,330
9,959
7.1116

...."'""'"
11,500
7.700
7,76!1
,."'"
5.%5
b,lAl
""
5'"
5,500
6,110
5,503
5,4OS
' .500 1.000 11,494 11,986 11.132 6,209 5.955 5,J27 '.000
'.500 '.000 13.633 \J.I~ 12,226 9,215 8."" 6.831 6.216 5,446
,.500 5.000 14,716 ]4,252 13,2116 9,890 8,9)7 '.000 6.624 5,24 1
'.500 '.500 17.151 16.835 15,6<)8 10,510 9,9]) 8.833 7,133 5,109

'.000 0 7,] ]8 6,752 ft.3S] 5,997 4.53S 4,348 4,160 3.970

1.000 SO 7,306 6,927 6'" 6,127 5,485 5,137 4,7<,I(J 4,443

BACK CONTENTS NEXT

 APPEND!)( 6.3 273

/I.I'.~ 11111 n. l:'> 11.1:'> (l4()

11.51' liN' U 1U " .111' II'll'

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BACK
BACK CONTENTS
CONTeNTS .,,"
NEXT
 274 fOSSIL·FUEL·FIRED BOILERS: FUNDAMENTALS AND EL EM ENTS

TABLE 6J·2 (Continued)

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BACK CONTENTS NEXT

 275

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BACK CONTENTS
MI
a::
w Ohapter 07
MI
Z
w
A Once-Through
Z
o Boilers

..'"
MI
a::
o
l-
R. Leithner

e
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o
I
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w
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~

Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 07 Contents
7. Once-Through Boilers
R. Leithner
7.1 Introduction (Historical Review)
7.2 Important Design Criteria in Comparison to Other Systems
7.2.1 Main Characteristic Features
7.2.2 Pressure Range
7.2.3 Operating Modes and Start-Up Period
7.2.4 Start-Up Equipment and Problems
7.2.5 Evaporator Tube Design
7.2.6 Heat Pickup of the Heating Surfaces
7.2.7 Differences in Heat Absorption and Flow Resistance in
Individual Evaporator Tubes
7.2.8 Furnace Wall Design
7.2.9 Feed-Water Quality
7.2.10 Disturbances
7.2.11 Storage Capacity, Load Changes, and Control
7.2.12 Unit Capacity, Dimensions, and Design
7.3 Special Design Considerations
7.3.1 Water Wall Design
7.3.2 Steam Preheating Equipment
7.3.3 Water Separation
7.4 Start-Up Systems and Feed-Water Control
7.4.1 Start-Up Systems
7.4.2 Feed-Water Control
7.5 Examples and Operating Experiences
7.5.1 Lignite Fired 600-MW Once-Through Steam Generator
7.5.2 Bituminous Coal-Fired 740-MW Once-Through Steam
Generator
7.5.3 Power Boiler for Supercritical 475-MW Unit
7.5.4 Steam Generator Unit for Steam Soak or Steam Drive in Oil
Fields
7.6 Summary
Acknowledgments
Nomenclature
References
Appendix 7.1: Example for Calculating Power Generation Costs
Appendix 7.2: Optimal Design of a Recirculation Pump Suction Pipe
Appendix 7.3: Steam Generator Energy Balance

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

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 CHAPTER 7

ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS

R. LEITHNER
TechnicaJ University Braunschweig
Braunschweig, Federal Republic 01 Germany

7.1 INTRODUCTION (HISTORICAL REVIEW)

Jacob Pe rkin s is re ported [ IJ to be the inve nto r of the o nce-through boiler

and the superc ritical cycle. He was born in Newburyport. Massachusetts. o n
July 9, 1766, a nd beca me a n incredibly versatile e ngi neer and scie ntist, who
dea lt with ce ntral he ating pla nts. machine ry for e ngraving ban k notes. stea m
rocke ts, and refrige ra ting machines used to prese rve food a nd ma ke icc. He
a lso pro posed propelli ng a can nonball weigh ing a ton across Ihe English
channel usin g steam at 50,000 psig (3447 ba r) a nd 120crF (MtJ<'C). In 1!-i22 he
bui ll an injection-Iype boiler. in wh ich the amoulII of feed wuter ('fifl'rinx
precisely eqllaled fhe am.ounI of steam discharged . composed of a si ngle coppcr
chambe r wil h a 3· in. wa ll thickness. whic h was reported 10 ope rate :11 750()
psig (517 bar). In 1827 he designed a high-pressure boil e r consistin g of (I
conrimlOus wbe from Ihe inlel 10 Ihe OIulel stea m cha mbe r d ischllrgin g to II
steam engine cylinde r. Jacob Perki ns d ied in London o n J uly 30. IH49.
Although his son A ngier March Pe rkins continued his wo rk in high-pressure
steam. t he e ngineeri ng conce pts of Jacob Pe rkins we re too fa r ahead of his
time a nd his inve nt ion of the o nce- through hoiler at supe reritieal pressu re
did not gain a ny pra tiea l im porl a nce. In 1889 Leon Se rpolle t 111 devised a
successful o nce- thro ugh boile r of th e fla sh type fo r steam automobi les.
As la te as 1923 [ I] MlIrk Be nson, a Czechoslovakian c hem ica l engineer,
who had e migraled to the United St a tes, proposed a turbine to opera te a t a
steam pressure of about 1500 psig ( 103 ba r ) t ho ug h the throttle pressure used
at that time in U.S, ce ntral stat ions was 250 psig ( 17 ba r). To avoid problems
of fabricating thick-walle d d rums, Benson designcd a once-t hrough boiler

Boilers. El'Ilporawrs and (.ondl'lrsul, &!itet.! t-o). !l:adrk K aka~

ISBN 0-471 -62170-6 C l'J'l1 JQh[l Wilc~ & So n~. Inc.

277

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27 8 ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS

oper:llin g ;It cri tica l pressure with a reducing \ ,l lv\: ahead of the final
supe rh eater. Such power plant s. built in England . Belgium. and Germany.
had two problems: bo iler control and especially the need for deminer:llized
water. The water treatment at th at time was insutfieic nt and the remaining
im purities in the feed water de positcd in the boi ler tubes so rapidly that only
limited periods of continuous ope ration could be achieved. During the lHte
lnOs Sulzer Brothers. Ltd. in Wint ert hu r. Sw it ze rl and . developed the mono-
tube boiler for operation at suberitical pressure. Th is co ncept elimin ated the
need for thc reducing va lve. reduced the ",a ll th ickness of the evaporator.
and lowered the feed pum p power. By usi ng a wal o.:r se pilrator. this concept
offered thc possibili ty of flu shing the cvaporator duri ng operat ion (chemical
blowdown). tolerating a ce rtain degree of impurit ic .;, in the feed water. Sulze r
Brot hers also improved the feed water control.
During the 1930s in Europe, th e once-t hrough boiler was commercia lly
accepted. whereas in the United States the somewhat lower rela tive cust of
steel and a more rapid development in welding technology allowcd large
thick-walled ( high pressu re) drums and lesse ned the economi c ;ldvantagc of
once- through hoile rs. Thus the broad usc o f om·l.'- through hoilers was de·
layed for another 20 yea rs.
After the deve lopmen t o f Philo 6 o f the AEP Ohio Powcr Co. in lY5.1 as
the fir st commercial supcrcritiral pressure once·th rough utility boiler in the
United States. in 1954 a power ge ne ra tion milestone was announced with
the plans to bui ld Eddystone 1 of Phi ladelphi a Electric Company sctting fo ur
·· firsts·· in the power station industry namely: highest capacity 025 MW.
910 tj hr'. highest steam pressure 045 bar). highest tem perature (oSOOC.
565""C, 51)5 O. and highest efliciency. Si nce that timl.' on ly the capacity
Q

increased up to 4500 Ij hr in the United States. up to 2.5()() t j hr in West

Germany. and up to hetwee n 1500 and 2500 l/hr as an international
standard as shown in rig. 7.1. In [21, a large num her of units wit h supercritl'
cal pressure is li sted. Beca use of the high material costs for Clustenitic steel
and ~me rMlilability problems in the pa __ !. tod ay's ..;.ta nd ard steam pres..<;ure is
,lboul 190 bar and the stc,lm temperatu re about 535°C. One reheater stage
and fe ed-water bled-steam hea ters (steam is extracted from the turbine 10
preheat the fee d wat er thus increasing the cycle clliciency) arc provided.
Of cou rse. there arc also some special req uireme nt s. which make it
uneconomical o r impossihle to usc high pres.~ ur e and high tempera tures [41-
Sma ll indust rial boilers or bo ile rs fOi coge neration of powe r and he,ll for
district helnin g and peak plant s arc examples of such a case. For these
hoilers it is nol economical 10 se lect sophisticated parameters with ex tensive
bled-steilm feed-water heat ers and a re heat system. T ogethe r with a biH:k-
pressure turbine. the design pre.<..<;ure is normally hetv. een 60 and 12U har. the
feed-water temperature is between 120 and 150°C. and the temperat ure al
the supe rhea ter out let is betwee n 400 ,lOd 52(tC. natural circulation is
applied. This leads In a si mple mechanical design wit h a ge nerous furnace as
evaporator :mJ an econom ic a rrangement of supc rheatcr and economizer.

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 i'-USA

h
"'9 '"
CapacIty -,
- .- -~-::...~ -
.-- -:':: .-:"':-. =:.
, rf -:_.-:
-r
~- _ -· ~
-,:
.C

-
FRG::J Capacity

f-oI' 1970 2000

150 '960 '960 '990
" Year

Fig. 7.1. Development of boiler capacity. (Adapted from [2].)

Carbon material is used for all lubc~, except the final !\upcrheatcr where a
low alloy is necessary 10 achieve acceptable lifetime (200.000 o perat ing
hours).
Other examples are boilers in the chemical industry, where, for example.
safe ty reasons may demand a system pressure below the process pressure to
avoid leakage of water and/or steam into the process or the available fuel
and its combustion products contain components which allow only a certain
(metal) surface temperature to avoid or minimize corrosion. For exam pl e.
black- liquor-fired boilers in a paper mill allow only a surface metal tempera -
ture of about 300"C for the furnace walls leading to a corresponding maxi-
mum salUra tion pressure of 80 bar.
Therefore the se lection of the system requires careful conside ration of the
specific needs, boundary conditions.. and customer specifications.
Once-through boi lers are preferred for two main reasons:

I. The need for high steam pre!;!;ure to gai n higher cycle efficiency (l1cyc)
in a water-steam cycle. Figure 7.2 s hows the C lausius- Rankine cycle at
low and high pressure levels and Fig. 7.3 the further impruvement by
reheating the steam partly expanded in the high-pressure part of the
turbine and prehea ting the feed water by bled-steam feed-water heat-
ing. The cycle becomes more and more similar to the Carnot cycle; the
mean upper cycle temperalUre increases and the mean lower cycle

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280 ONCE· THROUGH BOILERS

l Ow·Pressure level Hogh Pressure Level

,
,,
,
,,
,-
, ,
,,,"'- ,,
, ,,
,,
,,
,
," '
, , •
Fill. 1.2. Clausius- Ranki ne cyete. (With p.: rrnb~ ion of 141.1

tempe ratu re decreases resull ing in a higher efli cicnc:y . Figu re 7.4 shows
the histo rica l development o f the stea m prcs~ ure. the stea m tempera-
tures, heat consumption. and effi de ncy.
2. The tende n(.), to higher steam !;apadt ies bl'('a use of dec reasin g specific
capita l and personnel costs.

Both reasons arc connected with the need fOI ~ Irllm ~ a nd great er cvapma ·
tor lube diamete rs of circulatiun boil ers, that IS. with the higher mat erial
costs of these boilers a nd bot h reasons influe nce strongly the cost of power

Rehem,ng nwo Slllgesl

, live Steam

Super he along 2 3
".- - ..
vaporallon . .
,, ,
, , 2.3 HIgh Prossuro TurbIn es
Low Pressure Turbone s
,,
Cond en sation ,,

•
Steam Heat Used lorI
I Bled Steam
Feed·Water Preheating Feed·water Heating

,
Fig.1J. Wa te r-steam cycle with rchca ters and fe cd·watl; r pre heatcrs. (With permis<
sion of 14J.l

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 7I IrflROOUCTION (HI STORiCAl REVIEW) 281

72 >O r--------------------------------,

•
9
••
<

:;)
'.
'0
~13 bo<. 27S' C
260 bar. 53O/ 540 / 530·C
~
0
•0
, " ~•,
30 16 bar. 35O"C

~
t
w E
u
> 0
36 bar . 450"C
u 0

" •• u 20
~ 100 bar. 500*C

~ ..L laO bar,

I 540C
36 00
.::
100 3.6
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year

Fig. 7.4. Historica l development of steam pressure, temperature, heat consumption.

and cycle efficiency. (Adapted from 121.)

generation eel' which can be calcu la ted according to the followi ng equation
[5],

C ca pa mflc Cluel !".,

Col .., + (7. 1)
8760/ •.1"
"~
-------- -----------
in"eS lmenl ope r3ting (fuel) cos ts

where Cc~p am is the specific capita l cost per yea r, and tl.760/a,, /u. is the
equivalent full·l oad operati ng hours per year (same tot al energy out put).
O ne can see from this equa tion t hat decreasing specific capital costs (Ceol' )
and increasing cycle effi ciency ( 11 ~) reduce electrical powe r costs (Cel ). But,
if Ihe increasing efficie ncy (11<),<: ) is combined wit h decreasing avai lability (fa ,, )
and/or increasing specific capital costs (C<al' )' the electrical power costs (C eI )
may rise. See also a ppendix 7.1.
The design, construction, and ope ration of once-t hrough boile rs bec'lme
easier and easier, beca use of the progress in wate r trea tment plants, cont rol
systems. materials, a nd the change from brick walls 10 sk.i n casing a nd wa ter
walls [53J (Fig. 7.5) (wh ich on the othe r hand was a necessity for higher
capacities).
Every time. whe n the fuel costs rise rapidly, the usc of higher steam
pressure is discussed and the once-through boiler becomes more economical.
Today. an increase in the efficiency would also be desirable because of the
reduct ion of the CO 2 emission a nd the influence on the global cl ima te.

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 6585100
I.e
I
125
I
190
I
150
1 I I I I" ---1 '50 t-- ---1 150
r
Frn---:",,-v

Plale

Cover Cover
Plate Cover Plate Cover
Plate Plate

Tube

Insulalion Insulalion Insulation Insulation

Fireclay Fireclay

(a) Heavy Brick Wall (b) light Brick W:::OU (C) Skin Casing (d) Water Wall

'I ~ ~ CONTENTS
til (Membrane Wall)
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NEXT
BACK
Fig. 7.5. Furna Qi \\ ' (,,E,slruclion \53\.
CONTENTS I:C 0 ZI
u
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 7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 283

7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA

IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS

The term oflce-through or natural-circulation boiler on ly refers to the flow in

the evaporator. T he econom izers, su pe rheaters, and reheaters arc all oper-
ated in the once-th rough mode even in a na tural-circu lation boiler. Usua lly,
the evaporator tubes form the furn ace walls, mainly for two reasons:

I. The nearly constant temperature (also fo r supercritical pressure there

is a region where t he te mperatu re changes very li ttle at nea rly constant
pressure. when the enth alpy is increased) allows welded water walls
with minimum stress.
2. The good heat transfer of nucleate boiling provides low materia l
temperatures in spite o f the high rad iation hea l flux.

The need for high transfer rates for safe opera tion dictates one of two
ope rati ng modes:

I. Increase of heat transfe r coefficients by increasing mass flu x and

design ing the tubes for t he appropriate temperat ure. For a given steam
generation rale (feed-water tlow), th is solut ion leads to a sma ll er
evaporator tube diameter, rl smaller numbe r of evapomtor tllbes in

W...P
RR "~
-
W, ..... .. w"."'"

Fig. ' .6. Evaporator recirculation r:Jtill and steam quality :Jlthc evaporator out leI.

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 284 ONCE ·THROUGH BOILERS

paralle l. and highe r pressure drops in thl' evaporator. This is the

once-through hoiler solution.
2. Avoida nce of de p<lriurc of l1ud c<lte boiling DNB or dryout DO (sec
Chapte r 6 and Sect ion 7.2.5) by flow rec irculat ion and in th is way
keeping the stea m qu ,tlity low (see Fig. 7.t)). This is the evaporator
opera ting mode of all circu lation boilers.

7 .2. 1 Main Characteristic Features

Figure 7.7 shows the nuw schemes of five evaporato r ),y~ l c m s. Bas ically. th ere
arc th e two systems accon.ling 10 the two prev i ou~ly mentioned evapora tor

,-1)'---, Natural ,-1)'---, Once Through

, Circulation
, ~
~
ControHe d
Circulatio o , with Superimposed
Circulation

" ~
~~=::;;'D
,. , If 5 Drum 5 Water
3 3~ 3 ,
~=1=~,;tf Separator
, ,
11
,(

Once Through Comblnecl Circulation

, ,

3
:: .
:' :~ 5 Watel
Separator
,
5 T Piece

, \I" ,
131

-- -.- ::t><J J~ ,

1 Feed·water Pump
2 Economizer
3 EvaporatOf
4 Superheater
5 Drum . Water SeparatOf. T Pt6(:e
6 R6(:lIcutalion Pump

Fig. 7.7. Stcam-gl;r1l; rali ng .,)·s t cm~. (A<.l:![ltct.l from 14].)

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 7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPAAISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 285

operating modes:

I. Once-through system consisting theoretica lly simply of one tube. in

whieh the water is preheated, evaporated, and superheated, while it
flows through. In a real steam generalOr, this tube is divided into
seve ral heating surfaces with many tubes in parallel, headers (collec-
tors) at the inlet and outlet, and pipes connect ing the headers of the
heating surfaces. These heating ~urfaces are: economizer (for preheat-
ing), evaporator (usually for building the furnace and hoiler walls), and
superheaters. (Of course, reheaters are also used, but are the same in
any system.) The arrangement c<ln be seen in Figs. 7.7, 7.48, 7.51 to
7.56,7.60, and 7.61.
2. Recirculation systems (see also Chapter 6, especially Section 6.4).

The latter has four subsystems:

I. Natural ci rculation [the driving force is provided by gravity because of

the different weights of the wat er in the downcomers from the drum
and the water-steam miXlUrc in the heated riser tubes forming the
walls of the furnace (water wall ~, membrane wa lls)] and three types of
pump-assisted ci rculation systems. namely
2. Controlled circu lation with a pump assisting natural circulation (allow-
ing higher pressures with less difference in specific weight between
water and the steam-water mixture of a cerlain steam quality), a drum,
and a recirculation ratio (see Fig. 7.6) above 2.
3. Once through with superimposed circulation with a pump as in con-
trolled circulation, but with a (vcrtical) water separator vessel (smaller
diameter) instead of a (horizontal) drum and recirculation ralios
below 2.
4. Combined circulation with a pump as in controlled circulation and once
through with superimposed circulation. but with a reducing valve ahead
of the superheater so that the " eva porator" can be operated at all loads
at supercritical pressure and the drum or water separator are replaced
by a simple T piece. DNB and DO is avoided by supercritical pressure
and a sufficient heat transfer coefficien t is provided by fl ow rccircula-
tion usually at loads below 70,}(· . Once-through operation is usually
applied at full load.

The two systems have two main characteristic features:

I. In a once-through system, the liquid-vapor phase transition point is

variable, whereas for circulation systems, the transition point is fixed in
the water scparator or drum, respectively.
2. In the once-through system, the evaporator pressure drop is supple-
mented by the feed-water pump. In the natural-circulation system, the

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286 ONCE -THROUGH BOILERS

evapora tOr pressure drop is overcome by th e density difference betwee n

the water and the steam- wate r mixture of the downcomers and rise rs.
respectively, and in the other recircu lation systems the natural circu la-
tion is assisted by a pump.

7.2.2 Pressure Range

Figure 7.R shows the pressure ran ges of the different steam generator
systems.

Once-Through Steam Generators In a once-th rough boiler. the pressure

range is not limited by the evaporative system but by the stresses to which
furna ce wa lls and main steam headers arc subjected . T here is also a usual
economica l lowe r limit for once-through boilers at about 80 bar because of
the high pressure drop in the evapora tor.

Steam Generators wi th Recirculation In the Evaporator

Once-Through Steam Generators with Superimposed Circulation This

system is capable of subcritical operation (up to a maximum pressu re of

r-----------,-,,,
Natu.al CuculallQrl
-"
~] Controlled Cuculatlon

Combined Circulation
- - - - - ,------;;==:-:::::;:---, '---- - - - -

--==
Once Through With
Superimposed Circulation

- --~===----
~ =~ o_"'
h
_ ,_ Th_,_0_09__ _ _ _ __
LI_ _ _ _

o ' 00 200 300

Opera!lng Pressure. bar

Fig. 7.8. Applicable pressure range of steam generators. (Adapted from (4].)

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approximately 200 bar in the water separalOr, evaporator t ubes are designed
for DNB or DO) and in principle also of supercri tical ope ration like a
CE~comb ined-c ircul a tion steam generator without throttle valves before the
superheaters.
In the past it was common ly accept ed that the critical pressure range
should be avoided because of the defici en t accuracy of the water level
measu rement despite the high enthalpy difference between saturated water
and saturated steam. Therefore it was assumed that the feed -water level
controller and the feed-water temperature cont roller would not render a
satisfactory control.
AI the Mannheim Powe r Stalion. Unit 18, a special feed-wate r control was
tested that allows the Slea m ge ne rator to be operated in the critica l pressure
range (31.
The lowe r-pressure limit usually at about 80 bar has economic reasons
caused by the relative high-pressure drop in the evaporator.

Combined-Circulation Steam Generator The combined-circulation steam

generator is operated at highe r loads at supercritical pressure. The supcrcril-
ical pressure can be provided in the evaporator also during part load with
slid ing pressu re operation (see Section 7.2.3) and start-up by throttle va lves
before the superheaters.

Controlled-Circulation Steam Generator The cont rolled-circu lation stea m

genera tors arc usually operated up to a maximum pressure of approximate ly
200 bar in the drum. At high pressures the risk of departure from nucleate
boiling CONB) or dryou l (DO) increases. To avoid this, higher reci rculation
ratios CRR > 2 at full load} compared with the once-through boiler with
superimposed recircula tion (R R < 2 at full load) are used.

Natural-Circulation Steam Generator Natural circula tion in the evaporator

system (see Chapter 6, especially Sections 6.3.5 and 6.4) already starts when
the water in the furn ace wall tubes (evaporator tubes, risers) is hotte r than in
the downcomers, if the furnace tubes and their connecting tubes to the drum
arc arranged below the water leve l in the drum . Thc water in the downcom-
ers has a lower temperature because of the heat losses of the downcome rs,
the time lag between risers and downcomer~, and (after evaporation started)
the mixing of the recirculated water with the feed wate r. Also at supe rcrit ical
pressure a natural circulation is possible. Neverthe less, the application of the
natural-circulation system is u~ually limited to a maximum pressure of
approximately ISO bar in the drum [6, 71. T his pressure limit is based on the
fact that the recirculation ratio RR for a typically designed circulation system
(of course, the tube diame te rs, height , heal in put, etc., also influence this
RR) decreases as the pressure increases, for example, usually at 100 bar
RR = 10 at ISO ba r RR - 6.5_ This phenomenon entails the risk of DNB o r

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DO (see Section 7.2.5 ) because a lower RR means a lower mass flux and a
highe r steam qua lity.
In recent years natu ral·circulat ion boilers operating with drum pressures
around 20 MPa are in use. The design of such boile rs has to concen trate
particul arly o n the correct calcula tion of the heat transfe r and the design
temperature of the evaporator tubes (sec Section 7.2.5),
Beca use of the pressure drop uf th e wat er-separating internals in the drum
and the high pressure drop in the superheater. which is necessary to keep
differences in steam tempera ture betwee n individual superheater tubes low
wh en large tluc gas temperature mald istribut ion occurs. a relatively low
superheater outlet pressure is ava ilab le. In large furnaces fired with coal of
low sped fi c heating va lue and with asymmet rical furnace heat input. it is
necessa ry to spli t the superheater- re heater steam paths into two or four
parall el paths. Crossovers are required at each desuperheating stage. The
pressure drop over integ ra l piping (long run. be nds) significa ntly cont ributes
to the already high pressure drop ov(;'r the superheater stages which is
required for good flow distribu tion [4J.

7 .2.3 Operating Modes and Start-Up Period

From the turhine power equation

( 7.2)

one ca n see that the turbine powe r output is mainly controlled by the live
steam flow as the turbine inlet and out le t temperat ures (a nd thus approx i·
mately the entha lpies) are usua lly kept constant to avoid reduct ion s in
effi ciency. The mass flow through a turbine ad mission va lve or through a
turbine (as it represent s fo r this purpose o nly an opening with supereritica l
pressure ratio) is simply proportional 10 th e product of the fl ow area A , and
the pressure p before the valve or turbine , respect ively,

A, P
(7.3)
A ,~ Po

Therefore the turbine power can he controlled by controlling th e va lve

open ing and/or by con troll in g th e pressure before the valve or turbine.
There are four ope rating modcs used today as shown in Fig. 7.9.
Na tural sliding pressure operation docs not need turbine control valve~.
T he tu rbine powe r is controlled by the firin g controller and has the longest
delay (Fig. 7. 10). At fi xed pressure operation mode. the turbine power is
controlled by the turbin e valve ,!Od t he resulting pressure deviations are
con trolled by the firin g rate. The on ly differe nce between the fixed pressure
and controlled sliding rreS5ure ope ration m ode~ is that in controlled sliding

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NEXT
 PreSSlJre
Set Value

L __
A. 01 P

I
oe 2u ----------1 P X;1 ••'j

A J.CI ' o~ COf'llrofleo Propor110nal to t"'G

0,.. Sel Vall;e of Il1e Load

Conl'oll eo SlidIng P'e$SUle Controlle<1 PreSSI,re

Feed-walel Pump
2 FilIng
3 Turbine
Generatoi

CONTENTS
5 COIlIIU!
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.. ,
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~
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CONTEr@s ~
Fig. 7.9. ua
NEXT
290 ONCE· THROUGH BOILERS

,P
To Sel Value
r----"~;;;--
Actual Value

~.: ~--'-'---
M Qr- - ,A o - 100%

..l.A ~ - 0

Nalural Sliding Plessure

~ r __ ~S~M~___________
'PI
c.Z' '--_A<1_"'_
' _ __

~lz
ConVoiled SlK:llng Pressure 'p
p,

Controlled Pressure

P Load . Pow,," SuffIa ent Turbrne Valve Thronllng

A. Turbrne Valve Openrng
t Time
..l. ~"erence ~-_,_._ InsuffiCient Turbine Val~e Thronhng
p PresSUIe belare Turbine
As a Subscript . Reference
o Value. Steady State

Fig. 7. 10. Schcmatic time historics of step load changes in different operating modes.

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pressure ope ration the set va lue for the pressure (or the tu rbine va lve
throttling) is not fix ed bu t proportional to the set va lue fo r the boile r load. As
long as the tu rbine throttling is suO'icie nt . but h arc equally fas t. If the
throttl ing is insuflicient , tha t is. the turbi ne valve ope ns fully durin g the load
change, the re is a changeover from fast fixed pressure to slow IHlt mal sliding
operation (Fig. 7.10). At controlled pressure operation mode, the pressure in
the bo iler is kept const ant by the (urhine valves, load changes a re controll ed
by the firi ng rate. a nd the delay is be tween slidi ng and fixed pressure
operation mode (Pig. 7.(0).
In principle, all steam generator syste ms arc eilpa bl e of opcr:uing at
con trolled , fixed. na tural sliding. or controlled sliding pressure. At least in
mode rn practice steam ge nerators are started up in slid ing pressure ope ra-
tion mode.
The boiler pressure drop at fixe d pressure operill ion is proport ional 10 the
square of the load , whe reas the boiler pressure drop at natura l slidin g
pressure opera lion is dirt:ctly proportional to Ihe load due to Ihe fa(.'1 thaI the
mean steam density is approximately proport ional to the pressure: that is. in
natural sliding pressure operation it i ~ proport ional to thc load .
In once-through steam gc ne rators wllh superi mposed-circu la tion and nat-
ura l-circu lat ion steam gene rators. howevcr. the admissible rate o f pressure
change (i.c .. ra tc of load c ha ngcs at sliding press urc operation) is mostly
conditioned by the therm al stresses in the wale r separator (qcione) ilnd
drum which-as compa red 10 the cyclones in once-Ihrough units of the same
rating-a rc larger in diame te r. resu lt ing in thicker wa lls and lower admissible
tem pe rature transients unde r ide ntical pressure. temperat ure, lllld material
conditions. The othe r bott le necks arc the headers, which will he discussed
later in this r.;hapt e r.
This limitat ion applies Ool h 10 load red uctio n a nd load increase [49]. The
precedi ng compone nt s a rc located in the saturated stea m range. By approxi-
mation. th e sat uration te mperature T,. in ~c, a t it pressure p, in bar, is

(7.4)

and the sa lura tio n tempe rature variat ion as a functio n of prcssure variation
;s

ciT
- ' "" 25p - J/ ~ (7.5)
dp

According to the Ge rma n boil er code TRD 30 1 {IUl. Annex L the admissible
rate of tempe rature cha nge, in Kjs, at a pressure of I hal' and a t ope ra ting
pressure shall be v n a nd (In. respectively (within r.;e rtain lim its I ' TI or I' n
can be selected).

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 Neglect ing the non-quasistationa ry condit ions tha t exist in the ini tial and
final phase of a temperature and pressure increase, the required time t, in s,
ca n be ca lculated p rovided that the temperature increase occurs at the
admissible temperature transient u r ' as applicable. Hence

P' tn: (il

I ~
fp, - - (ip
dp dT
( 7.6)

where dT,/dp is substituted by Equation (7.5). According to TRD 301.

Annex 1, the fo llowi ng shall be applicable for dl/dT:

(7 .7 )

This can be solved as

25
I~ ----
I (
In
d + "be, + cj + 2arctan ,
"If'; ) <"
2 (7.8)
{2 c lc 4d d cJ J2 C4 + d c,
.
c4
,'.,

where
un - on
C1 = (7.9)
Pz - PI

C2 -= Un - C1PI (7.10)

c; - " (7. 11)

"
• ,
" ~ {P C41 = ~---; C42 = ;;r;; (7.IZ)

Table 7.1 gives the operat ing temperature, inside diameter, wall thickness,
materials. ad missible ra te of tempe rature change, adm issible te mperat ure
differences, and the time t for different steam gene rating systems as required
for a pressure increase from I bar, 2 bar, .5 bar, 10 bar and from 30% to
100% operating pressure.
It becomes evident that the start-up period of drums at operati ng pres-
sures below 140 ba r is almost identical with that of water sepa rators (cyclones)
at 190-bar operat ing pressure. At opera ting pressures of 190 bar, however,
drums show a slow slart-up characterist ic (see Table 7.1).
Table 7.2 gives t he start-up periods for the main steam headers ca lcu lated
on the assumption that the main steam tempera ture varies proportionally to
the saturat ion temperature, the maximum ma in steam temperatu re be ing

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 7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 293

TABLE 7.1 Start-Up Time for Drums and Cyclones for Different Des ign Pressures
(""ith Permission of [49])

Start-Up Time, min

2 3 4 5
Pressure pan Drum Drum Drum Cyclo ne Cyclo ne
Material WB36 WB36 WR36 WR 36 13 Cr Mo 44
100% pressure, bar 72.8 141 185 192 286
Inner di a meter. mm 1620 1532 1680 585 420
41 84 74.3
Walilhickncss, mm
a.t.d .a
AtObar~TJ K - 8.1 - 9.S
116

- R.J
"
- 9.8 - 15.4
AI 100% bar. ~ Tt.- K - 71.1 - 64.9 - 67.4 - 63.5 - 50.0
a. u:"
At 0 b,IT. I'T/ K/min 87 2.3 10 7.0 4.0
At 100% bar, 1"1t. . K/min 75.8 15.4 7.7 45.2 12.8
1. 1 bar, IOO%p, min 9.74 56.S 137.7 21.42 55.6
1,2 bar. IOO%p. min 7.85 48.6 120.2 18,82 50.9
1.5 bar, IOO%p, min 5.24 36.9 92.8 14.83 43.5
I. 10 bar. l 00% p. min 3.39 27.4 70.4 11.47 36.S
1,30%, IOO%p. min 168 9.5 20.6 3.46 12.0
· a.l.d. alluwat>lc w~1I tCrl1l>crlllure lIitfercncc. TRO 3UI
~a . U .: allowable lemper3turc tr3t1sicnt of Huid. TRD 301.

TABLE 7.2 Start.Up Time for Li~e Steam Headers for Different Design Pressun-s
(with Pt rmissiolt of 1491)

Start-U p Time, min

6 7 8 9
~htcrial 111 erMo 91U X2fl CrMoV 121 X20CrMnV 121 X20 CrMoV 121
M
100% prc$Sure. bar
100% tempera ture. ' C
Inner diamcter, mm
5Jj
250
171
540
280
172
539
250
530
2l~
'"
Wall thIckn ess. mm 29.9 62.1 52.9 -1YA
~ . t . lI "
At 0 b'lI :IT/ K - 25.4 - 23.3 -22.7 - 2fl.2
AI 100% bar . .lTf • K - 37.9 - 43.0 - -13.2 - 46.Y
a.U .b
At 0 har. ~TI Kj mm 35.8 5. 1 6.9 7.1
At IOCI% bar. j' u;. Kl min 53.3 '.5 13.2 16.S
I. I bar, lOO%p. min 8.21 63.9 46.8 44.0
1,1 ba r. l ~ p. min 7.2f. 511.5 42 ..'1 40.~
1.5 ba l . lOO%p. min 5.75 49.6 36.3 34.Y
1.lObar.lOO%p. min 439 41.6 30.4 29.8
I. ID%. loo%p. min HI 111.4 I.lJ I 1.1

~ 3.l.d.: allow able wa ll temperature di fference. T RD 301.

ha.t.t .. allowable temperatul c t ra n~ient of "uid. TRO 301

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294 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

reached at full load. A com parison of Tables 7. 1 and 7.2 suggests that the
main steam hcaders may not be capable o f following the fa st temperature
transie nL.. of thc cyclones which would he a deficit in the fa st starting
characte rist ic of the oncc·through system.
Fo r the main stea m headers, an init ial temperature of 50°C was used
resulting in theoretical pressures of less than 1 bar absolute. This corrc-
sponds to the cond itio ns at a vacuum start -lip and is helpful in avoiding the
proble ms arising from the temperature step changes occurring at I bar due to
conde nsation.
The variation of the saturation temperature is particularly dominating at
low preS.!iures (low loads in sliding pressure operation). Thus, in this load
(and pressure) range, boilers also opera ted in controlled slid ing pressure
mode at higher loads are mostly run in the flXed pressure mode al a lowe r
pressure. In addition, this helps to avoid steami ng in the economizer. This is
also the reason why auxiliary stea m pre heating is rccommended for all steam
generator systems (besides the favorabl e effect on the firin g syste m, avoiding
temperatures in the air pre heater falling below the dew point, and saving oi l).
A detailed revision of the transient condi tio ns only adds to the advantages
of the drum taking into conside ration that the TRD 301 , Annex I, overesti-
mat es the alternating stress range (III. The main steam line and the lie ba rs
of an inclined lubed wale r wall have 10 be taken in to analogous considera-
tions, to avoid a bottleneck for start-u p (111 (see Sect ions 7.2.8 and 7.3. I).
Of course, all circulation boilers except the supercritical combined-circula-
tion boiler can have problems whcn the pressure is decreasi ng during load
reductions in the sli ding pressure operation mode or during step-load In -
creases in the fixed pressure ope ration mode. If the pressure causes evapor-
ization in the downcomers, the (natural-circu lation) fl ow may also nea rly stop
in the evaporator tubes (furnace wain resulting in tube damage by ove r-
hea ting. In once-through boilers wit h su perimposed recirculation or in
cont rolled-circulation boilers, the net positive suction head (N PSH) of the
reci rculation pump may drop below the minimum value ca using the recircula-
tion pump to trip in orde r to avoid cavitation and/or imbalance and the
steam generator to be shut down in order to avoid damage of Ihe water wall
tubes.
In once- through steam generators wit h superimposed ci rculation, suffi-
cient subcooling is basica lly give n at higher loads because of the admission of
water from the econom ize r so that a trip of the recircu lation pump following
a pressure decrease would o nly occur during the first stage of start-up.
The adm issible rates of pressure reduction and optimum design of down-
comers and /or suction pipes 10 pumps which allow the fastest pressure
reduction without evaporization in the downcomers or suct ion pipes to
pumps, ca using evaporator tube damage or pump trips, respectively, are
described in the following paragraph (8, 9).
For an equally inclined (angle a to the vertical downward direction) pipe
in which water (saturated at the inlet - lOp) flows downward, o ne can easily

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 7.2 IMPOfHANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 295

find the differential pressure decrease (Jp, which totally consumes the ditTer·
ence between the pressure gain due to the hydrostat ic head and Ihe friction
pressure drop, is

(7.13)

The division by Ihe difrcrential time dr , the water needs to flow from one
point to the olher (differential distance

dl, = dh/cos a (7.14 )

dl,
Ii = (7. 15)
dl

differential pressure lip between these two points) gives the pressure tran·
sient. which ca n be applied without evaporization

~ = c(PKcosa _ ~~ p;.l ) (7.16)

Of cour!\C. Ihe pipe should be vertica l to allow the fastest pressure dec reases
alld necessary horizontal or inclined parts should be arranged at the bottom,
so that there is already a big hydrostatic head gained.
By setti ng the differen tiation of dpld, by dl" to 0, one ca n ohtain the
optimal water velocity 1'01'" which allows the fastest pressure decreases
without evaporizat ion

2d,p cos a-
(7.17)
JA r

Eliminating (" in Eq. 0.16) by given mass flow W ,

d ~ lT"
W - pv - ' - (7 .18)
4

:md setting the differentiation of dp / llt by lid, to 0, one obtains the optimal
diameter, which allows the faslest pressure decrease without evaporizatiun

(7.19)

Of course, small inner diameters of the downcomers reduce the recirculation

mass flow increasing the ri!>k o f DNB or DO a l ~ during steady state. Smaller

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diameters of suction pipes to pumps increase Ihe pressure drop and thus the
risk of cavitation: therefore a bit large r diameters are preferable. See also
Appendix 7.2.

7.2.4 Start-Up Equipment and Problems

Stan-Up Equipment Independent of the evaporator systems, steam gener-
ators should have high-pressure and low-pressure turbine bypasses 10 allow
boiler operation wit hout the turbine and a stea m prehea ting facility (sec also
Section 7.4).
Concerning the evaporator seclion, natural ·circu lation , controlled-circula·
tion, combi ned-circulation, and once-through boi lers with superimposed cir-
cula tion do not need any additiona l equipmen t besides, as all ol hers, a
blowdown (drain) line with discharge valves and flash tank (separator) for
discharging the sta rt-up water swell (water release due to starting evapora-
tion) from the water separator or drum into thc condenser and/or tank and
atmosphere (sec Section 7.4.1). The size is accordi ng to lhe evaporator
volume, start-up time, heat pickup, and possible overfeeding of the evapora-
tor. In thc case of once-through steam ge nerators. a choice is to be made
between

I. Low load circulation pump

2. Circulation by feed ·water pump through heat exchanger and feed-water
tank
3. Whether thc minimum evaporator flow is mai ntained by the feed wate r
and thc discharge valves are sized for overfeeding of the evapora tor.
The laller entai ls the highest losses in water and heat.

Evaporator Recirculation Pump Arrangement Natural-ci rculat ion boil-

ers do not need any evaporator recircu lation pump. In o rder to allow
circulat ion in the natural-circulation syslem at low heat pickup rates and
before steaming (to avoid major loca l temperat ure differences between tubes,
through which water is flowing, and tubes, in which the water stagnates, or
temperatu re transients, when slagnant water starts circulating), particu lar
care shou ld be take n Ihal from all recirculalion systems (furnace and boiler
parts) at least part of Ihe overflow lubes enter the drum below the wate r level
and not above the water level.
In controlled-circulation boilers the recirculation pump is arranged in the
evaporator loop. the economizer discha rges into the drum as in natural-circu-
la tion boilers or into a vessel in the downcomers.
In once-through boi lers with superimposed circulation , the reci rculation
pump is also arranged in the evaporator loop. bUI the wa ler flow from
the economizer outlet is mixed with the recircu lated saturated water from the
water separator in a mixing vesse l, thus subcooling the water flowing to the

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 7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN CO MPARISON TO OTH ER SYSTEMS 297

recirculation pump and allowing faster pressure decreases, if the water at

the economizer outlet is subcooled.
In combined-ci rcu lation boilers, the recirculation pump has th e S<lme
position as in once-t hrough boi lers with superi mposed circulation (on ly the
water separator is replaced by a si mpl e T-pi ece ).
In once- through boile rs, the recircul ation pum p is usually <lrranged after
the water separator before the mixing with the feed water. thu s, pumping
saturated water subcookd on ly by the hydrostat ic head. which allows on ly
slow pressure deerc<lSCs. But th ere is also a possibility of arrangi ng the
recirculation pump in series with the feed wa ter pump aft er tht: mixin g
vessel, thus allowing fas ter pres.<;ure decreases. The advantages and disadvan-
tages of these recircu lation pump <lrrangemellts are compared in de tail in [3].
Only fur once-through boi lers is it possible to in cl ude the economizer in
the reci rculation loop (withollt special econom ize r recirculatio n equipm ent)
to avoid fl ow IIlstability and dew point problems (in th\O economizer, air
healer, and duelS by heating the Hu e gas in th e economizer) during sta rt -up.
because at higher loads th\Ore is no recirculation and the economizer can pick
up heat as usual.

Water - Steam Separation Water-steam separation is necessa ry for

once-t hrough boilers on ly at part load, for all rec irculat ion boilers hesidcs the
combined-circu lation boiler over the whole -load range. In once-through
steam generators wi th low- load circula tio n or su perimposed ci rculation, the
sepa ration of wat er and stea m is made by mea ns of cyclones (see Section
7.3 .3). It is of no essen tia l imporlance whcther the sepa ration of Willer and
steam and the sloring of the wat er takes place in the same or in separate
vessels. Th e lalter pattern offers the possibility of using several vesse ls in
pa rallel arrangeme nt s with reduced diamete r and wall thickncss, allowing
higher adm iss ible te mperature tr an~icnt ~.
The simplest way for water-steam se parat ion in the drum (na tural- and
controlled-circulat ion boile rs) is by gravitational separation: for higher pres-
sur e~, other equipment , especia lly a greater number of small cyclones, ma),
be instilllc!J (sec Section 6.3.5 ).
It is important to reach a low rcsidual moisture, though the main aspects
nowadays in this requirement are not the minera ls (which may deposi t in
supe rhea ters and turbines) con ta ined in the water (which is usually tie-miner-
alized). but rath er the fac t thaI il ny water entrained causes a reduction of the
sp ray waler flow.

Economizer Steaming In once-through boilers. the two-phase mix ture

protluced by economize r steam ing resul ts in a nonuniform fl ow distribution
through and dllmllgc to the evaporator tubes. Thi~ can be avo ided if one does
not usc intermediat e headers between the economizer and eva pora tor. This
solu tion , howcvc r, <lpll rt from the problems arisi ng under design aspt:cts and

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298 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

with regard to drainage, implies the risk of flow instabilitics (26]. See also
Section 6.5.
In once-through steam generators with superimposed circu lation and in
controlled-circulation steam generators when the economizer discharges into
a vessel in the downcomers, the steam leaving the economizer arrives at the
recirculation pump causing it to trip.
Only in natural-circulation and controlled-circulation steam generaturs,
when the economizers discharges into the drum, economizer steaming is not
prejudicial since the steam can be separated in the drum. But the economizer
has to be designed to allow steaming; steady upward flow is useful and the
discharge into the drum has to be designed to separate the water and steam.
In supercritical combined-circu lation boilers, steaming in the economizer
cannot oecur.

7.2.5 Evaporator Tube Design

Evaporator Tube Heat Transfer and Wall Temperatures Recirculation
of water through the evaporator decreases the stcam quality, and departure
of nucleate boiling DNB or dryout DO are thus avoided in natural- and
controlled·circulation boilers and wall temperatures are only slightly above
the water-steam temperature because of the high heat transfer coefficients
of nucleate boi ling [7, 121. Once-through evaporation cannot avoid at least
DO, and in once-through boilers with superimposed circulation, DNB or DO
is also accepted. In combined-circulation boilers the supercritical pressure
makes DNB and DO impossible.
Drescher and Kohler [1 3] verified by their measurements and by about
3000 measurements from other sou rces that for DNB the values and equa-
tions of Doroshchuk (14) and for DO those of Konkov [15] fit best (l9).
DNB occurs for heal fluxes higher than the critical heat flux q ~tr 1191:

q tt

"
= 10.3 X10.1 ~ 17.5 ("--)
Pc,
+ 8("-- )' ( 8 X10 - 3 )".'
Pcr d,

X
W" ) """ ( P ) -
-- -
L', -O' e _1.5.<
( 1000 (7.20)
Pc,

validity range: 29 bar:£. P ::; 196 bar, 500 kg/(m 2 . s) ::; W" :£. 5000 kg/
(m 2 • s), 0 K s I1Tu :£. 75 K,4 X 10 - 3 m s d; :£. 25 X W - 3 m.
DO occurs for heat fluxes higher than the fo llowing critical heat fluxes q~~
[In
Pressure range: 4.9- 29.4 bar:

(7.21 )

BACK
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CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
 s 299

Pressure ra nge: 29.4-98 bar:

(7.22 )

Pressure range: 98- 196 bar:

• =
({c< 11
. 853 x IO"x· - ' W ,, - Z.664( IOOOd, ) - o · ~ ~,, - O _OtI}6p (7.23)

Validity range:

200 kg/( m 2 . s) :$ w ~ :$ 5000 kg/ (m ! ' ~)

If one needs the steam qu ality fo r DO, one can use the following
equatiuns [1 91:
Pressure ran ge: 4.9- 29.4 bar:

(7.24)

Pressure range: 29.4-YR bar:

( 7.25)

Pressu re range: 9H- J<J6 bar:

i _ 32 J 02q,, - n,l zs W ,, - o.3.U( lLKx)d ) - UJH

e - O_OO195 p (7.26)
e, . I

In add ition, equations for steam supe rheating due to the rmodynamic unbal-
ance and fo r hea l transfer a rc g ive n [16, 19J. Furthermore, the diffe re nce
between t he wall te mpera ture of a ho rizonta l a nd ve rtical tube at DO arc
described in \1 7, 191.
With inte rn a lly rifted tu bes, the steam quality at which film boiling ( DNB
or DO) occurs is conside rably highe r than with tubes of pl ai n inside surface.
Thus the natura l-ci rculation. COni rolle d-circu lation , and o nce-thro ug h with
supe rimposed circulatio n steam generators can (cou ld) be o pera te d at a
lowe r ci rcula tion ra tio ( higher stea m quality) and somewhat high e r pressure
/20.21].
Internally rifled tubes cou ld also be adopt ed for o nce-thro ug h syste ms to
allow fo r changeover to the recircu lation mode under ve l)' [ow mass flux a nd
vel)' low Io.'ld cond itions or to use vertical tubing (see Section 7.3. 1).
Figure 7.1 1 shows the fluid temperature. steam qua lity. he a t tra nsfe r
coefficient and tube wall temperature versus furnace hei ght of a 65U-MW
bilumino us coal· fired once-th rough stea m gc nerator at 100% load. Figure
7. 12 shows th at at 45 % load D O occurs al 63% steam qua lity. In recircula-
tion boilers. of course. the curve of the actua l loca[ hea t flux as a fun ction o f
the local steam quali ty would not run into DNB o r DO a reas.

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300 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

Load t 00'l<.
Tube tOiler Dlamete. 2£ S mm

"l
'b, i'--
~ V
V l lW'
l/ ""~
~V
p V
V
JrJ
~I ~ \,J 1)
:q J
II"

• l.P' V
~ ~~
0
1 I ~,( :":'-"
"",
60
° 0
,
'20
Local Heilt Flux
"0
'" kW / m 1
J6Q ' 20

°,~
,
600
Elllllalpy
,
'200 ,
"00 ,
"00 ,
3000 3600
''''',
0 °, ,
02
", ,
06 08
",
Steam Quality
, , ",°
• °, , ,
80 32O <0O
t6.0
,
Inne. Heat T.anster
'"
Coett"~, elll kW j (m' ~
56.0
,
"6
TO .
TOo "", ,
25<l
"" , ,
350
"", '50
,
Wilter Steam (WS) and Malenal TempefB lur e (rt, T5 , TO)
000
,
(grad C)
,
050

WS ·
(grad C)
TO - Mean Value

Fig. 7. 11 . Distribution of local heat flux. enthalpy. steam quality. inner heat transfer
coefficient. water-steam. and materiallempcraturcs over furnace height o f a 68Q.. MW
bituminous-coal·flrcd once-t hrough boiler. (With permission of (491.1

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 7.2 IMPOfHAN T DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEM S 301

ONB o.yoo,
""'- Poss-ble
; ; - -- --------,
,j

.
.
E

,f~~~
- __~~~~~
"

0 .9 , 0
t..oc.al Steam OlUll'ty. kg / kg

Fig. 7. 12. Dryout li nd dc parture from nucleate boiling conditions according 10

Doroshuk and Kon·kov. ACtual values of a 680-MW bitu minous-coal-fi rcd Ilnce-
through boiler.

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 Mass Flux and Pressure Drop /n the Evaporator, Ripple Formation,
Feed-Water-Pump, and Recirculation Pump Power Consumption In
once-through stea m ge nerators, the mass flux above the minimum evapora lor
flow is proportion al to the load (Fig. 7.1 3). Below this minimum val ue, the
mass flow i s kepI constant by low-load recirculation or ove rfeed ing. Since the
loca l hea t flux can almost risc 10 its maximum value eve n al low firing ra tes
(oil support firi ng), the evapora tor flow needed to avoid unallowable tube
te mperatu res almost corresponds to full-l oad conditions. A further increase
of t he mass fl ow proportional to the load a nd thus a lso of the p rc~s ure drop
is not necessary and should be minimized by selecting a high minimum load

Once· Through Once· Through Steam Naturat,Cllclltabon

Steam Generator Generator With Steam GeneratO!'
Superimposed ReCIrculation .
Controlled . and Combined
Circulation
Evaporator Flow

'00

.50
eo"",,,,," ~--
Circulation
Natural
Circulation

o
/ :'eOF~W Feed Flow Fe~ FlOW

Mass Velocity ,n Evaporator (Mass FlUx)

1 3000 , - - - - - - - , - - -- - ,

"
i 2000 r-----+-/---?/y --- - ---
'000 F==4----~
v
°O~--~50~--~'OOO~---5~OC--~'OO O~---50~---"
'OO
Steam Capacity. %

Fi g. 7.13. Flow and mass ve loci ty in the evapor ator. (Wilh pc!rmi S!>ion of [49\.)

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for the once-through operation mode. This would economize the feed pump
power and allow for design of the parts before the evaporator for lowe r
pressures. In my opinion, the practice to select low minimum loads for
once-through operation is based on the following:

I. Operation at low-load recirculation was not commonly accepted (i .e.,

start -up with ove rfeedi ng) in earlier days. Today. planning includes
frequent start-ups with the requirement that a low-load circulation
system (which ca n also he used for part-load operation) be ava ilable to
minimize sta rt-up losses and corrosion .Ind fouling in the economizer
and air heater.
2. Problems were e ncOuntered when changing over from circulating to
once-through operation due to an inadequate control concept as de-
scribed in Section 7.4.2 and [22J.

In the once-through systems with superimposed circulation, the mass flux

of the evaporator is almost constant for all loads resulting in ideal conditions
as far as pressure loss and cooling of the evaporator tubes are concerned. Yet
the required recirculation and feed pump power (only the comparison of the
sum of rccirculation and feed pump power makes se nse) is to be taken into
consideration which - as com pared to the recirculation and feed-water pump
powcr in once-through steam generators- is higher at part-load and lowe r at
fu ll-load cond itions (Fig 7. 14). For controlled- and combined-circulation
systems the sit uation should be similar.
In natural-circulation systems, the mass flux increases proportionally to
the heat absorption and is with an adequate design basically sufficient. In this

12.000
Evaporator With Steady_

10,000
Inclined RiSing Tubes ?
"~ 8.000
V
*'
-g~
••
e ,
o
o~
~o
0
6.000
Evaporat()( wi1h Vertical TUbes \
l

..--:;
.y
./
,/

"•'E,
,,~
4.000
-::-
~ 2.000

a
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Boiler Load, % _ __

Fig. 7.14. Power consumpt ion of recirculation and feed pump according \0 evaporator
lubing. (With permission of [49].)

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case, the evaporato r pressure d rop can be compensated for without addi-
tional pump powe r. Proble ms ca n ari!>C during stan -up with the uppe r
burn ers. that is. nearly no heat input in the lower furn ace section and high
heat input in the upper furna ce section.
In o nce- through steam ge nerators, ripple roughness has hecn obse rved in
evaporato r tubes causi ng a nmrked increase 10 the pressure drop [23, 24[.
In once- through steam ge nerators wi th supe ri mposed circulatio n and
possihly in natural-circulation boil ers, ripple roughness occurs to a small
extent only. which, due to the smOllier preSSure drop of the evaporator, causes
a negli gible reductio n of the circul ation ratio. Ripple fo rmation depe nds on
heat flux , mass flux , and the pH va lu e o f the feed wa ter. Elevated pH va lues
(g reater than <.1. 3) arc COUni eractive to the formation o f ripples hut cannot he
used without limitation due to the ir corrod ing effect on COppe r tubes which
a re oft en used fo r condensers.
The pressure drop o f the two- ph ase fl ow in the evaporator is usually
calculated [25 ) as the product of the pressu re drop of the same wate r mass
fl ow and a factor depending on th e pressure and steam quality. The results uf
more rece nt research concern ing the two-phase pressure drop are given in
[1 6, 191. See al so Sections 6.4 and 6.5.

7,2.6 Heat Pickup of the Heating Surfaces

Once-Through Steam Generator Only in the once- through steam genera-
tor is the liquid- vapor pha se transition point variable. Thus this system is
carablc of compensatin g fo r varying heat ahsorption between furnac e and
convective heating surfaces wi thin the ra nge of th e admissible material
tempe rat ures (Fig. 7.1 5). At con stant spray wate r flow and OIher conditions
(e.g., co uSI,lIll tota l heat absorption), super heater steam and material tem-
peratures (except live steam tempera ture) increase as the heat absorption
rat e in the (cleaner) furna ce increases and decreases as the heat absorption
rate in the (slagged) furna ce dec reases. A further advantage is that the
maximum main steam temperature is lik ely to be reached eve n at pa rt-load
opeTalion. Shiftin g of the liquid - vapor phase tra nsition point and kee ping
the live steam temperature constant durin g part -load operation is s ubject to
lim itations if H smooth changeove r from o nce- th rough to recirculation mode
is aimed at (see Section 7.4). Furthe r limitations are th e adm issible mate ri;,!
temperatures and tempe rature diffe rences of the water walls (sec Section
7.3. I).

Once- Through Steam Generator with Superimposed-Circulation. Con-

trolled-Circulation, and Natural-Circulation Steam Generators In
once-through steam ge nerato rs with superim posed-circulation. COnirolled-ci r-
culalion, and natural -circulation stea m generators, the li quid - vapor phase
transition point is located in th e wate r sepa ra tor and in the drum_ respec-
tively. Compensa tion for varying heat ab~rp tio n of the furn ace and mainte-

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 7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 305

Superheaters

1
Ew
Evaporator

Once Through

Natural Circulation

SH' SH 2 SH 3

Ew + 10%

Evaporator

f' Oesuperheal er

Heat Pickup

Fig.7.IS. Change in heal pickup. (With pe rmissio n of 149J.)

nance of constant main steam temperatures is o nly possible by means of

spray au emperation unless such compensation is achieved by changing th e
fucl-air rat io, Hut: gas recirculation. heat exchangers in the drum, heat
absorption of the economizer. or by means of a final evaporative bank or
controlled flu e gas paths.
At constant other conditions an increase in the furnace heat absorption
rate increases the feed-water flow and reduces the spray water Rowand
superheater material tempe ratu res. whereas a decrease in the furnace heat
absorption rate causes a decrease in the feed-wa ter flow and an increase of
the spray water flow and of material te mperat ures before spray attempe rlors
(see Fig. 7.15). At part load the relative furna ce heat absorption increases,
increasing relatively the feed-wa te r flow a nd decreasing the spray wate r flow
and / or main steam temperature. This implies thaI the superheaters be
gene rously designed often in addition to one or more of the already men-
tioned ot her possibilities or equ ipment to change heat absorption ra tes.

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Furnace Outlet Temperature In the case where no radiant wa ll super-
heater and/or flue gas recirculation afC desircd, the minimu m furnace Dullet
temperature is fixed in steam generators with fLXed liqu id - vapor phase
tran sition point.
The relative heat inpu t !O pre heat and evaporate the feed water is a
function of the pressure, of superheating and reheating ( Figs. 7. 16 and 7. 17>.
Higher operating pressurcs, temperatures, and more reheating and preheat-
ing (i.e., higher cycle ellkiency) require lower relative evaporation heat
absorpt ion and evaporat ive su rface, resulting in higher furnace outlet tem-
peratures; however, when another fue l is used, the air ratio is changed or flu c
gas is recirculated.
In an attempt to determine those furnacc outlet temperalUrcs at which no
raJia nt wa ll supe rheaters and flue gas recirculation are required, a st udy was

3700
600T

·SOO"C

:.---:: -r-
~
3000 ~O'C
~ "- i'-- I---
~~. I
~
1~ g, I
I

2000
0
~

,
I
,
,I '\
I
I
l'\
I

I I
I /
I
I
[j/ 350°C
I
I W 30~OC 3

,/ \2
'000
200· C
I
600
400
100°C

010 50 wo 150 200 250 290

Pressure. p bar _

1 Industrial Baller
2 Suberitleal Power Boiler
3 Supercntlcal Power Baller

Fig. 7.16. Change of conditions at diffe rent pressure levels. (With permission of [4].)

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NEXT
 7.2 IMPORTANT OeSIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARI SON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 307

HlO

R~heal
I
I RehcilI 2

~
I-
..,.... SiJpefheaTcr

'--
~ I,
~
I

~
u •
,••
-
-f'W"~
I
K -,----
I
-
I
-1,
I
-
--

- ---
--
PrllhCi:lllng (Economizing)
I
,, I
10' 200
Sys1cm Pre ssure nar
300

.' ill. 7. 17. Assig nme nt o f hCaI [0 di ffc rCnl secllu ns. (Wilh perm issio n o f (4).)

0; ' 600
• I I I I I I I I
i> ""
(LHV _ 42 MJ/ kg)
, IV
Theorellcal Values
- - - (Furnace TO Small) Go,
~ ' 500
r---- (LHV .. 40 MJ / kg)
S
,
0•
1400 ,-
,
,
Bllumnous coal
~
,;-
::..- (LHV .. 25 MJ / kg)

I•
"
5
'300

,20(1
1-
.....
f-"

--
/'

/'
V

ligniTe
0 "00 (LHV .. 8 MJ/ kg )
•u V
,
~
'000
,;-
"E, /'
E 900
C
~

80 ' 20 '60 200

llve Steam Pressure. bar

Fig. 7. 18. Minimum furn ace ou tlet lemp( ra lure for boilers wi th eva pomtor recirc ula-
t ion (fixed evapora lo r end point ) a nd d ilTc: re nt fuels (wilhllu l wall supcrhe lllc: r in the
furn ace and fl ue gas recirculation etc.). (W ith pe rm ission o f \49].)

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308 ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS

cond ucted . T he results. as a fun ction of pressure and fu el type are shown in
Fig 7.H~ and give at the same time the uppe r limit of the furn ace o utlet
tempe rature fo r once-through steam ge nerators.
The study was b a~d on un its with a singic re hea t system and Ihe fo llowing
parameters:

Live steam pressure b" 200 IIiO 120 80

Feed-water te mperature 'C 240 220 195 165
Live steam te mperature 'C 530 530 530 530
Re heat in let pressure b" 41l 32 25 21l
reheat in let tempera ture 'C 366 347 325 295
Re heat outl et temperature 'C 530 530 530 530
High pressure part pressure drop bar 20 16 12 8

A flu e gas tempe rature 10 the stack of 15(re was assumed for hrown coal,
all other fuels being based un IJOoC
The fo llowing design criteria have been taken into account:

I. Air prchca ter must be as large as possible.

2. Economizer heating surface must be designed so th at the te mperature
di ffe rence betwee n the re heater inle t and fl ue gas does not exceed
100 K.. When fir ing fu e ls such as brown coa l. the economize r is to be
designed for counterflow because of the low flu e gas te mpera ture.

For a specific fu el (brown coal, net ca lorifi c value H.24 MJ j kg, ash
12.7%, wal er = 51 .6% ), the effects of dilTerent mai n steam tempera tures and
air ratios and/or Hue gas reci rculation fl ow in Ihe fu rnace on the furnace
outlel tempe rature were studied a nd t he resul ts arc shown in Fig. 7.1 Y.
Given pa ramete rs:

Si ngle reheat
Feed-water te mpe rature 200'C
Air tempera ture before air hetlle r 9O'C
Ai r temperature after air heater 25SOC
Flue gas tempera ture to t he Slack IBye
Air from ai r heater 89%
Tempe rature difference between rehea ter
inlet and fl ue gas te mperature 100 K

A low furn ace outlet temperature is oflen considered ind icat ive of a low
slagging tendency. Even more im portant , however, is the burner bel l release
m te since the fo rmellion of slag de posits is to he preve nted wh ich would
otherwise spread out and cause a fast increase of the furn ace out let tempera-
lu re above design va lue. The use of radiant wall su pt:rhcaters when firi ng

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 a I Al l Ratio
!I I Flue Gas Reolculatlon Ratio
lignite (lH V _ 824 MJ; kg)
, 1 25 a I. and2Q%lrr
~~
" ,
,
~~
~
,
2

4
125 a r . and lO% lr r
135 a r andnofrr
125 a r and no f.r f

""
2 uve Steam Temperature

"
~~
5<0
520 ./ ~
-% ~
500
~~
" :" "\ ~ "-
~~ -
'80

,I
:;/"

, "\ & ), :
11501 100 woo 900 800 750 80 120 '60 200
Furnace Outlet Temperature (ApplO1amate Value ). ' C Live Steam Pressure, bar

Fia. 7. 19. Minimum furnace outlet temperature for lignite fired boilers (LH V - 8.24
MJ ( kg) with c\"3p.)r3tor recirculation (fixed cvaporator end point). diffcrent air ratios.
and dillcrcnt flue gas recirculation ratios without wall superheaters. (With pe rmission
of [49\.)

coal prone to slaggi ng in circulation boilers in an attempt to con trol the

furnace outlet tempc rature is not recommended as this coal quality rcquires
water blowers in the furnace. Rad iant wall supe rheaters with material tem-
peratures o f above approximately 400"C. however, can wi thstand only a very
limited numbe r of cleani ng cycles by water blowers. Therefore it is more
reasonahle either to use nue gas recirculation, which reduces the combustion
temperat ure and slagging potcn tial, or to reduce the pressure and/or main
steam temperat ure.
AnOl her study was conducted to find the limitations of the steam p arame-
ters for once-through stea m generators givcn by the material used for the
wat er walls and by the furnace out let temperature 131. The results arc
summarized in Fig . 7.20. High pressures, high temperatures, and double
reheat, which result in high efficiency, compete with the demand (or low
furna ce outlet temperatures to avoid fouling and slagging and are limited by
the allowable mate ria l temperatures at th e wa ter wall outlet.

7.2.7 Differences in Heat Absorption and Flow Resistance

in Individual Evaporator Tubes
Even under stable conditions (for instabilities, see Sections 6.4 and 6.5).
temperature or at least en thalpy diffe rences may occur in individual tubes

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310 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

L,ve Steam Pressure

"00 uve Steam Temperature

~
, T,p, First Reheater Outlet Temperature
T"'~ Second Reheater Outlet Temperature
,
.;
;;
", , ,
" do Tube OutSIde Oiameler
Q• d, Tube Inside Diameter
E
• "00
"~
,
0
•u
•
j
•
"00

Single Reheat
Double Reheat
'000
400
~--~--c::--::o--:L.~-C:--C~~~:-~
4tO 420 430 44 0 450 460 470 480
furnace Wall / Separat or Cyclone Steam Temperature. "C

Hx. 7.20. Furnace OUtlet tempe rature and furnace wall- sepa rator cyclone steam
tcmpe ralu rcs. (Wilh permission of [3j.)

126, 27J. T his phenomenon is based on the fo llowing:

I. D ilfe ren l heat ansorption rates duc to differe nt lube le ngth s bei ng
exposed to heat ing as is inherent in design (e.g. , bOllom - hopper tubes,
roof. burne r openings. e tc.). loca l slaggi ng. or firing patte rn (burners,
hunt e r levels, mills in operation, asymmetric hreside temperatu res. etc.,
Fig. 7.2 1), wh ich may be conditioned by load as is the case, for example,
when ope ra ting the lower burn e r level (as is common pract ice for
start -u p from the cold to obtain low stearn temperatures to roll t he
turbine ). which can increase the he.tI pickup differe nces of the
ooll om- hoppe r luhes.
2. Diffe rent Ilow resistances (diffe re nt tube lengths because of bu rne r a nd
o the r ope nings, hOPDer. e tc. ), admi ssibl e tube wall thick ness tolerances
(pressu re loss inversely proportional to the fifth power o f the inside
diame te r, welds, ripple roughn ess, e tc.).

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 7.2 IMPORTANT OESIGN CRITeRIA IN COMPAFlI$ON TO OTHEI'! SYSTEMS 311

~ Heal Flux OtslllbullOO

•
0 0102 mOlOIO

8l
=
Heat Flu_ . MW1m'

Flue Gas Temperature

Olstr!bUIIOfl . C

3OO·MW Furnace al 70% load. l'Qrllle

Ag. 7.2 1. FurmlCl; rcadinKs, (Wilh pcrmis~ion uf [4 J.)

If required. the following count eractions arc suggested :

I. Selection of a configuration that provides uniform heat ing surfa(e for

all tubes as faT as possible (e.g., inclined hopper lUbes inste ad of the
combination of vertica l tubes in the vcrti(al hopper wall s with hopper
tubes parallel to the trajectory in the inclined hopper walls). An
inclined furnace wall tube pallern (see Section 7.2.8 ) provides the best.
though not complete. compensation for the differences in heat absurp-
tion .
2. Adjustment of th e mass flow by orifices and / or throttle valves in
individua l tubes and/or tube banks.
3. Installation of wall blowers to prevent slag deposits.

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 Different heat pickup rates give rise to mass flow varia tion s of individual
tubes. Whethe r the mass Row in a tube with elevated heat absorption
increases or decrcases depe nds o n the ratio of nuid fr iction loss and pressure
loss due to the hydrostatic head and the density of th e water-steam column,
and conscquently il also depe nds on the furnace leve l where the heat pickup
d iffe rence occurs (tower or upper section).
As a general rule, Ruid fri ction loss is domimlOt in once-through steam
generators and the mass Row of an individ ual tube subject to increased
heating will decrease; the outlet temperature of this tube be ing eve n higher
than expected.
In natural-circulation systems, the mass fl ow of an individual tube or
group of tubes increases with increasing heat absorption when the maximum
heat absorption is locat ed in the lower portion of the furnace, thus providing
a certain self-compensating effect, whereas the effect of the maximum heat
absorption being located in the upper furna ce wall (slagging of the bo\lom
part ) ca n be to the contrary. Likewise, in once- th rough stea m genera tors with
super imposed circulation, the mass flow of th e tube with eleva ted heat
pickup rate will usually increase.
Differences in the flow resistance of individual tu bes or groups of tubes
entail v;niations o f the mass flow and thus va riations of the ou tlet en thalpy
iJnu steam quality or temperature. Specifically, different Row resistance III
one tube ca n be compensated fo r by providing corrective resistances in othe r
tubes at the same level which, however, is not always fcasiblc . As a conse·
qu ence, pe rfect compensation for all load conditions is not ,llways possible.
The effects of differences in hea t absorption and flow resista nce arc
combined. Experience has shown thaI in once -through systems, the ir Sli m is
equivalent to a heal pickup difference of at least approximate ly ± 5%.
Natural·ei reu lation, con trolled-circulat ion, combined-circu lation , and once-
through s team generators with superimposed circu lation (Vt;rtical tubing)
have a somewhat highe r percentage. The e ffects are as follows:

1. In natural -circu lat ion, controlled-circulation. and once-through steam

generators with superimposed circu lation. the saturated steam- water fl ow
through the respective tube, the entha lpy, and steam quality vary which.
however, is negligible as no temperature diflerences arise. This is in contrast
to th e once-through steam ge nerator where steam temperature differences
develop, crealing therma l stresses and possibly cracking of the tube wall (Fig.
7.22). Figure 7.23 shows the measured individual evaporator tube outlet
temperatures of a bituminous coa l-fired power station once-through boi ler
and the time histories of these temperatures durin g a feed-water shortage
due to an insufficiently adapted fe ed-water control during a change of mills.
To ge t the whole picture of the temperature dist ribution in the watcr walls.
one would have to calculate from the individually measured evaporator tube
outlet temperatures the temperatures along eac h tube. The resulting time-

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 7,2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 313

Onu n ..OUO" 60iIet ....,.

Onte.TII«lugI'1 a.- ~ c.rc~_
!
•
I~ "
I~ .."
"

,"
"j "
•" 80 go 100 110 w , ~g / . 070~09101112 1 J.

,, ,1----+ - -
W Iqj/ l

II
p
"
...
."' ".."......"" ---
Mass flow 1ftCt_ '"
Tut>e...,"S,l_
, ..... ,
Uaost n o...... _
WIllI> YIIo '"'9* _
on Tube

. 5"'_~
~

~ 0 .02
~.

" ...
d ... -OO~
- 0,04
~~
- 0 .06

In. M~"rnurn T..... pe r.,"'.

'r>er_ ,n a rube
I-" n'
Tempe! ...... 'naMW on
\J 8O...rn 5,.,..;gt-.er 1-1e-a1 r'.D5O<p!_
1\be I"I\tI 5... '"'9*
," ~

f------±;;,..-- ...., ..; .0 ... :n:::

(I .""
---
o\I>SOrl)OlOfl

T_ . , . , . , ()ooC;r_ on "
-I . ",
n. Tuo. - . ~"leSI

»,
"IP 5 . ,' 0 SI~1)!e FlOw
' . - lW" . 2 ' . < 0 lIt\sIabIe f low
W

Fill- 7.n , Comp.1fison of o nce-t hrough a nd o nce-through with superimposed ci rcula-

tion boile r conccrning c\'aporalO r OUTlet par~.m clcr d ifferc llel;s in luhc~ with diffe rent
he al pickup. (Wit h permisston nr(4l1jJ

dependent the rmal stresses arc to he take n into consideratio n when design-
ing the fin ned tube water walt (membrane wall).
Tempe ratu re differences in tinned tube walls can be avoided by adding a
linal convect ive evaporator tuhe bank to th e system (28\.
2. Variations of the heat transfer coefficien t and thus of th e tube wa ll
temperature (ON B o r DO, particul arly ilt points of elevated heM !tux
density) can cause l ube fail ures.

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314 ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS

SatUfallon Temperature

23

front Wall Right Wall Rear Wall Leh Wall a

SaturatlOfl Temperatur e

f<'ig. 7.23. Time history o f evaporator tube outlet temperatures during a change of
mills ::md unadaptcd fe cd·water control.

7.2.8 Furnace Wall Design

Boilers with recirculation in the evaporator can establish a sullicient ly high
mass flow in the evaporator sueh that the mass flux even in a large number of
parallel tubes wit h large d iamc te rs is sufficicnt This makcs il possible to use
vertical tubing for circulation boilers. Natural-circulation boiler water walls
usually consist of 57 mm outside diameter vert ica l tubes with 75 mm pitchi ng.
For Onee-HlrOugh steam generators with superimposed-circulation, tubes
with smalle r diameters (26.9 and 40 mm pitching as a minimum) in vertical
arrangement arc used (Fig. 7.24).
For once-through boile rs (especially when a low load « 40%) in o nce-
through operation is demanded], the feed-water fl ow is not sufficient to
provide the necessary mass flux for a su ffic ient number o f even small tubes in
vertical arrangements. Therefore water walls with meandering, see tional ized
rise rs or downeomers and inclined lUbes were developed (Fig. 7.25). Today,
mainly inclined tube water walls are used (Fig. 7.24). Inclined tubes for
once-t hrough boilers usually have diameters about 38 mm and 50 mm
pitching.

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 7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 315

3 3 3 3

,Y. I'

-H1--- --

Furnace Furnace

,
1 Incl ined Tubes
2 Tie Bar
3 vertical Span Member
4 Buckslay

Furnace Wall w ,lh Furnace Wall W1lh Verhcal

InchoOO Tube Tubing lOws Nol Need T'e
Bars bu1 also Bucks1ays ana
Span Members)

T,e Bar ('TenSIOn Strip)

Dela,i A

l-'ig.7.24. Ev,lplITalllT wall design. (Wilh permission of[49].)

With vertica l tubing, load due to sel f-weight and bottom ash is applied
axially and is thus more favorable than load with an inclined tubing arrange-
ment (radia l loading) whe re tic bars (Fig. 7.24) arc req uiTed. These arc to be
designed 10 avoid inadmissible thermal st resses hecausc of te mperat ure
differences belween the finn ed tube wa lls and lie bars in case of fasl load
cha nges a nd starl-ups [29J.
The load due to the fl ue gas pressure is taken up by buekstays and vertical
span members (see Fig. 7.24). T he space be tween buckslays and vertical span
members is subject to high bendi ng stresses in both the vertical and inclined

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NEXT
 Vertical Mean.der

Horozontal Meander

~ FTl\ FTl; Frh\ IfT

~IITI ~ R,ser ; OOwncomer
j
t
!

Fig.. 7.25. O nee·through waler wa ll crmlil!;u raliolls. (W ilh pc rm is~ion of [41.)

tube patte rn . The forccs from the buckstays are tra nsmitted into the adjacent
furn ace tu be walls whic h resu lts in radial and axial load ing for the ve rt ical
and inclined tubi ng, respectively.
Vertica l furnace lUbes are less prone to slaggi ng t han incl ined tubes which
utTer a larger area fo r deposit iun,

7.2.9 Feed·Water Quality

Accord ing to the VG ll - Directives fur bui ler feed wate r, boiler wilter, ilnd
sleam [:\0], the requi red fee d-wate r qualil Y for wa ter-t ube boilers above 64

'VGR Techrusche Verclni,un, der Gr(l!3k1aflwc rksbelrei ber c.V., Khnkeslra6c: 27·31. I)os!fa~ h
10 39 32. D-4)1J() Esse n, Wes t C;e l m~ny: Worhj\\.'lde Boiler User Oub (mainly u l iljlie ~ ) foonded
in 1920 in Gcrmany.

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 72 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERIA IN COM PARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 317

bar is basica ll y the sa me for all systems, as fOf Ihis pressure fangc dcmin era l-
ized fee d watcr is used. Ripple formati on in the evaporator is ment ioned in
Section 7.2.5. Erosion-corrosion problems arc described in [ IHJ.

7.2.10 Disturbances
The effect of short -term feed-water pump failures is more detrime ntal in
once-through systems than in onelC-through ~te am gcner,l\ors with superim-
posed-circulation , controlled-ci rcula tion, and nalural-circulatioll boi lers due
to the fact Ihal in these latt er systems, the lacki ng feed water is subs titu ted by
thc water in thc drum or wat er separator, respcctive ly.
In once -throu gh systellls, fecd-water supply Illus t be rcinstated afte r a
maxim um perioti of 10 to 15 s; utherwist: overh eating of the evapor;l\or tubes
oceurs. Once-th rough boilers with superimposed circulation allow a longer
interruption: controlled-ci rculation and natural-circulation boilers allow cve n
more according to the watcr stored.
In the case of high-pressure feed-wate r preh ea ter fa il ures (sudden drop of
the feed-water temperature), the different behaviors of ollce-t hrough stea m
generato rs (variable liquid-vapor phase transition point), once-throug h SIC ,lfll
ge nerato rs with supe rimposed circulation, and cont rolled - and natural-circu -
lation stea m generators {((xed liquid -vapor phase transition point) becomcs
particu larly manifest. At constant heat absorption ratcs. the liqu id-vapor
phase transition point in the once-through sy!>.tel1\ s hi ft~ towa rd the main
stc;lm ou tlet. As a consequence the fee d-wat er flow is reduced to ma intain
the main steam temperature and spray wat er flows and the superheater
temperatures decrease . In once-through systems with supe rimposed circula -
tion and in controlled- and natural-circu la tion systems. the steam output
decreases and the elevated temperatures of the surc rheate rs arc to be
controlled by increasing the spray wat e r flow mte.
For unallowable pressure increases, safety va lves are provided at the
superheater and reheater outlet. Safety valve s at the scpanltor (or drum) are
(a l!'.O fo r n;l!ural-circulation hoilers) nOI useful heca use of superheater tem -
p.;:rature excursions, if the fire is not tripped , when those safety va lves opell.
Usually. the S<'lfety valve at the superhea ter outle t is replaced by a high -pres-
sure bypass (sec Sect ion 7.4. n.

7.2.11 Storage Capacity, Load Changes, and Control

Of all systems, the smallest storage ca pacity [311 and thermal inert ia arc give n
in the once-t hrough steam gene rator, the largest arc give n in the natural-cir-
culation system,
Figure 7.26 shows th e different behaviors at a ramp-type load increase
from 40% to 100% within about 7 min under controlled slidi ng pressure
operation in a bituminou s-coal-fired unit.

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 -- •
- - - .(

60
--- ---

20

lime. s - - - -••

Once Through Natural CirCulatIOn

I Load Demand, '" (Retaled to 1()(;)% load) ldentlC8l
2 Variation of Steam Flow. % (Related 10 T()O'%. Load)
3 VariatIOn of Steam Pfes5Of9. '" (Related 10 100% load)
4 Firing Load, '" (Related to 100% load)
S Variallon of l.Ne Steam Temperature, K

FiR. 7.26. Load change be tween 40% and 100%. coal· fired boile r, cont rolled sliding
pressure operation. (Wit h permiSSion of /49j.)

As expected, Ihc once-th rough syste m shows Ihe smallest ma in steam

tempe rat ure va riat io n and sho n est li me with in which Ihc actual10ad follows
the load se t val ue without de lay; thc nalunJ l-circula tion system shows thc
la rgest tem pe rat ure varia tio ns a nd longest time. The once- through steam
genera tor with su perimposed circula tio n has an inte rmed ia te be havior.
The advantage of thc natural-ci rcula tion steam gene rator and the once-
through syste m with supe rim posed circulation " ha t the li me withi n which the
actual load fo llows the se t load va lue withou t de lay is longer in natu ral-circu-
lation a nd o nce-through wi th superi mposed circulat ion steam ge nc ratoo:
tha n in the once- through steam gcncra lorl» ca nOn! he prcl'iCrved in fast-

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 7.2 IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERLA IN COMPARISON TO OTHER SYSTEMS 319

OOr---'---'---,---,---,---,---,---,---,

60

Once Through Natural Cl fculallon

1 Load demand, % (Related to 10C)% Load) Identical
2 Variation 01 Steam Flow. % (Related to t OO% load) Approllimately identiCal
3 Variation 01 Steam Pressure. % (Related to t ()()% Load)
4 Firing Load. % (Related to 100% Load)
5 Variation 01 live Steam Temperature. K
6 Variallon 01 Hot Reheat Temperature. K
1 Vatiation 01 Generator Load, % (Related to 100% l oad) Appro. imately identICal

n g. 7.27. Load change bClwccn 50% ,HId 100%· o il - glls·fi rcd boile r. lhcd pressure
operation. {With permission of (4Yp

reacting fi ring systems (oi l and gas) ( Fig. 7.27). When using oil or gas in
oncc· through boilers, the feed water ca n be used to ob tain shorH erm load
increases because the fi ring system is fast r~act i ng (Fig. 7.27>.
Figure 7 . 2~ sh()\NS the d iiferent behavior in the case of varying firing rate
and feed·wa te r How (nothi ng else changed), The behavior of natural-circula-
tion and co ntro ll ~d -ci rc ul a t io n steam generators and once· through steam
generators with su perim posed ci rculation is sim ilar.

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320 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

DIsturbance Outpul
InptA Variable Wtth Evaporatot CirculatiOn Oooe- Thtough Evaporalot

W r/
-
, w )6- .,
Filing Rate
Step Increase
T~
~~ , T~
v-= ,
,
h~
k~/" I I, . _ ,
1~
p~ , p~ ):.-.-.-.. ,
w ):.'C I W I:..c= I

Feed·Water Flow
T~
1:-= . I T~
1: ,
Step Increase
h~ )L:::: , 1, • • - , -----
1:-----
r.--
I

p~
1:= I p~ I

Fig. 7.28. Bchavtor of livc stcam flow. IV; live steam tempera ture, T,ll'; wa ter Icvel in
the storaJj:c \'cssel- wlt te r ~para t or - dru m . h W1 ; live steam pres"m rc, 1'111': and posi.
tion of evaporator endpoint . ' .. , _ I' due to a s tcp increase in firi ng ra te liT fccd ·wlUU
now. Comparison betwcen once·through a nd ci rc ula tion evapora tor operation mode
(other parameters constant). (With perm ission of [491.)

In the circulation mode of ope ration, an increase of Ihe fir ing rale causes a
rise in thc main steam now and a slight increase o f thc main steam
te mpe rature provided Ihal Ihe wall absorption of the evapora tor decreases
relatively to tht: total heat absorption of the steam generator as the load
increases. In thc once-through mode of operatio n, the main steam flow
increase is only short lerm, whereas the tem perature increase is permanenL
When increasing the feed·wate r now in Ihe circulation mode, thc main
slea rn fluw decreases and thc main steilm temperature increases, whereas in
the once-through mode of ope ration, the main steam How increases and the
main steam tempera tu re decreases.
In the circula tion mode of operation , return to the steady-sta te condition
is impossible withou t feed· wa ter control as a fun ction of the water level.
Theoretically, fur thc return to a steady-sta te cond ition without fceJ -water
cont rol, changeove r 10 once-through opera tion wou ld occu r by either empty-
ing or overfeed ing the wa ter separa tor or drum .
In the once-through mode of ope ralion, return 10 a steady·state condition
takes place automatically without correction bu t this new steady state may be
not acceptable; for example, when reducing the feed·wat er fl ow, Ihe rein-
stated steady-stale condition ca n Cause inadmissibly high material tempera-
tures, whcn increasing thc feed·water now. two-phase fl ow in superheaters
may ca use probl ems.

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 7.3 SP£ClAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 321

The manipul ated va riables for controlling the main steam flow, ma in
ste am temperature, and water level are given in the following table:

Controlled Variable Manipulated Variable

O nce·through, Na tural circulation,

combin ed controlled ci rcula tion,
circulat ion once through with
supe rimposed circu lation
Main steam !low Firin g rate Firing rate
Main steam Feed wilt er ilnd Spray water flow
spray water Ilow
Water level Not applicilbl e f eed-water fl ow

7.2.12 Unit Capacity, Dimensions, and DeSign

All steam generator systems can be designed as a si ngle'pass, two- pass,
multi-pass. box-type. or cube-type stea m generator [32 - 481 of difTerent size
and oulput (Fig. 7.29). Even na tural-circulat ion steam ge nerators have been
designed for ratings up to 900 MW.
Natu ral-circulation , controlled-circulat io n. combined-ci rcu lation steam
genera tors, and once-through stea m gene rators with supe rimposed circula-
tion lire particula rly advlIntageous as regllrds furnace tube patte rn (vertica l
tubing). This applies particularly 10 un its up to about 150 MW liS in
once-th rough systems of such capacity also water walls surrounding the
convection healing surfaces arc either design ed as horizontal meander or
incl ined IUbing (unfavorable as regards wall penetration a nd pressure loss) or
arc designed as wall superheaters (causing temperature differences in the
wall during start-up).

7.3 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

7.3.1 Water Wall Design

For the design of furnace S empirical correlations like cross section and
volume hea t release rat e (Fig 7.30) arc used. For a given total heat input to
Ihe furna ce, the cross section (i.e., the length of a side J) and the volume (i .e.,
with the give n cross section the height Ii) of the furna ce can be calculated.
Knowing the radia tion heat fluxes to the furn ace wa lls one can calculat e. as
explained in Section 7.2.5, th e minimum mass flux W " required to oblain
acceptable wall te mperatures. The pitching of the finn ed tubes is selected so
that the temperature of the fin is not higher th an the temperature in the tube

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 322 ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS

+42 m
+37 m +37 m

jJ.

Iv 'v
Box Type (42 kg / s) Cube Type (61 kg / s) Multipass [72 kg / s)

+ 113 m

+ 90m
I ~
. u· II I'
I
I
I
r c:::J
c:::J
=
B I--
l'l,C;
'1 L '1 ~
V lJ V
Two Pass (600 kg / sl Single Pass (611 kg /s)

.' ia. 7.29. Steam genera lor lypeS. (Wi, h permission of [4Qj.)

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 nONS 323

CfOSS- SectIOflaJ Heat Volume Heal

Release Rale Release Rale .
MW / m ~ MW / m J

#>9J"",H 0.1

100 150 200 300 '00 500 600 700

TOlal Heal Input. MW

Fig. 7.30. Volume and <.:ross-sc(l iona l he ul rclca .~e ralC as a run cl i~Hl o r Ihc IOlal he:11
inpul or lignite furna ces. (Adapted from [50J.)

wa ll ; this applies for pilchings of k I' tube diame ters. I f one prefe rs ::J certai n
minimum once-through load. that is, a certain evapora tor - reed-water flow
HI and a certain (inner) tuhe diameter dl' one can ca lculat e the angle of
inclination to th e horizontal according the folluwlng equation (Fig. 7.31):

pi k"d, kl,t/, UI ~"n Wk

Sin UII - = " (7 .27 )
Pl. 41 2
d 7r
l
W 7rId,
N

4/ - W"
4
"
With the decreasing heat flux in the walls s urrounding the convective luhc
banks, Ihe mass flux can also be dccrcaseJ ;IIUJ (for larger un its ) vert icrt l wall
tubing elln be used, which makes the pe netration of the convective lubes

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 -II Basic Pilch

3 x 4 = t2

Enclosure Walls

6x 4 = 24
., --- .......

/
/'~''''' \
I pi \
I~,
I ,
h = 8_' tan lIn
Furnace Walls \ , . pI" .1 /
\ , '"
/
__ ", DetaIl A
....... ---"
:2x4=8

x 4 24

I
=

Hopper Tubing
~ront. Rear
Left. Right
Connected Tubes

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Fig. 7.31. Water willi design (example).
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 --~
,

000000000

, ,
ConvectIve
Bank

Hanger Tubes

~-----------;>"

.'ig.7.32. Relation of water wall. convective tube banks, and hanger tube pilch.

through the circumferential walls simple and tic bars unnecess;u)'.

rOT single-pass boilers the w'lle r wa ll pi tches. convect ive tube banks
pitches. and hanger tube pitc hes a re in terconnected ( Fig 7.32). If one uses,
for example. forged (r;msition pieces from inclined to vertical cubing, which
leads to a si mpl e design (b ul also with int e rmediate headers to obtain a good
meshing), one has to kee p ce rtai n intege r tube number ratios as shown in Fig.
7.3 1.

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 From Eq. (7.27). one can see that increasmg unit capaci ty (approximately
7(10 MW for bituminous-coal-fired units), highe r minimum once-through load
(approximately 70% ) (both inerc3loing W in Ect. (7.27 )]. and decreasing mass
!low density W " by using ritled tubes lead to a ve rtical tubi ng also of the
furnace . which is prderable bccau-M! it is scl(·su pporting. The lim its arc
discussed in [5 I \.
Th e furnace wall is subjected to the following loads 111. 29. 431:

1. Water- steam pressure

2. Self.weight (including buckswys, burners etc.). depOsits and ash in the
hopper. and loads due to tem perature differences be twee n the water
wa ll and l ie bars
3. Flue gas pressure (the refore the w:lII needs bucksta)'s and vertica l spa n
members) (Fig. 7.24)

, .lr...... v,.lI,(QulISISl1ltlonaty)
Ma~ lmum Temperature DIHerence
between Water Wall and TIe Bar

2 .IT...... .. vr.llr (t ell P [ .IT. __ [ )

~ , .lr , I time

3 Temperatulo Aamp or Fluld / Watel Wall

<I TIe Ba, Tempelnhlfo

HlO

/ ,
v.: ---
075 ~.

I -

025 V -
V 025050.7510 t25 15 t7 5 2023

.ll, TIme Conslant 01 F,rst·

Order Delay. s
~r Rate 01 Fluid (Water Wall)
Tempeialure Change. K/ s

t'iR.7.3J. Maximum u:mpcrawre difference llTm • • between furnace wall and lies for
ramp·type tcmpc ratun:: changes of the Huid.

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 7.3 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 327

4. Thermal stresses due to radiation (heat flux only on one side), due to
temperature differences between the tubes (Fig. 7.23) and in the tube
wall

If all other conditions are fixed, one can only choose the rate of tempera-
ture change in the evaporator (for sliding pressure operat ion connected to
load because of the saturated lemperature - pressure - load relation)' The
transfer function of the mean tie bar temperature related to the wall
temperature is a first-order delay. This leads to a simple relation between the
temperature change rate, delay time, and maximum temperature differences
between the wall and tic bar for a ramp change of the wall temperature (Fig.
7.33).
As this temperature lIifference adds the resl to reach (according to cycle
numbers) the chosen stress lim its, one can calculate a diagram of allowable
temperature-pressure-load (for sliding pressure operations) transients {ill.
These transients should correspond to those of the water separator and live
steam header.

7.3.2 Steam Preheating Equipment

Preheating a boiler with steam has severa l advantages (4]:

I. Very slow temperature transients can be realized, that is, very low
life-time consumption of thick-walled parts due to low thermal stress.
2. The time during which thc air heater is operated in a temperature
range below the dew point of the flue gas is vcry short. the economizer
is not operated below the dew poinl of the flue gas. Therefore corro-
sion and fouling are minimized.
3. The air temperature is higher and this improves the conditions for
ignition and low firing rates.

Simple feeding of steam into a walCr-filled pipe will not work effective ly:
the steam necessarily has a higher pressure and will push the water column
aside, creat in g a space full of steam like a piston. The inner metal surface of
the pressure part will instanten(:ously heat up to saturation temperature
corresponding to system pressure by the condensation of steam. Condensa-
tion will a lso take place at the boundaries of the steam plug. The preheating
process is limited ro the spot where steam is locally introduced.
The correct preheating process starts with the economizer and evaporator
filled up with water and the circulation pump, establishing a certain water
flow through the whole tube and pipe system and atmospheric pressure in the
separator. By con necting the auxiliary steam source to the circuit, the
introduced steam will mix with the circulating water. conde nse, and heat this
up as long as the saturation temperature is not achieved. The water level has

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10 be controlled 10 avoid ovcrflooding of Ihe superhl!aler due 10 Ihe rmal
expa nsions o f Ihe fluid in the loop. Whe n sat uration is reached, bubbles will
be transferred in the water-steam mixture to the separator. From there the
saturated steam will fill up Ihe superheater tubes and pipes, displace Ihe air,
and conde nse at the colder inne r surface. (Vacu um stanup would be prefer·
able. see Section 7.4.1.) Conde nsa te has to be well drained to avoid blockage
of individual tubes and 10 provide proper steam fl ow.
The pressure will increase in parallel in the supe rheate r sectioJl fillin g with
steam (continuous conde nsa tion- drainage) and in the circulating system
filled with saturated wat er.
The spot for introducing steam ha s to be ca refully selected: the static head
in large hail ers may be as high as a IOO·m water column equivale nt to 10 bar.
To preheat such a syste m at the lowest poi nt . say in the feed line, would
require stearn of accord in gly highe r prcssure. Arranging it just upstream of
the evaporator outlet (Fig. 7.34) requires consideration of o nly the small
difference of stat ic head ,lOd fl ow resistance, the latter oeing vel)' small while
circu latin g sa turated wate r. But one must take into account th at the mixin g
length ava il able before entering the sepa rator is restricted . The re fore a
specially designed chamher should he foresee n (Fig. 7.35).
The mass flux o f w,tter is se lected in the range o f 1000 kg/( m z . s) and for
design sleam flow the pressure drop in the bures of the di stributiun pipe
should be around critical, thus avoiding '·b.mgi ng'· in the mixing vessel. A
larger number of small·diameter bores provides it suflkie nt equalization
effect and an optimum condensation- mix- hclIl -UP ett"ccl.
To preheat a 6OO-MW single reheat, bituminous·coal-fi red boiler from 60
to 1800C/10 bar, a stea m line of aooul 20 bar is necess<ll)' and it requires
6 hr to achieve Ihis wit h a maximum slea m fl ow of 10 kg/s a nd a 10lal steam
consumption of 200 I.
The same system ca n be used w keep the steam generator in pressurized
starl·up conditions and avoid corrosio n and fou ling due to tempe ratures
below the dew point of the flu e gas.
Beca use the first IO·bar pressure increase from cold consumes 35% of Ihe
10lal lime to reach fuJI load. the start·u p time is considerably reduced.

7.3.3 Water Separation

During low·load ope ration all boiler systems besides the eombined·ci rcula -
tion boi ler when operated al supcrcritical pressure need a wa ler sepa ration
device to sepa rate the steam from the water, whieh has to be recirculated
through the evaporator. unless the once·th rough boiler evaporator is overfed
[41. NaturaJ.circulal ion. oontrolled·ci rculation. and once·lhrough boilers with
su perimposed circulation need such a device for all loads.
Usua lly natura].circulalion and contro lled·circu lation boilers usc a drum
without (for lower pressure) or with drum inlern als ( ~ pecial steam drye rs
and/ or a large number of small cyclones- for higher pressures-especially

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 7.3 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 329

Superheatet' '-"=;7

M
Au~iliary

Steam Source
Cyclone
Separator

MI~ing Vessel
(See Fig . 7.35)
Evaporator '-'=07

ReCirculation
Pump
Economizer '-'=07

Nonreturn
Valves

Feed -Water
Pump

Fig. 7.34. Flow scheme for steam preheati ng. (With pcrm is~ion or 14].)

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••XT
 Waler

I I I

Fluod (MUdure)
Sleam _ -- -_. _-
I

I
Fig. 7.35. Mixing \·t:sscl ror steam pre healing. (With permission o f [4).)

al high pressures it is necessa ry to avoid carry-unde r o f steam in drums o f

nalural-circulation boile rs to provide sufficie nt circulation [7]), whereas all
others, that is. once-through boilers and once-through boilers with superim-
posed circulation, usc one o r a small numbe r of cyclones.
One common vessel (cydone and storage vessel combined) is arranged for
once-through systems wit h superimposed circulation up 10 full load (Fig.
7.36), This design is very compact and allows a separation of water better
than 95%. The mass flow versus load is nea rly constant and the separation
eflcci theoret ically decreases with falling load. The fluid flow also changes
and . in the case of natural pressure, the cha nge in density overrules this
effec t a nd thc :-;cparation result s to be bett e r so assisting the live slream
temperature characte ristic at panial load as the outle t condition increases
from 95 % steam quality nearly to saturated steam.
The mass flux related to the inne r diame te r may rank up 10 800 kg/ (m 1 . s).
The inle t pipes shoultl no t exceetl 40% of the vessel diamete r. Downward
inclination of these pipes improves the separation. The ratio between Ihe
lotal cross-sectio nal area of the inlet pipes, the mass flux in th e vessel . and
the steam pipe gove rn s the total pressure drop. It is idea l to keep the inle t
a nd outlet areas equal a t a mode rate mass flux .
The other design used is mainl y applied for once-through systems with
circul ation only at low load or slart -up (Fig. 7.36). The pressure drop at full
load (no se para tion, supe rheated steam fl ow) is an important figure.
Mullise para tion vesse l design is applied to reduce the mass flux to 500
kg/(m 2 . s) a nd to limit the wall thickness along with the vessel diamete r.
othe rwise a !X)ssib[y [imiling factor for start-u p transients. The separation
effect is bett e r than 98%. The total flow rt:sistance cocnlcient is 3 10 5
re hllive to the inle t area.

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 7.3 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 331

::;IC<lIO OUII""

Walet -Slmom
M,,"Iu re Ifllel
, ,
~
- p.
Sleam Outlet ----$>--!>--, ,, ~

" •
, ~

Wala< Sleam _
Mooure IPoIeI _
- -I
"
- B

Separator Cyclono
,,'"
Storage Veu",1
Intllll'PI6d
'--<: :r---'

• Storagto Ve5~

Wa1<~r Outlet l
I
c
'u

Tangent,,,1

£~r-- "'"" '

Sleam OUliel _

W.uer - Slearn
M ..lure Inlet
-:zu-I- -
-
A

B
'9'-[r--E91-B9--j0,3----,9
r.7'? - c
WalEt. QuI!,)1
~-
,
Fij;:. 7.36. Wa l c r - ~t cam separator for ()ncc-Ihrough boilers. (Adapted from (4).)

Ot her design recommendat io ns a rc similar, o nly a vort ex brea ker shou ld

he arranged upstream of the drain pipes to avoid a nnular flow of the waler
down to (he water storage vessel, which is llscd for level control. A pressure
bala nce pipe must be routed fro m the storage vesse l to th e steam lines to
avoid wa ter plugs in the drain pipes. The drain pi pes have to be <.Iesigne d
wit h a sufficien t inne r diameter.

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 7.4 START-UP SYSTEMS AND FEED-WATER CONTROL

7.4.1 Start-Up Systems

As already mentioned in Sections 7.2.4 and 7.2.5 below a certain load
<once-through minimum load), the mass !lux in the evaporator has to be kept
constant by special means. T here afC four different methods in practical usc
for this purpose shown in Fig. 7.37 [4].
System A (wet superheater) is the classic once-through system and allows
start-up only under a certain system pressure in the whole boi ler. Evapora-
tion will start after heat input mainly to the evaporator and the formation of
saturated steam will create a water swell through the wet superhea ter and
this must be dumped through the blowdown line. The water-steam mixture
must be hand led in most boiler sections including the superheate r and only
after blow-out of the water swell, t he saturated steam can start to be
superheated. The system is simple but the start-up lime is long, heat losses
are high. and t he system cannot be used for larger boi lers; in addition, other
problems arise because of the different weight and problems with constant

, ,L
i7
3 I
3L!71 6 6 6
, 5 ,,(, '1 7A
[=

1( 5
7. 5

5
(a ) Wet Superheater

(b) Separator / Blowdown 10 (d) Separator/Circulation Pump

(cl Separator / Heat Exchanger

1 Feed Pump 6 Separator

2 Economizer 7 Circulation Pump lA- Bypass. B- Mainline)
3 Evaporator 8 Heat Exchanger
4 Superheater 9 High·Pressure Bled·Steam Feed-Water Preheaters
5 Blowdown 10 Feed·WalerTank

Fig. 7.37. Starl-up system for once-through boilers. (Adapted from [4].)

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 1." START-UP SYSTEMS ANO FEEDWATER CONTROL 333

hangers of the super hea te r connect ion piping in itially fill ed with water and
after sta rt -up with stea m.
The following systems arc all capable of variahle prc.lisure mode o f
opera tion.
System B (separator/ove rfeedi ng): the boi ler is started fi lled with water
on ly up to the separator, leaving the supe rheate r sections dry, fed wi th
minimum evaporator fl ow, and o n atmuspheric pressure from cold . All
!illturated stream prod uced in the evaporator can immediately be supe r-
heated. T he water now through the hlowdown line wi ll he red uced wi th
increasing steam productiun in the evaporator, so the heat losses arc less
compared with system A.
System C reduces the hea t and water losses by recircu lat ing most of the
water via a heat exchanger and the feed-wate r tank by the feed-wa ter pump.
Th e hea t exchanger is necessary to dec rease th e saturation pressure to the
pressure leve l in the fe ed-waler ta nk . Of course, o ne must consider that the
the rmal expansion from waler to partial eva poration in the whole circuit
fro m the feed line via econo mizer, evaporator. se parator, and back via heat
exchanger, feed wa te r tank and pump to the feed line wi ll also crea te a water
swe ll which ca nnot be full y used in the sta rt -up prOCesS and needs to he
blown down . As a wa rning it should be mentioned that the control va lve in
the hot-wate r lin e to the feed -water tank lUust he tre:lted as a safe ty s top
valve tu block the high-pressure boile r syste m fro m the low-pressure feed-
water tank system. This system was chosen heclIuse of the supposed unavail-
ability of the recirculation pumps.
Today, the most common system is the lise of a recirculation pump (Fig.
7.37, system D), which reduces heat a nd water losses furth er than system C
and has the best ope rating fl exibility. The availability of the recirculation
pump is no questio n. There arc two possible arrangement s of the recircu la-
tion pump:

1. T he most common one is in the bypass (7A in Fig. 7.37, system D),
pumping saturated water from {he se parator subcooled on ly by the
hydrostatic head, whieh allows only slow pressu re descreases (sec
Sectiun 7.2.3). In add ition , severa l precautions have to be taken:
a. Min imum How line to protect the pump switched on against eva po·
rating the pump water con ten t while the recircu lation Villve is closed
b. Heating line to avoid cooling down in standby mode and thermal
s hucks when the pump is switched on
c. Pressure difference control to trip the pump automat ically in the
case of an unallowable low pressure di fference indicating evapora-
tion followed by cavita tion and imbala nce (steam entrai nment in th e
downcomer or steam formation due to an unallowable quick pres-
sure drop)

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334 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

2. These problems can be solved with the arrange men t in t he m'lin feed
lint'; (7B in Fig. 7.37. system D) after the mixi ng of reci rculated
saturated wate r and feed water from the economize r. which gives
su ffi cient subcool ing for pre$$urc decreases (provided the economize r
outlet water is subcoolctD. The circulation pump works in th is arrange·
men! in series with the feed pump. But the re are also disadvantages:
trip o f the feed-water pu mp o r trip o f bled-stea m feed-water heate rs
duri ng recirculation ca use thermal shucks in the pump.

Heat losses through the blowdown li ne are also wa ter losses. These may be
losses due to vapor escaping from the venting of the blowdown tank or due to
quali ty. as the water would have to be treated agai n, at Icast through thc
condensate polishing pllm1.
In parallel with evaporalOr protection, th e ot he r secti on~ of a steam
genera lOr have to be di scussed . To protect these from una llowable me tal
temperatures, the ~ t ca m !low should he controlled in such a manner thai
sufficien t heat transfe r takes place durin g any start-up period .
To avoid the the rmal shock during cold start due to sudden condensation
wh en the slea m (hopefully not wit h a highe r p r c~s ure than I bar) displaces
the air, a vacuum shou ld be crea ted in th e su pe rheate r and re heate r. This
would be possible, when th e high pressure ( HI') ;lIld low pressure (LP)
lurhine bypasses arc ope n (Fig. 7.38), all dra ins arc routed to the condenser,
no vent or connection to the atmosphe re is upe n. and th e condense r is at
vacuum. But thi s requires all va lves to be air tig ht in one di rect ion and water
tight in the other. Practical expe rience showed t1HlI such a large amount of
maintenance on the valve gaskets was necessary that thi s method of start -up
under effective steaming from a temperature leve l of abou t 60°C is no lon ge r
in usc . It should be tried again . if modern valve technology a llows this
start-up method.
Well in usc is the sa me insta llillio n but th e LP bypass is closed and only
the HI' bypass is full y ope ll, togethe r with all su pe rheat ers, re heatcrs,
pipework drains to the blowdown tank , and ve ntin g to the atmm,phere . The
economizer and evaporator have to be fill ed up 10 the separator wa ter level.
The next step is to adjust the minimum eva po rator flow with the recircula tion
pump and to establi sh the operation of the feed pump via minimum fl ow line.
Afte r light-uff, th e water in the recircu lation line is heated and starts to
evaporate, which coluses (depend ing on the posit ion of tir~t evaporation) a
sm.a ller or higher wate r swe ll. The steam will e ntrai n into the supe rheate r
and re heater. After hea ling up the lube metal by the inner conde n ~atio n of
saturated steam and the outer heat transfer from flue gas, the steam
accumulat es an d the system pressure rises.
Reheater and superheater system pressures c(l n be con trolled by partially
openin ~ and closing the appropriate valves. at the same time allowing a
certain fl ow and controlling the steam tempera tures (wa rn ing: no fl ow-no
steam tempe rature meamrement !). A typica l fi gure for pre heating a cold

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 7.. STAflT-UP SYSTEMS ANO FEED·WATER CONTROL 335

H ogl>-Pr 8ssure

'""'"
o

"",.
Hogn. PrltSSUre
S"..,
,,,.
",...
"_
...
ot./Iemper.or
"".

l
S" ...
M ~_

Wale< Sepao-IIIor / M _
S".. , _
C",.,.

"" ,...
f oonomrler

--.. "y
U~

,
~eo<Cula l l(lO
Low·Ples.su<e
BIea·SlearTI
FNI1·W8Ier
Pleh8alers

''''''''
HogII.PrflSSlJrfl
BIfId·Slum Feed·
W8Ie< p,_ate-n 19'\0

_ SIHm
_ Waler

Fig. 7.38. Power plant start·up system mass flow parts at 100% boiler load ilnd bypass
of turbine. (Wi!h perm ission of [4 1.)

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336 ONCE· THROUGH BOILERS

turbine is 50 K superheat , which may be ach ieved at a system pressure of

about 40 bar with a corresponding saturation tempe rature of 2500C.
After rolling the turbine, the unit start-up procedure is continued by
increasing in parallel the heat input , feed fl ow, system pressure, superheate r,
and reheate r out let temperatures. T emperat ures have to be controlled to
avoid rapid increase along with the risk of unallowable thermal stresses.
Pressure follows according to the requ iremen t of the steam fl ow to the
turbin e. The reheater in the beginning is controlled by the LP bypass until
{he lu rbin e ca n accept the existing flow .
After a weekend shutdown (56 hr) the turbine is still rather hot and the
boiler is only at JO to 30 bar, the tempe ratures aTe down to 3500C both
livest earn and reheater. The slarting procedure is simi lar to cold start-up
besides the ventin g and connection to atmosphere. However, the lime to
reach evaporat ion and supl'rhea t is reduced. Turbine metal tempe ra tures
wit h 4500C diffe r a significant amou nt fr om the o riginally avai lable super-
heater- rehea te r temperatures, In this situation , the bypass systems can
demonstrate their effec tiveness to achieve acceptable turbi ne matching pa-
rameters.
Even mo re important is the HI' and LP turbine bypass system for hot
restarts (Fig. 7.39). This stilrt -up is very common because of load require-
ments to accomplish two-shift ope ration or short turbine outages caused by

"JO
4

60 5
6

'0

5
20
2
2

0 ~~~~~~--~---h=---7=--~
0 :00 0-30 1'00 130 200 230
TlIlle. hr

1 lolal Coal <l Temperalure Hlgh·Pressure Oullel

2 lOlalOil 5 Sleam Quanl11y
3 HOI Start Pressure 6 lemperalure bt:hlnd Rel'leale< 2

.' ill:.7.39. HOI start after 7 hr " fire off" . (Wich permission of(4].J

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 7.4 START·UP SYSTEMS AND FEED·WATER CONTROl 337

any protective device or componcnt. Thc bypass systcms have to be capable

of full -load fl ow to avoid rcheatcr safety va lves opening. This may also be a
require ment of noise prOicction as silencers ca nnOi reasonably be designed
to provide for allowable noise levels during the night. In densely populated
areas blow-off is thus on ly allowed in emergency cases.
Such designed bypa~ systems allow a turhine trip without immcdiately
tripping the boiler. Thc boilc r can Quickly be reduced in load say to 60%
without risk to any equipment preparing the unit for restarting the turbine
without delay and avoiding a start-up of the boiler if the turbine can be
resta rted within a reasonable time. For full -load bypass capacity, the nom inal
flow figures are given in Fig. 7.38.

7.4.2 Feed-Water Control

There are two different feed-water controls to be combined [22 1:

I. The feed-wa ter con trol during recirculation operation (start·tlp and low
load)
2. The feed-water control during once-through operat ion

As already shown in Section 7.2.11 for recircu lation ope ration. the feed-water
How is controlled according to the water level in the sepa rator- storage vcssel
while for o nce- through operation , it is controlled according to the main
steam temperalU re. The behavior of the boiler is also different (Fig. 7.2~).
The d ifferences explain why for ma ny once-through boilers the change
from recirculation opera tion 10 once-through ope ration (during start-up) and
vice versa (during low· load operation and shutdown) is still a problem . The
boilers are ofte n not designed appropriately and the control systems arc
often nOi capable of managing this changeove r wit hout largc disturbances. A
simple method to a\'oid these problems is described in [221.
In the recirculat ion mode. the water leve l in the levelin g vt:ssel is con-
troll ed by means of a valve after the recircula tion pump. The minimum
evaporator fl ow is kept constant by means of the feed water. In once-through
operation. the feed water is controlled as a function of the temperature or
enthalpy at the evapora tion outlet. If the set poin t for this tempera ture is
given (cascade control beginning at the attemperators) such thai the rat io of
spray water and feed-water flow is constant, there will always bc sufficient
spray water Row; but the change from ollce-through operation to recircula·
tion mode is rendered difficult. particularly in such cases where eit her the
steam at the eva porato r o utlet is extreme ly superheated or the liquid-vapor
phase transition point is located in th e first superheating stage. Changeove r
from once-through to recirculation mod e occurs automatically when the
minimum evapora tor flow is reached although the (leveling) storage vessel is
either empty o r full and the controlled variable ··water level " required fOf

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338 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

Ih is mode of ope ra tion is not available. Frequcnlly, this e nlails e ithe r a n

excessive increase of the feed-wate r flow and a te mperature decrease in
supc rh ea le rs if the discharge valve fai ls to ope n in time or an excessive
red uction of the feed -wate r flow followed by the trip ping of Ihe recircula tion
pump and/or a n evaJX)rator fl ow below the minimum resulting in a unit trip .
Conditions a rc aggravalcd by the fact that the discharge valve control in the
once-through operat io n must be out o f operation if the steam at the evaJX)ra-
tor outlet e ntrains water. Otherw ise. this water will be discharged and the
controlled temperature or enthalpy will C()nt inue to rise, demanding more
feed wate r and thus increasing the amount of waler to be discha rged .
Cha ngeover from once-through to recirculation mode is possible without
a ny disturba nces provided tha t the Ic mpcrature or enthalpy conlroller con-
trols the feed-wa ler flow such thai within the transition stage Ihe sleam
leaves the evaporator in a low superhea ted condition. In this case. however,
thc advantage of a conSlant ratio betwce n fced-water and spray wate r flow
unde r different foul ing conditions is forfeited, at least in the lower e nd load
range 1221.

7.5 EXAMPLES AND OPERATING EXPERIENCES

Once-through boilers a rc used especially in large utility plants wilh high

etlkie ncy 133 - 4f~1 but Ihe re arc also some other specia l applications. In th is
chapter therefore three examples for utility boilers-a lignite-fired 6(M)-MW
unit , a bi tuminous-coal-fired 740- MW unit. both operated at subcritical
pressure, a nd a bituminous-coal-fired 475-MW unit operalcd at supererilical
pressure with double reheat- will be given. In addition- as an example for
special purposes- a once-through sleam gcne ralor for steam soa k or sleam
. drive in oil fi elds will be described.

7.5.1 lignite-Fired 600-MW Once-Through Steam Generator

In 1971 the Rhein isch-Wcstfalische-Elektrizi tatswcrke ( RWE) orde red two
600-MW units for the Ne urat h Power Station in West Germany /3 71. The
Neurat h D and E unit s were commissioned in 1975 and 1976. respectively.
The ruel is Rh einische Braunko hle (lignite) with a lowe r heating value of
6.28 to 10.72 MJ / kg, an ash con le nt of 1.8% to 20% , and a wa ter conlen l of
50% to 56.8%.
The design parame ters a re as follows:

Main steam flow 500 kg/s Cold re beal pressure 34.8 bar
Live steam pressure 175 bar Cold reheat tempe ra ture 3\\"C
Live sleam [empe ralure 53(f'C Hot rehcat pressure 32.7 bar
Feed-water te mpe rature 235.4°C Hot reheat temperature 530'C
Re hea t ste m fl ow 447 kg/ s R ue gas te mperat ure before stack 14{)°C

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 7.5 EXAMPLE S AND OPERAnNG EXPERIENCES 339

Of particular inte rest is the simple single -pass design [29. 37), which is
fa vorable with respect to:

I . The rmal expansion

2. SIrCSS calcu la tion
:. l Flue gas How (docs not change the d irection and is there fo re less pronc
to erosion ;md allows for easie r calcu[ation of the heat transfer)
4 . Drainage o f the convective tulle banks (horizontal)
5. Fouling ( the upward decrcasing te mperature allows and keeping cross-
sectiona l a rea and Hue gas velocity constant asks for upward decreasing
tube pitching and the [aller allows pieces of fouling freely falling down)

Of further int e rest is the usc of he;1I exchange be tween the high-pressure
and reheat stcam outside the flu e gas flow (biftuxes) to avoid permanent
rehea t spray wate r How and to inc re ase the efficiency [37).
Th e mean availability is between 92% ;md 94% [37]. Every three ye<irs
the re is a revision.

7.5.2 Bituminous·Coal· Fired 740·MW Once·Through Steam Generator

Th e commissioning of the 740-MW unit Scholven F was comple ted in 1979
i'31.
The fuel is bitum inous coal from th e Ruil r with a lower heating val ue of
25.7 to 30.6 MJ j kg; an ash content of 6 % to 10% ; a waler content of 6% to
[2%; vol:lIiic matter (wit h re spect to combustible matter). 25 % to 35 % ; ash
softening temperature (in oxidizing atmosphe re). [IOffe; ash half·sphere
te mperature (i .o.a ), 12000C; and ash fu sion temperature, 13000C.
The design parame ters are as follows:

Main steam tlow 611 kg /s Cold reheat pressure 44.9 bar

Live stea m pressure 201 bar Cold reheat temperature 3 15°C
Live steam te mpe rature 5J5~C Hot reheat pressure 41.9 bar
Feed·wa lcr temperature 259°C Hot reheat temperatu re 535°C
Re heal steam flow 55H kg/s Flue gas temperature before stack 145°C

Figures 7.40 (cross section) and 7.4 1 (flow sc heme) show that the design is
eve n more sim plc. invo lving single pass and with a forged trifurcation piece
fo r the transition from the inclined tubing of Ih e furnace walls to thc ve rtical
tubing of the e nclosure walls of th e convective tube banks. There are also
reheat spray wat e r atte mpcrators instead of he at exchangers because of the
high investmen t cost of the lalter and the small gain in e fficiency because the
press ure drop through the heat exchangers and the piping consumes at least
partly the e ffi c iency gain by avo iding permane nt rcheatcr spray wa ter flow .

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NEXT
 I ' /
! II Eco Econom<2er

.,
RH Reheater

,
,
I SH Superheater

"-+t-'~ Ii '" ,
.
,I I' IH' '::= i'--
"

"
L , I
', ~ , -

~I '-
.. Evaporator
"
, ~,H,,,,,

n II
I\~ I I

=~=C5i1!'~:lIi_JlI_I!lJi3~LI' ~
,-- i

:I
Jit"::t IT , 00 m

FiR. 7.40. Cross section of 740-MW bituminous-coal-tired ollce-through steam genera-

tor Scholven F.

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 7.5 EXAMPLES AN D OPERATING EXPERIENCES 341

II
I ~"~~ . 'H'

em oJ~9
)-
~

, < -
7'H2
SA'
7 'H'

'77
SA2
~ < H SA
Pump
i 'H3 L '7 L
Atmosphere
'== I==' '"'
f
~[
-I -< SA3

t
f
Drainage 1=
~
7'H'
l~"'- ~ Safety Valves

~,)
F,~HP
High·Pressore
Bypass

F,~

Feed·Waff!<
Pump
--;;;r-y
To LP
I I
I

'~~r-
HP High·Pressure Turbine
U' Low·Pressure Turbine
e1C. (See Fig. 7.52) , ! L-

Low·Pressure
Bypass Valves

Fig. 7.41. Flow scheme of 740-MW bitum inous-coal-fired once-through steam genera-
lor Scholven F.

The exce llent agreement of the calculated design parameters and the mea-
sured values is documented in [37].

7.5.3 Power Boiler for Supercritical 475-MW Unit

This is a description of the single-pass hailer for unit 7 of the Mannheim
Power Station in West Germany (Fig. 7.42) [4].
This utility is well known for the applicat ion of highly soph isticated
technologies. The site-specific circumstances for fuel, power, and district heat

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CONTENTS NEXT
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342 ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS

HHD lrw St....m

255 tIar. 53O'C, J80 I<g /& {I310 L/ r.- I
1"1 II

Aeheat Slewn (ForO! Slage l

117 Daf _ !>4O'"C. 333 ~g / ' ( I2OO I/ IYI

"'

Fu,", Au'" and Saa, Coal,

Fill:. 7.42. 47S-MW EVT-Sulzer supcrcrit ical once-through ~l eam generator with
double rc hcal and DcNo)( plOl nl. (Wit h pcrmis~ ion of [41.)

required a design with douhlc reheat and supcrcritical pressure under the
aspects of overa ll cost uptimization [33. 34. 421. In addition. the fi rst and
second reheater attempcrators are only in operat ion for rapid transients and
the spray water flow will be reduced to 0 by using a douhle set of heat
exchangers to maintain high outle t temperatures also under decreasi ng loads.
The flow scheme is rather complex because of the necessity of these heat
exchangers [41.
Th is boiler was the first to use the low-load circulation pump in series wi th
the feed-water pump and control means for any system pressure. In OIher
words, the vcry high pressure section (HH O) can bc operated either in fixed

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 7.5 EXAMPLES AND OPERATING EXPERIENCES 343

or varia hie sliding pressure mode. Th e wate f-steam separation does not
work above 210 ba r effectively and above 225 bar in principle. Therefore on ly
in the lowe r pressure range, the fecd -wa ter flow is controlled with feedbilck
from th e water level , whereas at higher pressures the feedhack comes from
the temperatures [38].
The furnace walls and also the fu rnace hopper are incl ined. These walls,
including the burner nozzles, arc exposed to high radiation from the furnace.
The enclosure walls for the convection banks with ve rtical tubes arc con-
nected wi th lrifurca tions to the inclined fu rnace wall lubeS. The vert ical
tubes allow a simple design for convective supe rheate r and rc heate r tube
penetrations th rough these gas· tight welded water walls. The furnace surface
and volume, including the burne r belt a rea, arc generously designed and have
no limitation in the heat pickup in the "eva porator" ending with saturation.
The upper part of the furnace walls is in fact a superheater.
The cconomizcr is arranged in the "second" pass (Fig. 7.42) with the
advantage o f count erflow; that is, water flow upwa rds.
Norma l ope ration above 35 % load is supercritical due to the cross-com-
pound unit interconnections. On ly under very low load cond itions also for the
very high pressure turbine the system pressure is subcritica l. But it has been
proven that it does not maile r for the boiler what system pressu re tS
availabl e, il ca n handle both ranges ami the transit ion effectively [3J.

550
HD
MD HD_ . HHO and MO-
530
,,~~7t /
, ~Q. -- -- -- -
~~VI/
510

490 /
p
j,
,~ 4 70 ,
~450 - - . Design
~ 430 - --- Acceptance Tests, February 1983 . Clean Boiler
DeSIgn Temperalules Obtained in May 1983

410 I I I I
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 tOO
Load. % ..

HHD Live Steam

HD Reheat Steam (First Stage)
MD Reheat Steam (Second Stage)

Fig. 7.43. Characlc rist ic fur superheaters and reheillers. (With pe rmission of/4J.)

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344 ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS

Steam to Auxill8ry Network

Jl I
---=F - - ----,
te<lm to MO Net

HHO T"'bin",n Uno

bar ·C % HHD Temperature

HD Temperature ..i.-:::::;
300
500 ._1-.--- _ ::::.:.-:::.::;:;.. ;;::-..;:..;:.-
_ ...
_ ..:_-----
........
,,:.:;"/. --;'·:- --- ""\.MDTemper<lture

'00 ' 00
//·-~:-:~:~l--·-·---·-
200
300 Firing Capacity

200 50

'00
.. '
l.~.~..~~~.~~~~ .
'00

o o o
O~I----------~lnc---------~ro~--------~;o
Time, min
Hg.1.44. Hot restart after 2 hr. (Wilh permission of {4J.)

Because of the design pressure of 270 bar, all larger headers and vessels
have been increased in number to reduce the inner diameter and as a result
the wa ll thickness also. This resulted in eight water separator cyclones with
four-leg superheaters in paralle l and for the heat exchangers from super-
heater to reheater again four legs in parall el arc provided. The allowable
temperature transients arc excellent anu do not restrict start -up time or load
transien ls.
In Fig. 7.43 some operating data are described. This proves that with
superheater- reheatcr steam-to-steam heat exchangers the temperatu re char-
acteristics arc excellent. The optimum effici ency is not quite reached becau se
of the relative increase in the pressure drop .
Restart afte r a short outage is possible withou t delay and with a minimum
heat loss. In Fig. 7.44 the diagram explains that already some minutes after
light-off low-pressure steam is available in the re heater steam line. For
synchronizing the ....ery high pressure turbine only 10 min is necessary and full
load is achieved wi th in about half an hour.

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 7.5 EXAMPLES AND OPERATING EXPERIENCES 345

This boiler has bee n in ope ration si nce 1983 with a total numbe r 0[36,000
operating hours and 255 starts (as o f June IlJ87).

7.5.4 Steam Generator UnIt for Steam Soak

or Steam Drive in Oil Fields
Th e increasing cost of crude oi l forced some com pan ies to obt'lin more oil
from the deposits th,tn feasihle wi th convent ional techn iq ues. After simply
pressing water into an existing oil well the next step was 10 usc hot wa ter
and/or steam [52).
As a natur,,1 bclwvior, the necessary ope rati ng pressure for iI steam
genera tor used in such an applicat ion may vary from 60 to 200 bilr ilnd the
requi red steam qua lity fro m 50% to satu rated stea m. No othe r system than
the once th roug h can achieve th is in a simple design, especially with the
addit ional request o f skid mounti ng and easy transport from well to well or
field to field.
The feed-water treat ment is o nly necessary in respect to tkcarbon izing
and deaer:uion. Desalination is not required even for very hi gh pressures. In
orde r to keep the salt in the boiler wate r dissolved and thus to avoid deposits
on th e boiler tubes, the steam produced has a residual moistu re of approxi-
matcly 20%. The necessary moisture con tent over th e to tal boiler operati ng
r,mge is controlled by the ratio between fuel and fecd now. If t he ljuality of
the steam is requested to be ncar saturation the .<.epa rated water from t he
cyclone is routed to the blowdown vessel and after that th rough the heat
exchanger for primary feed-wa ter heali ng (Fig. 7.45) [32).
T he combustion chamber enclosure i ~ man ufactured from tubes as a
membrane wall. The tubes are welded toge the r by means of longi tudi nal
plate strips o n a membrane wa ll multipass wcl di ng machine. Thus the
combustion chamber cage is completely gas tight and se lf-supporting and also
does not requi re any refractory material and a hot tube support ing system
which arc bot h likely to fail c .~ pccially whcn firing high-sulfu r fue l. In
addition, any corrosion problems o f an externa l plate casing due to penetra-
tion of acidic condensate from flu e gas th rough the refractory arc avoided .
Only external insulat ion against heat loss from the tuhes being on sat urated
steam tcmpt:ra ture o r lower is required. Such boilers are operated on forced
draft and can usc any liquid o r gascous fucl.
In the lower sect ion. Ihe extended combustion chamber tubes form the
external casing for the convection evapora tor and the flue gas dctlection duct
to the economizer. The multipass economizer is si tuated in an cxtcrn<l lly
insulated plate casing which is boltt:tI to th e tubular casing anti which also
ca rries the stack (Fig. 7.4().
T he burner ope ning is located in th e fro nt wall of the combustion
chamber. All tube arrangeme nts arc such that the boiler is completely
drainahl e.

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 Deaerator Chimney

Blowdown Vessel

Heat El(ChangSI

BACK
Feed -Water Trealmen1

CONTENTS I Fig. 7.45 . Once-through flow scheme for S1eam flooding pllini. (With permission of [4).)
NEXT I
 B"'f~
_ __ .... .!SoT~ '
348 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

The feed water from the pump passes through the economizer to the
combustion chamber wa ll tubes. The water e nte rs into the bottom, passes
through the walt tubes. and exits through the roof tubes. The major portion
of the combust ion chamber wall tubes are still ope rating in the pre heating
zone. The steam content at the transi tion to the convection coils ranges at
100% load between 25 % and 35 %, the refore sa fely avoiding any depositi ng
and hiding-ou l of solids in the combustion chamber tubes exposed to fl ame
rad iation .
The subsequent convection cvapomtor coi l is a co-current flow arrange-
ment so that the maximum steam con tent of Hfl% is in Ihe area of moderate
gas temperature (approximately 600"'C) and low heat flux ; these condi tions
again contribute to low se nsi tivi ty to feed-water deficiencies and operational
safety (Fig. 7.46).
Up to approximately 30 tj hr slcam protluction, the boilers are bui lt as
monotube evaporator syste ms. The tubes used in these boilers, designed for a
pressure up to approximatciy 200 bar. arc 88.9 mm 00. Whe n higher unit
rates are required, boilers can be constructed with severa l tubes in parallel.
In order to avoid nonunifo rm flow distrihutio n and unstable flow conditions,
each tube wi ll be equipped with a front -end distribution control system.
At high-sulfur cont ent , the feed water is preheated in a water-supplied
pre hea te r in order to provide for sufficient tube surface tempe rature in the
t.;conom izer to avoid corrosion . The feed water leaving the economizer is
used as a heating medium; downstream of the feed-water pre heater, the
water is passed back into the combustion cha mber tubes.
Field injection boi lers provide for maximum mobility. Small units up to 10
t/hr stea m output s are supplied o n wheels, while larger units normally arc
mounted on a chassis which ca n be easily eq uipped with wheel sets in order
to move the boiler. Also Iblbed trailer or railway transportation is a possihle
alternative.
Boilers are normally installed in containers with the local control panel
inside the housing. The containerized hoiler system can be equipped for
operation under arctic conditions. Sta ndby heating syste ms ca n be either
electrica lly opera ted or fossi l-fuel based; special circulation pumps provide
for uniform heating of all sensitive prcssure part s also in the depressurized
state.
Large boile r systems arc mount ed in differ ent containe rs wh ich in the field
can be easily connected together to form one operational unit.

7.6 SUMMARY

The once-through boiler design is prese nt ed starting with a short historical

review. The once-through boi ler system is compared with other systems,
namely the natura l-circulation, controlled-circulation , once-through with su-
perimposed circulat ion, and combined-circulation systems, under the aspects

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 NOMENClATURE 349

of the applicable pressure range. the inHuence o f pressurc and temperature

on plant etlkicncy. and the suitabi lity of the systems for r!Xed and sliding
pressurc ope ration. Referencc is madc to ma ~s flux in the evaporator (cooling
of tht: evaporator tubes), arrangemen t of the reci rcu lat ion pump. recircula ·
tion and feed·wat er pump power, furnace wall design, main stea m tempera-
ture p:tllern under pa rl ·load operation and furnace slagging (feasible furnace
outlet temperatures). requi red feed ·waler quality, dynamic behavior (start-up
times, disturbances. load changes), preferred design practices, un it sizes. and
adva ntages in specific applica tions.
Specia l allent ion is foc used on the water wall design including DNU, DO .
the rmal stresses and lemperalUre d ifferences between individual furnace
tubes, steam prehea ting and water separation devices. start ·up syste ms. and
feed-wate r contro l.
Finally three exam p!cs of large utility boilers and a special application for
steam soak or steam drive in oil field s arc described .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank Mr. J. Merz who allowed me 10 usc extc nsive ly his pape rs o n
boil er design [4J. especially in Sections 7.3.2. 7.3.3. 7.4.1. 7.5.3. a nd 7.5.4. :lOd
all the other authors (see thc refere nces) whose published pape rs I used .
Further I want to thank Mr. G. Bauer, Mr. P. Fritz, Mr. G. G rolL Mr. U.
Krogm.. nn. and Mr. C. T . Nguye n. who assisteJ me wit h the c:!ku lations.
Last but not least 1 wan t to 1hank Mrs. CII . SchrOde r, who typed the
manuscript, for her p<llience wi th both my handwritin g and the endless
corrections; I also want to thank Ihe scve r:,1 peorle who drafted the fi gu res.

NOMENCLATURE

valve area, m 2
( I + per/ lOO)"' pcr/ IOO
am amortiw tion am - I/ annum
( I t rcr/ UX) "' -
Cc~p speci fi c ca pit .. 1 costs. S/ kW
C,' elect rica l power costs. S/kWh
Cfu~' fu el cost. S/ kWh
ct'c specific hea t :!t constant pressu re of the flu e g:tS, kJ /(kg' K)
C1.2.J.4 eonst:!n!. variable
d, tube inside diameter. m
FLH fu JI-load hours pcr yea r. hr/a
f •• FLH / PFLH availabi lity factor, dime nsionl ess
f" f" etor for rlXed specific costs (e.g .. part of maintenance and
pe rsonnel costs independcn t of opera tion). dimensionless

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350 O NCE· THROUGH BOILERS

I., PFLH /X760 usage fac tor. dimcnsionlc-ss

Iva. facto r fo r va ri able speci fi c costs (e .g., part of main te na nce and
personnel costs depende nt on o pe ra tion), dimensionless
g gravita tional accelera tion, m/s 2
h he ight, m
en thalpy, kJ / k~, J / kg
e nthalpy (jn lel, oUllct, adiabatic), J / kg
lube pilc h diame te r ral io in finn ed tube wa te r wa lls, dimen·
sionless
LH V lowe r hea ling value . J/ kg. MJ / kg
LRC radia tive and convcClivc heal losses related to the maximum
heat o ut pu t. dimensiunlc s...
le ngth of a side (de pth. width), m
I, lUbe length . m
niH; specific Hue gas mass, kg !lue gas / kg fu cl
n nu mber o f para llel lubes, dime nsionl ess
/I )' number of years in operation (deductio n). a
PFLH possible full-load hours per yea r, hr / a
PT turbine load, W
p, Pe,' P I' P2 pressure <Cr. crit ical; 1,2, nu mbering index). Pa, ba r
fl.1) /> pressure drop ( b, boiler), bar
pc< inte rest. %/a
pt tube pitc h, m
pt. ho rizonta l tube pi tch. m
o hea lflow, W, kW, MW (OUI , o utput ; in . in put ; losses. sum o f
losses; FG . losses due to sensible heat in the fl ue gas; UFo
losses due to unhurned matte r; Re, Ios.~s due to rad ia tio n
and co nvection)
q" heat flux (cr. c ritical). W / m ~
R, Reynolds n umber, Pl'ti ,/p... d ime nsio nless
RR evaporator water recircu lation ratio, dimensio nless
S e nl ropy kT / kgK
Sn stability number, d ime nsio nless
T tempera ture (5. satura ted ; 1.5. points shown in Fig. 7.11 ; TO ,
mean val ue; inc. upper cycle te mpera ture le ve l)
steam su perheat ing, K
maximum temperature difference hetwee n wa ler wall and tie
bar, K
ra mp tempe rature c hange, K
ti me, s
time consta nt of li rst order delay, S
ve locity (opt , optima l), m/s
specific volume of saturated steam , m J / kg
1' /,V n ,l'T2 rate of te mpe rature c ha nge. K/ s
W' mass fl ux (m:ISS velocity), kg / (m 2 . s)

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 REFERENCES 351

IV mass now (cvap, cvaponllor; feed, feed wate r; steam, live

stea m: min , minimum evapora tor now), kg / s
i , i ;;. '.I.', x ....., mass ste am qua lity (cr, crit ical; out , at the evapora tor out let),
dime nsio nless
8760 hr/a
a angle of inclination between tube and vert ica l downward
dircctiun, rad
a... angle of indination between tube and horizontal direction,
"d
difference (to steady state)
cflicic ncy (eye, eycle; i, turbine; SG, stcam generator: F,
firing), dimens ion less
tube fr iction coefficie nt, dimensionless
dynamic viscosi ty, kg /em . s)
dc nsil y, kg/ m 3

Subscripts
u a mbient
FB fuel burned
FG nue gas
FI fuel input
FW feed water
inlet
o out le t, steady stat e
RH reheater
SH supe rheater
UF unhurned fuel
SW spray waler
liP high pressure
LP low pressure

REFERENCES
l. Fryling, G. R. (1')66) Combu$l/QIl £IIKinl'uinK-A Referell ce Book 011 Flld BuminR
IInrl SII:(Jfn pp. 25·3 fT. Published by Combustion Engineering. Inc.,
GrIIUUIiOIl,
New York. The Riverside Press, Cambridge , Mass.
2. Wiehn, H .. ct :II. (1985) Trends and LOsungcn im internationalcn Dampfcr.t:euger·
bau. V( in.KrafIlH'rk.~I('cllflik 6S( t 2) 1126 - 1132.
J. Lcithner. R. (l984) Uberkritischc Dampferzeuger. Auslegungskritcrien und Bc-
triebscrfahrungen. 8rl'l1IlS10ff-Wiirm~·Krafl 36(3) 71-82.
-t . Me r7~ J. (t9mi) De ~ ign !.:unsidcralions for rns..~iHired steam generators of the
once-through system, Chapter 2: Selected fluid phenomena in water / stcam.
Chapter 6; Operating characterist ics and c~pcrienee with once through power

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352 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

boilers, Sect ion 7.1; Application o f o nce through technique, Seelion 7.2, In
TM,'O ·Phas~ Flow H~u' £t(h(JI~rs. S. Kak:u;. A. E. Bertl1cs. and E. O . Fernande.s
(cd-d. Kl u.....cr. Dnrurecht .
5. Pic h. R. (1971)) Bctrachtu nge n ubcr den Einfluli de r Stro merzcugungskosten au f
die Emwicklu llg 1m Kr a ftwc rk~ilu untCl' tx:so ndcrc r Bcrucksichtigung der
Verfilgbarkcll. I::Vr·RtglSltr 35 / 197'9. Energ!!.:· und Verfahrcnstee hnik GmhH,
Stuttgart.
6. Strllull. K. (iYt'5/86) Kr iterien rur den E in~a t l unterxhledlleher DOImpfc.:r.r-ClIgc.:r·
systcmc bei Kraft ..... c rk ~· D ampferlc u ge rn . Ja/trbl.lcl! dn IJampftfu lIRtrt«lrmk
/985 / 86, PI'. 332- 342. Vulkan· Vcrlag. h~n .
7, Brockel. 0 .. el al. (l YtsS /t'M Grolle Naturumlau fd itmpfcrzeuger. Jah'tmch llt'r
Otlmpftru ll/ltr. Ttchmk /985 / 86. PI'. 362- 3SJ. Vu lkan·Vcrl38. Esse n.
K Gericke. B. ( 1971:1} DCI nalu rliche Wassc rumlau f in Ab hitzedampferzeugcrn_
F.VT-llmchl 4() / 79. IIrt nlll·,,,jJ· lVamlt. Kra[1 30(1 2) 459- 468.
Y. La nge, F. (]'I70 K essc l s pcisepumpen - Zul aufsy~te me bei glcitcndem Entgascr·
druck. IJr.:mwojJ· lVa rmt· Krufl 23(7) J2 1- 32H.
10. Tt(hmscllt' Rt'/(I'/n fiu Damp[kt'sSfI herausgcjlebcn 1m Auftrage des De Ui schen
DlI l1lpfk e ~se l ilu s.o;c h u s.o;cs vml de r Vcrcinigung der Techn ischcn Ut>t ....'flc hu ngs.
vereinc c.V. I--~,,"C n , ClI rJ lIc.:ym,tnn Ve rlilg KG . Colug ne.
I I. LcithnC l, R. ( 1979) Dynam ik im Gro!3dampfe rzcugerbau , Elektrillliilf"l'lflK hafl
HO<S) 2RI _2t)o. I:VT·flt·ric111 52 / 1080.
12. Jens, W. H .. and Loll es. P. A (1 95 11 Analysi s of heat tra nsfer. Burnoul. Pressure
drop :lnd densit y d,.I ,. for hi1\:h prcs.~ ur e W"lcT. USAEC Report AN L·4b27.
13. Drescher. G., and Kohler, W. ( 191:1 1) Die Ermiltlun1\: kr itir.cher SiedelUstii nde lin
gesamte n D:lmpfge hall sbc reic h fii l innendurehstrom te Rohre. 8rt'lI/lS/of['
Wiinm··KrlIfl 3.l( 10 ) 4 16- 422.
14. DMIIshchuk. V. E .. Levita n. I.. 1.. . ,Hid I.;l!ltsma nn . P. 1'. ( 1975) Recommend,,·
lions for c<llculllling burnuut in " ro und tube wi th un ifurm hea l re l e ,,~e. Trplum·/I .
t:r/:.' rikll 2lU 2) 66- 70.
15. Kon'kov. A. S. (1965) EXperiment ,.J s tud ~ of thl,: conditions under whieh heal
cxchilnge d c l e rio r "te ~ whe n a steam ·wa ter mix tufe !lows in i. heated lube.
T~,,/oel!(:r/,:e /ikll 12(1 2) 77.

16, Kohler. W. ( 19~ ) EinfluB des BenetlUllgSlUslandes der Heizlliichc auf

Wiirmcuber1\:ang und Druckvcrl usl in cinc111 Verdaml)fc rrohr. Disse rtatio n. Tech·
nieal UniversIty of Munich.
17. I'lein, D., K;lsll\e r, W .. and Kohler. W. (1 982) Ein flu !3 def Rohrl;lge auf den
Witrmciihcrgang In einem Veru,tmp(errnhr. II'CIJIIJ·lojJ. Wiirme' /(rlIfl 34 41-19- 493.
18. He itmann . )-I.·G .. and K a~l rl er. W. (1 9R2) Erosionskonos ion in Wasser·
Dampfkrcisliiufe n- Urs,lchen und Gege nl1111Ll nahmell . V(ifl KfIIfl ll·t'rksll',llIIik.
62()) 2J 1-2 19,
Ii}, '·le in. D .. anu Will ehnw, E. (] Ylt~ / lio) Ve rbe~~e run tl dcr Ausictl ung und des
BClricbsverh<l ltens von Jknson. Dampfcrzeugern. )(I /"hll(""/1 (/1" DI1I11,,{rr.:ruSI'r.
T!!chlllk. 1985/86. pp. 342 - 36/. Jllllkan· Ver/uR. £SSI'II.
20, Teige n. B. Co, and Pcict z. L. J. (I9t' 1l Heal transfer d,II'I. rilled tubing. P;lpcr
prese nt ed al the CE- Sulzc r Con fere nce. AU jl.ust 19!t1. Combustion EngineerinJ!:.
I nc . Windsm. Conn.

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2 1. Iwah uchi, M. et al. (1982) Heat transfer characterist ics of rifted tu be in nc ar

crilteal prc!i5u re region. Pr()(;o Seuenth Int . Heat Tmn4er Canj. , MWl ich . Vol. S.
T F 21, H('at Trans/u.
22. Uiubli, F., L..eithnc r, R., and Trautmann, G., (l984) Problemc bei der Speisc ·
wasserrcgelu ng vo n Zwa ngdurchlaufdampfcrzeugern und de re n l.Osung. VG8-
Kra/twerkstechnik M(4 ) 279- 29 1.
23. H e in, D., .tntl Willchow, E. (lr.,J80 /8 1) Forschung und Entwicklun g auf clem
Gebiet des Benson Dampfcrze ugers. iahrbuch der Damp/erZf?ugertl'chnik 1980 /
81. PI'. 2 18- 230. Vulk rm -Ve r lag. Essen.
24. Pfau, B. (1977) Rilfdra uhigke it im Wandbclag von Rob r lcilUngcn VI. Verfahrerrs-
t('chnik II( I).
25. Thorn, J. R. S. ( 1964) Predi ctio n of pressure drop du ring forced circula tio n boiling
of wa ter. 1111 . i . fleat Mass Tnms/er 7 709- 724.
26. Thelen, r. (198 1) SIri)mung~~I ahilital in Ve rd a mpfcrn von Zwangdurchlau f-
damprerzc ugern. VGB-Milll'iflmgell 61(5) 357- 367.
27. Ledinegg, M. (1966) Damp/tr"UuRwfR . D(lmp/kessd, Ft ummge'l ei,uchlitPlich
AlOmreaklOrell. Vo l. 2. Springe r-Ve rlag.
28. Miszak, P. Zwangdurehlaufdampfcr:.o:cugcran lagc. E uropaisthe Patc ntanmcldung.
Veroffe ntl ichungsnummer 0054601.
29. L..ei thncr. R. (J980) Entwicklung groBer Einzug-Zwangdurchlaufda mpferlclIger.
iahrbllch der Oamp/erzeugemchnik, Vol. 4. pp. 230- 245. EVr-&mcht 57/1981.
30. VGB-Richtlinien fur Kesse lspeisewasscr. Kessc lwassc r und Da mpf vo n Wa s~c r­
rohrkesseln der Druckslufc ab 64 bar. Ve rcin igun g deT Gm3 kraflwerksbetn:: ihc r,
Essen.
31. Linze r, V. and Leithner. R. (1975, Einfac hcs Dampferzeugermodell (digitalc
Simulation). Forstschrifl-&richte df!r VTJI-ZI'ltschrijtl!lI. Vol. 6. Nil. 4 1. Evr-
Btricht 31 / 75.
32. Mattern, J . and Me rz. J . (1980) Dampfe rl c ugung zur Bcdampfung \Ion E rd o l-
Lagerstiillen . JahrbllCh der Dampferzeugllllgslechlllk , Vol. 4. 324 - 337.
33. Baumulie T. F. . and Richler. R. (1983) Sind Sammclschicncnkraftwerkc noch
l c ilgc maG? VGH-Kro/IH.'l'rkstechnik 63(5) 3XI - 38H.
34. Baumuller, F. . R ichte r, R .. and Strasser. P. (1 91.<5) U bcrkrit ische r 475- MW-
H c izkraftwc rksblock mit REA im GroBkraftwc rk Ma nnhcim. VGB Kra/rwak$-
r~chllik 65(3) 208-2 18.

35. Grunn. H., Scdcldl, K.-F., Wa ldman n, H., Rc idic k. H., and Schuler, U. (1 973)
Kessel und FClIc rllnge n rur 6OO-MW-B!ikke fUr Braunkohle. VGB Kra/twerks.
If!ch"ik 53( 12) 772- 79J.
36. Ka ma, G . (1<.177) Errichtung und Bc triebsergc hnisse fu r den 6OO-MW-Brilun-
ko hlekcsscl des RWE. Braunkoh/t', October 1977,403-412.
37. Ve ller, H., a nd Lc ilhnc r, R. (]980) Betricbserfahrungc n mil den Dampfcrze ugern
ru r Bra unk ohlcfeucrun g Neurath 0 and E. iahrbuch der Dampjerzellgungstech ,lik
198fJ. pp. 813- 1l22. Vulkan-Vcrl;lg, Esstn.
38. l c it hne r, R. ( 1<.11l 1) Hcrec hllung des Betriebsvcrhalte ns ubcrk r itischer
Dampferzcugc r im Anfahr- und Umwa lzbc lrieb. EVT-8ericht 54/81. Energie -
und Vcrfah re nstcchnik G mbH. Stuttgart.

BACK
BACK CONTENTS
CONTENT. N.'"
NEXT
39. Burkk, E .• a nd Hackm;Iier. R. (1975) 740-MW·81ock Kraflwuk Scholvcn. dn
EVf.Sulzcr.Dampfcrzeuger mit Stcinkoh1cnfeucruna. £vr·R~gist~' 19 / 1975.
Encrgle· und Verfahrenstechnik GmbH , Stuuga rl .
40. Kub ler. I). Ou 51t:mkollltgr/t!IIt:rlr U O·MW·H/lld Sclwll "f!n F. MU~ l era nlagen der
Energicwirlscha rt, Das Kraftwc rk Scholven. Energiewirtschaft und Tcchnik, Vc r·
laisge~ lI sc h a h mbH . Federal Republic of Ge rma ny.

41. Kiible r, D., and Eggen, II . J. (197M) 740-MW·Stelnkuh1c:bloc:k Schol ve n F, Ein·

fluBnahm e des Bestelle rs au f die KOn5l ruk lion a n den Bcispiele n " Damp·
fcrzeugcr " und '· R3uchgascmschwcfclun~." VG 8 Kra/I ..·t,li.Jftrhllik 58(1 2)
86 1-866.
42. Richter. R., Kniscl. G .. and Leithne r. R. (]979) Ubcrkritischcr 475·MW·Zwang·
durc hlaufdampfcrlcugcr I1ir d<ls GruBkr,,(twcrk M.mnheim. I;"vr Rrgislu 36 / If) .
Encraic· und Verfahre nstcchnik GmbH. Slutt;carl .
43. Lcithner, R .• and Rcidic k, II . ( 1979) Au.~ It: t;u nt; und enlc iktriebsc rf:lhrungt: n
des 74Q. MW.stcinkoh lcgcfcucrtcn 810ckcs Schol vc n F. eVT R~Kis lrr 36 / 1979.
Energie · und Verfah renstcchnik Gmb H, Stuttgart.
44 . Schlcssi ng, J ., and Strasse r, P. ( 1985) Erfahrunge n bei der In bctriebn .. hme und
bcim lk u ieb des iiberkritische n Dampferzeugers Kessel 18 im Grol3kraftwerk
Mannheim AG. V(;II Kru/fwrrkl'lt:chnik 65 1000 - 10 II.
45. Richter, R.. Hnd StrauB, K. (/985) Bctric bsc rfahrungcn mit de m ko hlegdeuerte n,
iibc rkrilische n Dampfe rze uge r mil do ppe itc r Zwisehe niiberhilzung des
GroBkraflwc rks Mannheim AO . I: Vr· /frriclil H5 / H5. Encrt;ie · und V e rfahrcn~ ·
lcchnik GmbH , S1ungart .
46. Men:, J . (19RJ) The new S1cum gencralOr no. IK fl)r power St:l1iOll uni t 7 in the
eenlnll fX)Wcr sla tiun Mannheim. Paper prcsenled ill the CE - Sulzer Conference .
Combustion Enginee ring. Inc .. Windsor. Conn.
47. Uiebcr, K. . I-I. (/979) Ei nsatz lind Be re l t ~cl1iIft vun R e~rve krarrwer ken . VGIl
Km/lwerlwechnik 59<"7) 53 1- 539.
48. Fischer. 1' .. and Friihlie h. P. (11}74) BAG Kr.tfrwerk I'lcinling II . EVT i<t'gi.rll!r
16/ 1974. Energ;e . und Verfahrenstcchnik GmbH. S1Ullgarl.
49. Lcithncr, R. (1 983) Vc rglcich zwische n Zwangdurchla ufdampfcrzeuge r, Zwang-
durchl:tufd:trnpferzclIllcr mit Vt) l la.~ lumw;ilzllng und Natu rumlaufdampfcrl.cugc r.
VG8 .K.mflH'erkslcl..'hmk 7 553 -568.
SO. Gci!3lcr, Th. (1979) Fcurung.~itnl:lgen fUr 13,·aun · und StcinkohJc. £Vr·Bl!rlchl
17/ 7'1. Enc rgic· li nd Verfahrenstechnik Gmb ll , Stulr g'lrl.
5 1. JU 1.i, H., Cl a1. (1984) ZWilllgdure.hlau!l:essel rur Gleitdruekbctricb mit vertikaler
I3rcnnkammc rOcmhrung, VCR Kru/fH'UK.sll!c/!lJIk .. 292- 302.
52. Schlc mm. F. (1979) Planung und l3e rricb vo n Oampfkesse lanlagc n bei Tertinr·
Prnje kt c n. erliiil.F.rdg{u·l t lfSchrif' 9S Jul}' 1979.
53. Linzer, W. (]984) UCfurr Oil 8011." /ksiRfr. Technical Univers ily Vienna, AU Slria .

APPENDIX 7,1: EXAMPLE FOR CALCULATING

POWER GENERATION COSTS

From a biluminous·coal · fircd powe r s tation the following infonnalion is

avai lable: inlcreSI ralc, 8 %; payo ul lime (period of amortizalion), 20 ycars;

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 APPENDIX I 355

fue l costs, SI20/ 1I)3 kg [L HV - 2K47 (MW · s)/ kg1; overall plant e fficiency,
37%; annual equivale nt full- load oper:ttion hours. 5400 hr/ a; the specific
fixed costs arc: 6% of the specifi c plant costs; the sum of the specific va riable
costs is 5% of the specilic fu cl costs: and thc specific plan t costs:

plant costs
CUP - installetl elec tric capacity (kW)

from Table 7.3

With the given informat io n the cost s for powc r generation in this power
station ca n be Calculated accord ing tu Eq. (7.1):

C,~~,fv.t

The solution is as follows:

Speci fic lixed-costs factor:

Capital repayme nt fa ctor:

(1 + q)" ' q
am -
( l + q)"' - 1

whcre If is the interest rate per yea r and f1 y is the payout time in years

1.08 211 X 0.08

am - I '{JH 2() - I

Availabili ty fa ctor (operating lime. cIt".. in equ ivalent full-loild upe rat ing
hours):

ann ual operating time + annual standby time

f .y = ])0ssible operating lime per annum (876Ohr/ a)

Util ization fac tor:

annual operating time

f ... = annual opc naing time + annual standby lime

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 w TABLE 7.J Characteristic Information for Different Power Plants
~
(7)

Specific Overall Cold

Investment Const ruet ion Plant Start-Up
Costs, Period, Efficiency , Period.
Power Planl $/kW a % Fuel Suitable for !'IT
Hydroelectric 1450-2020 3-5 (== 80) "Sun" Basic load 0.1-0.25
power plant or peak load
Nuclear power plant 1730-2310 6-8 30-40 Uranium BasIc load 30-50
with pressurized or
boi ling -wa Ie r reaclor
Steam power planl
With Aue gil~ 870-1270 4( -6) 37 Coal Medium load 5-8
desulf uri za t ion or basic load
WithoUl flue gas 690-1040 3( -5) 40 Coal Medium load 5-8
dC5ulfuriza t ion or basIc load
Gas turbine power 260-430 1-2 28-32 Natural gas I'eakload 0.25
plant Mineral oil
Combined power 400--690 2-3 45-52 Natural gas Medium load 0.5-2.5
plant Mineral oil or basic load
Cugeneration
(of heM and power)
Steam power plant 920-1330 2-4 70-85 Coal I3asic load 5-8
with desulfurization Wood
Combined power 420-720 2-3 70-85 Natural ga~ Basic load 0.5 - 2.5
plant Mineral oil
Ga~llication of coal 1010-1450 3-4 38.5 Coal Basic load 70
with 11 combined
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power plant
CONTENTS I Soura: K,afTWerkc. Charuklen',<1/Sch(> Dult'rj u'rsdlledener Kraflwerksrypm. AHI3 Technik. 6/89. p 21. Table l.
NEXT ,
 The utili.wtion fal:tur and the availability factor can be solved easily
together:
5400
! ...,f.., - -X76U - 0.616
Specific variable costs:

Overall plant eiT1.cicncy:

'IJ~ - 0 .37

Specific fuel costs:

fuel costs (S / kg)

Crud - 7I-o~-'c-"--:-hc-"-17;"-.-..71~c~c7(7k~W~h7/7k-.C)

$ 120 I kg J6(X) s
IOJ kg ~2"" 4"7-x-ci O"''-:(''"k'"'W''-.,77
-c. ,) I hr

- 0.0152 5/ kWh

The numerical calcu lation is

11 00 X 0 . 10 19 X 1.06 0.0152 X 1.05

Cel - +
8760 X 0.6 16 0 .37

- 0.0220 + 0 .043 1
- 0065 1 5/kWh

APPENDIX 7.2 : OPTIMAL DESIGN OF A RECIRCULATION

PUMP SUCTION PIPE

The following information i5 availahle: the suction pipe (or downcomc r) is

ve rtica l; the mass flow W - 145 kg/s of sa turated (at th e toP. i.e .• in the
drum or storage vessel) water wit h a prcs.'iure of I bar; and from a
water-steam table one ca n ge t the density for sa turated wlllc r at I har ,
p = 958.41 kg/ mJ. and the dynamic viscosity, 'IJ - 281.9 X 10 - 6 kg / (m . s).
The allowable pressure dec rease ca n he calcul ate according to Eq. (7.10>:

dp - upg+
-
( A
--
,V' )
dt 2d,

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358 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

Using Ihe colHinuit)' eq u ~lIion :

d 2 1f
W - pt'-'-
4

one gels

All variables arc kno ..... n bes ides o f course dp/dt and d , but also the tube
friction coe ffi cie nt A f . To simplify the cal culation, we usc an eq uat io n of
Prandt l and von Karman fo r tu rbu len t flow a nd hydraulically smooth lube s:

with the Reyno lds numbe r

41V
Rt' -
d, 1T iJ.

Using th ese equations, o ne get s th e allowable pressure decreases as a

fun ctio n of the in ner diame ter (fi g, 7.47) [lnd ca n see the o plinwl diam e ter.
The optimal diame ter can ,llso be caku tal ed acwrding to 13q. (7. 1') ,
Beca use o f the depc ndence of th e lUbe frictio n coe ffici c nt on Ihe Rey nolds
num be r and th erefore on the diame te r, 134. (7. 19) ca n o nly be solved by

70000

60000

... 50000
\
.s", 40000
z
!f
30000
"" '-......
{I 20000
10000

o
o 03
---- 04 0.5
Tube Inside Oiameter d,. m

"'R.7.47. Allow;tbk prc~surc dcneasc.

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 APPENDlX 3 359

iteration. The result of such a calculation is

d, ~ 0.143

4.145 X l Ot>
Re 0: 0: 4.57 X 10 6
0.143 x 11" x 281.9

0 .309
A/ - "'----:-::-="2 = 0.00914
\10&( Re/ 7)1

d, = .. 0.143 m
958.41 2 x 9.8 1 X 11"2

21-24

APPENDIX 7.3: STEAM GENERATOR ENERGY BALANCE

The e ffici e ncy of a boiler de pe nds on the energy balance boundaries; the
relation temperature, relation ca lorific value (gross or ne t - highe r or lower
heating value) of the fu el. and so on; and the load (steady state!).
It is therefore necessary to define the measure me nts o f the effi cie ncy
exactly. This is done. for example, in the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) Powe r Test Code, Code for Acceptance tests on station-
ary steam generators of the power station type, Briti sh Standards In stitut ion
BS I 2885, and Deutsche Industrie Norm (German Industry Code) DIN 1942.
The efficiency is defined as

1JSG =

and with

two furt her definitions are possible

The heat output Qou. is defined as the sum of the products of the super-
heater and re heate r steam flows with the respective enthalpy differe nces.

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360 ONCE· THROUGH BOILERS

For example, the heat output of a boile:r wi th a superheate r SH and onc

reheater stage RH (using feed water FW as spray wate r SW in the super-
heater and reheated is

For example , th e foll owing da ta are given by thc turbine man ufacture r for a
6OO-MW (electrical) lignite-fi red unit :

WStt o = 5 17 kg/s

P Stt .;> - 180 bar )

from steam - water table i Sl l o - 3359.0 kJ / kg
TS ~' " - 530°C

T FW - 2400C

i f.W = 1040 .5 kJ / kg

,.. ISO + 30 ( estimated)

i S11 0 - iF'..... = 23 18.5 kJ / kg

W Rill = 479 kg/s

PRtl " - 31 bar )

i RU " .. 3522 .:\ kJ / kg
T Rtl " = 530"C

PRil l - 33 bar (estimated)}

i R 1I1 - 2985.5 kJ / kg
T R I~, = 300"C

i Rtl " - i RII , - 536.8 kJ / kg

W RIf SW = 10 kg/s (usually 2%) iW.I IO - itW - 2481 .8 kJ / kg

cLue= 517 X 23 ULS + 479 X 536.8 + 10 X 248 1.8

.,. 1,480,000 kW

The heat input is (simplifi ed)

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 APPENDIX 3 361

To calcu late the necessary fuel (lignite) How, we need the efficiency or the
losses and the calorific va lue of the fu el. We will usc the net calorifi c value,
that is, the [ower heating va lue, LHV = 8000 kJ / kg. To simplify the ca lcula-
tion , we will o nly take into account the following losses (re lated to ambient
conditions):

1. Losses due to the se nsible heat of the nue gas QFG (mos t import ant
pan)

With the ambient temperature 7~ - 25°C and the flue gas temperature
T FG = 130°C as given values and the lIalues calculated for lignite o f
8{XXJ kJ / kg LHV and 25% excess air (e.g., accordi ng to F. Brand t:
Brennstotfe and Verbrennungsrechnung FDBR , Fachbuchreihe Band
I. Fachllerband Dampfkcsscl, BehiHter, and Ro hrleitungsba u e.V.,
Vulkan-Vcrlag, Essen): the specific flu e gas mass m FG - 4.7R kg Huc
gas/kg fuel; the specific flu e gas heat C Fe:, - 1.144 kJ / kg nue gas K.
2. Losses due to unburned solid mailer <iUF usually 1% of the hea l input
Om:

WFII
WF1
1- "T/f' = om

3. Losses due to radiation and conllcction to the enlliron men t QRe.

LRC from DIN lQ42, LRC - 0.0035. For Q"""nn "" Q;n:

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 362 ONCE·THROUGH BOILERS

The refore the boiler efficiency is

WFIJ "'FGCFd TFG - T,,) + QUF + QRe

l1SG "" l -
WF1 LHV

4.7" X 1.144(130 - 25)

1 - 0 .99 8000 - {l.OI - 0.0035

1 - 0.072 - 0.01 - 0.0035 ~ 0.9145

The fu el input the refore is

Qour 1,480,000
WF1 - - 7.'::-;- - 8000 ,.. 202.3 kg/s - 728 t/h r
l1SGLHV 0.9 145 X

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M
..,
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M
Chapter 08
..,Z
A Thermohydraulic
Z
o Design of

..
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M
Fossil-Fuel- Fired
Boiler Component
a:: z. H. Lin
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CD Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS
CONTENTSJ
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 08 Contents
8. Thermohydraulic Design of Fossil-Fuel-Fired Boiler Components
Z. H. Lin
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Working Principle of a Steam Boiler
8.1.2 Main Characteristics of Steam Boilers
8.2 Types of Boilers and Construction of Boiler Components
8.2.1 Classification of Boilers
8.2.2 Construction and Design Problems of Furnaces
8.2.3 Construction and Design Problems of Superheaters and
Reheaters
8.2.4 Construction and Design Problems of Economizers
8.2.5 Construction and Design Problems of Air Heaters
8.2.6 Construction and Design Problems of Steam Drums
8.3 Heat Transfer Calculations of Boiler Components
8.3.1 Boiler Efficiency and Weight of Fuel Fired
8.3.2 Heat Transfer Calculation of Water-Cooled Furnace
8.3.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Convection Heating Surfaces
8.3.4 Procedure for Heat Transfer Calculation of a Boiler
8.4 A Numerical Example of the Heat Transfer Calculations of Boiler
Components
8.5 Steam-Water Systems of Boilers and Circulation Calculations
8.5.1 Steam-Water System of Natural-Circulation Boiler and
Design Problems
8.5.2 Steam-Water System of Controlled-Circulation Boilers and
Design Problems
8.5.3 Steam-Water System of Once-Through Boilers
8.6 A Numerical Example of Boiler Circulation Calculations Nomenclature
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

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 CHAPTER 8

THERMOHYDRAULIC DESIGN
OF FOSSIL-FUEL-FIRED BOILER
COMPONENTS
Z. H. LIN
Xi 'an Jiaotong UnIVersity
Xi'an. People's Republic of China

8.1 INTRODUCTION

A boile r is a device for gene rat ing stcilm for power, processi ng. and heating
purposes. or for producing hot water for heati ng purposes and hOi -water
supplies. The former is ca lled a steam boiler and the la ller is called a
hut -water boi le r. lioth boi lers work on the same principle and a hot-wate r
boiler is casier to design. I n Chapler 6, the fundamentals and cleme nts of
fossil-fi red boilers arc presented. Chapl e r 7 diSl: u SSCS once-through boi lers.
In th is chapter on ly the construct ion and design problems of steam boile rs
wi ll be discussed.

8.1.1 Working Principle of a Steam Boller

A boi ler consists o f IWO paris: a furnace in which combustion of fuel takes
place , anu a water-steam system through which feed water passes anu is
converted inla steam by the absorpt io n of hea t produced by the combust ion
of fuet.
In boilers pulverized coa l, fuel oil, or gas is burned in the furnaces through
burners, while solid fu els arc burned on stokers. To support combustion, it is
necessary to supply a quantity of air and to remove the prod ucts of combus-
tion by means of a tlrafl C3WiCd by a chimney or draft fans .

/Joilt:~. E' '<1{K'f"ulors /JnJ ("vmlt:,lSItrs. Edi! ~d b~ S"d,k Kaka,)

ISBN 0-471 -62\7Q-6 Cl I99 1 Juhn Wiley & Sons. Inc

363

CONTENTS NEXT
 In large hoilers the incoming air is prehe3ICd in an air hea te r a nd the feed
wate r (wurki ng Auid ) is hea ted in an economizer by the d ischarged Aue gases.
This a rrangeme nt improves the boiler efficiency.
After leaving the economizer, the working fluid e nters the furnace wate r
wall tubes through a dru m or distribut ion heade r a nd is healed and partially
evapora ted the re. The n sat urated steam is collected in a drum or a heade r.
For common power pla nt boile rs. saturated stcam is fu rther superheated to
the required te mperature in steam supe rheate rs, while for re heat cycle power
plant boilers, steam has to be reheated in re healers.
The working principle of a s team boiler is shuwn in Fig. 8.1 (see also Fig.
6.1 5) which expresse... the flow diagram of steam production in a stea m-Iurhin c
powe r plant with a na tura l·circulation boiler fired with pu lve rized coal.
The boile r consists of two ve rtical shafts connected at the lop by a
horizontal gas ducl. The left shaft ."t! rves as th e boiler fu rnace. Water wall s,
formed by tubul a r panels, a re arranged around the entire perimeter of thc
furnace c hamber and a rc heated directly by the radiant hea t of the flame .

.' ig. 8. 1. Auw di,lgr<lm (I f a nat ural·cirll.l1ation builer: I- Furnace. 2-watcr walls.
3- burner.;, 4- downcomcrs. 5-drum, 6-radiaOl superhea tcr, 7-convecl ion suo
pe rheaters, 8- rehc3lc rs, 9- cconomizer, 10-gas duct, II -air healer, 12-primary
air. 13-secondary ai r, 1 4 - s l 'l ~ S(:feCnl,.

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'Ibe reheater. economizer. and air heater are arranged in the right shaft
while [he supe rheater is loca ted in the horimotal gas duct. These heating
surfaces receive heat by convection and are called com'cctive hea ting sur·
faces .
As shown in Fig. 8. 1, there are three major How systems in a boiler: Ihe
combustion products flow system, the steam - water Auw system, and the air
How system.
The combustion products flow system: As pulve rized coal is injected with
air into the furnace . it is burned and forms the high ·temperature combustion
products (nuc gases) which se rve as a heat transfer agent on the heating
surfaces. Flue gases gi\'c up part of their heat by radiation to the wat er walls
and leave [he furna ce at a safe temperature (aoout 100010 12<X1"C, depend ·
ing on the type of fucl) which will nOI ca use slagging and fouling of the
subseque nt convective healing surfaces. Afte r that , the Aue gases pass through
the exte rnal surfaces of the slag screen, superheaters, !Cheater. economizer,
air hea ter, e tc., successive ly and give up heat mainly by convection to these
convective heating surfaces. Downst ream o f the air heat er, the flue gase.'.
already have a rather luw tempera ture (J 10 tu 16O"C) and arc eallet! the
discharged flu e gases. The discharged flue gases pass through a fly ash
collector, as induced-draft fan. and arc ejected through the chimney inla the
atmusphere.
The steam -wate r fl ow system; Feed w:lIe r is passed through the feed -water
pump inlO th e economizer and is hca ted to a tempera ture below the
sa turation point. Wat er the n !low!> into the drum and is distributed through
the unheated downcomers and headers 10 the water wOllls (risers) in which it
is heated and partially conve rt ed to steam. The difference in density be twee n
Ihe stcOlI11 - watcr mixture in the wOlter wall s :lIld th e wat er in the downcomers
produces a natural circulation which causes the water to flow downwards
from the drum inlO the downeomers :lIld the ste:lm - wat er mixture to now
upwards from the water walls into the drum . In the drum , stea m is se parated
from the steam- wate r mixture discharged by the wat er Willis. Saturated
stea m !lows into the superheat e r and th e rema ining wate r is then recirculated
toge ther with the feetl wate r to the water walls. In supe rh caters, siJ luralcd
steam is hea ted to Ihe required paramet ers and flows to the hi gh-pressure
turbine. In order to improve the powe r plant effi ciency. part of the exhaust
steam of the high-pressure turbine is returned to the reheater for reheating,
and then flows to the inlet of the reheat turbine.
The air flow system : Cold lIir (30 to 6tfC) is pressed by the forced·draft
fan inlO the inlet of an air hea ter OInd flows across it s tubes. The air is heated
by flu e gases fl owing in the tubes to the desired hut -air temperature (200 10
400°C. depending on the kind of fu el) at the outlet of the a ir he,ater. With
pulverized-coal combust ion, the hot air is se parated into two flows. Th e
primary air is uset! for drying the fuel and transporting th e fu el dust th roug h
the burners into the furnace. The secondary air is directed through the
hurne rs into the furnace . Ouring burning, fuel leaves fl y as h which is most ly

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366 THERMOHYDfIAULLC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

carried off by the flu e gas and is collected in a fly ash collector arran ged
upstream of the induced-draft fan. The collected ash is removed by means of
ash-removal devices. Part of the ash falls OniO the bottom of the boiler
furnace and is removed oonlinuously by the ash-handling system.
What has been described previously is th e main working principle uf a
power plant boiler with nalural circulation . In addit ion to this type of boiler,
there are boilers with Q{her kinds of circu lation, the working principles of
which differ from that described previously only in the steam - wat er syste m
and which will be discus..<;ed in later sections.

8.1 .2 Main Characteristics of Steam Boilers

The main characteristics of steam boiler." arc Ihe rated stea m-genera ti ng
capacity and the superheated steam pa ram eters.
The rated steam-generating capacity of a hoiler expresses the highest load
of t he boiler in stable ope ration for long periods of time on special fuel and
with the rated parameters of steam and feed waler.
Th e superheated steam parameters arc the pressure and temperature at
the out let hertdcr of th e superheate r. Stearn boilers for pressures of 14 MPa
Or marc arc usua lly designed with a reheater. In this case, the inlet and exi t
pressure and the temperature of thc reheated stea m arc also the main
characteristics of t he boiler.

8.2 TYPES OF BOILERS AND CONSTRUCTION

OF BOILER COMPONENTS

8.2.1 Classification of Boilers

Steam boilers arc built in a variety of sizes. shapes. and forms to fit
conditions peculiar to the individual plant and to meet varying requiremen ts.
Generally speaking, steam boilers may be classified according to their uses,
steam press ures, circu lation methods. fue ls. fir ing methods. methods of
removing slag, and boiler layout forms, a.'. is shown in Table 8. 1.
The main components of a steam boiler. as is men tioned in Section 8.l.
included the furnace, slag scree n, superheater, rcheater, economizer, air
healer, and drum. Their construction amI design problem s will be described
in the following section.

8.2. 2 Construction and Oesign Problems of Furnaces

A furnace is the combustion chamber of a boiler in which fue l is burned
efficiently: it usually consists of burning equipment. wrtter-cooled lube enclo-
sure surfaces (water-cooled walls), and refractory constructions.

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[ABLE 8. 1 Classification or S le.Q m Boilers
,umber Classijic~tion Nomen clature Brief Remarks

Uti lity boiler To produce steam for electric powe r

generation. Large capacity. high s team
paramc:ter:s. high boiler efficie ncy. L'Om·
pletely water-cooled furnace with burn·
en. when pressure is greater than o r
eq ual to 14 MPa us uall y with rcheater.
Industrial boiler To produce stca m for hea ting a nd pro·
ceSll. e tc. Smaller capacit y. lowe r steam
parameters, furnaces with bumer:s.
stOkers or fl uidized beds. no reheater.
Marine boiler As ~ source of moti\le power for ships.
Compact general s hape, lighter boiler
weight, mootly fuel-oi l fired. no re·
heater.
By steam- Na tural· Th e circulation of the working flu id in
water cin:ulat;on boiler the e~aporating tube s is produced by
circulatio n the d ifference in den si ty between the
~tea m ·wa ter mi.lture in the riser:s and
water in the dowocomers. With one o r
two drums. ean only operate at !>Ubcriti-
cal press ure.
Forced multi ple The circula tion o f the working fluid in
circulation boiler the evaporatini tube is produced
forcedly b~ mea ns of a circula ting pump
included in thl: circulation circuit. With
sin gle drum or se parators, can only
opera te a t subcritical prcssure.
Once·through No drum. the working fluid forced ly
boiler passes through the e\lapora ting IUbe ~
only under the action of the feed·water
pump. can ope rate at suberitical an d
supercritical pressun:.
Combined- There are a circula ting pump. a bHck-
circulat;on boiler pressure valve. and a mixer in the
circuit. At starting the ba<: k· pressure
valve is opened and the boiler operates
as a fon;ed multipl e·circ ul ation boiler.
on atta ini ng th e specified load. the
circulating pump is swil{:hed off. the
back·pressure \lal\le is closed aUlOmatj·
ca lly. and the boiler operates as a
once· th roug h boile r. It ca n operate at
subcritical and supercritieal pressure.
By pressure Low· an d m idd le· Used as industrial boilers., natural ci rcu·
press ure bo il e r lation. some wi th boiler ban k, furnace
« 10 MPa) with bur ners. o r with stockers.. no re·
heat e r.
H ia h· pressure Used as utility boiler:s, usually natu ral
boiler circulation. wi lh reheater only whell
(10- 14 M Pa) pressure is greater Ihan or equa l to 14
MPa.

367

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 TARLE 8.1 (Cominllt'dJ
NlImbc, Classification NomencJatl1Te Brief Remarks
Supcrhigh- Used as uti lity boilers; natllraf circula-
pressllre boiler tion or forced circulation dependin, on
( > 17 MPa) the engineering- econom ical approach.
with rclK'atcr; the prcvention of film
boilin, and hl, h-tempcrature corrosion
should be ronsidered .
Supercritical- Used as utilit y boilcrs; far,e capadlY.
press ure boiler once th mugh or combined circula tion.
(> n. l MPa) ..·ilh reheate r. the prevention of
pse udo-film bollin, li nd high·tempera·
tore con osion should be conside red.
By fuel or Solid-fue l-fired Coal is mainly used; the components of
heat source boile r fue l and the ehaacteri$ tics of ash are
importanl infl ucn tial rlllttors for boiler
desian.
Fuel-oil-fired With higher Rue aas velocity and smaller
boiler furnllCC volume _
Gas-fired boiler Natural gas or blast-furnace gu arc
mainly used; wi th highe r flu e gas veloc-
ity and smaller furnace vol ume .
Waste- heat boiler Utilizing waste he:us from any ind us-
, By firing Boiler with stoker
trial process ll!\ the heating source .
Mainly used as ind usu ial boilers.
~'hod
Boiler ..... ith burners Main ly used as utility boilers or IlTre-
capacity industrial boilen.
Boiler with Applicable to coals havin, low slDa
~Ione viscosity and low iron content; fuel is
furnaces fired in a wau:r-(X)()led cylinde r. and the
Harne is whirled by either tan gen tial
coal dust- air jeUi from burne rs or tan-
ientiaJ high-speed jets of secondary ai r
(SO-12() mi d; a~h i~ re moved from the
furnace in liqu id form .
Boiler with Solid-fuel partic les ( 1- 6 mm) are placed
Ruidiud bed onto II irate lind blown from beneath
..... ith an air lIow at such a speed that the
particles are lifted above the grale and
&re burned in suspending Slate; used ll!\
industrial boilers for burning low-grade
solid fuels.
6 By me thod of Boiler with dry Applicable 10 coals with high·ash fusion
relTlOYing slag ash furnace tempe ra ture; the ash removed from the
in furn ace hopper bottom of the furnace is solid
and dry.
Boiler with slll& Uquid fonn slag flows to th e wet boI -
tap furnace 10m o f the furnace (II pool of liquid
slag) and tapped into a slag tank oon ·
(ai ning waler.
7 By boiler Tower shape:,
layout form invened U shape.
box shllpe:. e1c.

368

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 8.2 TYPES OF BOILERS ANO CONSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONENTS 369

Construction of Burning Equipment Depend ing on the fuels fired in the

furnace and thc hoiler capacity, the following four firing methods arc used in
modern boi lers: stoker firing, burner firing, cyclone-furn ace fi ring, and flu -
idized bed firing.
The se lection of the most suitable fi ri ng method fo r a hoi ler consists of
balancing the investment, operating characteristics, e fficiency, and type of
fuel to give the most economical install ation. For industria l boilers of a
capacity less than 65 tj hr fired with coal , stoker firing is usually adopted; for
utility boi lers anti larger industrial boilers fired with coal, pulverized-coa l
bu rner firin g o r cyclone-furna ce firing is more economica l; (or industrial
boilers fired with low-grade solid fuel s, flu id ized bed firin g may be used , and
for boilers fired with fu el oil o r gas, burner firing is usually adopted.
Although the combustion principl es of thc four firin g methods me ntioned
previously are d ifferent , their main burning components are stokers or grates
(for stoker firing and fluidized bed firing) and burne rs (for burner firin g and
cyclone firing).
Mechanica l stokers can be classified into four principal groups: spreader
stokers, underfced stokers, vihratin g-grate stokers, and chain -grate or travel-
ing-grate.:: stoke rs (Fig. 8.2).
The spreader stoker (Fig. 8.2a) is used with boil ers having a steam -ge ner-
ating capacity less than 65 tj hr, although in some cases, it may also be used
with larger capacity boilers. The revolting rotor with blades of the spreade r
projccts fuel inla thc furnace over the fir e. The fin e fuel particles arc burned
under suspe nsion conditions, while heavier pieces fall on the grate and arc
hurned there. Gra les for the spreader slUker may be the stationary type, the
dumping type, or the traveling-gratc type. Since the traveling-gra tc type can
discharge ash continuously, and its average burning rate is much higher than
that of the former two, it is usua lly preferred for larger boile rs. Ashes arc
removed at the front of the stoker; this fits the fu el distribution patt ern and
may provide more residcnce lime on the gra tes for complete combustion of
the fuel. Because the spreader stoker may response rapid ly to load swings
and burn a wide range of fu els, it is widely used in industrial boile rs.
Figure 8.2b cxpresses the sc hcme of a side-ash discharge underfeed
stoker. Coal is conveyed from the hopper to a central trough , called the
retort, by a slow-speed fe ed screw and is continuously pushed out from the
retort ove r the air-admitting grates. Coal is burned as it passes through
the fuel bed. The incoming raw coa l cont in uo usly forces the fuel bed to each
side. By the time the coal reachcs the side dumping grates, combustion is
comple ted and the ash is discharged through the dumping grates into ash
pits. Thc single-relort unde rfeed stoker is u .~cd with boilers of capa(;ity less
th an 13 t / hr. wh ile the multiple-reton type can be designed for hoilers of
larger capacity.
The vihraling-grale slokc r may be ai r cooled o r water cooled. The latt er
type is widely lIsed due 10 the much beller cooling effect of its grates, and its
scheme is shown in Fig. S.2e. G rates are moun ted on a grid of water tubes

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"""
 (.)

\ j

(b)

Fig. 8.2. Sche me of mechanical sioke rs: (a) spreader stoker. (h) unde rfeed ~tokcr.
(d vib rating-grale stoker. (d) chain-grale or traveling-grate sloker. I- stoker. 2-coal
bunker, 3-air compartmen ts. 4-sprcadcr, 5-vibralion generator. 6-ashpiL

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 8.2 TYPE S OF BO:"ERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONENTS 371

(c)

(d)

. ·ig. K.2. (Continued)

equally spaced between the head e r ~ that are connected to the boiler circulat-
in g system. In new constructions, a water-cooled membrane with a tuyere on
th e membrane bar~ i ~ used as the tube panel gra te ~ urfa ce. Th e ~pace
henea th the stoke r is divided into air compartments by means of flexible
plates which support the entire structure and allow the grates to move free ly
during vibration. T he vibration of the grates is caused by a vibration genera-
tor and the inclination of the grates conveys the coal from the feeding hopper
on to the grate and moves the coa l gradualJy to the rear of the stoker. It is
widely used with boil ers of capacily less th an 65 If hT.

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N.XT
 ~ II
til ~I
~4 ron
:~
It I

LJ .
ULJ
~ ~ /I
It (c)

-
I

rnJ
'"
".
"
.'.
(e)

Fig. 8.3. PulverIZed coal burners : (a) scroll lype . (b) vane type. (c) two scroll type, (d)
scroll·vane type , (e) slraight-Row type . I-Primary air with coal dust, Il-~econdary air .

X,,,m A>e' _,
~Pr=------.~~
!f)
CONTENTS
V;
~ !Z ~

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(a) ~ (J)~ ~ I (c)
CON~TS Fig. 8.4. 01] burners' (0) pressure atomIzing Iy ~.I (b ) Sle,lm or air atomizing type, (c) rOlary
NEXT atomizing type.
374 THERMOHYDRAULI C DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

,
t t
VI.
1/
tal tbt tel

rig. 8.5. Air reg isters: (0) scroll type, (b) t;mgcnlia l v;mc type, (c) allial vane type.

A gas bu rner consists of a gas eleme nt and an air registe r. Depending on

the method of mixing the gas and air, gas burner elements may be classified
as follows: external mixing type , int ernal mixing type, and pa rtly internal
mixing type (Fig. 8.6). The air registers of gas burners are similar 10 those
shown in Fig. H.5. The arrangements of burners in furn aces are shown in Fig.
H.7 (see also Fig. 6. 16).

Construction of Water·Cooled Walls and Slag Screens The combus-

tion space of a modern furnace is partially or completely surrounded by

-9 g.,
~ '"
----
tal

rig. 8.6. Gas burners: (a) clIlcrnaJ mixi.lg Iype. (b)

internal mixing type, (c) partly internal mixing Iype. tel

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 8_2 TYPES OF BOILERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONENTS 375

(.) (0) !oj

(d) (.) (I)

t'ig. 8.7. Arrangement of burners in furn:lc cs: (II) fron t type, (b) opposite Iype,
(e) tangent ial type, (d) - (j) cyclone type,

water-cooled walls which absorb r.. diant heal. Generally, water-cooled walls
may be divided into three groups: bare tube type, me mbrane Iype, and
rdrllclory-faced type (Fig. 8.8).
Bare tube water walls arc widely empluyed in boilers wilh vacuum fur -
naces. Membrane wate r walls in which th e tunes arc welded IOgether have a n
all-welded gas-tight structure and can be used both in boi lers with vacuum
furnaces and boilers with positive pressure furn aces (see also Fig, 6.8 ).
Refractory-faced wilter w,llls are made of sludded tubes coa ted with a
refractory material on the studs, They arc used in dry bollom furnace s
burning low-volat il e fuels to stabilize ignition in the burner region or in slag
tap furnaces.
In mllural-circulation boilers, water walls arc usuil ily ilrranged ve rtically,
except in some specia l cases where tuhcs may he arranged a l an incline. In
once-through boilers and multiple force d-ci rculation boilers, water walls may
be arranged vertically, horizonta lly, in an ascending-descend in g manner, or
in other forms.
In some boi le rs, at the exit of the furnace, slag screens consisti ng of
several rows of widely spliced tubes arc a rranged to prevenl plugging with ash
and slag, These tubes a re formed by dividing the re ar water walls of Ihe
furnace into seve ral rows at the exit of th e furnace (Fig. K I) and are usually
arranged in stagge red form.

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Fig. S.S. Types of water walls: (0) ba re tube type, (h) refractory·face type, (d memo
brane type:. I- Tube. 2- Briek. 3- rcfractory face.

Design Problems of Furnaces The basic design requirements of a fur-

nace are as follows:

J. Sufficic nt furna cc volume for hurning Ihe fuel completely

2. SuHkic nt heating surface for cooling the combustion products to a safe
temperature at the exit of the furnace
3. Proper arrangement of the burning eq uipment to avoid flame impinge-
ment on furnace walls
4. Maintaining similar hea t fluxes of the heating su rfaces
5. Reliability of the steam·generating circuit
6. Possibility o f fu el fl exibi lity

The determination of the eross·seetional area. the volume, and the li near
dimensio ns o f a furnace shou ld satisfy the preceding requirements.

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 8.2 TYPES OF BOILERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONENTS 377

For furnaces with burners, the furnace c ross-sectiona l arca may be deter-
mined from the value of the heat re lease ra le per unit furna ce area (I F'
kW 1m2, which expresses the ratio of the tota l heat released in the combus·
tion zone of a furnac e 10 its cros..<;·sectional a rea A f · , m l, a nd may he
expressed as follows :

( 8. 1)

where B is the fu el consumption. kg /so and H t is the lower heal ing value of
the fu el. kJ / kg.
The highest a llowable value of qF is assigned depending o n Ihe kind of
fu el and the arrangement and type of burne rs used. and is listed in Table 8.2.
The values of q,. in Table 8.2 arc suitable for boile rs with a dry ash furnace;
fo r a slag lap furnace the highest va lue of q,.. is 5.2 MW/ m2.
For furnaces with stokers. the furnace cross-sect iunal area may be de te r-
mined from the fuel burning rat es of a stoker qR :

BH t"
( 8.2 )
R

wh ere R is the grale area, m l.

T he highest allowable va lue o f qR is also assigned based o n the Iype of
stoker and is liste d in Ta ble 8.3.
When BHt is calculated a nd the rated va lue o f q,.. Of q H is selected from
Table 8.2 or Table 8.3. the required furnace cross-sectio na l area ca n be
determined from Eq. (8.1) o r Eq. (8.2).
The width and de pth of a furnace arc dete rmined by Ihe arrangeme nt of
the bu rners. or arc equal to the dime nsio ns of Ihe gral e. Th e he ight of the
furnace may be determ in ed if the furnace volume is known.
The furnace volume ca n be obtained from the heat release rate per unit
furnace volume q,;. kW / m}, ..... hich is assigned depending o n the kind of fuel
and the firi ng method. q v ClIO be expressed as

q" - (8 .3 )

whe re Vf · is the furnace volume. m).

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 TABLE 8.2 Statistical Value ofthe Heal Rt'lease Rate per Unit Area, qF (for Dry Ash Furnace), MW / ml[I-3J

Steam Capacity, t/hr 130 220 400 670-950 1000-1600 1600

Tangential firing Lignite 2.1-2.56 2.9 -3.36 3.25-3.71 < 4.06 4.06-4.46
with comer burners Bituminous 2.32-2.67 2.78-4.06 3.71-4.64 < 638 < 6.38
Anthracite 2.67-3.48 3.02-4.52 3.71-4.64
Front arrange 2.2-2.79 3.02-3.72 3.48-4.07 < 4.64 < 4,64
burners or oppositely
a rfa nged eoa 1 bu rne rs

Oil or gas firing <4 4.07-4.77 4.19-5.23 5.23-6.16 < 6.38 < 6.38

TABLE 8.3 Statistical Fuel Burning Rate or Stokers qR' MW / m 2 [J. 31

Chain Grate or Spreader Fluidized

Traveling Grate Stoker Bed
Dumping Traveling Other Vibrating Underfeed
Bituminous Anthracite Grate Grate Lignite coal Grate Grate

q.:.,:I1.:....-_ _O._58_-_I_.1_0_ _ _ 0_.5_8-_0_.8_0_ _ _1_._1O_-_1._30_ _ _1._3_

0 -_1_.8L§ 4.60- 7.00 2.10-2.90 0.82-1.2 1.20-1.70

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 8_2 TYPES OF BOILERS AND CO NSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONENTS 379

The highest allowabk: value of {I v for ,omple te combustion of fuel may be

selected from Table 8.4. from which the minimal furnace volume can be
dete rmined. On the othe r hand, the furna ce volume shou ld sa lisfy the
conJ ition of cooling flue gases to the required fu rnace exit temperature TxF , ;
thc la rger t he furnace volume. the more the water wall may be arrangeJ, that
is, the lower the furnace exit temperature. When Ihe boiler steam-ge neratin g
raparity is great er than or equa ltu 400 I/ hr, the furn ace volume required for
cooling gas te mperature is larger than that required for comple te combus-
tion, a nd the former may be obtained fro m the heat transfer ca lculation of
the furna ce. Therefore the furnace volume may be determined by se lecting a
qv, thaI is, from Eq. (8.:n, only when the boiler capaci ly is less Iha n 41X) I /hr:
otherwise, the fUTmlCe vol ume, that i~, the height of the furnace, should be
de termi ned from the furnace heat transfer c<l\cuilition results which will be
discussed in Section 8.3.
Other gcometrica l dimens ions for diffe rent furnace s may be selected from
steam boiler handhooks (II or stea m boiler design sta ndards [21.
During design of a boiler furnace, sullkient water-cooled walls should be
arranged in a furnace so that the temperatu re of flu e gases at tbe exit of the
furnace is equal to or below a safe tempe rature to avoid slaggin g an d fo uling
of the subsequent convective heating surface. Usually, thi s safe temperat ure
is equal to 5WC be low the ash initial deformation temperature or ISlte
below the ash soft e n temperature. The required heating surfaces of water·
cooled walls for reaching the safe exit te mpera ture of a furnace may be
determined by the heat transfe r calculation of the furnace.
The tuhe outside diameters and the relative tube spaci ngs, which aTC equal
to the ratio of the riser centerline spacing. 5. to the riser outside tl iamcter, d,
for water-cooled wall s, arc listed in Tahk H.5.
Other geomet ric tlimcnsions of a tlry ash furnace with burners may be
determi ned according to the val ues expressed in Fig. K9.
The ve rtical distance between thc axis of thc first row of hurners and the
midjX)int of the furnace exit, Ir, t.lcnote ~ Ihe height of the fl ame; it ~ houl(j be
high enough for complete combustion: its minimum value is expressed in
Table 8.6.
For large modern boilers, pendant ~ uperheaters are u~ually used. Th e
vertical distance between the axis of the first row of burners and the lowest
part of the pendant superheater, ,,', should be la rge r than 8 m; its statistical
value is listed in Table 8.7.
The boundary surface of the calculated furnace volume is shown by the
sla nted lines in Fig. 8.9.
In some largc-capacity boilers, for th e sake of cooling the flue gas
te mpe ralure to a safe val ue, a furnace dividing water·cool ed wall is arranged
which is located in the middle of the furn ace and divides the furnace into two
chambers. This water-cooled wall is usually made of low alloy steel with a
tube. outsi de diameter of 51 to 76 mm, and its relative lube spacing Sid is in
the range of 1.0 to 1.2.

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 TABLE 8.4 Statistical Value of the Heat Release RaIl' per U nil Furnace Volume qv. MW / m} [I, 3,41

Chain grate Spreader Stoker

Dry Ash Furnace and Traveling Vibrating Underfeed Dumping Traveling Fluidized
Fuel wit h burne rs Grate Stoker Stoker Grale Grale Bed

Anthracite 0.12-0.15 0.25-0.35 0.25-0.3 0.2-0.25 0.23-0.25 0.3-0.4 1.7-2.1

Bituminous COClI O. [4-0.20 0.25-0.35 0.25-03 0.2-0.25 0.23-0.25 0.3-0.4 1.7-2.1
lignite 0.09-0. IS 0.25-0.35 0.25-0.3 0.2-0.25 0.23-0.25 O.J·-O.4 1.7-2.1
Oil 0.23-0.35
Natural gas 0.35

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 TABLE 8.S Dimensions and Materials for Water Wall Tubes

CirClJlation form Natural Forced multiple Once through

Pressure Low Middle High Superhigh Subcritical Superhigh Supercritical
Outside diameter
(risers), mOl 51-60 60 60 60-76 32-51 22-51 22-42
Outside diarneter
(downcomcrs), mm 51-106 108-133 159-426 2 426 325-426
Sid
Bare tube s 2.0 1.1-J.2 1.05-1.2 1.05-1.2 ),05-1.2 1.05-1 .2
Membrllne type ) .3-1.35 1.35-1.35 1.3 -1.35 1.4-1.6 1.4-1.6
Material for Low low Low Low carbon Low carbon Low c<lroun Low alloy
risers carbon carbon carbon or low alloy or low aUoy or low <llloy steel
sleel steel steel steel steel steel

CONTENTS
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....

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382 THEAMOHVDRAUUC DESIGN Of BOILER COMPONENTS

r tI
h
-HXlI
.~

SJp
Burner (
Cenler
L
_.
i
01-

' -W ,.,.
a - ,.,.

y - 50" --
50"

55"
oxb E - 0.8 1.6 m

'( D- q : )b
Fig. 8_9. Some geome tri cal dimension.\ of
dry ash furnace with burne rs.

TABI.E !Vi Statistical Valur or Minimum Flame lleight. m

Steam capacity, tj hr
Anthracite ,
65 - 75 130 220
13
410
17
670
18
1000

Bituminous coal 7 "9 12 14 17 18

Fuel oil 5
• 10 12 14

TABLE S.7 Statistica l Value or h', III

Steam capaCIty. I/ hl 670 670 1000 21MJjJ

Fuel Anthracite B i luml oou ~ Bllumill0u~ B,tuminous
"'~
Llgnile-
h'. 1II ",,, coal
17
=, 2h- 27
" 1J
" 10

The re liabi lity of the stea m-generating circui t will be d iscussed in Sec-
tion 8.5.

8.2.3 Construction and DeSign Problems of Superheaters

and Reheaters
In order to improyc Ihe thermal e ffi cie ncy of thc puwe r plant cyell:: and to
reduce the vapor moisture COnlen l in Ihe low- pressure sta ges of Ihe lurbinc.

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superheated steam is always produccd in a uti lity hoi ler and i~ thc n scn t to
the tu rbi ne.
The boiler clement thaI superheats the sat urated steam to the desired
superheat stea m temperature by absorbing heat from thc flue gas is called
the s uperheat~r.
A rehea ter is installed in the utility boiler of a reheat cycle 10 furthe r
increase the cycle efficie ncy.

Construction of Superheaters and Reheaters Superheaters and re-

heaters are similar in construction hu t differ in operati ng prc~s ure ~ (the
operat ing pressure of the latter is about 3 to 6 MPa). Usually, they consist of
unheated heade rs a[ld a system of heatcd para llel lubes .located in the path
of flue gases. Steam flows inside the tubes and absorbs heat from the outside
flue gases. T hus the steam tempera ture is rai sed and its volume is increased.
Due to the heat transfer modes. superhea ters and rehea ters may be
classified as radiant type , convective type, and radiant-convective type (:'ocmi-
radiant type).
A radiant superheater or rehea ter is placed in the furnace as a part of the
furnace enclosu re and receives its heat mai nly by radiat ion. It consists of
parallel vertical tubes and headers as shown in Fig. S.IO. Its wall temperature
is abou t lO00C over the inside steam temperature. To minimize tube fai lure,
a high mass flow rate of saturated steam th rough it is necessary. Its tube
outside diameter is in the range of 32 to 5 1 mm and the relative spacing of
tubes is close to thaI of the water wall. This type of supcrheater or re hea ter is
genera lly used in combination with other types of supe rheate rs or rchcaters.
A platen-type supe rheater or re hea ter is of the semiradiant type and is
located in the upper part of the furnace, where it rece ives its heat by both
radiation and convection. It consists of headers and parallel U-tube platens,
each of which is made up of 15 to 30 U tubes with a relative spacing
Sid "" 1.1 - 1.2. The spacing between Ihe plate ns is equa l to 600 to 1000 mm,
and its tube ou tside diameter is 32 to 42 mm . The tube wall temperature of
this type of superhea ter is still high and may reach a tempe rature of SO°C
higher than the inside steam te mperat ure; therefore sufficie nt sleam mass
velocity is still required for cooling the tube mate rial. This su pe rhea te r is
used in combinat ion wit h convection superhea ter.; or rcheaters.
A g>nvection superheater or reheate r consists of parallel serpenti ne tubes
and heade rs. It is placed in gas ducts, where it receives most of its heat by
convection. Its tube outside diameter is 32 to 60 mm; the transverse rel ative
spacing of tuhes, Sl i d - 2-3, and the longitud inal relative spacing of tubes.
Sli d - 1.6-2.5. Usually. in-line tube banks predominate in convection
supe rheaters or rcheaters arranged in the high gas temperature region.
This type of superheater or rcheatcr can be used alone, as in some middle-
capacity boilers, o r in combi nation with another type of superheater or

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Fig. 8.10. Scheme of a superhcaler: I-drum , 2,3--downcomer and risers of radiant
superheaters, 4-holc for placing a burner, 5-top r3dianl supe rheater, 6-conne<.:t -
ing pipes, 7-attemperator, 8-platen-type superheate r, 9, iO-convcetion super-
hC<llcr, II - superheated steam outlet ht:adcr, 12, 13-headers of pendant tubcs_
14-pendant tubes.

reheater for large-capacity and high steam parameter boilers as s hown in

Fig. 8.10.
The flow system arrangement of a convection superheater or reheater may
he counterflow, parallel flow , or combined !low (Fig. 8.11 or Fig_ 6.10). The
counterflow superheater or rcheater may have the largest mean temperature
difference_ the smallest heating surface, and the highest tube wall tempera-
ture; the parallel-flow one may have the smallest mean temperature differ-
ence, the largest surface, and the lowest tube wall temperature; while the

1/11/1111 77777"1'TT >JI)/;»))));) 1/)) >i II II II II

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 8.11. Flow system armngemcnt of a convection superheater or a rchcater:

(a) counte rflow, (h) parallcl !low, (c) ,!nd (d) combined now.

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 8.2 TYPES OF SOlLERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONEmS 385

mean temperature diffe rence, thc amoun t of heating surface, and the tube
wall te mperature of the combined o ne, whic h is widely used, may stay in the
middle level.

Design Problems of Superheaters or Reheaters The main design re-

q uiremen ts of a superheate r or a rehe aler arc as follows:

I. The determination of an optimum flow system and the amount of

heating surface required to give the rate d steam te mpe rature , wh ich is
usually given.
2. A system pressu re drop less than 10% of the rated stea m pressure fo r a
superheater and less than 10% of the inlet re hea t steam pressu re for a
reheater.
3. A reasonable steam and gas velocity for cooling the tube meta l and
reducing draft loss.
4. A uniform steam velocity and heat flux for each tube; the highest lube
wall te mperature has to be lower tha n the a llowable tube metal
te mperature.
5. Enough spacing of the tubes 10 preve nt accumulatio n of ash and slag.
6. The abil ity to re gulate steam temperature wi th in required limits.

The first requirement ca n be achieved by ~uperhealcr or reheater pe rfor-

mance calc ulations which will be discu~d in Se ction 8.3. It may be necessa ry
to compare seve ra l a rra nge ments to obtain a design with optimum economic
and o pe ratio nal characteristics.
The second. th ird. and fourl h requirements may be solved by the correct
selection of the steam mass ve locity a nd gas ve locity.
The steam veloci ty ha s to lower the tube tempe rature be low the allowabl e
tube me tal te mperature , but may not cause a system steam pressure dro p
ove r the permissible limit.
The recomme nde d steam mass velocity is listed in Table 8.8. Depe n~ing
o n the economic and o perat iona l characterist ics comparison, the flue gas
velocity in a convection s uperhea ter for coal-fired boile rs is eq ua l to 10 to 14

TABLE 8.8 Steam Mass Velocity or Supt'rheater Of Rehealer

Type Mass Velocity. kg/(m 2 . s)

Radiant typc IOOO- 15()O

Scm iradianl type SOO-JOOCl
Convection Iypc
Middle pressure 250 -4(X)
High pressure 500-100Cl

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Fig. 8.12. Static pressure distribution In headers of a
superheater (Z·shapcd connection).

m/s.; for oi l- or gas-fired boile rs, it may increase up to 20 m/s. The flue gas
velocity in semiradian l types is usually about 5 to 6 m/s.
For the sake of maintaining a uniform steam flow rate in each tube and
preventing ove rheat ing in the individual lUbes of the parallel tu be syste m, the
effect of headers and th eir connection with the tube system of th e heating
surfaces should be considered. For different tube systems. the static pressure
drop in eac h tube is different; that is, the steam flow ratc in cach tube is
different. The steam flow rate increases wi th the increase of static pressure
drop.
Figure 8.12 shows the stalic pressure distribution of th e parallel tube
system along the length of a header unde r the condition of a Z-shaped
connection sysICm; when steam is forced into the distributing header and is
distributed among the coils. its axial velocity decreases and the static pressure
increase... toward the end of the heade r. In contrast, the static pressure
tOW'ITd the out let of the discharge header decreases as shown in Fig. 8. 12.
The leftmost coil o f the tube system operates at the highest pressure
gradient. and the rightmost coil operates at the lowcst pressure gradien t, so
the steam flow rate of the former will be greater than that of the latter.
In othe r ci rcuits with a U-shaped connection or with concentrated supply
and removal of steam through the middle part of the hcaders (Fig. 8.13), the
header effect can be decreased and the steam flow rate may be distributed
more evenly. The header effect can be decreased either by increasing the coil
pressure drop or by decreasing the static pressure change in the headers.
In modern boilers, the superheater coil pressure drop is large, so the
connecting system of headers has only a slight effect on the steam distribu-
tion among the coils. But in a reheater, where the resistance of the coil is
relatively low while the resistance of the headers is high due to the high
5t.eam velocity. the effect of the header connection system can be substantia l.
Due to the nonuniformity of the temperature and velocit), fields of flue
gases along the width and height of the furnace, hea t absorpt ion among
pa rallel tubes is nonuniform: this may cause some of th e superheater or
reheater tubes to overhea t. To avoid this, in large utility boilers. the connect-

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 8.2 TYPES OF SOlLERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOtLER COMPONENTS 387

1.
,p, ~
!

(a) (b ) (0)

Fig. 8.13. U·shaped connection and connections of concentra ted suppl y and removal
of Sieilm: (u) U shaped, (h ) and (r) coneclll r.Hed su pply and removal of sleam.

iog system of the super heaters or rehea ters is usually divided into two o r
more stages. and mixing headers and crossove r tubes are used fur re duci ng
the intluence of nonuniform heat abrorpt io n amon g tuhes as shown in Fig.
8. 14.
The spacing of lUbes for different superheate rs and re heate rs has already
been me ntione d. When [he inlet gas te mpe rature is close to lOOO"C. it is
necessary to loca te several rows of convectio n superheater ur re heater tubes
with wide spaci ng ( Slid ~ 4.5, 5 zl d ~ 3.5) to preve nt them from plugging
with llsh a nd slag.

• 3
2 ,

Va a
b/ b

3 2
3 2 2
, ,
...- ""'-
b

b
a
s •
b

b
i'-.. a

a
"'- "-
5

Fig. 8.14. Two kinds of superhea ter systems: (a) li rs t litagc. (h) liCcond stagc. \ - In [el
header. 2- mixing header. 3-cxil header, 4-SlCam eolleclOr. S-Cross-
ovcr pipes.

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388 THERMQHYDRAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

2 2

Fig. 8.15. Surfacc-type attcmpc rato r: I-Cooling water inlet. 2-eooling wa te r exit.
J-StC3m inle t, 4-stcam exit.

Methods of Steam Temperature Control During operat ion. the steam

temperature is affected by many ope rating \·ariables. When the load in-
creases, the quan tity and temperat ure of the fl ue gases increase. In the
convection superheater or rchea tcr, steam tempe ratures increase with load.
whereas in th e radiant one steam temperatures decrease with load (sec Fig.
6. 12). A se miradi ant supe rheate r or a convection and a radian t superheater
of proper proportions may maintain substantially consta nt steam tempera-
tures over a ce rtain range of load. In addition. the variiltiuns in the amount
o f excess air fe ed-wa te r temperature. healing surface. clea nliness. ctc .. also
affect the steam temperature.
A constant superheat tempe rature is desired to obtain maximum economy
of th e power pla nt and to avoid failu res from ovcrheating parts of the
superheater. reheater. or turbine. As the permissible steam temperature
to1cnlOce for an ope rat ing modern utility boiler is on ly ± SOC, it is necessary
to regu late the steam temperature wilhi n required limits by mea ns of control.
There arc two mai n methods of steam temperature control: steam control
an d gas control. Steam control is ba~d on reducing the en th alpy of steam by
transferring part of its heat to feed water through a surface-type altern peru-
tor (Fig. H,IS) or by injecting dem ineral ized water into steam th rough a
spray-type altempe rator ( Fig. 8. 16). The fo rmer method is wide ly used in
midd le-pressure industrial boi lers, wh ile the latter is usually used in utility

s-++-

Fig. 8. 16. Spray-type atlcm pc ralOr: I- outcr ca~c. 2- Vcnluri tube. 3-watcr inlet. 4
-~tea m inlct, S-stca m cxit.

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CONTENTS NEXT
 boilers. The anemperator may be located ahead of the superheater. between
superheater sla ges, or at the superhea ter outlet. The first arrangeme nt may
protect the supe rheater from overheating. bu t it can cause uneven distribu-
tion of wet stea m among tubes, which will cause excessive temperature
variation problems in the tubes. Moreover. its con trol response is slow. The
last arrangement ca nnot protect the superheater, although its control re-
sponse is quick. Therefore most of the altempe r3tors a rc insta lled between
the superheater stages. Steam control methods arc mainly used for control-
ling the supe rh eater steam temperature.
Gas control is based o n varying the heat absorption o n the flue gas side of
heating surfaces to main tain the stea m tem perature. Methods that belong to
this type include gas recircula tion, gas bypass, a nd tilting burners.
It is mainly employed for controiling the rehe(l tcu steam tempera ture of
reheat boile rs and fo r con trolling the superheated steam temperature of
boilers without reheate rs.
Gas recircu lation control involves a met hod by which low temperature gas
from the econom izer outlet (250 to 350°C) is reintroduced into the hopper of
the furnace by means of a recirculation fan and ducts. As the ratio of the
recirculated gas to the total gas. r , increases. Ihe change in heat absorptIon
for convective heating surfaces increases due to the increase of gas mass
velocity, while for radiant hea ting surfaces it decreases due to the decrease o f
furnace tempcrat ure. Thus the exit steam temperature o f the convection
superheater or rcheater increases ( Fig. 8.17). This method has a negligible
elfect on the furnace exit temperature, the total hea t absorption , and the
boiler efficiency. In th e case of rein troducing the recirculated gas into the
upper part of the furn ace, the furnace exit gas temperature will decrease with
t he increase of reci rculated gas. It is usually used as a method of gas
tempering to avoid ash deposits on the convect ion superheater.
The principle of the gas bypass mcthod is shown in Fig. 8.18. The gas duct
is se parated by gas-tight bam, walls into two parallel gas passes in which the
superheater and the reheater arc arranged se parately. The proportion of gas
fl ow ove r the supe rhea ter o r the re hea te r may be varied by regulating
dampe rs installed aftc r the economize r (in the region of gas tempe rature
lower than 500"C), and thus the steam tempe rat ure can be controlled .
A tilting burner control is usually used in tangentially fir ed furn aces
equipped with vertically tilting burn ers. By directing the nozzles of the
burn ers upward or downwa rd, the main combustion zone and exit gas
temperature of the furnace can be changed. Thus th e regulation of the steam
temperature can be accomplished by chan ges in the burner - nozzle position.
If in a boile r. the superheate r is main ly of the radiant type and the
reheater is of the convection type. the dec rease of the boil er load will
increase the supe rheated steam tempe ratu re and decrease the reheated
steam tempera ture. In this case. for the sa ke o f eq ualizing th eir tempera-
tures. it is reasonable to transfer part of the heat from thc supe rh eated steam
to the reheated steam through a Sleam -steam hea t exchanger (Fig. 8. 19). In

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 23'

-
L' -
1
u~~
"

=
7

0.3 ~
0.

;i
0.2

~
#
/' "" ~

,
XTo " P
0.0
'----
---- 3
2

0.'
------ "'-
1
0.8 ------
0.7
o 20 30

Fig. 8.17. Relative: increase of working AUld enthalpy 1l1/ 6. i" with the increase of r
(.1i" is Ih t: fluid t:l1l ha lpy incn:al>c when r • 0): I - ru rnllce, 2, J - plutc ns. 4,5 CO il '
vection superheaICr5, 6- reheatcr, 7-econom izcr.

FiR. 8.18. Gas bypass control Rlc thod: l-supc: ,heatc r,

2- baff1e wall. 3- rcheatcr. 4-cconomizcr. 5- rceulating
damper~.

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 8 .2 TYPES OF BOILERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOILEFI COMPONENTS 391

2 ,__ru

Fig. 8.19. Steam-steam heat exchanger:

I- ouler case. 2-U tube. 3-supcrheated
~ I ea m inkl. 4-supe rheated Meam exit.
5- rehealed sleam inlet. 6- rehcated steam
cxit.

th is figure . superheated steam fl ows in the tubes and reheated steam flows in
the header. The temperature is cont rolled by bypassing pan of th e reheated
sleam around the heat exchanger.

8.2.4 Construction and Design Problems of Economizers

An economizer is a heat exchange r located in the lower gas temperature
region (450 10 600"C) designed to recover some of the heat from the
discharged flue gas. 11 consislS of a se ries of luhes through which feed water
flows 10 the drum or to the in leI headers of furnace walls. Flue gases flow
over Ihe uutside of the lubeS.

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 Fig. 8.20. Cast-iron economize r tub<:.

Construction of Economizers E.i:onomizers can be constructed of cast-

iron tube or steeltubc; the former is call ed the cast-iron economizer which i ~
usually used in low-pressure industrial boilers (p ::s; 2.5 MPa); the la ller is
ca lled the steel tube economizer which may be used in all kinds of boile rs.
Figu re 8.20 shows the construction of a cast-iron economizer tube with
outside fins (tube outside diameter 76 X 8 mm. fin size 150 X 150 mm). Fi ns
are designed to give an exte nded heat transfer surface on the gas side and to
minim ize the effects of extcrnal corrosion. Tubes are connected wit h each
other by return bends. Cast-iron material has the advantage of reducing
internal and exte rnal corrosion.
A stcel tube economizer consists of horizontal parallel serpe ntine tubes
and headers (Fig. 8.2 1); tube outside di ameters common ly used range from
25 10 38 mm with it wall thickness betwee n 3 and 5 mm. Usually, (he tubes
are arranged in staggered form with a transverse relative spacing. Slid =
2.5-3.0, depending on the gas ve locity, and a longit udinal relative spacing,
Slid = 1.5-2.0, depending on the permissive bend radius of the tu be. In
modern boi lers, steel IUhe economizers with longitud ina l fins or mcmbrane-
type economizers arc also used fo r enhancing the gas-side hea t t ransfe r (Fig.
8.22). These econom izers have economic advantages over bare tube surface
ones, for example. lowe r init ial cost and space required for installation.

Design Problems of Economizers The in lei working fluid of an econo-

mize r is trealed and deaerated feed water, while the ex.it working fluid may
be hot water or a steam-water mixture (the maximum steam quality is 20%).
The fo rmer is ca lled a non5leallling econom izer and the laller is ca lled a

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 8 2 TYPES OF BOILE RS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONENTS 393

'I
t~_ I I
JI
~ ~ T <tl
3"""'-
J
i
,

:J'" I,
/
1 I !
Fig. 8.2 1. Sc heme or a ~t L.: cI tu be economizer (showi ng half of it); I- inh::t hea ue r. Z
- exit heauer. 3-surpcnt inc tubcs.

la ) 10)

Fig. 8.22. New form s of economizers: (a) with longi tudinal fi ns, (b) membrane type.

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394 THERMOHYDRAULIC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

steaming economizer, which is usually used when the economize r surface

costs less than ot her evaporating surfaces.
When arranging an economizer tube syste m. il is prefe rable fo r the waler
to c nt er at the bottom an flow up through the economizer tubes. and for the
fiu e gases to flow down across the tubes. This arrangement may reduce the
hea ting surface. allows the convenience gas or slcam in t he water to flow out ,
and e lim ina tes unstable water flow.
An econom ize r may be designed in a single-stage or two-stage arrange-
ment. In the single-stage arrangement. the econom izer is always located
ahead of th e air heater. If the air is required to be preheated to 350 to 450°C
in orde r to increase the mean te mperature diffc rem;e, to decrease the air
heater healing surface, and to have the possibi lity of using carbon steel for
the air healer, it is preferable to usc the two-stage arrangement. In this
arrangemen t bot h the economizer and th e air heater arc divided into two
slages; the stage of th e economizer wi th hotte r work ing fluid is located in the
higher Oue gas temperatu re region , afte r wh ieh the stage of the ai r heate r
with halter air is placed. Anothe r stage of the economizer is located between
the two stages of the air heate r, and th e other stage of the air heate r is
placed after it.
The feed-water velocity of a no nsteaming economizer usually ranges from
0.3 to 1.5 mis, for preventing gases from staying on the inne r tube wall and
for keeping the pressure drop of the working fl uid in the allowable region
(5% of the boil er pres.c;ure for a high-pressure boiler and 8% of the boiler
pressure for a middle-p ressure boiler>. For the steaming pa rt of a steami ng
economizer, the feed -water velocity in the tube shoul d not be lower than
1 m/s. The allowable fl ue gas ve locity in economizers of coa l-tired boi lers is
abou t 9 to I I mis, tlepe nding on the abrasive characte ri stics of ash. For oil-
or gas-fired boilers, t he flue gas vc[ocity can be higher, but is limited by the
increase of draft loss.

8.2.5 Construction and Design Problems of Air Heaters

The air heater is loca ted .. ft er the economizer. The heat in the Om: gall-cs
leaving the economi zer is recove red hy the incomi ng air in the air heater,
thereby reducing the flu e gas temperallIrc and increasing the boi ler effi -
ciem.y In add ition, hot air may improve combustion cond itions: th is may also
increase the effi ciency .

Construction of Air Heaters There are two main types of air heate rs, the
tubul ar type and the regenerat ive type. The tubula r type consists of a series
of tu bes through which the flue gases pas.c;. while air passes around the
outside of the tubes. A \"-'o-stage air heater uni t is shown in Fig. 8.23.
T ubes in a tubular air hea ter can be arranged vertically, as is shown in Fig.
8.23. or horizontally. In the laner case, air passes through tubes wh ile flu e
gases pass arou nd the outside of the tubes .

..."
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 3

Fig. tI.ZJ, Two-stages lubular ai r healer: J- Iowe r

stage, 2,3 -cClnnccling lIir duCI. 4-space for placing
economizer, 5- upper singe. 6- ftue gas inlet. 7-hot-
air exit.

~W_ 2

6
7

s ,
,
8

Fig.. 8.24. Rotating.plate regenerative air healer: I- air ducts. 2-beouings, 3-~hart.
4- pJatcs, 5-outcr case, 6-rolor, 7-mo to r, 8-sca lings, 9-nue gas d Uels.

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 5

lWr-v'

~
9

Fill:. 8.25. Stat ionary-plate regenerative air heater: I- o uter case, 2- pJales, 3- plat Cl-
in the lov.'cr.tcmpcralurc region. 4- rot3ti ng air ducts, 5- fluc gas ducts. 6, 7- drivc.
8-motor and drive-down dc\'icu, 9- air inlet , lO- gas exit.

There arc IWO kinds of rege nerative air hc.lIcrs: the rota ling-plate type.
(Fig. 8.24) a nti the stationa ry-platc type (Fig. 8.25), T he rotor of the rotaling-
plate air hea ter is mounted within a box housing and is installed with the
hea ting surface in the form of plates as shown in Fi g. 8.24. As the rotor
rotates slowly. the heating surface is exposed alternatively to flue gases and
to th e entering air. When the hea ling surface is placed in the flue gas st ream.
the healing surface is heated, and then when it is rotated by mechan ical
devices into the air strea m, the stored heat is released to the air flow. Thus
the air stream is heated .
In the st<ltionary-plate air heater, the healing plates are stationary. white
cold-air hoods. both top and bottom. are rotated across the heating plates. It s

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 8 .2 T'1PES OF BOILERS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOILER COMPONENTS 397

TABLE 8.9 Requii"M Hot-Air Temperature, 6C

Furnace: Type Fuet Type Il0h\ir Temperature

Dry ash furnace Biluminous 300-350

with burners Anthracite 350-400
Lignilc 350-400
Slag lap furnace
and cy<: lone furnace 350-400
Oil- or gas-fired
furnace 250-300
Furnace with stokers <200

heat transfer principles arc the sa me as those of the rDlating-plate regenera-

tive ai r heater.

Design Problems of Air Heaters The size of an air heater depends on the
required hot-air temperature for fuel combustion which is listed in
Tahle 8.9.
The ou tside diameter of the tubes in a tubular air hcater is usually 40 mm,
and the tubes are arranged in a stagge red pattern. The transverse relative
spacing of the tubes, Slid - 1. 5- 1.9, wh il e the longitudin al re lative spacing,
the Sd d - 1.0-1.2. The tube lcngth is usually less than 5 m. Fur solid
fue l-fired boilers, the flue gas veloci ty of a vertica l tubular air heater ranges
from 10 to 16 mis, and the air velocity is cq ual \0 half uf the gas ve loci ty.
These vclocity va lues should be vice versa for horizontal tubular air heaters.
For oi l- or gas-fired boil ers, these velocities can be higher.
The rota ting speed of a rotating-plate ai r heater ranges from 1.5 to
4 ri m in; whil e the stational)' pla te ranges from 0.75 to 1.4 r/ min . In these
regenerative air hc,lIcrs, air and gas vc loci ties are nearly equal and range
from 8 to 12 m /s .
When bu rning fu els contain sulfur, if the metal temperatu re of th e heating
surface fall s below the dew point due to a low air-inlet or low gas-exit
temperature , the corrosion of meta l may occur. It may be prevented by
prehcating the air before it enters the air heater or by using corrosion-
resistan t mate rials and coatings in the low-tem perature section of the heater.
Ash pa rt icul ate residues from coa l or oil firing arc usually cleaned from
the heat ing su rface by means of a soot blower that uses steam or air as a
cleani ng medium . Sometimes for a tubula r air heater with tube length greater
than 6 m for for o il -fired boilers, ash-removal ca n be accomplished by
circulating metal shot through the air heater tubes.

8.2 .6 Construction and Design Problems of Steam Drums

All boilers operating under subcri tical pressure, except for once-t hrough
types, are at least provided with a steam drum (See Fig. 6. 13). In the steam

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lACK CONTENTS
CONTI!NTS NEXT
398 THERMOHYDRAULIC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

or
TABLE 8. 10 Statistical Value Inner Diameter. Wa ll T hickn ess. a nd Steel
or Dru ms used in Na tura l-Circu lation Boilers. nlln

P rc~s urc Low Middlc High Superhigh

Inne r diamClCr 800-1 200 1400- 1600 1600-1800 1600-1800
Thic kn css 16-25 32-46 60- 100 80-100
Sleel Carbun steel C<lrbon ste el Carbon sleel /\ Iloy steel
and "d
alloy s teel alloy steel

d rum satu rated steam is se parated from the ~tea m - wa t er mixture discharged
from the risers in its steam space and in the se pa ra ting eq uipme nt installed
in it. The steam drum i!'i also a water storage ve!'i!'ic l wh ich accomodates the
changes in wate r leve l during load changes and internal water trea tment ;
therefore the stea m drum size must be large enough to house the sepa rating
equipme nt and to conta in the required quantity of water. Th e length should
be grea ter than the width and/or depth of the boiler. depending on the
arrange ment. Th e inner diameter of the sleam drum depends on pressure ,
circulatio n form, stea m-ge nerating capaci ty, and separating equipment type.
The sta tistica l steam drum in ner diameter. wa ll thickness. and stcel used fo r
natu ral-circulation boilers arc listed in Table 8.10.

8.3 HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS OF BOILER COMPONENTS

There arc many methods used to calcu late the heat transfer performance of a
boiler. In the USSR the legal method for heat transfer calcu lation of a boil er
is given in [2], wh ich is also widely used in the Peop le's Republic of China
( PRO, notwithstanding that some of the empirica l coefficient!) or data
selected during calculation are di ffere nt. Th erefore the method mentioned in
this section closely resembles the method of [2}.
Before the heat transfer ca lcu lat ion of a boiler can be started. the boile r
!'itea m-generat ing capacity, steam pressure. steam temperature, and the
feed-water lemperalU re must be given by the customer.

8.3.1 Boiler Efficiency and We ight of Fuel Fired

The cflicie ncy of a boi ler, "'1 b' is defined as the ratio of the qua ntity of heat
absorbed by the working fl uid, H I' to the avai lable heat of fu el. H.:', kJ / kg,
that is.
H,
"'1 b = - 100 (8.4)
H.:'
where H I and H~: are written fo r I kg of burned solid or liquid fu e l. H I can

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 8.3 HEAT TRANSFER CAlCULAnQNS OF BOILER COMPONENTS 399

be expressed as fo llows:

where ~I" W. h • and W~ are the flow rales of the supe rheated steam. the
reheated steam, and the blow·off wate r from the boiler, respectively, kg/s;
i,." i /w, and i .w are the cnthalpies of the superheated Steam, the feed water,
and the saturated wate r. kJ / kg. respectively: and i rhr and i'hi arc the
enthalpi es of t he exit steam and the inlet steam of th e reheater, kJ/kg,
respectively. 1-1.: is expressed as follows:

(8.6)

where Nph is the physica l hea t of the solid or liq uid fuel before burni ng,
wh ich is equal 10 C F 7F, whe re C F and Tf · arc the speci fic heal of fue l and the
fuel temperature, respectively.
H.: can be divided into two parts: the useful heat. H I' and the lost heat.
1:2 61-1,. and can be expressed as
(8.7)

Dividi ng Eq. (8.7) by H.:, the equation can be exprcssed as a percentage

form:

(8.8)

where" 2 is the relative heat loss with waste gases. ".1 is the relative heat loss
by incomplete combustion, Iz ~ is the relative heat loss with unburn ed ca rbon.
lI s is the relative heat loss by giving up heat to the environment, and "t> is the
hea t with physical hea t of slag.
If the sum of Ihe relative hea l losses of a boiler is known , the boiler
efficiency can be obt ained from EQ. (8.8):

H
"2- -••' 100
W '
( 8.9)

where 1-12 is the absolute heat loss and waste gases which is equal tu

(8.1 0)

where 1"'8 is the ent halpy of waste gases. kJ / kg; I~~ is the enthalpy of the
theoretically required vol um e of cold air, kJ j kg; a & is t he excess air ralio in
W

the waste gases. which represents the ra tiu of the act ual air volume to the
theoretically required air volume.

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400 THEFlMOHYORAUUC DESIGN OF BOIL£R COMPONENTS

h .1 and h4 depend on the fu e l fired and the burning equipment used . For
furnaces with burners, II J is equal to 0% for coa l dust and 0.5% for oil or gas
fucl ; h. is equal to 2% for bituminous. 3% to 4% for anthracite, and 0% for
oil or gas fuel. For furnaces with stokers. h , a nd h. can be selected from a
steam boiler handbook o r related reference's (1 -3 ), ge ne rally h 3 = 1%-3%.
h. - 5% -15%.
h s can be determined from Fig. 8.26. During heat transfe r calculations, li s
is assumed to be proportional to the heat absorbed by each heating surface of
the boiler and is accoun ted for by a heat reten tion coe fficie nt 41:

(8 .11)

II " ca n be found by the following eq uation:

(8.12)

where a •• is the fraction of the total ash removed as slag from the furnace:
for hoilers with stokers. a . 1 - 0.75-0.8: for boilers with coal burners, a ~1 - 0. 1;
(C1)" is the en thalpy of slag kJ / kg; A '"' is the ash mass content of fue l on a
muist basis.
For dry ash furnaces with burners or furnaces with stoke rs T"I - 600"C
and (CT) •• ... 554 kJ / kg.

3.2
2.a

~
"
2.0
1.6

" 1.2
o.a
2

0.'
0
2 4 6 8 10 14 18 20 40 60 80 100300500 700
W.1/I'I'
Fig. 8.26. Curves for determining h J : I-boiler .... ith economizer and air heater.
2- boikrs .... ithout economizer and air heater.

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 8.3 HEAT TRANSFER CAlCUlATlONS OF BOILER COMPONENTS 401

When 1}b' [ 1_6" " and H;' arc determined, the fuel consumption of the
boiler, B, can be obtained from Es. (8.4) and (8.5) as follows :

B is used for calculating the coal pulverization system of the boi ler. In
order to find the actual volumes of the combwaion products and the air fl ow
rate for combustion, the rated fuel consumpt ion, Hr. should be used . When
there is a heat loss with unburned ca rbon during combustion. 8, can be
determined as

B, - B( 1 - 0 .0111 .. ) (8. 14)

8.3.2 Heat Transfer Calculation of Water-Cooled Furnace

The method fo r calculating the heat transfer in boi ler furnaces in the USSR
and the PRe is based on the semicmpirical formula obtained by Gurvich [5):

TIIFr = Bo u.1>
(8 .15 )
T, g Bo °.6 + Ma ~·6

where T,l'r is the gas temperature at the furnace outlet. K; T, ,, is the

adiabatic temperature of combustion, K; At is a coefficien t relating to the
pattern of the temperature field in the furnace: and 8 0 is the Boltzman
which ca n be expressed as

(8.16)

where VL is the average heat capacity of fiu e gases in the furna ce in the
temperature interval (TIIII - TIIF , ) fanned by I kg of burned fu el, kJ / (kg . K);
(To is the emissivity of the black body and is equal to 5.67 X 10 - 11 kW / (rn ! .
K4); .per is the average cacRicient of the rmal efficie ncy of the water walls; A ...
is the surface a rea of the furna ce wa lls: a nd 4> is the heat re ten tion
coefficient. .p~f c ha racterizes the fr action of heat absorbed by a water wall.
a nd is expressed as

tPer - x( (8.17)

where x is the angula r coefficient of a wate r wall and C:1Il be determined

from Fig. 8.27; ( is the coefficient of fouling. For fue l o il , - 0.55. for gas
fu el , = 0.65, for a furna ce wit h stokers ( - 0.60. for a furnace with coal
burners, - 0.35-0.55; for tubes with refractory covers ' - 0.1-0.2.

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402 THERMQHYDRAUUC DESIGN OF BOiLER COMPONENTS

"
~~l
' .0

0.9
~""l
08 \\,,
0.7 ~
0.6
~ /.'2
0 .5
'\ '\ ~
, ~: ~
0 .'

0 .3

0.2
,,
'"
~ "'- ~
"- ' I"
Fig. 8.27. Angul;lT cocfticicnl x: 1- (' ~ lAd.
2- (' - 0.8(1. ) -(.' - O.5d. 4- (' .. 0, 5- e ~
O.5d. without cunsidering the rad iat ion or the
2 3
• 5
• 7 rurn;lce wall.

For water walls with varying t and x. Ihe average vllluc of t/I<:I IS

Lx,A w ,',
t/lor - - .:.,-=
A.
( ". 18)

where a f is the coefficie nt of therm,d radiatiun of the fu rnace and can be

calculated from Ihe following equa l ion:

", ---'
(""7--')-
+ ~ - 1 I I!Id
(8.19)

""
where an is the flame emissivity a nd can be calculated from Eqs. (15.20) lind
(8.26).
For solid fu els:

( 8.20 )

where k f is the effective coefficient of absorplion in the furnace: p is the

pressure of Hue gases in the furnace (for a common vacuum furn ace. p ~ 0.1
MPa); and S is the effective thickness of the radi;Lling layer, m, S - 3.6Vd A ~,
where V, is the furnace volume. m J .

kf - k.T + ktlJ.l.~ + k r .l j x 2 ( 8.21 )

where r is the tOla l volume concen tralio n of tri atom ic gases; k~ is the

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 83 HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS OF BOILER COMPONENTS 403

effective cocllicienl of absorption by triatomic gases: k " is the effective

coefficie nt o f absorption by ash particle,>. I/ (m . MPa); IL" is the dimension-
less concen tration of fly ash in the furnace . kg/ kg; k ,. is the effective
coclticicnl of absorption of radiation hy coke particles, k r = 1.0; XI is a
constant for a particular kind of fue l. for coal with low volat ile mailer
XI - 1.0: for coal with high volati le m,tHer X I "" 0.5; and x 2 is a conSlanl
taking into aC(Qunt the influence of the burning equipmen t, faT stoke rs
x : - n.03. for burners X 2 - 0. 1.

(8 .22)

where rKo . and rll ~ 1I aTe volume concentrations of CO l + SO ~ and H:O.

respectively.

. T,,, )
k, - - (J . I ]( I - 0.37 I()()() (" .23)

(~ . 24)

where d~ is the average diamete r of the ash particles, for pulvcrilcc.J cOil l
dO' - lJ - J6 ,urn: and T~ ,..~ is the gas tempe rature at the furnace nutle t, K .

A ~ ",.,
{H .25 )

where Of. is the fraclion of the total ash removed as fly (Ish from the furnace,
U t. = 1 - (I ,,: and W~ is the mass of the flue gases per unit fuel hurned ,
kg/ kg.
For liquid and g:ls fuels,

U Il '" ma lum + ( I - m)a ~ (H .26)

where U lum is the emissivity of th e lum i n ou ~ portion of the flame : U x i ~ th e

emissivity of the nonluminuous gaseou s medium of the flame: and III is the
fraction of the luminou s portion of th e name, for natural-gal> ~ umhwaion
m - 0. 1. for fuel oil m - 0.55 .

(" .27)

where k lu m is the effective coefficient of absorpl ion of the luminous portion.

I/ (m . MPa).

k,,,,,, = k~r + k, (8 .28)

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404 THERMOHYORAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER CO MPONENTS

where k > is thc e lfective coetlicicnl of ah»orptio n hy soot part icles .

l / m( · MPa).

c-
o.s)~ (X .2~ )

where C" and H '" a rc the ca rbon and hydrog"'li mas» cont e nt o f fucl on a
moist basis. amJ aF~ is the excess air r,lI io a t the furnace exit.

(8.30)

The coe ffici e nt M is expressed as

M - A - IJX (X. 3 1)

where A and B arc e mpirical coeffi cien ts de pe ndin g o n the kind of fuel
used. for gas o r fuel oil. A .., 0.54 and B = 0. 2: for coa l bu rne rs, A =
O.5ft~0.59 (a higher va lue is for hig h volat ih: matter) a nd Jj - 05: for
furnaces with stoke rs, A :: 0.59 and 8 .,. 05. X i~ the rei,lIive position of
the highest te mperat ure zone in the furna ce: 1'01 a sp read",r sto ker. X = U:
for furnaces with ot he r sto ke rs. X ... 0. 14: for fu rnaces wit h hurners. X ca n
be calculated from the fo lluwing e xpression:

( X.J2)

where X I> is the relative level o f the burners whi ch i ~ equa l to th", ra tio of the
he ight o f the burne r ce nte r to that o f th e furn :'!ee exi t ce nter: hoth heights
are coun ted from the lowest boundary o f thl' furnace vol um e. ~X is iI
correct ive coefficient o f X to account for the :Ictllal position o f the flame
core, fo r horizontally arr;m ged burners 6X :: (t . till' tilting burne rs wh e n The
tilting a ngle is equ<ll to ± 20o, AX - ± O.1. and fur lith e r type s of burners
6. X "" 0.05 -0.1.
The adiabatic tempent ture of comb ustion 7 ~. K. can be o htained a s

Ii
r " " ,JiL
-" + 271. (8 .13 )

where H" is the useful hea l release in the furnace. kJ / kg. and VL is thc
average specifi c he at or combustion produels formed by I kg of fu e l wit hin
the tempe ra ture interva l ()- T", kJ l ekS . K).
Usua lly. for lignilc a nd peat T.. - IQ7J ~ 2 1 2.1 K. for anthr<lcite . fuel nil.
and natura l gas T.. = 2 1 23 ~ 2373 K.

IlkJ - h , - h 4 - h
H - H '" --.",,:--,:'----"" + /I (8.34)
" ~" IO(J - ,,~ "

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where /./" i.<:, the heat introduced into the furnace by hot and cold air. kJ / kg.

(8 .35)

whe re tJ.lxj- is the incre me nt of the rda tive air ratio of the furnace conside r-
ing the lea kage of air from the surrou nd ings into the furn ace; for a vacuum
furnace with hurners, tlf1J-' - (l.05. and for furnaces with stokers. tl a l . ., U.I.
If the values of 8 0 , M. T". and {lJ- a le determined, the gas temperature at
the furnac e outlet "/~ / . can be ubtained from Eq. (8.15).
The heat exchan ge in the boi ler furnace can he l)btained from the heat
balance equation of the gas side H r , kJ j kg:

(lL16)

Equation (8.15) ca n also be arranged it' fo llows:

T.
TI< f'~ = --(-\-"-7-X--I'-)-"-"-'-
' -A--T-'-)~""'-- (837)
M _." <I'd ~. a f'" +
~/I.f1C

To determine T~ J-'<" for the sake of pe rfnrming the calculations 10 lind k~ .

k , or k", we first have 10 a:-.sume thi ' te mperature and then cor rect it by
making a compa rison with the ca1cul;tted value of Td ~ ; if the d iscrepant')·
hetween them surpasses ± I()(rc. the calculation has to he re pc:it ed for a
new assumt:d value of Txt ,.
The average heat flu x of the furnace ho.::3ti ng surfaces. 'III" kW / m1. may
be ca1culatetl by

H. H ,
(8.38 )
A

where A is the radiant heating surfac\.!, of the furnace. 01 -".

[ .1, t1 '"
A - (X.39)
.·1

where x, is the angular coefficient of an mdividual water wall; and A ~., IS tht:
su rface area of an individual furnace wal l. m ~.
After calcu lation. we have to ehed whdh e r T!lf' .. i:-. helow the ~a fc
temperature mentioned in Section 8.2. 2. The value of tht: heat rekase rate
per unit furnace cross-sectional area. II}- . a nd the value of the hea t release
rate per unit furnace volume. Cfv s hould not exceed the recomme nded values
listed in Tables ~.2 and 8.4 respective ly.

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8 .3.3 Heat Transfer Calculation of Convection Heating Surfaces
The convectio n hcating :-ourfaccs of a builer .lTe thoM: hea ting surfaces
arranged be hind the furna ce incl udi ng plate ns. ~1.t g scrcen. convect ivc supe r·
hei.ll e r. convective re he:llc r. eco nomize r. and air heater. eh:.
Th e principal equations of convect ive heat lra n ~ fe r <I re <IS foll ow:-..
Th e he at transfe r equat ion is

V olT A
H, - ( H.40)
I),

where U i:-. the uvera ll heat tr;lllsfer coc llk icnl. kW /(m ~' Kl: ilT i1> the
mean temperalUre dilfere nee. K: and II , is the hea t tran sfer quantity. kJ / kg.
The heat halam.:c equatiun for the nue gal> sidl' il>

(H.4 I )

where I , and I ,. arc the entharpies of the ga ses a l the inl et and (Jutlet of the
hea t ing surface, kJ / kg. respective ly; J1(t i., the rcl;lIi\'c air in leakage in a ga~
duct; and I,~:, is the w ld· air Cllt hill py , kJ / kg.
T he hea t ha lance equation of heat ahsorptilln hy th e working !l uiu in
hea ting surfaces just down stream of the furna ce (, ut h as plat e n, slag ~c re e n ,
etc.) is

IV
11/, - /i (i ,. i , ) - I I"
,
whe re W is t he mass flow rill e uf Ihe wurking thml. kg / s: i ~ and i , itre the
enthalpies of th e working !luid al the in let and outlet of the heating surface .
kJ / kg, respectively: J-/,f i., the radiant heat ;Ih~!l rhe d by the heating ~ urfa ce
from the furna ce, kJ / kg.
The heat hal ance equa tion of heat ahsorpt illn hy the wnrking lIuid in
heating surftlccs arranged in boil er fl ue dueb h m' h <I S ~on vec tion ~ up!,; r ·
heater. reheater, economize r, and air heate r, e tc') I ~

IV
HI< - -II Ii ' - i)
,
( " .42h)
,

For an air hea tc r, the heat <l bsorbcd by the all 1:-

..
I" ) ( M 3)

where /3" is the excess air rat io at the o utlet of t hl' air he,lIe r, /3" - O, ~ -
.1o f ·: dO a h is the rel ative air leakage from the ail hcater: and I ~',. and ( !: arc

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 83 HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS OF BOILER COMPONENTS 407

'0
09 I f-
0.6 'I'-!-
2
'" 07
0.6 3
05
r-- f'-.
I
Fig. 8.28. Coc fli cicnl {J: I- cnal.
900 1000 1100 1200
"
1300 1400

2-fuel oil. :I - gas.

Ihe enlhalpies of the theoretical volume of hot air and cold air. kJ/kg.
respectively.
The radiant heat absorbed by convection heati ng surfa ces of platens from
the fu rnace H,f" can be obtained as

(S 44 )

where H" and H,,, are the radiant hea t flux at the in let to the healing
surface and the radiant heal flux at th e nutlct from the healing surface onto
subsequent heating surfa ces, kJ / kg.

Af'~
H" /311 hQ'F ( ".45)
=
S,
where f3 is the coefficient which takes in to accoun t hea l exchange hetween
the furn ace and the calculat ed heating ~lIr faces (Fig. 8.28); 11/, is the codli·
cie nt of distribution of heat absorption along the furnace height (11h for
furnaces with fron t-type arrangement of borners is shown in Fig. H.2Yl; and
A f ·, is the surface area of the furnace nUl let, m ~ .

(S.46)

where a is the emissivi ty of gases in the wne of the platens which is

de termined from Eq. (8.74); x , is the angu lar coe fficient of radiation from
the in let on to the outlet sect ion o f the calculated surfaces. for platens, it is
determi ned by Eq. (8.47); and II,,,. is the Tlld iation of gases from the platen
zone onto the subseque nt heating surfaces and can be determined hy Eq .
(8.48), '1 / 'g.

h
(8.47)

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408 THERMQHVDRAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

IS
I !
I'
IA I.
c
L2
t .O
.
I !
"
~

0.8
I ,
OS
O.
.f--
02 I
o 0.2 0 .. 06 0 .8 10
h

'"
la}

IS
.~
I'
'.2
11.--
,. - 2

r-... 3
10 , -
" I--
<
" 08 •

0.6
r7
O.
.
02 I
o 02 04 06 08 ' .0
h
h<

Ib}

Fig. 8.29. Coc llicicnt T}~ (lI f · is thc hc ight flf the furnace) : ( 1/) for fuel ·oil ,IfIU ga~
furnacc. (b) for coal·dust furnace. I- Burner a)o,. 2- fur anthracite and bituminous
coal. 3-for lignite.

where SI is the spaci ng between t he platc m. m. and b IS the depth uf the

platens (in the direction of the flow), m.

5.67 X 10- 11
x (vl pJ~t
R.

whe re f is the average gas tempe rature of Ihe platen, K: t is the coefficien t
which takes into accoun t the influence of fu cl type , for coal and fue l oil ,
{-= 0.5, for nalural gas, t - 0.7; and A p~ is the surface area of the plalen
oul let. m l.

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 In the case of calculating slag screen:..,

(~.49)
fl,

where x _, is the angular coefficient of the slag screens, x > = I - (I - x Y'; n

is the number of the tube rows, and x is the angular coelficient of one row of
tubes determined from Figure H.27, eur.'c 5.

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U In the convection heating surfaces

of a boiler, th e heat transfer process cons ists of three parts: heat transfer
from the flue gases to the tube waIL heat transfer through a multilayer wall (a
metallic tube wall with deposits on its outside and inside surface>, and heat
transfer from the wall to the working Ouid. The equation of the overall heat
transfer coefficient U, W/(m 2 . K), is as follows:

(8.50)

where h, and h" are the coefficients of heat transfer from the gas to the wall
and from the wall to the working fluid, kW /(m 1 . K), respectively; fill,' fi,I'
and 0"" arc the thickness of the tube wall , the exte rnallaycr deposits, and the
interna l layer deposits, m. respectively; an d A", • . 1. ,1' and A,c arc the com.l",,:-
tivities of the tube wall. the external laya deposits. and the internal !,Iyer
deposits. kW /(m . K), respectively.
As 0",/..1.", is much less than I/I!" and 1/11,. it can be neglected; 0"'/..1. ...._ is
nearly equal to 0 under normal operat ing conditions, therefore it is not
considered during calcu lation . Let the codlkient of effectiveness til lake intu
account the inftuence of 0,1/,1.,1 or let t: = 8,1/..1.,1; Eq. (S.5() can be expressed
as follows:

U~
"
t
(H,Sl )

Ii" h.

0'

U ~ 18.52)
+ " + h.
It"

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410 THERMOHYDRAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

For slag screens. with an in-li ne arranged convection supe rheater. I/J - 0.6
when the boiler is fi red wi th anthracite : I/J >= 0.65. when the boiler is fired
with hituminuous coa l; and", - 0.6-0.65 whe n the boile r is fired with fuel
oil ; for slag screens and superhea ters. the small e r value is for high ve locity.
and for economizers. '" - 0.65-0.70.
For a tubular air heater. the coe fficie nt of uti lization t is introduced into
Eq. (8.50) whi.:h conside rs both the influence of deposits a nd the nonuniform
sweeping of a heating surface by the gas now. Equation (8.50) ca n then be
expressed as follows:

<
u - --.---'----, (8.53)
+
II ., "

where t - O.8-U.M5.
For regenerative air healers

<c
u ~ ----.,---,--- (K ..I4 )
--+
x xh" .l gh,

where { - 0.8-0.9; c is a coefficient relating. to rotating speed II; for 1/ -

0.5 r/ min. c - O.H5; for II = 1.0 rl min , c '"' U.97; for" - 1.5 rl min, c - 1.0;
x., and Xw 3re fraction s of the heating surface of gas and air, re spectively.
u.'>ually x x = 0.5 and x" = 0.333.
For platens. direct radiation from the furnace increases the temperature
of the deposits on the plate n tubes and decreases the heat absorption from
the gas flow sweeping these tubes, therefore a mu lt iplier (I + /-/,,./11,,) is
introduced into Eq. (8.52) to take these circumsta nces into account. that is,

(8.55)

here Hp is Ihe lotal heat absorption of the platens due to convective heal
transfe r and radiation of gases in the plale n zone. kJ / kg; c is the fou ling
coefficient, for fuel oil. f" - 5.2 (m ' . K)/ kW, for gas fuel. c - O. for solid
fuels. € ca n be obtained from II. 2).

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Calculation of the Heat Trans fer Coefficient from Gas to Wall, h o The
heat absorption by a convective heat ing surface from the gas flow is deter-
mined by the heat transfer coeffici e.nt ho' kW /(m 1 . K), which takes into
account both the radiant and convect ive heat transfer at the externa l side of
the heating surface.
(8.56)
where ~ is the coefficient of the nonuniform sweeping of the boi ler compo-
nent by gases, for cross-current flow t = 1.0. for most mixed-current flow
t = 0.95 ; II ,. is the convect ive heat transfer coefficient; and h, is the radian t
heat tra nsfer coefficie nt of the space betwee n the tubes.

Calculation of the Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient, he For flow

across an in-line tube bundle (Fig. H.30a) [2):
A
h = c c __Re O."5Pr U.33 (H.57)
," -' ltd
where A is the conductivity coe/lit-ie nt of a fluid. kW /(m . K); C S is the
corrective coefficient which takes into accoun t the influe nce of the relative
spacing of the tube bundle ; and f'" i ~ the correct ive coefficient which takes
into account the influence of the number of tube rows along the flow
direction.

(8.58)

$,
(0)

Fig. 8.30. Flow ilcross tunc bundle: (a) in ·line tube nundle, (b) staggered lube bundle.

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412 Tl1ERMOHYORAUUC OESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

If Sl i d s 1.5 or 5 21(1 ~ 2, c. - 0 .2: when the number of rows.

n < 10 C" - u.91 + 0 .UI25(II - 2 )

(8.59)
n ~ 10 C" - 1.0

For flow across a staggered tube bundle (Fig. KJllb):

(8.00)

Let tb - (Slid - Il / (S 2ld - I); when

0.1 < tb :s 1.7 (8.61 )

s,
.7 < l' S 4.5 and - < 3 (R .62)
,I

S,
1.7 < f/I s 4 .5 and - ~ 3 (8.63)
d

when the number of rows. " < 10, Sl i d < J .II:

C
n
- 3. 12,, 11.1 15 - 2 :; (8.64)

when rI < 10, S. l d 2. 3.n ;

(8 .05)

when" 2. 10, c., - 1.0.

Equations (8.57) and (Ho6U) can be used III the range of Re - 1.5 x
\03_ 1.5 x \0 5; the boiler operating condition IS always within this range .
For the simplification of calcu lation , Eqs. 18.57) and (8.60) can be rewri t·
len as follows:

V " "'
h , - A IC,C" d" "

VII .,
Ir r - A zc,c" d " t (8.67)

For flue gases (JOO"'C $ T :s; ItKKI"C>:

AI - 28 .96( I - 1.25 X 10 4T) X Hl 1

A z - 16.98 X 10- .1

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 8 .3 HEAT fRANSFEA CAlCULATIONS OF BOtLER COMPONENTS 413

For air (50"C .!O: T .!O: 500"0:

At = 29.77( 1 - 5.2x x 1O - ~T) x 10 - 1

A2 = 17.56( 1 - 3.4 x IO - ~T) x 10 - '

For flow along the longitude direction u f ,I tube bund le or in a lube:

(8.68)

where d ~ is the equiva lent diame ter, Ill . and C, is a coefficient which takes
into account the influence of the healing surf;!Ce length and can be deter-
mined from Fig. 8.31.
The simplified eq uation for Eq. (8.6HJ is as fo lluws:

for air and nue g:ISC'" P': .1I9)

(pV)ON
for supe rhea ted steam h , =Bd~ (X .711)

when 500C T (average temperature) 50 401.rC. fur air A = 3.41}( 1 - X.26 x

$
1O - 4 n x .1; for flue gases A = 3.7(] - 8.26 x lO ' ~ T) x 10 ' ; fur su-
III
perheated steam when p = 4-4.4 MPa . T = 320-450 C. B = 6.1) 1 x 1(1 Q

c,
1
1.8
1
1
17

"
1.5

12
1\
\
1
"-
1.0 I'--
o to 20 30 40 50 li d ...ig. 8.JI. Codlieicnl C 1.

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4 14 THERMOHYOAAULIC OESIGN Of' SOlLER COMPONF.N1'S

p - 10 - 11 MPrt, r .. 420 - 540"C. 11 - 7.5 x IU- '; p - 14 - 15 MPa, T -

460- S5lfc' /J - KO x IU "
The preceding eq Ulll ions a rc ltppl icrthlc fnr He - 10 4_5 X W \ a nd 3 \1
propertie:, a rc eva luated at the avcrage flui d tl' mpc rature,
For rege ne rative ai r h ea t e~, h ~ for the sa!' .. ide and the ai r side is

(X .7 !)

where fo r com mo n types of heating :-urfacc ~, A .. n 027. tI , - 7,8 mOl, and

C, can Ix de te rmined from Fig. 1'1 .31 : c, is ,I ct)C rtkie nt whic h takes into
account the innucoee of !'urface tc mpe ratul c; c, - 1.0 for g;ls and c, -
(T I T.. )n ~ for air. where T is the air te mpe ra ture a nll 1 ~ is the average wall
te mperature .

Calcula tion of the Radiant Heat Trans fer Cosmclent of the Space, h ,
The radiant heat transfer coemcien l of the "p.lce h,. kW / (m 2 , K) ca n be
expressed as follows:
For solid fuel

II = 5. 1 X 10 - "(1 rl _ _' - (T;T)']

, /I" [I ( T . ; T )
,'w

" '
,.

~
( X.72 )

whe re (I~ is the e missivity of gase:--; " ~ and , ;,... ;lfe the absolut e average
te mperatures of the gases and th e a~hy tunc W,I II. K.
For fuel oi l or gas

I _ 5I x \ll - 1I ,T ' , - (I'... 1. T)'" ] (OJ)

I, . ( " . [ (I _ "~ ... I r. )

1I
, =: I - l' - l ' I>·\ ( X.74)

where the gas pressure fJ .. U.1 MPa, and thc c tfectivc coc lllcie nt of absorp-
lio n, k, is equal to

( 8.751

where k /I and k it ca n bc determin ed by Eqs. (K~~) ;lIld Ht24) rc.'> pcctivcly: in

these equations th e gas tempe rature is equal t\ ) the ave rage tem pe rature of
Ihe inlet and ex;1 temperatures of the ca\culatc J boi le r compone nt ; r is the
lolal volume concentration of the trililumic ga sc: ~ in the region uf the boile r
component; and J.l. 1I can Ix determined hy Eq. ( IU5), S is de term ined by Eq.
(8,78), m.

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 Whe n using solid fuel or liquid fuel. for platens and convection supe r-
heaters

, ) B,H
T.... = 'fj + ( £ + - - - (8.76 )
h; A

where T, is the average temperature of the working fluid in the boi le r

component , K; H is the total quantity of heat absorbed in the co mponenl,
kJ j kg; £ is the fouling coeOicicn t; for burning solid fuel £ = 4.3, for burn in g
liquid fue l E = 2.6 (m 2 . K)jkW; A is the heating surface, m l : and h , is the
convective heat transfer coeffi cie nt from the wall to the worki ng fluid , Eq.
(g.70).
For the o ther compone nts

( 8 77)

where for slag screens 6.T - 80 K; for economize rs wi th in let-gas te mpera -

tures greater than 40crC, 6.T = 60 K; with inle t·gas tcmpe ra ture less than
400°C, II T = 25 K.
When using gas fuel, 6. T ... 25 K for a ll boile r compone nt s.
For air heate rs. T~w is equal to the ave rage temperatu re of 'lir and gas.
The eITective thickness of the radiatin g laye r, S, uf tube bundles is

( ----+ - I)
5 = O.lJd
4,,"
r. d
For platens
1.8
S ~ -,--,.-----,-- ( H.7l})
+- +
ABC

whe re A , B, a nd C a rc the height, depth, ilnd width of the space hetwe en

two platens, respective ly.
For tubular a ir heate rs, S = O.9d.
When the re is a n empty room befure the calculated component, fo r
conside ring the radiation of this empt y room. the radiant heat trans k r
coeffic ie nt sho uld hc calculated as fo llows:

h ', 1~
~ h r [ ' +A(-)
100(1
""(L
- LIl
k
)''''' ]

where TN is the temperalUre of gas in Ihe room, K: LR and Ln arc Ihe

depths of Ihe room and the tube bundle, m. rcspccljvC/y; and A is a constant
for fuel oil a nd gas A "" 0.3; for bituminous coal a nd anthracite A = 0.4. and
for lignite A - 0.5.

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416 THERMOHYOAAUUC DESIGN Of SOl LER COMPONENTS

Calculation of the Mean Temperature Difference, dT The mean tem-

perature difference .1. T depends on the How system; for parallel-flow system
(Fig. 8.1 l b):

(8.8 1)
T"
In
( T"

where Til" Tll r , T", and T'r are the temperat ures of the inlet gas, exit gas,
inlet working fluid. and exit working fluid . respectively, K.
For a counterflow system (Fig. K il a):

(8.82)

TABLE 8. 11 Determination of Corr«tiyc Coefficient. \II

- - -- --
Flow System Figure Used and Para meters

Tt • T
"

T" _*_T,
Fig. 8,32. 1 1 - T., - Tt ., T! - TI • - T" .
P - T 2/ (T•. - Tfil. R - Ti l T:, C - A piA
JJJ')')j)j'"

Fig. 8.32. 1 1 - T,. - T", T1 - T., - T••.

p - T 2/(T~ , - Tft). R - TI/TZ' C - AI./A

Fig. tU3. eun.·e 1: T t is the larger ~'alue

between (T~ , - ~.) and (T,. - Tft ) whi!c T,
is the smalle r yal ue between them. P has
the same meaning as that in Fig. 8.32

T
"
T,_. _T,.
T..

Fig. K33, cur.e 2

T"

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TABLE 8. 11 (Colllmurd)

Flow SyMcm Figurc Uscd and Paramcters

T,. T,.

Fig. 8.33. eul"C 3

T" T"

T"
Fig. 8.33. curve 4

T' _~_T" Fi)! ILl3. curve 5

T"

T"

T.,_+_T. Fig. K.34. curve I. P -

R .... 1{. /1,
7,/ (T~ , Th ).

T,.

T,. T
"
Fig. 1'\.34, eurve 2

T
I. --_-TT"
T"

p• Fig. K34. curve 3

f,. T"

Fig. 8.34. CUI"C 4

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418 THERMOHYDRAUlIC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

' IM~V V J--V ~J--

H-+-I-'-II-t-\-h r:::: V f-- 1--1--
I I
.9:::'70~94C:0:'::96~0;;C.98~O"--O
0."90"'0" C ( ,8 1. 1 1.4 1. .8 .0
R

Fig. 8.32. Corrccliv(, coelli(l~' nl .p .

03 04 05

Fig. 8.33. Corrective coc tllelcnl I/o.

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 8.3 HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS OF BOILER COMPONENTS 419

07'~~=~/~~~-/~';' ;--~~~J-E\\\\~~
'/ V I---- 0.7
O.

0.6 //v..-/ ::.---- 0.6

V///!/::::-V
Q.. 0.5
;: V.vA:::·-:::::: V 05
II/, 'ij/: "
yV-
o. "
0.:
~
I?"
-- -3 0.'
' .0
V~V­
02 ~...q--+---1--+---1--+--1 0.2

I"
."

f ig. 8.34. CorrCC lih ' coc flicicni 1/1 .

For the other kinds of flow system, listed In Table 8. 11. :1T ';tll bl!
detcrmined as follows:

(8.8])

where .p is the corrective coefficie nt dCh: rmincd by Table 8. 11 and Figs. 8.:.12
to 8.34. In Fig. 8.32, A I' is the pa rallel heating surface of the flow system. ml ,
and A is the total heating surface of the How system, m 2 •

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42 0 THERMOHYDRAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONE NTS

8.3.4 Procedure for Heat Transfer Calculation of a Boller

Thc common procedure for heat transfer calcu latio n of a boiler with burners
is as follows:

I. Accordi ng to the fuel conte nts. ca lcul ate the fl ue gas charactcristic
pa ramete rs of each boiler component. such a~ the actual volu me of the
flue gases and the air. the volume concentrations of CO ~ + S0 2 and
H 2 0. and the en thai pies of the gase ~ and the air rela ted to their
temperature. etc.
2. Assume a waste gas tem perature T... , 111 order to determine h2' 11/>. and
B; se lect :1 hot -air temperat ure T ha to begin the hea t transfer calcula-
tion s of the furnace and its compo n e nt ~. T"w and Tha will be checked by
the corresponding values obtained aft er ca lculations are made. The
disc repancy between the assum ed and t he ~aleu lal e d TWI s hould be less
than or equal to ± are. and that for "f r..• shuuld be less than or equal
to ± 4(rC.
3. Select a q} and a ql ' va lue in the recom me nded range to det erm ine the
vol ume an d other dimensions o f the fu rnace and th e convection ducts.
and arrange the heating surface of eve r) hoilcr component. Therefore.
before the heat transfer calculatio n. th ~' t:unstructive paramet ers arc
known.
4. Th e heat transfer calcula tion begins fr~ml the furnace ; during calcula -
tion. the trial-and-error method is used. In the furn ace calculat ion. 7~, ~
has to be determined; for pe rformi ng calc ulations we first assume this
tcmpcrature and then check il by Eq. (H.37). If the disr..:rcpa ncy be t.....een
the assumed and ca lculated T,..}r is less [han o r eq ual to ± W (re. then
the calcu lation is complete.
S. In the heat transfer calculat ion of co nvection componen ts. the trial-
and-e rror method is also used. Usually. fn r a particular componen t the
inlet-gas temperat ure (including enth alpy) ami one of the wurking
l1uids arc known . B)' assuming an ex it -gas temperature. we may preset
the hea t quantity absorbed by this com ponent. H/o. by employi ng Ih e
hea l balance equ ation. Eq. (S.4 I). ant] then comparing the vlll ue uh-
tained with the heal quan tity. Hr. calcu lated fro m the heal tran sfe r
equation [Eq. (8.40)J. If the error (N /o - H, JlOOj Hh is le~s than or
equll i to ± 5% for the slag scree n, lind less than or equ al to ± 29, for
the other boile r compo nents. then the heal transfer calculation of the
individual convection componen t is complete.
o. Aft er fini s hing the calcul ation of all the hoiler componenb. the IOlal
heat quantity er ro r j, H s hou ld be checked ;I ~ fo llows:

11)1 h,
-)
I ( - 100
,If! = - -- - -------;-;-:-------'----'-"'-'-HXV'1r ( 8.84)
H.~

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 where II" H" H, ." J-/II' an d /-/1 are the heat absorbed in the furnace,
slag screen. superheate r, rehea te r. and economizer, respectively.

If .1, H :s;; ± 0.5% and the discrepa m:ies of T",. ami T ha are allowable as
mentioned previously, then the heal transfer ca lculation is com plete. Other-
wise, the ca lcul ation shou ld hegin agai n by assuming a new T,,~ and a
new 'fha .
The heat transfer calculat ions of a hoiler can be substant ia lly facilitated by
usi ng an electronic computer.

8.4 A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THE HEAT TRANSFER

CALCULATIONS OF BOILER COMPONENTS

To show the gene ral procedure of the heat transfe r calculation of a boiler, a
midd le-pressure boi ler with a si mplifie d arrangemen t of heating surf,H:es wi ll
serve as an eX'lm plc. The procedure ;lnd methods descri bed arc a lso applica-
ble to the more complex arrangemen t~ nf large modern hoi lers.

Main Parameters of the Example Unit The rated steam-generating capac-

ity, W = 130 t/hr or 36.11 kg/s; tht:' )uperh..:ated steam pr..:)sun; (absolute)
at the exit of the superheater. 1\ , = 1.n MPa: the ahsolute drum pressure.
1',/ = 4.41 MPa: the superheated sleam temperature. T,_, = 4.'iUOC; the fced-
wate r tempera ture. T1.... = 172°C; the ked-water inlet pressure. " .. 4.7 MPa:
the rate of water hlow-off from th e boiler drum, WI> ... = 1..1 t / hr (O . .1hll
kg/s): the waste gas tempt:'raturc, "/ ~~ = 160°C (first selected and chcded
afterwards); the hot-air temperature , T),,, = 2(X)"C; and the physicnl hea t or
oil before burning, Hph = 266 kJ/kg.
Th e contents of the fu e l oi l fi red arc as follows (moist basis. mass
percentage) carbon C "' = H6.55 , hyd m gen H~ = 12.6H, oxygen O ~ = 11.11.1,
nitrogen N '" = 0.29, su lfur $" = 0.29, mnisturt.! W " = O. and ash A~ = 0.16;
the lower heat ing va lue of the fuel oi l. Ii )'" = 41 ,242 kJ / kg.
The cxamp lc boilcr consists of a fu rn acc 1, slag scrccns 2. a superheater 3.
an econom izer 4, and an air heater 5 ( Fig . 8.35). anti the Hue g;lses pass
through these components, rcspectiv el~' .

Auxiliary Calculations Th e theoret ical volume of air (at normal state)

requi red for combustion of 1 kg of fuc l oil is ca lculated as

v I) = O.08S9(C '" + 0.37.'i5" ) + () .2h .'iH~ - 0.033.10"

The theoretica l volume of RO ~ (dt no rmal stale) in the combustion

prod ucts of J kg of fuel oi l is

C" + U .~ 75S"
1.866--- -- '"' 1.6 17 m ~/ kg
Ifll'

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422 THERMQHYDRAUUC DESIGN OF aOILER COMPONENTS

,
2
4

Fig.8.3S. Schcme of the example unil. I

furnacc . 2- slag scrcc n. :l - ~ upcr ·
hcaler. 4- ccunnmi;o;cr, 5- air heater.

The theoretical volume of H 2 0 (at normal state) in the combustion

products of I kg of fuel oi l is

VII: ,0 - O. llIH '" + O.0I24W"· + 0.0 16 1V o = 1.5855 mlJ kg

The theoretical volumc of N2 (at normal statd in the combustion products of

I kg of fuel oil is

The actual volume of the combust ion products of I kg of fuel uil in

ditfe rent hoiler components are li sted in Table H. 12. In this table , ~a is the
increment of the air ratio. consideri ng the leakage of ilir from the surround-
ings into the gas ducts.
The flue gas temperature and it s corre!>pontiing enthalpy are listed in
Table 8.13.
The avai lable heat of fuel , H~:, Eq. (H.6):

H~:' - 41.242 + 266 - 41 5 08 kJ / kg

The relative heal loss. 11 .1 = U.5 % . 114 - 0% (from Section ~U.]). II J ca n be

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TABLE 8.12 Chanltttris tiu or Hut ( ;IISC.' in Uilfc~nt Boiler Components
Furn,u;:c
,"d
Slag Super' Air
Items anll Equations Uflil Screefl heater Eumomizer Healer
Excel'S :Iir ratio :u exit
of boiler component. (I,
(s.cleetell) 1.1 l.Ifi l.l R 1.2 1
A\'erage excess air rauo. ii 1.1 1.1) 1.17 1.1115
The air ratio mcremen t. 6.u 0 .05 0.06 0 .02 0.03
Volume of c~cel>.' air. to - IW Il m'/kg UUO 1.4)M I .~ I 2.157
Actual volumc o r H lO'
V11 ,j ) .. vi:;II" 0.0 161(0 - I )VI! m \/ k~ I.h()) 1.609 I.filfi 1.020
Actual volume of Auc gases,
V• .. VH ~ 1l -+ v~ , -+ VIIO ;
-+ (0 - I)V " m' / k ~ 1J.1k)X 13 .4116 1).X5h 14 . lJh
'11 0 , .. VIIO / Vt 0 .12J7 0.1206 0. 1167 (J.l I-U
'1I ,Il .. VII , O /V~ 0 .1227 0 .1200 O. llfltl 0.1140
' / '110, + 'H ,O 0 .2404 11.2400 O.2J:B 0,22<,;(1

obtaincd from Eq. (K9):

(3 15.1 - 1.2 1 x 440)

" 2" 41 SOX 100 - 6.32%

Thc rclativc hcat Im.". ,, ~ .. 0.7% (Fig. 8,26). and ht. for fuel oi l ca n be
neglected.
The boiler e1l1ciency. '1/l .. 1U0 - 6.:1 I - 0.5 - U.7 - 92.48%. The weight
of thc fucl consumption. R. can he obtained from Eq. (H. 13):

\
B = j36.11(.:\3:U - 7.1(1 .2) + 0 + 0.3011( 1116 ..1 - 730.2) 1
41,508 X 0 .92:JH

= 2.45 I kS j.f

The rated fuel consumption. IJ, .. H ll:.q. (H.14»). The heat retention coeffi-
cient IEq . \8. \ Ill. '" ~ \ - 10.7/(92.48 + 0.7» - U.""25.

Construction Parameters of Bo/ler Components The furnace volumc is

obta ined by selecting a hea l release rate per unit furnace volume, (I I" from
Tahlc 8.4. For this example let qv " :U.J kW / m.l ; the refore the furnace
volume is calculat ed as VI' = BH ~/q v - 2.45 I x 4 I .242/ 263 _ :184 m 1.
Select qf - 3260 kW 1 m 2 <Table IU); the furnace cross-sectional
area becomes A" - BH;" / qr = 2.451 X 41.242/ 3260 = 31 m 2 • Assume the

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 TABLE 8.13 Flue Gas Temperature and Its Corresponding Enthalpy

V~o ! = l.617, rnljks V~o, = 8.742. mJjkg V~)o = 1.5855. m 3 jkg

Temperature Ccol' VRO:CCO,T. CNJ, V~.CN,T, CH.oT. V~:OCH 1OT,
·C kJjm.1 kJjkg kJjm J kJjkg kJ/m J kJjkg

lOO 170.1 274.9 130 1.136.5 151 239.4

200 357.6 578.2 260 2,272.9 305 483 .6
300 559.0 903.9 392 3,426.7 463 734.1
400 772.0 1.248.3 527 4,607.0 626 992.5
500 996.5 1.611.3 664 5,804.7 795 i ,260.5
600 1,222.6 1,976.9 804 7,028.6 969 1,536.4
700 1.461.2 2,362.8 948 8,287,4 1,149 1.821.7
800 1.704 .1 2,755.5 1,094 9.563 .7 1.334 2.115. 1
900 1.951.1 3,154.9 1,242 10,857.6 1,526 2,4[9.5
1,000 2,202.4 3.561.3 1,392 12.168.9 1,723 2,731.8
1,100 2,457.8 3.974.3 1.544 !J,497.7 1,925 3,052.1
1,200 2,717.4 4.394.0 1.697 \4.835 .2 2.132 3,380.3
1,800 4,304 .2 6,959.9 23.113 .9 3.458 5,482.6
1,900 4.572.2 7,393 .3 24.512.6 3.690 5,850.5

CONTENTS
BACK 2.000 4.844.4 7,833.4 25.920.0 3,926 6,224.7

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2.100 5,U6.5 8,273,4 27.345.0 4.162 6,598.9
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NEXT
 I; = VRO,CCO,T VI! = 11.063. m J jkg I~ = I~ + (a - !)/~)

Temperature +V~,CN7 + V~,OCH,oT, C.T. 1.° = O

V C 4 T,
°C kJjkg kJjm J kJjkg ll'Ft = 1.1 as. = 1/16 ll'F( = 1.18 aM "" 1.21

100 J,650.8 132 1,463 .7 1.955

200 3.334.7 266 2.945 .9 3.865 3.953
300 5,064.7 403 4.458.4 5.866 6.000
400 6,847.8 542 599.62 7,926 8,106
500 8,676.5 684 7,567.1 9,433 9,886 lD,(}40
600 10,541.9 830 9,182.3 11.456 12,008 12.193
700 12,471.9 978 10,819.6 13,537 14,190
800 14,434.3 1,129 [2,490.1 15.676 16,426
900 16,432.0 1,282 14,182.8 17,862
J,OOO 18,462,0 1,435 15,875.4 20,073
1,100 20,524.1 1,595 17 ,645.5 22,300
1.200 22,609.5 1,753 19,393.4 24,540
1,800 35,556.4 2,732 30.224.1 38,558
1.900 37,756.4 2,899 32,071.6 40.970
2,000 39,978.1 3,066 33.919.2 43,365
2,100 42,217.3 3,232 35,755.6 45,789

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426 THERMOHYORAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

.' ill.. 8.36. The scheme of the supe rheater.

furnace width to be a - 6.2 m, then the furna ce depth, b = Af-/a = .3 1/

6.2 - 5 m.
The outside diameter of th e water wall tubes. Ii = 60 mm with a tuhe wall
thickness uf 3 mm; the distance from the centerline of the riser to th e
furnace Willi , e .. 0; and the splicing of the wat er wa ll tuhes, s =- M mOl . Thc
tota l number of rise rs, II - 348: and th e tota l surface area of th e furnace
walls, A .., - 362.1-14 01 2 (including the bollom surface area of the furnace 3 1.5
2
01 whi ch is cove red with refractory hriek, and t he exi t surface lIrea of th e
furnace 29.08 01 2 ).
The staggered arranged slag scree ns arc formed by the rear water wa ll
tuhes. Three rows of 60 mOl outside diameter tu bes arc spaced o n 250 mm
cente rs; 24 lubes per row are spaced on 256 mm ce nte rs; the total heating
surface, A = 73.52 m ~; and the fl ow area for flue gases, A I< = 21.73 01 ",
SI/l1 - 256/60 - 4.27, Sdd - 250/00 .. 4. 17. .\', - 0.685 [Eq. (8.49) and
Fig. K27J.
The superheater .(Fig. 8.36) consists of 24 ruw!'> of tubes with an ou tside
diameter. d - 3H mm 0.5 mm th ickness). The tubes arc arranged in the
in-line form. SI - S2 - 1-14 mOl; the total number of se rpentin e tuhes, " =
146; and each row consists of 73 tubes. The total heating surface, A = 641
m 2 • and the paralle l-How heating surface area. A" ~ oS m 2. The flow area
for flu e gases, A ..... 13. 13111 1 ; and the fl ow area for steam. A ., - n. ll m ~.
The depth of the empty room before the superheate r. LH = 0.65 m. while
the dept h of the superheater tube bundle. L" = 1.725 m.

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 8,4 A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THE HEAT TRANS FER CALCULATIONS 427

Flue Inlet

!
Fig. 8.37. Scheme uf the economi'J.:r.

The economizer (Fig. H.37 ) cunsist !> of 5(i rows of 32 mm outside diame ter
tuhes (1 mm thick). Tuhes arc arrang.:-d in the staggered form, with SJd =
45/32 = 1.4, Slid = 75/32 = 2.34. and Sild = 2.73. The lolal number of
serpentine tubes. II = 73, and 3fl or 37 tubes per rowan:: placed hori zontally.
The total heating s urface area. A = 121 5 m 2 ; the flow area uf nue gases,
A ~ = 10.206 m ~ : and the now area for water. A .., = 0.03157 m 2 . The height of
the empty room hefore the economiLe r. LJ? = 3.8 m: and the height of the
economizer tuhe bundle. LI/ = 2.4.1 m. The depth of the lluc gas d uct.
h = 2.86 m; and the width of the flu e gas duct. a = 5.!,l42 m.

Flue Gas Inlel

L J
I COld Air Inlet
j
Fig. IUS. Schcmt' or the air heater.

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428 THEAMOHYORAULIC DESIGN Of BOILER COMPONENTS

The tubular air heater is arranged horizont a lly, and the a ir passes through
the tuhes while flue gases pass around the o utside of the tubes. The fl ow
syste ms of the air and gases is shown in Fig. tUB. T he width of the flue gas
duct. a = 5.942 m; and the de plh of the flue gas duCl , b - 3.173 m.
Ninety-six rows of 40 mm o utside d iamete r lu hes (1 .5 mm thick) are arranged
in staggered form with SI/d = 75/40 = I. t58. Slid - 46/40 - 1.1 5, a nd
SUd = gs/4U = 2.2. Each row consists of 40 or 4 1 tubes, and the 10l a1
numbe r of tuhes, tI - 7776. The flow a rea of the air, A ~ - 2.7S5 m 2 • while
the fl ow a rea of the flue gases, A x = 7.665 m='. The tOia l heating su rface
a rea, A - 2382 m 2 •

Heat Transfer Calculation of the Furnace The heat introduced into the
furn ace by the hot air and Ihe cold ai r is {EQ. (8.35)]:

I-f" = (1 . 1 - 0.05)2945.9 + 0.05 X 440 = 31 15 kJ / kg

whe re the e nth a lpies of air are obta in ed fro m Table ~.J3. and U f , and .:lu I"
a rc obta in ed from Table 8. 12.
T he useful heat released in the furnace [Ell. (8.34 »):

100 - 0.5
H" = 41,508 100 + 3 11 5 - 44,4 16 kJ / kg

The ad iabatic temperature of combustion, T", according to H" and Uf ~ '"

1.1 , ca n he fo und from Table 8.13; Td - 204l°C.
A ~su m e the flue gas temperature at the furnace o utle t is Txf'~ = I H
.:xrc.
its correspond ing e nth alpy I Fr - 22,31x) kJ j kg (obtai ned from Table K 13):
7~/'~ will be checked afterwards.
The clfective thickness of the radiating laye r:

3.6Vf :\.6 X 384

s --- 362.~4
= 3.8 1 m
A.
The e ffective coefficien ts of absorption by triatomic gases, k t' and by soot
particles. k . [EQs. (S.2) a nd (K2Y)]:

0.78 + 1.6 x 0.1227 1373 )

k
!I
= \0
[ (10 x 0 . 1 x 3.81 x (1.2644) 11.~
- ILl j( I - 11.37 x 1000

= 4.444 I j (m . MPa)

1373 ) l') 6 x 55
k, ~ 0.3(2 - 1.1 ) ( 1.6 x - - 0 .5
1000 12.68

- 3. 127 I j (m . MPa)

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The ftamt: emissivity, un IEqs. (S.26), (8.27 ), and (8.30)):

Un - {I .SS [I _ e - C4 <<4'<U201to-1 . \':7"I!'~'8 11

+( 1 - 0 .55 ) x ( I - /' ~.w4~024M )( O''o(l.ll 'J - O.S957

The bouom surface .. rt:a of the furnace (31.5 ml ) is cO\'crcd with refrac·
tory bric k; its angular coettlcicn t . .l - 1.0 and ils coe ffic ient of fouling,
( - 0. 1; for the exit surface area or the rurnace (29 .OS m 2 ). x - 1.0 and
( '"" 0.55; fur the ulher water wal b, (302.26 m! ), ( .. 0.55 (Table S. IO)
a nd x - 0.99 (Fig. 8.25 ); the refore the average value o f the coefficient .per is
equal to lEtt. (S. IS»):

(I .W x 302 .26 X 0.55 + (31.5 X 11 . 1 ,__2_" _.O_K_X_ '_I._SS-c),--X_I_.

O
"'cr " 362 .H4
.. (J ,5flt.3

The coclTlcient of therma l rad iation of Ihe furnace. Q f" is calcula ted from Eq.
(K I9 ) as

UF - --C--;---C-""~~
",,, - 0 .7443

I+ (O.5~57 - I) .

The ave rage hea t capacity of the gasc:- in the tem pe rature in terva l of T"- T(f,,
Can be obtained from Eq . OUO):

H" - I f'" 44 ,4 16 - 22.300

PC - T~ - Tr f "
- -::2"114:-:.1:---:-1"11"'
''- - 23.45 kJ/ (k. · 0c)

Burne rs arc arra nged hori zonta lly, and the average rela tive le ve l. X h - 0.239.
The coe ffi cie nt M . Ca n be obta ined [fro m Eq. (fU l)):

M .. 0.54 - 0.2 x 0.2.19 - 0.4922

The calculated fl ue gas te mperature :I t the fur nace oul le t [Eq. (K37»):

::.' 16
T. ,., - --- --------- - - - - -- - - -=-- - 273
5.f:07 x 10- II x O.50t0:\ X 1fl 2 .K4 x 0 .744:'\ X 2.1 Ifl ' ) '"
U.4(,122 -----"""=~__=_co,_~..,_o---- + 1
( n .992~ x 24') ] X 21.45

- II IWC

The discrepancy between the calcula ted T~ /'~ :lIld the assumed T/{ f'~ is
IO"C; it is sma lle r t han t he allOwable dlSl.: rc p:m cy of ± IWe. The refore, we
conside r 7~ f~ 10 be equal to 111ll"C, lilld necd not calculate it again ; Ihe

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corresponding flue gas enlhalpy can be found from Table 8. 13 as I f 'r - 22,524
IU / kg .
The quantity of heat transferred in the furna ce [Eq. HUll»):

H, - 0 .9925(44 ,416 - 22524) - 2 1,72" kJ / kg

The average heat nux of the furnace heating surfaces [Eq. (838»):

2.45 1 X 2 1.728
q,,," - "---'-,;0;;-;;:;-:-= - 14$ kW I m~
359.82

The radiant heal absorbed by the slag screens from the furnace [Eq. (8.49)):

0.685 x 0 ,72 x 148 x 29 .U8

- 866 IU / kg
2 .451

In the preceding equa tion, the ratio of the burn er axis height to the
furnace outlet cen te r heigh t is equal to 0.8; usi ng this va lue and Fig. 8. 29. we
may obtain "'/0 - 0.72.
The radiant heal absorbed by the supe rheat er

( I - 0 .""5)0 .72 X 14" X 29 .0.

-'-------'-~~---- - 39M.3 kJ / kg
2.451

The tOlal radiant heat absorbed by the wale l Willis

H ........ - H , - (H,r + H :r ) ... 21 ,72H - (H66 t 3~H.J) - 2(),463.7 kJ/kg

He. t Trans fer Calculations of Slag Screens The inlet flu c gas tempera ·
ture is T,s• ... T,f" - 1l l000C and " s. - 22,524 Id / kg. Assume that the ex it
flue gas temperature, Tr J~ = 100000C its corrc~po ntlin g en thalpy is I ~.\,. '"
20,964 kJ / kg. In the slag scree n duct 6.a ... O.
According to the heat balance equat ion [Eq. (RA I )J:

H, - 0 .9925(22,524 - 20,964) ~ 1560 kJ / kg

The average flue gas velocity, V:

8,V. ( T)
V _-_ I + _ _ 2.45 1 x 13.068 ( I + -
1075 )
- = 7.28 m/s
A.. 273 21.73 273

The coefficien t q, ... (4.27 - 1)/ (5.863 - I) .. (J.659: sillce 0. 1 < q, :5 1.7, this
va lue ca n be used with Eq. (8.61) to dete rmine C,:

C, - 0 .34 x 0 .659° I _ 0 .326

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 8.4 A NUMERiCAl EXAMPLE Of THE HEAT TRANSfER CALCULATIONS 431

Because Sl i d - 4.27 :i:! 3.0, and II < 10, the refore Eq. (R.fl5) is used to
ca lculate cit:

e" - 4.3°112 - 3 .2 - 0 .889

T he ca lculat io n o f the convective heat transfe r coefficient. h e [Eq. (8.67)1 :

7.28() · ~
h r - 16.98 X 10- ) X 0.326 X 0 .88<) X --.-~ _ 0.0499 kW l (m 2 • K)
0 .06 .

The e ffective th ickness of the rad iating layer, S (Eq . (8.78)]:

4 X 0.256 X 0 .250 )
S - 0 .9 X 0 .06 ( , - I - I . J7 m
11"" X 0.06 '

The effective coefficien t of absorption. k (Eq. (8.75)J. as IJ.. - 0,

10
0 .78 + 1.6 x 0. 1227
- 0 .1
1
[ (10 X 0 .1 x 1.1 7 x 0.2464)41.5

lU40 + 273)
x (I - 0.37 1000 0.24M

- 2. 124 I/ (m · MPa )
The e missivity of the gases [Eq. (8.74)1:

a~ _ I _ e - 2. L!4 ~n I x 1.17 _ 0.22

T he absolut e te mperature of the ashy tube wall . since the workin s nuid is
stea m- water mixture a t 4.41 MPa and it s sa tura ted tempe rature is 25b.2°C.
ca n be fo und using Eq. (1:\.77 ), T aw "" 256.2 + 80 + 273 - 609.2 K.
The radiant heat t ransfer coefficien t of the space. h,. ca n be determined

F)r]
by Eq. (8.73),

(1m2
h , - 5.1 x 10 "x 0.22 x 1348 ' 11- _
[ 1348

- 0.04729 kW / (m ' . K )

The heat transfer coefficien t from the gas 10 the tube wall , h" [Eq . (8.56»:

h(> - 1.0(49.9 + 47 .29) - 97.19 W/ (m 2 • K)

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432 THERMOHVOAAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

Since the heat transfer coefficie nt rrom the wall to the working fluid , h" ;s
very large, 1/ 11 , can be neglected; the overa ll heat transfer coeffi cien t, U, ca n
he ohlained from Eq . (8.51), whe re .v ;s sel ected as .v - 0.63, U"" .vh" =
0.63 X 97. 19 = 61.23 W / (m z , 00 .
The mea n tempera lUre difference, 6T [Eq. (8.8)) o r Eq. (M.X2)]:

( 11 10 - 256.2) - (1040 - 256 .2)

6 1" - - 8 18.3°e
1n( 11 10 256 .2)
1040 - 256 .2

The quanlilY of hea l transfer calculated by using Ihe heat Iransfe r equa-
tion [EQ . (R.40)]:

6 1.23 X HHU X 73.52

H, - - 1502.93 kJ j kg
2.45 1 x 10 3

Since

-
I-' ~
fI,
II,
- 1560 - 1502.93
1560
x 100 .. 3.65% < ±5 %

this calculation is acccpt:lhlc, and the total conveclive heat absorbed by the
working fluid in Ihe slag scree n is fI, - 1560 kJ / kg.

Heat Transfer Calculations of the Superheater From Ihe preceding

c.. lculalions and Ihe give n dala, we know the Ilul' gas paramet e rs at the inlet
are 7~:..~, - 1(}40°C and I dS, ,.. 20,964 kJ / kg; the working fluid paramete rs al
the in le t are T.~J, - 256.23°C and ( UI '" 2798.6 kJ / kg (sa turated tempe ra ture
and en th alpy at 4.4 1 MPa); and the working fl uid parame te rs a t the outlel
are "l ~:ir - 450°C and Iss, = 3322 kJ / kg.
The quantity of convective heat transfer that must be absorbed by the
steam to satisfy the heat balance equation on the stea m side, Eq. (8.42a):

36. 11
fI, ~ - -(J322 - 2798 .6) - 39' .3 - 7460 .3 kJ / kg
2 .451

The flue gas para mete rs a t the outlet of the ~ uperheater ca n be obtained
fro m Eq. (8.41):

7460 .3 - 0 .9925(20,%4 - ',.u.. + OJ Ifl x 440) kJ j kg

The re fore I/( ,~.\r - 13.473.7 kJ / kg and its corre~ po nd ing temperature: is T (S:.r
- 697"C ([rom Tahle 8. 13).

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 The mean temperature d ifference for counterflow (Eq. (8.82)\:

( 1040 - 450) - (697 - 256.23)

.l7~ - ( 1040 _ 450 ) - 51 1.94°C
In 697 _ 250 .2.1

Since T, ,., 1040 - 697 - 34)"C, T ! '" 450 - 256.23 - 193.77"C. P = 19.177/
(1040 - 256.23) - 0.2472, R - 34J/ 193.77 - 1.77, and A - 68/ 641 =
0.106, from Fig. 8.32 we may obw in ,p ~ 0.998. The refore the actual mean
temperature difference IEq. (8.83 )\ ). T = ,p ilTr - 0.998 X 5 11.94 - 509.4°C.
The average speci fic vol ume of stea m. V = 0.06469 m'\/ kg (for p - 4.16 MPa
and T.H = 353"C). The average ste,IIl1 velocity in the supe rhea te r:

36. 11 x OJ.,fl469
v- 0.11
= 21.24 m/ s

The heat transfe r coc tficient from the willi to the steam. h, (Eq. (8.70»):

(21.24 X 15.458)11.11
h , "" 6.61 X 10 - \ - 1.365 kW / (m 2 . 0C)
0 .031 " !

The average gas temperature. 'T~ - (l04tl + (97)/2 - 868SC. The ave rage
flu e gas veloci ty:

2.451 X 13 .406 ( ~ML5)

V - - --;;;-:c;-- I + - - - 10.46 m/s
13 . J3 273

Because" > \Cl and S2/d =- 2.21 ,. 2, c" = 1.0 and c, = 0. 2 IEqs. (K5R)
and (8.59)).
The convective heat t ransfer coe fficient , fI r IEq. (8.66)J:

10 . 46 111\~
" _=
.
28 .96(1 - 1.25 x IO - ~ x 86M.5) X 10 - 3 x 0.2 x 1.0 x O.OJRo \~ -0,,,,,,,,
- 0.07467 kW/ (m '· "C)

The absolute temperature of the ashy tuhe wall IEq. (8.76)J:

T." ..
450 + 256.23 I) --'--;-.-;---"-
2.45 1(7460.3 + 39S .3)
2 (
+ 2.6 + -- -
I .Jo5 64 1
+ 273

.. 726.3 K

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The effective thickness of the radiating layer, S [Eq. (8.78»):

4 X 0.084 X 0.084 )
S - 0 .9xO.038 ( 2 - 1 =0 .1787m
7f X 0.038

The effective coefficien t of absorption, k [Eq. (S.75 )]:

k = k, r = 10
0.7S+1.6xO.1 2
- 0.1
1
[ (10 X 0.1 X 0. 1787 X O .2406)O. ~

697 + 273)
X ( 1 - 0.37 1000 0.2406

The emissivity of the gases [Eq. (8.74)]:

a~ "" 1 - e - 7.()9:>< O.I:><OI7117 Eo 0 .119

The radiant heat t ransfe r coefficie nt of th e space. h, [Eq. (8.73)]:

h, '" 5. 1 X 10 - 11
X 0. 119 x
1141 X 5'
\
1- ( - -
726.3
1141.5
1 _ ( 726.3 )
)'·'1
[
1141.5

- 0.OI986kW/(rn '· K)

Considering the empty room before the superheater, the corrected radiant
heat t ransfer coeffi cient will be [EQ. (8.80)]:

1040 + 273 )"." ( 0.65 )" " ]

,, ; - 0.0 1986 [ I + 0.3 ( 1000 1.725 ~ 0.0258 kW /( rn ' . K)

The heat transfe r coefficient from the gas to th e tube wall, II " (Eq. (8.56)):

11 0 - 1.0(74.67 + 25.80) = 100.47 W/ (m 2 . K)

The overall heat tra nsfer coefficient, U [Eq. (8 .5 ])]:

0.6
U - -'1----.-1- - 56.18 W/ (rn ' · K) ~ 0.056 18 kW/ ( m' · K)
---+ --
100.47 1365

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The quantity of heat transfe r calculated from the heat transfer equation [Eq.
(8.40)J,
O'()56 18 x .'iO,} .4 x 641
H, ~ = 7484.3 kJ / kg
2 .45 1
Since
746{).3 -~- 7484.3
----cocc- ...- - Ino = - () .32% < ± 2%
7460.3

this calculation is acceptable, an d the tota l convective heat absorbed in the

superheate r, /-Iss = 7460.3 kJ /kg .

Heat Transfer Calculations of the Economizer From the calculations for

the superheater and the given data, we know that the flue gas paramete rs at
the in let a re Tlln = 69rc and ' 11101 = i3,473.7 kJ / kg; {he working fluid
parameters at the inlet are T/::.< = Fro. = 172QC and 'rw = 730.2 kJ / kg.
The total qu;mtity of heat that must be absorbed by the workin g fluid, HI
IEq. (8.5)J,
1
H, ~ - - [36. 11(3332 - 73U.2) + 3.611( 1116.3 - 73u. 2)1
2.45 1
~ 38.389 kJ / kg

The quantity of hea t that must be absorbed by the working i1uid in the
econom izer, H, o , can be obtained from the following he at balance e quation:

HI = 1-1, + H \. + /-I.H + 1-1/,

H/, = H I - HT - Hs + H.~ ,\ = 38,389 - 2 1,782 - 1560 - 7460.3

The flue gas entha lpy, ' /11-. " an d temperature, T~/'~ ' can he de termi ned
from Eq. (H.4 J):

7586.7 = 0.9925( 13,47:.1 .7 - 111 / " + 0.02 X 440) kJ /kg

Therefore I Rh = 5838.47 kJ /kg and TII /e, . = 298"C (from Tahle 8.13 with
I/I/:'~ and a/:,~ = 1.1H).
The enthalpy of the working fl uid at the e xit of the economi ze r

.. HERr 7586 X 2.451

'rw +
I F~ = = n O.2 + = 1240 kJ / kg
. (W,h + Wt>w ) (36.11 + 3.611)

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The exit pressure is 4.4 1 MPa ; at th is pressure, the e nthalpy of sa tura ted
wate r is is,., = 1116.6 kJ / kg and the la te nt heal of evaporation i l ~ ., 16K1.9
kJ / kg; the refore the steam qua lity at the exit i,

I - I 1240 - 111 (} .0
x - •., .. 100 - --=--;-:;c;;-;-;;-- IOO = 7.33%
il~ 1681.9

The exit tempe rat ure of the wo rking flUi d is equal to the saturat ed
tempe rature, Tl;:~ - 256.23°C.
The ave rage ve locity of wate r

(36.1 1 + 3.611 ) X 0.00 117

V - 0 .0387 '= 1. 1 m / s

The fl ow system is cou nterflow: therefore the mean temperature differ-

e nce IEq. (8.82)J is

(697 - 256.23) - (298 - 172)

A7;.... (697 256.23) - 2SI.Joe
In 298 172

The ave rage gas te mperature,

T~ = (697 + 2!J8) /2 - 4l)7.soC

The average fl ue gas ve locity

2.451 x 13 .856 ( 40.)7 5)

V = I + - - - 9.93 m /s
10.206 273

Because n > 10. from Eq. (8.65), c" - 1.0: '" - (2.34 - 1)/(2.73 - ]) -
0.775, from Eq. (8.61). C, = 0.34 X 41 111 = 0.34 X 0.775° 1 - 0.33.
The absolute temperature of the ashy tube wa ll. 7~"" - (172 + 265.23)/2
+ 60 + 273 = 547.2 K.
The convective heat transfer coefficie nt, h r lEt! . (8.67)J:

9.39° 11
h~ = 16.98 X JO -.l X o.:n x 1.0 x 0.032 1)4 ~ 0 .085 kW/ (m 2 . 0c)

The effective thickness of the radiating layer. 5 IEq . (8.78)]:

4 x 0.045 x 0.075 )
5 = 0.9 x 0.032 ( 2 - I - 0.0921 m
TT X 0.032

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 8." A NUMERICAl EXAMPLE OF THE HEAT TRANSFER CAlCULATIONS 437

The effective coefficient of a bsorption. k [Eq . (8.75»):

k - 10
0.78+ 1.6xO. II 66
- 0 .1 1 - 0.37
298+273)
0.2333
j(
[ ( 10 X 0.1 x 0.092 x 0.2333)1I·~ 1000

- 11.94 Ij (m· MPa)

The e missivity of the gases [Eq. (8.74)J:

lJ~ = 1 - e- l l.'J.I , IlI )((lfI'.l!1 - 0 .104

The radian t hea t transfer coe ffi cient of the space, h, [Eq. (8.73)J:

h, - 5. 1 x 10-
II
)( 0.104 )( 770S
J

[
1-
( -547.2)"
-
770.5
1 _ (547.2)
770.5
I
- (UK}59 kW/ (m ! ' K)

Considering the influence of the em pty room before the economize r, the
corrected radiant heat transfe r coeffiCien t IEq. (8.80)]:

II ; - 0 .0059 I + 0 .3 ( 697 + 273) " " ( -"J -8 ) ""'] - 0.0077 kW / ( m ~ , K)

[ 1000 2.43

The heal transfer coefficie nt from the gas to the lUbe wall, h " lEt.!. (8.56)J:
h .. - 1.0(85 + 7.7) ~ 92 .7 W / ( m" K)

Because the heat transfer coeffici en t from the wall to the working fluid. h "
IS very large. I / If , ea n be neglected in EQ. (8.5 J). a nd the overall heat
transfe r coe ffi cient. U'" .ph" - 0.65 x 92.7 = 60.25 W / <m . K) = 0.06025
kW/ m 1 . K).
The quantity of the heat transfer ca lculated from the hea t tra nsfer
equatio n [EQ. (8.40)]:

0.\J6025 X 25\.3 X 1215

H, - - 7505.6 kJ / "
2.45 1
Si nce

HI> - H, 7686.7 - 7505.6

----0=0-=-- - 1()J = 1.07% < ± 2%
H. 7586. 7

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438 THERMOHYDAAUUC DESIGN Of BOILER COMPONENTS

this calculation is acceptable and the total heat absorptio n by the econo-
mizer. HE - 7586.7 kJ / kg (obt ained from the heat balance equation).

Heat Transfer Calculations of the AIr Heater From the preceding calcu-
lations and given data , we know the flu e gas paramete rs at the inlet of the ai r
heater. T~A' - 29SOC and I A• - 5838.47 kJ / kg; the inlet cold-air tempera-
tu re, Tc. ~ WC a nd the e:<it hot-a ir te mperature, Th~ = 200"'C; their en -
thaipies are Ic~ - 440 kJ / kg a nd I h - 2945.9 kJ / kg, respectively.
Accord ing to the heat bala nce equation at the air side, EQ . (8.43). the
qua nli ty of heat tra nsfe r needed to be absorbcd by the ai r in the ai r heater is

H, ~ (1. 1 - 0 .05 + 0 .5 x 0.03)(2945 .9 - 440) - 2668 .8 kJ / kg

The flue gas e nthalpy at the exi t of the air heate r I A r can be obtained from
EQ. (8.4\), where the e nthalpy of the ai r leaked inlo the flue gases is cqua lto
( I lia + lu )/2:

H;, - 0 .9925 [ 5838.47 - IAr + 0 .03 (

2945.9 + 440
2
l] - 320n.] kJ / kg

The corresponding gas tcmpe rat'E'e, T~A r - 163°C (Table K I3). The average
te mperature of the fl ue gases, T = (298 + 163)/ 2 ,. 230Se. The ave rage
flu e gas ve locity

V-
2.451 x 14. 136 (
7.665
230 .5
J + - -
27;'
l = S.34 m/s

Beca use rr > 10, c" - 1.0 ; since .p = ( 1.88 - 1)/ (2.2 - J) - U.77. ,• -
O.34r,b(JI - 0.33.
The convective heat transfe r coe ffi cie nt, "r
(Eq. (8.67)]:

834" h
h , - 16.98 x 10 - x 0.33 x 1.0 x . ,, ~
3 = O.07249kW/(m 2 • K)
0 .040

The average air temperature, r '"" (30 + 200J / 2 = 1 1soc. Th e average air
velocity

V= ( a Fr - i:l a F ".'"jBY"('f+27J ')

+ -- --
2 Au 273 .

_ (_
- 1.1 0.05 +
0.03
2
l 2.45 1 xli x 0.6 .~ ( 11 5 + 273
2.785 273
l_ 14 .75 m/s

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 8.4 A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THE HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS 439

The heat transfer coefficient from the tube wali to the air. hi [Eq . (8.69)]:

4
14.75 0 -11
", = 3 .49( I - 8 .26 X 10 - X 11 5) X 10 - .1 0.037 0 .2 = 0.0533 kW /(m 2 • K)

The overa ll transfer coefficien t, U [Eq. (8.53)], for ~ - 0.8:

0.8
U ~ - "- - ,,- ~ 24.57 W/( m' · K) ~ 0.02457 kW/(m'· K)
--+--
72.49 53.3

According to the flow system of the air heater, from Table 8.11, the following
parameters can be obtained: 1"1 = 200 - 30 = 1700C, T 2 = 298 - 103 =
135"C, P = 136/(298 - 30) = 0.5132, and R = 170/135 = 1. 26: from Fig.
8.34. curve 3, wc obtain IjJ = 0.972.
The mean tem perature difference [Eq. (8.83)J:

( '63 - 30) (298 - 2!X1)

.:1T = 0.972-----,('""'16"3- "31"'-;-j---'- = llO .3"C
In 298 _ 200

The quanti ty of heat transfer calculated from the heat transfer equation
[Eq. (8.40)J,

0.02457 X 110.3 x 2382

H, ~ ~ 2634 kJ/kg
2.451 x 10'

Since

2668.8 - 2634
---;c=;-;c- lOll = 1.3 % < ± 2%
2068.8

this calcu lation is acceptable, and the tota l heat absorbed by the air heater,
IlA = 2668.8 kJ /kg. The error of the total heat balance calculation

h, )
No:""" - (H, + H, + H", + H I: ) ( 1 - -
!1H= 100 100
H,':,

41.508 x 0.9248 - (21,728 + 1560 + 7460.3 + 7586 .7)(1 - ~)

100 100
41.508

= 0. 124% < ± O.5 %

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44. THERMOHYDRAULIC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

TABLE 8.14 Results of Heat Transfer Calculation or the Example Unit

Slag Air
Number Nomenclature Furnace Screen Superheater Ecunomizer Heater

Heating surface. m l 359.82 73.52 641 1,215 2,382

2 Flue gas temperature 2.043 1,110 1,040 697 298
31 inlet,"C
3 Flue gas temperature 1.110 L040 697 298 163
at e xit, 'c
, Working fluid temperature

5
at inlet. 'C
Working fluid temperature
256.23

256.23
256.23

256.23
256.23

450
172

256.23
'"
200
at exit. ·C
6 The average flut: gas 7.28 10.46 9.39 H."
velocity, m/s
7 The ave rage working 21.24 1.1 14.75
fluid velocity, m/s
8 The mean It:mpcralure 818.3 Soq.4 251.3 110.3
differe nc\!, ·C
9 The overall heat 61.23 55.95 60.25 24.57
tr~nsfer coefficient.
W/(m l . K)
10 Tho;: quantity of he~t 21.728 1.560 746.03 7.586.7 2.668.8
transfer kJ;k g

Before the calculation we assumed Twa = 1600C. after the calculation we

obtain Twg = 163"C. The discrepancy between these values is 3°e < ± IOOC;
therefore the assumed hot-air temperature is equal to the calculated one,
and the tlH is less than ±O.5%; therefore the whole calcu lation is complete.
Only the relative heat loss with waste gases, h 2 • the boiler efficiency, and the
fuel consumption should be corrected by using TW2 = 163°C.
After correction. 112 = 6.43%, TIl> = 92.37%, and B =- 2.45 kg/so
The results of the heat transfer calculation are listed in Table 8.14.

8.5 STEAM - WATER SYSTEMS OF BOILERS

AND CIRCULATION CALCULATIONS

The flow of water, steam, or steam -water mixture within the steam boiler is
called circu lation. To remove heat from the boiler heating surfaces, it is
necessary that the proper circulation be provided throughout the boiler
circuits. Depending on the types of circulat ion , boilers may be divided into
three kinds: natural-circulation boilers, controlled-circulation boilers, and
once-through boilers. One of the important parameters for boiler circulation
is the circulat ion ratio, K, which is equal to the ratio by weight of the water
fed to the heated tubes, W... , to the steam actually generated, w,. K = W.... /w:,.

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 8_5 STEAM- WATER SYSTEMS 441

TABLE 8.15 Recommended Va lues of K for Natural ·Circulation Boilers

Pressure , MP<I Ste<lm Gcm:ration Capacity, tjhr K

17 - 19 ;::: gOO 4- 6
14- 16 H15 - 670 5- X
10-12 l hO-420 8- 15
2- 3 35 - 240 15 - 25
< 1.5 20- 200 45- 65
5; 15 100- 200

For the aforementioned three kinds of boilers. the values of K arc quite
different. K values for natural-circulation boi lers are listed in Table 8. 15; for
con trolled-ci rculation boilers. the values of K are between 3 and 10. while
for once-through boilers, K = 1.0.

8.5.1 Steam - Water System of Natural·Clrculation Boller

and Design Problems
Nat ural-circu lation boilers usually have a steam - water system as shown in
Fig. 8.39. T he simplest form of this sy~tcm consists of a drum, headers, riseTs,
and downcomers. Risers aTC arranged in the furnace and when heated. the
water in the risers evaporates, deaeases in density, and tends to rise;
downcomers arc placed outside the furnace and arc unheated. Cooler and
heavier water in them flows downwards. Thi s makes a circu lat ion in the

Fig. 8,39. Circulation circuit of a natural-circulation boiter.

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circuit. For a steady How. the fo llowing eq uat ion can be established for the
circuit:

(8.85 )

where p, and PI arc the average densities of the water or the steam-water
mixture in the rise rs and wate r in the downconle rs. kg/m,\ il. Po" tlp" and
il.Pu a re the hydrau lic resista nces of the downcome rs. risers. and steam-water
se para tors in the drum , Pol.
H the left-hand side te rms of Eq. (8.85) ilfe sct equal to Yd' which
expresses the total pressu re difference of the downcomer. and the right-hand
side terms arc set equal to Yr ' whic h expresses the total pressure diffe re nce
of the riser, the n at the. working poi nt of a circuit with a steady fl ow. Yo' 0=Y•.
The aim of the circulation calculation of a boilcr steam - water system is 10
determine the How rates in the risers and to check the reliability of the flow
for the safe operation of the boiler circuit.
In Eq. (8.85), Yo' and Yr both depend on the mass flow rate in the ci rcuit
(circu lation fl ow rate) W , kg/so o r depend o n the in let water \'clocity o f the
rise rs (circulation velocity) Vo. m/s. W - PIVII A . (whe re A, is the flow area
of the risers, m 2). Wit h an incre ase in W or VII' il. Po' inc reases: that is, Yd
decrease while Y. increases.
For a simple circuit (all rise rs have the same geometrical c ha racte ristics).
the ci rculat ion calculat ion can be solvt;:d graph-a nalytically as follows 171: firs t
take three values of Vn from which one may obtain three corresponding
circulation mass flow rates, W, for establishing curves Y" - f(w) and Y, =
few): the intersection of the two c urves dete rmines the worki ng point A of
the circula tion circuit (Fig. 8.40). The actua l quantity of the circulatio n flow
ra te. W , o r the circu lation velocity. V II' can be obtained from the work ing
point A as shown in the fig ure. For esta blish ing c urves Y" - f ( w) lind
Y, - f(w). tlPd' il.Pr • and the steam-water mixture density. Pm' h,lve to be
determined.

Calculation of the Hydraulic Resistance of the Downcomers. il.Pd As

the fl uid flowin g in the downcomers is wllter. !:J. p" can be determined by the

y
Y,

A
y f------::>!<..

Fig. 8.40. Circula tion characle rislic curves of a simple

cireuil. o w w

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 8.5 STEAM - WATER SYSTEMS 443

following eq uation [1, 7):

(8.86)

where A and tM arc the fri ctional coefficie nt and minor loss coefficien t ~, L
and d are the length and in ner diameter of the calculated tube section, and V
is the water ve loci ty in the downcom cr~ .

A (8 .87)

+'() 7~ )r
K,

~: fHl-+-l ,. \
2.5 ITTlrT-,--rr- 2.0'>".--,_-,_ - ,_---;,----.
(0)

20 1tl--t-1 \
,.,+---~--4_--4_--4_~
.l \, 0 .06 mm

" "-
>'5 1\-\11*-1 >.~, - 0.008 mm ti"----=t:o::jf:=j
>.0 [---L d . mm
o 50 100 200 300 400 soo

R
d

Fig. 8.41. Loss coclticicnt of bend 1;2 and coefficient of roughncs.~ K.l : (oj {~. {hI K.l .

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444 THEAMOHYDRAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

TABLE8.16 ~ •• lind ~a orSingle-Phast Flow II , 7)-

Fluw d /d~ > 0.1

n < 30 tcn - 0.7

II > 30 f:on - 0.6 fen" O.S

--1'-_ _---"f- {.n .. 0.4 {.n - 0.4

t t f. n .. 0.5 {.n .. 0.5

I
From drum into a tube f ~n ~ 0.5 fon .. 0 ..'1

Flow into a drum --1L_ _ _---'

Flow into a distribu ting header ~.,. = 0.7

t f .. t 1.1
Flow into a collective header { •• - 1.1
~ Inthe table n is the ra tio of number of outlet tubes to num l>cr of Inle\ tubes of a header: d .. is
the headc:r inner diameter.

where .6. is the roughness of tube wa ll : for carbon steel and low alloy steel
Ii - fUl6 mm, for austenit e steel .6. - 0.008 mm.
The loss coefficient s for the bends { II can bc determined as follows:

(8.SS )

where {2 and K~ are the standard minor loss wcfficicnts of the bcnd (Fig.
8.4Ia) and the wa ll roughness corrective coefficien t (Fig. H,41b); for carbon
Meel and low alloy stee l tubes when the inner di,II11cter d < 60 mm, and for
austen ite stee l whe n d < 8 mm, K,}, = 1.0.
The loss coefficients for the tube entrances {.II (from a header into a tube)
and for the tube exi t {u (from a tube into a headed are listed in T able 1:\. 16.

Determination of the Density of the Steam - Water Mixture, Pm Pm ca n

be expressed as fo llows II. 7J:

P'" - aPt + (I - alp , (8 .89)

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 8 .5 STEAM -WATER SYSTEMS 445

where P~ and PI are the saturated densities of steam and water, kg/m 3 ; a is
the steam void frac tion.

(8.90)

where S is the slip r'lt io and can be determined as follows [7. 81:

(8.91 )

where P is the absolute pressure. MPa . and /3 is the volumetric quality

(8.92)

where .t is the steam mass qua li ty of th~ mixture.

Calculation of the Hydraulic Resistance of the Risers, ap, [1 , 7] Thc

calculation of ilp. is a complicated problem . For a boiler with nonsteaming
economizers, watcr entcring the drum IS below the saturated state. so water
in [he downcomers and at the inlet of the riser is subcooled. The subcooling
of water is

(8.93)

where i/:.~ is the exit water temperature of the economizer. kJ/kg; K is the
circu lation r3tio, which is the first selected according to Table 8.15 and
should be checked after the entire calculation is completed. [if (ai ~uh -
~i,ub)II)(J/M~ub S 50%, the assu mption of K is correct, where a i.~ub is the
..:alculated value1: and i,w is the entha lpy of saturated wate r, kJ / kg.
For steaming economizers. ili,ub - O.
When the subcooled water flows into the risers from the down comers, it
first has to be heated to the boiling point in the water section. or so-called
economizer section of the riser. The height of the economizer section, h~c' is
shown in Fig. 8.39. and can be detennin ed as follows:

(8.94)

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446 THERMOHYDRAUUC DESIGN Of BOILER COMPONENTS

where 6.i/ Ap is (he change in water enthal py per unit pressure, kJ / kg . MPa ;
H I is Ihe. heat absorption of the first section of the risers. kJ / kg; W is the
total flow rate of ci rcul ating water, leg /s; and h i is the heated height of the
fi rst section of risers, m. For boilers with stea ming economizers, h ~c can be
considered as O.
The hydra ulic resistance of the economizer portion of the rise r can be
obtained by using Eq . (8.86).
The evaporating portion of the riser is above the boiling point; the
quantity of steam generated in the first section of the riser is equal to

(8.95)

The hydraulic resistance of the evaporating portion of the risers. !J.p~w'

when the risers are heated uniformly along the tube length is

Ilpev = (L{M+ ijJA L;v) V;2 PI[I,-2 ({II

x~
-
P, -I)1

v,i [I (-
+t~.-PI
2
+x~
p,-
P, I) 1 (8.96)

where {i, is the coefficie nt of minor losses for the stea m- water mixture; I . c,
is the length of the evaporating portion of the mer, m; x, is the exit steam
quality of the rise r; t:.
is the loss coefficient of the tube exit , for [he
steam-wate r mixture, it is equal to 1.2; and w is the two-phase frictio nal
corrective coefficient , when pV = J()()() kg/ m l . s. ijJ = 1.0, in ot her cases, i/J
ean be obtained from Eqs. (8.97) and (8.98) [7. 8]; when pV < 1000 kg/
(m 2 . s):

1000 ) p,
i( l - i) - - - I -
( pV p~
'" - I + ---'-,------,-:'--'- (S .97)
I +i (;~ - I)
when pV> 1000 kg/(m 2 . s):

'000
i (l - i ) - - - I -
( pV
jP' p~
'" - I +
I + (I -ill::-
----'-----,---...:...,c'-
I)
(8.98)

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 8.5 STEAM - WATER SYSTEMS 447

TABLE 8. 17 Loss Coefficie nts or Tube Entranct's ( ~. ror Steam-Water Mixture 16.71

The Form of
Ou!lclling Tube The Relat ive HeIgh t ofTubc hi d

JO 20 50 ~ 80 10 20 50 ~ IIO

fI s: li MP:. p :;:. 6 MPa

D 0.3 0.5 0.' 1.0 0.' 0.9 1.1 1.2

~ 0.5 1. 1 1.7 2.2 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5

The loss coe lficie nts for the tube e ntrances, ~: .. , for the steam- waler
mixture ean be obtained from Table K 17; for horiZOnlal outle t tubes. ~:n is
equal to that for single-ph ase flow.
The loss coefficien ts of be nds for the steam - water mixture. ~B' can be
de termined as follows:
For ho rizontal bends {it - tH: for hc nds wi th inclined upward outlet s a nd
an inclined angle! less tha n 15· , {i, - 2; H: for bends with a vertica l or incl ined
upward ou tle t be nd angle grea te r tha n 90", and a n incli ned anglc greate r
tha n IY, {i, - 2{,,: for bends with it vertical upward o r downward outle t o r
with a n upward inclined outlet, an indi ned a ngle greate r than IS", and a
bend angle Ic!t~ than 90", tB - 4tH ; for a ve rtical U-typc be nd, ti, - 3.Mts;
for a vertica l invert ed U-type bend. ti. - 2.19{/:I' where ~ R is the loss
coe ffi cie nt of the bend for si ngle-phase flow .
The 10la l hydraulic res istance o f the riser (Fig. 8.39), tlp" can be calcu-
lat ed by

( 8.99)

For complex circulation , we may usc a similar method to solve the

circu lation ca lculation probl ems. Fi gure X.42 shows a complex circulation
ci rcuit with common downcome rs which supply wat e r to twO P3w llel con-
nected rise r sections. For solving this circulation proble m, first take three
diffe re nt values of VI)' from which Ihrcc vB lucs of W ca n be oblained to

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 Y
Y" Y.,
Y" of '1'; 2

2 h A

____J a w, w, w
Yo

w
fig. 8.42. Circ ula l ion characlcrislic curves of a l"Orn plc )(·cirl"ulation c ircuit.

establish the curves Y,I = I(w) and Y, 2'" [(w) fm the IWO rise r sectio ns a nd
Ya "" I( w) for the downcomcrs as shown in Fig. R.,n. Si nce but h riser seclions
ope rate in parallel at the same pressure difference . their circula tion charac-
teristics arc summed up hy ,Idd ing logcl he r th e walCT How Ta les. W. at th e
same va lu e of Y,. (by the abscissas) fo r Y,I ,md Yd 10 o btain the lulal
ci rcu lation characteristic curve, Y; - Y" + r:2...
(( w). Afler establishing the
curve of Y" = [(w), the int ersection of curves ~! = I(w ) and Y, - /(w) gives
the working point A of the circuit. from which the tolal circu lation flow rat c
of the circuit. lV, ca n be dete rmined . The water fiow rates for the two rise r
sections arc found by drawing a ho rizontal line th ro ugh the working point up
10 Ihe int ersection with the Y" :z f(w) and Y,2 - [(w) curves. As shown in
Fig. 8.42. WI is the watcr flow rate for one riser section and W z is that for
anot her section.
When the wate r fl ow ratc and the quantities of steam gcnerated in each
rise r section arc known. the circulation ratio K fo r e ach section and fo r thc
whole circuit can be determine d.

Checking Clrculstion Reliability In a circulation ci rcuit many risers a rc

connected in para lic I, but rna)' be hea ted no nu niformly, In tubes with low
heat flux , less steam is ge ne rated.
Whe n rise rs arc connected to th e wat e r space of the drum , the phe·
nomenon of circula tion stagnation may occur. Wi th ci rculation stagnation,
wa le r in Ihe rise r moves very slowly upwards or downwa rds and steam
bubbles move upwards thro ugh the column of wale r in the tube. When stcam
accu mul ates o n somc part of the heated tubc (such as the bends)' the tube
metal may be ove rheated .
Whe n risers a rc connected to the ste am spa(;c of the drum . instead of
circulation stagnatio n, a free watcr level may form in a low heat flux riser.

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 8.5 STEAM- WATER SYSTEMS 449

Circulation circuits have to be checked for ci rculation reliahilities for the

least heated tubes by using the following reliabil ity criteria.
The reliability criterion for escaping from circulation stagnation is
y,
- ~ 1.05 (8 .1 00)
dp,

where Y, is the total pressure difference of the calculated riser section (the
resistances of the outlet pipe and separator are not included); and !:J.p, is the
pressure difference of the least heated riser under the state of circulation
stagnation, Pa.

dP. = Plg(h"h l + h ce ) + [(1 - O'., )PI + asp~lgh~\'

(8.101 )

where huhl' hw he\' . and lI uhZ are the heights if the riser as shown in Fig.
8.39; as and a ; are the steam void fract ions of the heated tube and the
unheated tube, respective ly, under the state of circulation stagnation.

(8 . 102)

where Vo' is the average supe rficial steam velocity in the heated portion of
the least healed riser, m/s; and A and B are the coefficients listed in Table
8.18.

(8 . 103 )

TABLE 8.IS Coefficients A and B for Eqs. (S. 102) and (S.I O]) 171

Pressure
p X 1.02 MPa A B

1 0.965 OJ)661
2 0.984 0.612

,3 0.992
0.999
0.544
0.476
6 1.019 0.385
8 I.!m 0.306
10 1.086 0.246
12 J.IJ3 0.180
I' 1.\35 0.127
16 1.182 0.095
18 1.217 0.09\
20 \.290 0.082

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450 THERMQHVORAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

where Vo~ is the superficia l steam velocity in the unheated portio n of the
least heate d rise r. m/s; B ca n be determined fmm Table 8.1 8; after calcula -
tio n, if a; > 1.0, take a; = 1.0.
The re liabi lity cr ite rion for avoidi ng the fre e wa ter level in a riser con-
nected to the steam space of the drum is

(8.104)

whe re t1fJWI is the pre ssure loss due to raising the steam-wate r mixture
above the wate r level in the drum, Pa ; a nd may he calculated by

whe re h .. 1 is the distance from the highest poi nt of the rise r to the wate r level
in the drum, m; and a ~ is the steam void fr action at the exi t of the riser.
The circulation ratio. K , sho uld also be c hecked . When its va lue is wit hin
the recommended value listed in T able M.15. the circul ation is conside red to
be reliable.
For boilers of p = 17 - 19 MPa or p - 14-6 MPa a nd K S 4. the heat
transfer c risis phenomenon must be checke d. The th reshold of the heat
transfer crisis depends on the steam mass quality. hea t flux , mass ve locity.
pressure , tube diameter. flow directio n of fluid . and internal su rface cond i-
tions of the tuhcs. Many correlatio ns have been presented for the estima tion
of the heat transfer crisis threshold conditio ns, a nd these have bee n in tro-
duced in the foregoing chapters. In the PRe and the USSR, the method
recommended by 16) is used. Th is method takes the crit ical stea m quali ty, .t" r '
to express the margin of the th reshold of the hea t transfer crisis; the actua l
steam quality, x , in the risers s ho uld be below r, which ca n be determi ned
by the various figures and equations listed in [6, 71.

Design Problems of the Steam - Water System of Natural·CIrculation

Boilers Disturbances in c irculation condit ions mainly occur because uf
nonunifonn heating across the width of a steanl~ wat c r system. For the sake
of e nsuring the re li ability circulation , the following design re quire me nts are
recommended.

I. Wate r walls shou ld be sectionalized; that is, a group of risers whic h are
heated similarly a nd have d ose geometrical shape are combined into a n
indepe ndent section wi th indepe ndent downcumers.
2. Tube diame ters o f the rise rs and the downconlers should be selected
according to Table 8.5.
3. For decreasi ng hydraulic resistances, it is be tter for the rise r to be
conn ected directly to the d rum without any uppe r headers o r outlet

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N''''
 8.5 STEAM - WATER SYSTEMS 451

pipes . If outlet pipes are necdcJ . according to construction require-

men ts. the ralio of the total cros~-sectional area of the outlet pipes, A ",
to that of the rise rs. A " is reCllmmended as follows: when the drum
pressure. p = 4- 6 MPa, 11 .,/11 , = 0.35-0.45; I) - 10-12 MPa. A ,,/11 ,
- 0.4-0.5; P - 14-16 MPa . ..1 ../ A , - 0.5-0.7: p - 17- 19 MPa,
A"/A, ~ 0.6-0.8.
4. The ra tio of the total cross-sectional area of the downcomers. A J • to
that of the risers, A" can be se lected as follows: (or downcomcrs with
inner diame ter, (J - 80- 140 mOl . when the drum pressure, p - 4- 6
MPa. Ad/ A, - 0.2-0.3: p - 10- 12 MPa, Ad/ A , - 0.35- 0.45; p -
14-6 MPa, A ,,/A, - 0.5-0.6; ,, - 17- 19 MPa. A d/A , - 0.11- 0.7; for
downcomcrs wi th d = l BO-550 mm, the value of A J/A , ca n be 0. 1 less
than the previously recommended va lue .
5. For the sake of avoiding evapora tion [II the inlet of the downcomers,
the inl et water velocity of the duwncomers, v:/.
shou ld not exceed the
followi ng v3lues: when the drum pressure, p "'" 4- 6 MPa , V" .s 3 01 /5:
p - 10- 16 MPa, Vd.s 3.5 m/ s: I) "" 17- 19 MPa , Vd.s 4m/ s.
6. For the sake of avoiding stratified Row. the inclined angle from the
ho rizontal at any section of the hea ted risers shou ld not be less than
IS°.

8.5.2 Steam - Water System of Controlled-Circulation Boilers

and Design Problems
As the de nsity differe nce between the .... ater and steam decreases with the
increase of pressure, and the pressure exceeds 17.5 Mpa, the reliabi lity of a
nalUral-circula tion boile r grea tly decre ases. Thus forced-circulation sys tems
arc adopted at superhigh pressures. Controll ed-circulation system :md low
circula tio n ratio systems are two kinds of forced-circu lation sys!cms.
The exista ncc of one o r more circulating pu mps in thc stca m- water
system is a feature of contro lled-ci rculation boilers (or forced multiple
circulation ooilersl.
In this kind of system, the working fl uid is moved forcC£ully with the
required velocities. This makes it possible to arrange the evaporating tubes in
any form. and the 'iteam -wate r mixture may fl ow not only vcrtically upwards.
but also horizontally o r even d ownward ~. Also, tubes with .. ~ m ail inner
diame ter can be used; this may decrease the tube thickness and t hus the tube
weight.
These two ci rculation systems arc shown in Fig. 8.43 (see also Fig. 6. 14).
The circulat ion ralio for the controlled-circulation boiler is 3 to 10, while for
the low circu lation ratio boi ler it is 1.2 to 2.0.
Thc purpose of the circulation ca lculations fo r these forced-circu lation
boilers is to e nsure the reliabi lity of the evaporat ing tubes and the circula ting
pump. The circulation can also be solvcd graphica lly. In a forccd-cireulation

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452 THERMOHYORAULIC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

3
v
3
5
6

I 1
2

4 4 CD

la) Ib l

Fig. 8.43. Two kinds of controlled-circulation system : (a) multiple circulation boiler
system, (b) low circulation ratio boiler system. I- economizcr, 2- watcr walls.
3-supcrheater, 4-circu lating pump. 5-drum, 6-scparalOr.

system, the hydraulic resistance of the whole circuit. tJ.p< (including the
resistances of the rise rs and downcomers), is overcome by the ci rculating
pump head and the natural-circulation head: .lPp: tJ.P r ami ilp p buth
depend on the flow rate. W, in the circuit. For a simple circui t as s hown in
Fig. 8.44, if we take three val ues of Wand establish curves ilp< - few) and
!J.Pp = f(w). then the intersection of the two curves dete rm ines the working
point A of the circuit.
For a complex circuit as shown in Fig. 8.45, the circula tion calcu lations can
be solved as fo llows. First take three flow rate values of Wand determine the
pressure drop !J.p, of the riser for the two riser sections and establish
ilPrI - f(w) and !J.P, 2 = few). Add the wate r flow rates of the aforeme n-
tioned two curves together at the same va lu e uf !J.p, to form the curve
2:!J.p, - few). Then calcu late the pressure drop of the downcomers, !J.fJ,/.
and establish the !J.Pd - f( w) curve. Add the pressure drops of curves
tJ.p, - [(w) and tJ.fJd - f(w) together at the same va lue of W to form the
curve tJ.p, - few), where tJ.fJ( is the total pressurc losscs of the circuit. Draw
the hydraulic characteristic curve tJ.P '"" [(w). Thc intersection of tJ.P p -
"

'p Ir-_===~Af(._ API>

Fig. 8.44. Circulation characteristic curves of a

simple circuit of a forced circulation boiler. o w w

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 'p
l:~P,
1
;', p,

r
.lp" .1P,2

, d P

n
!.
X.X
2
,, , ,
·po
1
0 W t.
;,' ;
.lp" ,-
•1 J W, w, W /
W

Fig. H.4S. C ircula tio n c har;II;lc risli(.: (urves of .. complex ci rcuit of a forced circulali(ln
boi le r.

f(w) and APr - j (w) determines the workin g poinl A, :lnu thus Ihe tutal
flow ralc, W. in the circuit. Make a vert ica l linc 10 meet the curve [up, =
[(w) al poinl /J a nd from IJ draw a hori zontal lin e to inte rsect curves
6')<1 - f(w) ilnu 6.P,2 - [(w ) a t c a nd d, The flow raIl'. WI' in rise r sect ion
1 and W~ in rise r sectio n 2 ca n be o bta ine d by making vc rti cal lines from
point (' and (I 10 the axis of the abscis\;1 as shown in Fig. 8.45.
If the distribution of fl ow ra les among the riser sections is not reasonable ,
orifi ces may be installed at the inle ts of the ri sers to regu late the d istribution
of flow ralt:s .Imong the riser sec tions.
Calculation of the Circuit Pressure Losses, 4Pr:

( H. I06)

(B.I 07)

where IlPr' IlPM ' and Ap~ are the prcs~ ur e drops due to frictional rcsis-
tance. minor losses. and eleva tion . PlI , respectively; the form er two can he
obta ined by usin g thc same m e th od ~ applied for thc natural-circulation
systc m, and Ill), ca n be calculated as follows:

(H .IOH)

whe re h uhl ' ,, ~<. and "r:v

are the h e i g ht ~ of the initial. unheated portion of a
ri!«: r just beyond the inlet , the economizer portion , lind the evapor:Hing
portion of a rise r, m. respectively; and Pm is the mixture de nsity. kg/ mJ . Pm
can be calculated by using Eq. (fUN).

(8. 109)

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454 THERMOHVORAUUC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

TA8LE8.19 Coefficient T - IS/d.)

Ii / Ii" 0 0.2 0 .4 0.6 0.10\ Lli 1.2 1.6 2.11 2.4

T 1..15 1.22 LlO 0.84 11.42 0.24 0.1f> 0.07 0.02 0
----

where .l r, .md IlPM ea n be determined by using Eq . (8.96).

(8. 110 )

(".111)

where Ilr" is the pressure drop of an orifice inMalled at Ihe in lel of a riser,
Pa ; 6.P,J is the pressure head of th e circu latin g pu mp. Pa. for ca lcu latio n, it
ca n be selecled to be equal tn 3 x IO ~ Pi! ; and the definitions of the othe r
symbols arc the same as those in Eq. (8.94),

/lp" - ( 0.5 + [ I - ( d~J ) 'J'+ [T J )

I - (,(;, 'J) (d"d )' fV ' ,)) (". 11 2)

where d" and d are the orifice diameter and Ihe tube inner diamete r, m,
respectively. VI) is the inlet water vdocity of the tube, m/s; Clnd T is CI
coefficient depending on the ratio of the thickness. ii, 10 the orifice diameter.
d", and can be determined from Tabic 8.19.

Checking Circulation Reliability To calculate th e reliability criterion for

avoiding circu lation stagnation in the least heated tube . Eq . (8.100) may be
used .
To calculate the reliability criterion for avoiding heat transfer crisis, the
methods described for natural-circulation boilers [6. 71 mlly be used.
The check fo r sa fet y of the water supply to the ci rcula ting pumps is as
follows:

(".113)

where" is the height of the downcomer; m. fl."" is the pressure drop in the
downeorncr tubes. Pa; and Ill',,,,, is the pump pos itive suction head. specified
by the pump manufacture r. Pa.

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 8.5 STEAM - WATER SYSTEM S 455

The absence of flow rale pulsation m stca m- waler systems can be deter·
mined e mpirically as fo llows [7, 10, 1I):

>a (". 11 4)

whe re 6.P o ' 6.Pec • a nd 6. Pe- a rc the pressure drops of the orifices a t the inlet.
the wate r portio n, and evaporati ng ponion o f a rise r, Pa, respectively; a is a
consta nt depending on the pressure. p. MPa. and the mass ve locity of the
working fluid, pV, kg/ (m 2 . s), when I) - 4.0, a = 0.8, when p ., 6.0, a -
0.65, when p - 8.0, 0 - 0.52, when p - 10.0, a = 0.37, when p = 12.0,
D - 0.16, when p - 14.0, a - 0. 10; when pV - 500, a - 1.0, whe n pV = 750,
a - 0.5, when pV - 1000, a - 0.27. when pV - 1300, a - 0. 1, when p V ,""
1500, 0 - 0.03; the value of u in Eq. (8.1 14) is eq ual to the larger value
between va lues of 0 determined by the mass ve loci ty cond ition and the
pressure condition.
For ho rizontal tubes, a me thod obtamed by Habe nski e t a!. [91 may be
used to de termine th e absence of flow rate pulsation. The required crit ica l
mass ve loci ty for avoiding flow rat e pul~tion, ( pV)~ , is

• qL
(pV) .. - 4 .62 X 10 9(pV) .. kPd (8.115)

where (pV).~ is the cri tica l mass ve locity obtained under a standard pressure
(p - 9.8 MPa), kg j (m2 . s); k p is the pressure fac tor; q is the heat flux o f
the tube, W j m~, L is the length of the tube, m; and d is t he tube inner
diameter, m.
For ve rtical lubes, (pV).. can be predicted as (pV)( of a horizontal tube
times a coeffi cie nt, c. The values o f (pV J,"', k {> and c may be obtained from
the fi gures listed in [6, 7, IOJ.
The absence of multivalue ncss of the hydraulic characteristic curve for
ho rizontal a nd vertical heated tubes can be chee-ked by the in let subcooling
of lli'''b' kJ j kg.

(8 . 11 6)

whe re ~o and z a re the pressure loss coefficien t uf [he inlet orifice a nd the
total resistance coefficien t (~ o is not included) of a tube , respectively; ill( is
the latent hea t of evaporation, kJ j kg; (. is a coefficie nt of pressu re, when
p < 10 MPa, c - 2. whc=n p > 14 MPa. c - 3, and whe n p = 10-14 MPa,
c - O.25p-O.5.

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456 THERMOHYDRAULIC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

3.5
Fig.8.46. Four-lead spiral ribho.:d lubo.:.

Design Problems of Controlled-Circulation Boilers Generally speaking,

the circula tion ratio, K. s hou ld be greater tha n 3; for small -capaci ty boilers.
K = 6-10, while for low-circulation boilers K = 1.2-2.0.
The mean velocity o f the working fl uid shou ld ensure Ihe cooling effe ct of
the heated tube metal. In the downwa rd flow tuhes, for Ihe sake of carrying
away ste;:lm from the tube inner wall. the cin.:u lal ion velocity sho uld he
grea ter than 0.5 m /s.
In o rder to avoid multivalue ncss of the hydrau lic cha racterist ic curve. the
mass velocity of low-circulation ratio boilers should maintain pV ~ 850- 1000
kg / (m 2 . s) for coal-fired boilers and pV ~ 120()-1350 kg/ (m ! . s) for fuel-
oil-fired boi lers.
In orde r 10 increase the critica l steam qualit y. x c' tubes with ribs, multi-
lead rihs, or twisters a re used (sec Fig. 6.4 1). I n PR e. Ihe four-lead spiral
ribbed tubes shown in Fig. K46 are used; X c for these ribbed tubes can be
obtained as follows:

X .. = 11.16( 59.29 - 2.25p)q - IIf'( pV)Il·J·l

whe re p is the pressure, MPa; q is the inner wall , hea t flux . W 1m2 ; V is the
mass ve locity, kg/( m 1 . s). If the calcula ted X ,. is greata than 1.0. it means
th at a heat t ransfer crisis is impossible in the calculated rise r.
The ratio of the total flow area of the outl c t tubes to Ihal of the risers is
genera lly equal to 0.4 to 0.6.

8_5.3 Steam - Water System of Once-Through Boilers

Anoth er kind of forced-ci rculat ion boiler is a once-th rough boi le r. The steam
ge neration rate is numerica lly equa l to the water conlc nt supplied; thus its
circulation ra tio, K - 1.0. T he wo rking principle a nd design problems of
once-through boilers have bee n discussed in Chapter 7 and need not be
disc ussed he re.
For once-through boil e rs, the hea t transfer crisis phe nomenon, flow stag-
nation, fl ow rat e pulsa tion. and mult iva lueness of the hydraulic cha racte ris-

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N.XT
tics of tube systems have to be c hecked. T he same me thods introduced in thc
preceding sections may be used to check the m.

8.6 A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF BOILER

CIRCULATION CALCULATIONS

The example hailer is the same· boile r tha t is used in Sectio n K4 as a

nume rical example o f the hea t transfer calcul atio n o f boile r compone nts.
Due to the limit a tio n of space in th is c hapte r, we takc the ci rculat ion o f a
side water wall circ uit of Ihis n3tur;l l-circula tio n boile r as a (:a/culal ioll
exa mple; its sc he me is shown in Fig. H.47. The circuit consists o f a drum .
downcome r. middle riser sectio n. re ar rise r sectio n. uppe r and lowe r he ade rs.
mixture o utle t tuhcs. a nd wate r supply tuhcs.
The he ight from the drum leve l to the axis of th e lowe r headers. h ==
18.05 m. thc tluwncomc r length . L - [7.25 m. with a n inne r diame te r .
d = 2(jt) mm (!low a rea, A d - 0.07 m ! ). The ratio of thc do wncomc r a rea to
th ai of the rise rs, A d/A , - 0.588. The ro ughness, d. - O.~ mm, while thc
entra nce loss l·ocfficie nl. ~~n - 0.5.
T he inne r d iame te r o f thc wale r supply lUbe . (I - 125 mm ; Ihe re arc IWO
tubes for eac h riser section. so the water fl uw a rca. A w , - 0.024 m : . thc ratio
o f A ..." 10 the 100ai How a rea o f a sect ion o f rise rs. A ,. A ....J A , -
(1.024/ 0.0595 - 0.403. The le ngth o f the wa te r su pply tu be fu r the mitldlc
rise r section is 4.97 m. for t he rea r sectio n it is 6.13 ffi . Tuhc roug hness.
a - 0.08 mm . The to ta l mino r losses. L~\, - 2.4.
The mixture outle t tubes have the sa me inne r tl ia me tc r anti numhe r as Ihe
water supply tuhcs, so the ir flow :tre a !'a tio, A ,,/A , .. 0.02.4 / 0.059 = 0.4!J3.
The le ngth o f thl; tubl.; fo r the mitld lc rise r sect ion il> 7.W m, for the re ar
section it is 6.47 m. The to tal mino r Imscs o f thc tube for the m iddl e ri se r

18Q5m ,I
./oit-\
"IV
II Front

O.90 m
-
...., I)-
I- Middle f-- I
:11:,
O.69m Rear I-' I
14 m . )
1563m
2 42m

Fia.8.41. Scheme or lhe exa mple un it .

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458 THEAMOHYORAULIC DESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

section, Et", = 3.3, and that for the rear section, Et", = 2.5; the tube
roughness, 6. = 0.08 mm.
Each riser section has 26 tubes with an inner diameter of 54 mm. The
working fluid flow area of each section , A, = 0.059 m 2 . The height between
the upper and lower headers is equa l 10 15.63 m. and the height of the
mixture outlet lube is 2.42 m. The height of the unheated portion of the
middle riser section is 0.9 m, and that of the rear section is 0.69 m. The
average heated height of the middle section is 14.73 m, while for the rear one
it is 13.8 m (the remaining height of the rear section is 14.94 m, induding
1.14 m that is unheated on account of the covering of the rear water wall).
The tube roughness, 6. = 0.08 mm. The tube entrance loss coefficient,
ten = 1.2.
From the numerical example of the boiler heat transfer calculation of this
chapler, we know that the total radial heat ab~orbed by the water walls,
H",w = 20,463.7 kJ/kg. As the effeclive heating surface, A~ = ?A, where? is
the coefficient of fou ling, the average heat flux of the water walls, qww' is

2.451 x 20 ,463.7
0.55 X 0.99 x 302.26 + 0.1 X 1.0 X 31.5

= 299.4 kW /m2

Calculation of Yd Since the drum pressure, p = 4.41 MPa, the saturated

water density, PI = 790 kg/m), and h = 18.05 m. then p,gh = 790 X 9.8 x
18.05 = 139,743 Pa.
Taking three circulati ng veloci ties to be Vo = 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mis, the
respective mass flow rate of the working fluid in onc riser section, W = 23.5,
47, and 70.5 kg/s (W = PIA,Vo)' The water velocity in the downcomer Vd
will be Jt;{ = V;,A,/A,J = 0.85, 1.7, and 2.55 m/s. respectively.
As A - 1/14{1og(3.7 X 299/0.08)]') ~ 0.0146 [Eq. (8.87)J, ,," ~ 0.5 (Table
8.1 6); therefore, for the three V;/ values, t1p" is equal to (Eq. (H.86)]:

t1Pd =
17.25)
( 0.0146 X 0.299 + 0.5 TVi 790 = 31B, 1533, and 3448 m/s

Corresponding to the three W or VII' Yd will be equal to

Yd = p,gh - t1p,/ = 139 ,743 - t1Pd = 139,360. 138,210, and 136,295 Pa

Thus the curve of Yd = [(w) can be established.

Hydraulic Resistance of the Water Supply Tubes, I1pw. When Vo = 0.5,

1.0, and 1.5 m/s. [he corresponding water velocity in the water supply tube,
V"", = VoAJA w • ~ Vo/0.403 = 1.24,2.48, and 3.72 m/s. The hydraulic resis-

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 8.6 A NUMERICAl. EXAMPLE OF BOILER CIRCU LATION CALCULATIONS 459

lance of the water supply tube fo r the middle riser section

Ii 2
lV'
!J.P ... , - ( A-L + [ ( \1 ~ '" - (0 .01 766 -497
· -
0 .125
lV'2
+ 2.4 ~ 790

1XH4. 7526 .4. ;lIld 169.14 .4 Pa

whe re A "" 1/ (4/10g(3.7 x 125/ H.OS)),) = 0.01766. L - 4.97 m. The hydraulic

resistance of Ihe wate r supply luhe for the rea r rise r sectio n

6.73 ) V";
~ Pw, - ( 0 .01 766 . + 2.4 T7Q() - 2038.4 .8 153 .6, a nd 18.326 Pa
0 125

Hydraulic Resistance of the Riser, aPr 5 1), can be calcul aled according
to Eq . (KI)() . In th is equation, si nce the economize r is a steaming econo·
mizer, :ll)~c does no t exist

For Vo - 0.5. J.O, and 1.5 m/s or IV = 2.1.5, 47. and 70.5 kg /so the
resistance o f the unheat ed portion o f the riser. 6.Puhl' can be obtained as
follows: for the middle riser section

II .•
- ( OJ12 JI1 0.054 + 0.9
)Vi
'"2 790
- 124.43 , 497.72. ;lIld 1119.N7 P:I

'A'here A = 0.02 16 (Eq. (8.87)1. L =- 0.9 m. and >':~M - (J.9.

For the rea r riser sectio n. by u!oing the same equa tio n,

OM
!J. Puhl - ( (1.02111 0.~54 + 0 .9
lV'
-f 7911 - 113.4 .453 .11. and 1020.6 Pa

Th e radiant heat absorbed by the working fluid in the middle rise r section

H,'" = ilww( [ (, x , A~. }", - 299.4 X It 55 x 0 .99 x 14.73 x 1.664

- 3995JS2 kW

whe re the height of the section is 14 .73 m. the width of the section is 1.664 m.
The radiant heat ahsorhcd by the work lll8 fluid in the rear rise r seclion

U: - q ....... ( [ (,x, A .. ), - 299.4 x II 55 X 0.99 x 13.8 x 1.664

- 3743.54 kW

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460 THERMOHYDRAULIC DESIGN OF BOlLER COMPONENTS

The qu a ntity of stea m ge ne rated in the middle riser sect ion (t he la te nt

heat of eva poratiun i llt - 1680.7 kJ / kg);
H,'" 3995.82
~V, = - .. "" 2.377 kg/s
i l~ 1680.7

The quan ti ty of steam generated in the rear rise r section

H: 3743.54
W, "" - - - 2.277 kg/s
il~ IftHO.7

Steam qua lity at the exit of the risers, x r - W,/W; for the middle rise r
section whe n W = 23.5, 47, and 7().5 kg/s, .r~ - 0.101. 0.050, and 0.03)7,
respective ly; for the rear sect ion x. - O.094K (1.047, tlnd OJ)) lft.
Mass veloc ity, pV = P IVII ; for the middle riser sect ion and the rear rise r
section; when Vo = 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mis, the corresponding pV - 395. N O.
a nd 11 85 kg / (m 2 • s).
The two-phase frictional corrective coefficie nt . W, can be determ ined by
Eqs. (H.Y7 ) and (H.9H), depending on the yalues of I IV.
When pressure p = 4.41 MPa, P I/Pit - 790/22.3 - 35.43. Substituting
th is ratio .lnd x = x .. /2 into Eqs. (8.97) tlnd (S.98). we may obtain. when
pV - )95, 790, and 1185 kg/( m 2 . s), for the midd le rise r .section. w'" 1.95,
1.1 23, and 0.997, respectively, and for the rear riser section. W .. 1.93. 1.12.
a nd 0.9975. respectively.
6pcv ca n be de termined by Eq. (8.%). For the middle rise r section. by
substituting the yal ues of W. Vu. and x , into t he equal ion. we may obtain

14.73) V,,'x, ( 70n

il P... - ( t/J X OJ)2 16 X - - -- 790 1 + - - -[
0.054 2 2 22.3

v" [
+ 1.2 X 2790 1 + x ~
( 22.~
70n

... 3638.6 152 .4. and 111 ,553 Pa

where A - 0.0216, L - 14.73. ~:, :; 1. 2.
For the rellr riser section L = 14.94 m, lI nu taking VI! = 0.5. 1.0. a nd 1.5
mis,

+ -x , ( -790-
2 22 .3

+ 1.2 X TV,,' 7W [1 +.r~ ( 22700..'

... 3503,6023.5, a nd 10.406.3 Pi!

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 86 A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF BOILE R CIRCULATION CALCUlATIONS 461

So when W = 23.5.47. and 70.5 kg h . the hydw ulic resistance of thl:: middle
rise r ~ction is e qual to

dp, - dP ulll + tJ.Pc- - 37h2.43. 6650.12. and 11672 .87 Pa

and fo r the rear ri!.C r !\Celion

dp, - 3616.4. M77.I , and 11 ,426.9 Pa

Hydraulic Resistance of the Mixture Outlet Tube, A p o Whe n VII - 0.5,

1.0, a nd 1.5 m/s. the corresponding circul ating ve locities in the outlet tube
a rc equa l to VoA ,/A - Vo/ 0.403 - 1.24. 2.48. and 3.72 m /~. T hc corre-
spondi ng m<lss velocities are pV - 979.6, 1959.2, and 2938.8 kg/ (m 2 . ~).
The hydraulic resistance of the un he<ltcd mixture outlet tube. dp". can
also be ca lcu la ted by EQ . (8.96 ), ou t in tha t equation x~ should nc used
instead o f x ~/ 2 . For the outlet tuhe of the middle rise r sectio n. I:{.w = 3.3.
I. - 7.99 m; fo r the rea r riser section. ~ ~M - 2.5 and L - 0.47 m. The tunc
ro u ~ hn ess. d - 0.08 mm and A '"" 0.0 1766.
The two-phase frictional corrective coe ffi cie nt, w. ca n be determined by
Eqs. (8.97) and (8.98), depending on the va l u e~ o f (IV After calculation
'" - 1.01 5. 0.976. l.InJ 0.978.
For the o Ul let tube or the middle riser section:

7.99) V,I 790 [I + x (-

790-
( IV X 0 .0 1766 X - - + 3.3 -
O .12~ 2 ~ 22.3

- 12.088.5. ZY.l00. and 51.959 Pa

For th e outlet tube of the rear r i~cr $Cction:

tJ.p" - ( wx 0.01 766

0 .125
2.5) -v,1 790 [ 1 + x~ ( -~
x -6 -. 4t 7
2
7'>0 - I
22.3
)1
- 8876.3. 21.573 ,H, and 3H.744 Pa

Calculsllon of LPl h lg of the Riser

where Pm and P:" are the mixture densities in the heated evapora ting portion
of the rise r a nd in the mixtu re outlet lube. kg / m-\ respectively; and "uh 2 is
the height of the mixture uutle t tu be. m.
The calculation proce dures for the middle rise r sect ion and the rea r riser
section a rc listed in Table 8.20.

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 ~
Q)
II.)
TABLE 8.20 Calculation or LP, h; g ofthe Riser
Nomendalllre and Equation lInit Middle Riser Section Rear RIser Section

Circulating velocity, Vo
(selected) m/s 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
Circulating flow rate, W kg/s 23.5 47 70.5 23.5 47 70.5
huh I (give n) m 0.9 0.69
Plhuhlg = 790h uhl . 9.8 Pa 6,967.8 5,341.98
h eo (gIVen) m J4.73 14.94
Exit Quality, x, 0.101 0.050 0.0337 0.0948 0.047 0.03)6
Average quality, x 0.0505 0.025 0.0169 0.0474 0.0235 0.0158
Average volumetrical
quality, 13 [Eq. (8.92)J (use i) 0.653 0.476 0.378 0.638 0.46 0.363
Slip ratio, S IEq. (8.91)1 1.935 \.5 1.354 1.913 1.489 1J47
Average void fraction, a
[Eq. (8.90)J 0,493 0.377 0.31 0.4795 0,)64 0.297
Average mixture density
Pm IEq. (8.89)] kg/Ill) 411.52 500.57 552 421,89 510.56 562
PmliC"g Pa 59,404,6 72.259.3 79,683.4 61,769.8 74,752.1 82,283.5
h uh2 (given) m 2,42 2.42
Average quality, x 0,101 0.050 0.0337 0.0948 0.047 0.0316
iJlEq. (8.92)J 0.799 0.65 0.5526 0.788 0.636 0.536
S IEq. (8.91)) 1,745 1.418 1.292 1.733 1.409 1.233
a I Eq, (8.90)1 0.695 0.567 0,489 0.682 0.5536 0,484
p~, [Eq. (8.89)] kg/m 1 256.44 354.71 4\4.6 266.43 365 418.43
P~,huh2g Pa 6,082 8.412.4 til 9,832.7 6,318.7 8,656.3 9,925.3

CONTENTS
BACK i '[p,h,g Pa 72,454,4 87,6:tQ.,.5 I-
z 8 ;6,483.9 73,430.4 88,750.4 97.549

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0
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 6_6 A NUMERICAL EXAM PLE OF BOILER CIRCULATION CALCULATIONS 463

Hydraulic Resistance of the Steam - Water Separator, tlP.. Th e mix-

ture de nsi ty, Pm' in the steam- wa ter sc p,lra tor is equ al to that in the mixture
outl et rubes, p;" (lislcd in T able 8.20).
The fl ow area of th e sepa ra to r for eac h ri se r sect ion is equa l to A", =
0.0342 m 2 : the a rea ratio of A '(' 10 the fl ow area of a riser sect ion, A T' is
equ al to A . jA r ... 0.0342/0.0595 - 0.577. The ve locity of the mixture in Ihe
sepa ra tor, V", - PIVu A ,j( p;" A ,.) - 790 Vu/(O.577 p;">, whe re Vo is the
circula t ing veloci ty of the riser, m/s . For the middl e riser section . when
VI) - 0.5, 1.0, a nd 1. 5 mis, V,," - 2.68, .1.88, a nd 4.976 m/s; for the rea r rise r
section, whe n Vu - 0.5. 1.0, a nd 1.5 m /s. V". = 2.58, 3.76, and 4.92 m/s.
The hydraulic resistance of the se pa ra tor. tlp><, ca n be calcu la ted as
follows:

For the mi dd le rise r sect io n, whe n VII - 0.5. 1.0, and 1.5 m/s. 6 p'(' ~ 4 144,
12,0 15, and 23,098 Pa; for the rea r rise r section, whe n V(I - 0.5, 1.0. a nd 1.5
mis, tl p"c "" 3990, 11,6 10. and 22,781) Pa .
Calculation of Y, and Y,'

Y: = LP,It ,K + ti p,

u :t the subscripts m and r de nute th...: midd le sectio n a nd the rcar ~cc ti o n .
respective ly. For the middle rise r section. whe n Vn - U.S, 1.0, and 1.5 m/s o r
W - 84.5. 169, and 253.5 tl hr, >-:m j, equa l to 94,.133, 142,920, a nd 200, UN
Pa , Y,;,., - 76.2 16.63, 94,289.6, a nd IOM, 156.7 Pa . Thus the c u rvc~ of Y,m =
f( w) a nd Y,:" = f (W) ca n be esta blished .
For Ihe rear rise r sect ion. whe n VOl - 0.5, 1.0. a nd 1.5 mls or HI - 84.5,
169. and 2S3.5 tl hr, Y" is eq ua l to 91.952, 136.563, ,!Od 188.835 Pi. anti
Y,~ = 77,04o.H, 95,227.5. a nd 108,975.9 Pa. T he curve!'. of y; , - [ (W ) and
Y,~ - (W ) ca n also be esta bl ished .
In Fig. 8.48 the curves of YJ - [ (W ). V,,,, - [(W ), Y" - f( HI ). Y,:" "" f( HI ).
and y,~ - [ Oy) a re drawn.
The total circula tio n c ha racte rist ic curve, Y, '" >-: 1 + Yd - [ (W) .
T he in te rsection of t he curvc~ YJ - [ ( IV ) and Y, - f( W) gives the working
poi nt. A, of the ci rcuit, from which we obta in the total ma!'.s How rate,
IV = 32S t / hr: the mass fl ()\\,· ra te in the middle riser section, Wm .,. 160 t/ h r;
a nd that fo r the rea r riser sect ion, IV, - 105 I/ hr. Y,;" - 9. 1 x IU ~ Pa,
Y,~ '" 9.4 x JO~ Pa.

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 Y. Pa

Y<1

V,; . y,;,. c::r;~~~~~~~~~~~~~r=_ ~L .;& ~ _ -r-:' ,

CONTENTS
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CONTENT~
o so 100 150 W",w, : :~I ~ ~1!250 300 W 350 400 W, tjhr
co Z, z
NEXT Fig. 8,48. Circulation characte ristIc 8 rYes of the example unil.
1
Checking Reliability The ci rculation ratio in the middle rise r section ,
K - W",/W, == 160 X 10-'/(3600 X 2.3 77 ) = 18.7; in the rear riser section,
K - 165 X 10-'/0600 x 2.227) .. 2U.5X; bnlh a re in Ihe recommended ra nge
of Tahlc IU5.
The check for stagnatio n should be conducted for the least hea ted tube of
the riser section. The coe ffi cient of distribution o f Ihe heat absorption along
Ihe widt h of the middl e riser sect ion, "'1~m .. 0.8: a nd that for the rea r rise r
section, 11~., == 0.6.
The superficial steam velocity at the e_i l uf the midd le rise r sectio n is
equal to IY.. / (A , /I,tI) - 2.377/(0.0595 x 22.3) .. 1.79 m/s. a nd for Ihe rear
section il is equal to 1.678 m/s.
The average superficial steam vclocit}, o f the middle rise r. V"; - 1. 79/ 2 -
O.R95 m/s. a nd fo r the rear rise r section . I--:~ - 1.678/2 - 0.839 m /s.
The average superficial steam vehx~ ity of Ihe least heated tube of the
middle riser section. Vu~ = 11~",V,: - II.:': x O.X95 = O.71 fi mis, and for the
rear riser section, Vo' "" 11 ...,V," = 0.6 x £1.839 = 0.503 m/s.
The void fraction. a, can be obtained from Eq . (8.102). For the middle
riser section. Q, - 0.716/ (0.716 x UX).4 i 0.4532) = 0.61 1; for the rear rise r
sect ion. a , - O.503/ <O.5m X 1.004 + 0.4.';:\2) - 0.525.
The pressure differencc of :.tagniltion of the least heated rise r. ~ p , . can be
obtained fro m Eq. (H. WI).
For the midd le rise r section

~p"" - 79() x YM x O.Y[( I - 0 .01 1)71)() + !I .6 11 x 22.3] x 9J:1 x 14.73

= 53.296 Pa

For the rea r riser section

,l p,,";oO 790 x 9.8 x 0.69 + [( I - 0.525)790 + 0.525 x 22 .31 x 9.8 x 14 .94

- 50.655 Pa

The reliahility crite rion IEq. (!:S.IOO)j fo r the middle riser section.
Y,:•.ll1/J,,,, = 9.1 x 10 4 /53, 296 "'" 1.7 > 1.05; fur the rear rise r sect ion,
Y,;/"\'P" - 9.4 x 1U ~ /56.655 - 1.66 > 1.05; therefore ci rculation stag nation
will n OI occur.
Since the worki ng pressure . I' < 14 MPa, a nd ci rculation ra tio. K > 4. the
heat Iran~fer cri~is need no t be checked.
The veloci ty in the downeomcr, Va = W/ (A "p,) - 325 x 10 3 / 0600 X
0.07 x 79(H - 1.63 m /s < 3 m/s: therefore eVllporation will not occur at the
inlet of the downcome r.
The calcula tion shows the calcu lated dn'ui t is reliablc.

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466 THERUQHYORAUIIC OESIGN OF BOILER COMPONENTS

NOMENCLATURE

A surface area: e ros.~·scetional area; How area. m 1

a emissivity: fraction of ash
a wid th. m
(IF the coefficien t of therma l radiation of furnace
8 fuel consum ption of the boiler. kg/s
8, the rated fuel consumption of the boiler. kg/s
80 the Boltzmann number
b de pth . m
C specific hea t, kJ I (kg . K)
c eoctlk ient
d tube diameter. m
g gravi tational acce leration, ml s1
H heat. kJ I kg
HI'" lower hea ting va lue of fuel. kJ / kg
H; aVili lable heal o f fuel . kJ / kg
h height . m
II relalive heat l os~es defined by EQ. (8.8 )
II heat transfer cocHicient . kW l (m 1 . K)
I en thal py of flue gllses or air. kJ / kg
en thal py of working flu id . kJ / kg
i,~ late nt hea t of evapora tion. kJ / kg
K circul ation rate
k effect ive coe ffi cient of absorption. l /(m . MPa)
L lengt h or depth. m
At coeffici ent relill in g to temperat ure field pa Hern in the furnace , defin ed
hy EQ. (8.3 I)
m fraction of the luminous portion of the flame
rr rotation speed. r I min
rr number of tu bes
p, Prandtl number. IJ.c,,/k
p pressure, MPa
q hem Hu x. kW 1m2
q~. heat re lease rate per unit eross·seetion;rl area of the furn ace, kW 1 m2
qR fuel burning rate per un it volume. kW 1 m2
tI , heat release rate pe r unit volume, kW 1 m 1
R grate area. m 2
Re Reynolds numbe r. pV(I / 1J.
, volume concen tratio n of triatomic gases : gas recircu lation ratio
S effective thickness of the radiating layer : spaci ng of tu bes. m
S slip ratio
T lempmlu,". K. ·C
U ove rall heal transfe r eocffieicn l. kW / (m ~ . K)
V volume. m·1
V ve locity. m/s

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,. spt:citic vulume. m ' / kg
IV mas... 110w ralc, kg/ s
X Ihc rclalive posilion of the highcsi lempcralUre zone in th e furnace
defined by Eq. (lU2)
x angula r coefficient; steam Quality; fraction of healing surface of gas or
air in a regenerative air heater; cunsta nt defined by Eq. (8.2 1)
Y [he total pres...ure difference of the riser or the dnwnCQmer portion of a
circuit defined by Eq. (8.85), Pa

Greek Symbols
a void fraction ; excess air ratiu
fJ volumetric steam quality; excess air ralio of air heale r; coc llic icnt of
the influence of mutual heal exchange defined by Eq. (8.45)
[, thickness. m
11 roughness of tube wall. m
e fouling cocflicic nt defined hy Eq. OP6)
TIl. cllicicncy o f boiler
1J~ coefficient of uislribution of hea t absorption along the furna ce height
, fouling cocflicie nt of water wall [uhcs
A frictional coefficient
A thermal conductivity, kW / (m . K)
J.t~ dimensionless concentration of fly ash defin ed by Eq. (8.25)
{ wcffic:ient uf utilization; coe fficient considering th e influence o f fuel
!M coc flicient of minor losses
p de nsi ty of fluid. kg/ m·l
"u emissivit y of the hlack body, kW l (m 2 . K4)
r coefficient of orifice thieknes:-. defined by EQ. ( 8. 11 2)
IT transcendenta l irrational number - 3. 14159 ...
1/1 he al re[ention coefficient defined hy Eq. (8. 11); coe ffici enl rel'lling to
tube spacing defined by &1. (fL6])
1/1 connective coefficient of mea n temperature difference; coefficient of
effect iveness defined by Eq . (1:1.51); two·phase fri ctional corrcctive
coeflicient
1/101 average coeffici ent of (hcrm:ll effici ency of water wall s

Subscripts
A air heater
Q adiabatic; air; ash
aw ashy lUbe wall
B bend. tube bundle
b heat balance condition
bw blow-off waler
c critical: ci rcuit : coun terflo ..... ~ys tem; coke particles
ca cold air
d downcome r

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(' eleva tion; exit cond ition; equivalent
E e,""omow
ec economizer portion
en entrance
ev evaporating portion
ex exi t
f frictional; working fluid
F furnace; fu el
fa fly ash
ft flame
fw fee d water
~ flue gas; vapor
If along height direction
ha hot air
inlet condition; inside of a tube
length ; liquid
o outlet; orifice; ou tside of a tube
P pump
fJ parallel-flow system, platen
hI' physical heat
R gra te area; reheater; empty room
r riser; radiation
rh reheater
S slag screen
s steam; stagnation: soot particles
SS superheater
sub subcooling
heal transfer condition ; temperature
II usefu l
uh unheated
V volume
w water; wall
wg waste gases
wi water level
ws water supply
ww wate r wall
mean va lu e
o theoretical

REFERENCES
l. Lin, Z. H .. and Zhang. Y. Z. (1988) Ham/book. uf BOI!erJ. Mechanicill Industry
Publishing House. Peking.
2. Ku znctsuv, N. V .. and MilOT. V . v. (cds.> (1973) Ifl'(/( Ca/cli/miolu of lJoiln I~(m/s
(SIQ/ldard Me/hod). EnergiY3 Publishing House. Moscow.

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 3. M echanicaf Engineering Handbook. . Vol. 71, compiled by the Shanghai Boiler
Institute. Mecha nical Industry Puhlish ing Ho usc. Pe ki ng .
4. He, B. A.. Z hao. Z. H., and Oin . Y. K. (\987) Th~ Dtsign and Optralion of
Puh'erized Coaf Burners. Mec hanical Industry Pub lishing House, Peking.
5. Blokh. A. G. ( 1984) H('O I Transfer m Sleam Boiler Furnaces. Energiatom Publish-
ing House. Leningrad. Its English tra nslation was pub lished by He misphere. New
York. 19RR.
6. Lokshi n, V. A., Peterson, D. F.. and Schwarz, A. L. (cds.) (\ 97R) Standard
Melhods of Hydra ufic /)esignfor POh"('f Boilers. Energia Publishing House. Moscow.
I L\ English t ranslation was puhlished hy Hc misphcrc. New York, 198H.
7. Hydraufic Cafcufations of Utility BOlfers. JB /Z 20 1-83, approved by the Ministry
of Meehantcal InduSlf)' of C hina. I \}83 .
8. Lin, Z. H . (1978) The CarcufU/iOtl u/ Voit} FmC/ioll and Frictionaf Resistance of
SI~am - Wa ler Two -Phase Flo ..... (/\ Special Report for Ma king the Method of
Hyd raulic Calculation of Ut ility Bnilcrs). Xi'an Jiaotong University S,icnlific
Report 78-035.
9. Habc nski. V. B.. Baldina. O . M.. and Kalinin, R. I. (1 973) Achil'l 'l'ml!nls in Ihe
5l1ldyin[? RegiOlI of Two -Phu w I/e(l/ TTflllsfer alld H)'drQlllics ill Elel/l{'/lls of Power
Dtdcl:"s. Nauka, Moscow.
10. Lin. Z. H. (1 983) Soviet and Chin ,~e research ",",orks on vapor-liquid two-phase
flows. In "11lermuf $cifIJ("e /6. T . N. Veziroglu (cd.), Vol. 2. Hemisphere. New
York.
II. Hydm ufi£· Cufc:llfutiom for /'OI'I"I' r /1m/us (Standa rd Method), cumpiled hy t he
Sovicl Thermal Engineeri ng Institute and Central Boiler a nd Turbine InSlilute.
Energiya Publishing House, Moscow. 1966.

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M
CIC
'II Chapter 09
M
Z
'II
A Nuclear Steam
Z
o Generators and

.."
M
Waste Heat Boilers

CIC
o
l-
J. G. Collier

e
CIC
..
o
I
M

..-o
CIC
'II

ell Sadik Kakac

CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 09 Contents
9. Nuclear Steam Generators and Waste Heat Boilers
J. G. Collier

9.1 Abstract
9.2 Introduction
9.3 The Principal Types of Boiler
9.3.1 Nuclear Power Plants
9.3.2 Waste Heat Boilers
9.4 The Thermal and Mechanical Design of Boilers
9.4.1 General
9.4.2 Primary Side (Unfired Boiler) Design
9.4.3 Water-Side (Evaporator) Design
9.4.4 An Example: PWR Inverted U-Tube Recirculating Steam
Generator
9.5 Common Problems in the Operation of Boilers
9.5.1 Causes of Steam Generator Problems
9.5.2 Worked Solutions
9.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

MAIN PAGE
 CHAPTER 9

NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS

AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS
J. G. COLLIER
Nuclear EIec1ric pic
Same" Way
Bamwood
Gloucester GL<I 7RS, United Kingdom

9.1 ABSTRACT

This chapt e r describes the princi pa l types of mode rn unfired Slea m raiser,
conce ntrating on la nd-bil sed unil s in service in t he powe r and process
chemical indust ries. the methods u ~cd for the thermal design of the various
types, and the common probl ems encountered during the ope ration of
steam-ra ising equipme nt .

9.2 INTRODUCTION

The idea of boi ling wa ter to c reate slea m seems 10 have origina ted with the
Greeks a nd Roma ns who used hoi lers in the ir house holds. One of the
ea rliest recorded boile rs opera ting u n the wate r tube principle supplied
sl eam to I-I ero's engine. a hollo w sphere mount ed on hollow tr unnions which
pe rmitted slea m to pass into the sph e re. Th e steam e xh a usted through two
olTset nozzles th at caused the sphere.; tu revulve, thus providin g the world's
first stea m IUrbin e, Tha t was in 1311 A. D, For t he next 1600 years boilers
seemed to be little used until around 1700 whe n the fi rst commercial steam
engines we re produced by Savery in IYOX and Newcome n in 1705. Th is was
the start o f the Industrial Revolut iun a nd since then water has bee n eva po-
rated in to steam to meet every need of tra nsporta tion a nd industry.
Basically, a hoile r, al!ernative ly known as a steam " raise r" or steam
"ge ne ra tor," consists of a means of cont ain ing a volume of water within a

Boil",!, EI'Q(JOrQ/OfS .lind Condl'llStr,l. Edited I'oy ~adik K3kas:

IS BN ()..471 ·h211().h (:1 199 1 J ohn Wiley & Son~, Inc.

471

""" ....
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472 NUCLEAA STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE H~T BOILERS

tank or tubes and a method of heating cither by combustio n of a fuel or by

use of a hot fl uid, gas, or liquid. When a boiler is heated by the direct
combustio n of a fue l. it is refe rred to as a .. fired " hoile r: when it is heated
ind ircctly by a gas or a liquid from an imJustrial process. it is called a n
" unfi red" o r "waste heat" boile r. Th is chapter concent ra tes o n the latter
type.
More recen tly nuclear power. through t he fi ssion of the uran ium atom. has
provided a furt he r mea ns of ra ising stea m fur electricity production. Al-
tho ugh stea m can be raised directly in the core of nuclea r reacto r. this
subject is beyond the scope of this book. Howeve r. the va rious designs of
steam ge nerators hea ted indirectly hy the nuclear reactor coolant will be
discussed since t hey a rc a pa rticular form o f .. waste heat boile r."
In t he early boi le rs the pres~ u re at wh ich the stea m was raised was low.
typicall y o nly 1 ba r above at mosph e ric pressure . Watt appreciatcd th e advan-
tages to be gai ned by highe r pressures in terms of the rmal efficie ncy and
a ro un d 1770 a tte mpte d to construct a boi ler oper'Hi ng at 4 bar pressure.
Neve rthe less up until about 100 yea rs ago pressures remai ned low. Despi te
th is. boile r explosions in locomot ives. ships. and o n la nd were a ll too
frequen t. In the pe riod 18 16- 1848, at least 233 stcamboats uscd o n U.S.
wa te rways cxploded resu lti ng in the lIcaths uf a pproxima tely 2560 persons
plus 2 ]()(} injuries.
T hese tragedies pro mpted th e enactme nt of the first sets of stea m boiler
const ructio n rules from whic h the mode rn p re ~~ure vessel codes li ke ASM E
III a nd VIII a nd B$55oo a rc derived. Slow ly hoil er pla nts become mo re
re liable a nd steam pressures were raised. By [lJ(JO pressures of 20 ba r we re
commo n a nd the re followed a steady incre ase III hoth the pressure and size
o f la nd -based boilers up to Ihe 1960s where. fur c lect ric ity productio n, hig h
subcritica l a nd supercritica l pressures we re :-.lllOda rd and un it sizes fo r
fossi l-fi red pla nt we re in th e 2000 to JOOO MW(t) nmge.

9.3 THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF BOILER

9.3.1 Nuclear Power Plants Nuclear power pla m s [I ] in commo n use

a round the world ca n be classified into fou r main types.

Light-Water Reactor (LWR) Two types of light-watcr reactor a rc in ope ra-

tion, namely:

I. The pressurized-water reactor (PW R ) whe re the reactor core is coolcd

by ord inary (light) water at a pressure around 160 ba r. Hot water from
the reacto r pressure ves..<;c[ is transfe rred vi;1 two o r more coola nt loops
each containing a steam ge nerator.
2. The boili ng-water reactor (BWR) where boi li ng occurs directly within
t he core of the reactor a nd the wate r- steam mixture pas~s to sepa ra-

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 9 .3 THE PRINCIPAl TYPES OF BOILER 473

tors where the steam is dried hefore going directly to the turbine. The
separated water is returned 10 the core wit h the aid of recirculating
pumps.

Heavy-Water Reactor (HWR) In this case the nuclear fuel is contained

inside individual pressure tanks within the reactor core and is cooled by
heavy water at a pressure of around 100 bar. The heat generated in the
reactor is transferred to steam generators (of a simila r design to those used in
pressurized-water reactors) via a "figure of eight" coolant circuit.

Gas-Cooled Reactor (GCR) In th is case the nuclear fuel, contained In

channels within a graphite moderator, is cooled by eithe r carbon dioxide or
helium at a pressure up to 60 bar. The primary coolant system for a modern
gas·cooled reactor is usually contained within a prestressed concrete prcssure
vessel with the steam generators hou sed eithe r within the vessel or in cavities
with in the wall of the vessel.

Liquid-Metal-Cooled Reactor (LMFBR) This reactor, which operates with

high-energy ("fast") neutrons and utilizes uranium fuel significantly more
efficiently that other nuclear reactor types, is cooled by low-pressure liquid
sodium. The reactor may be of [he ··'oop" or '·pool" design. In lhe former
case, hot sodium from the reactor, i~ passed via pipework to an intermediate
heat exchanger where the heal is given up to a secondary sodium circuit
which in turns heats th..:: steam generator. In the "pool" design all the
primary circuit components including the core, the pumps, and the intermc-
diatc heat exchanger arc immersed in a large pool of liquid sodi um.

Steam Generators for Water-Cooled Reactors Most steam ge nerators

used with PWRs and HWRs consist of a vertically mounted shell containing a
bundle of tubes in the form of an inverted U (Fig. 9.1). The shell consists of
two separate sections; an evaporator section containing the tube bundle and
the larger-diameter stream drum section where the steam is separated and
dried.
The hal high -pressure water from the reactor core flows in to the channel
head at the base of the unit, through the inside of the inverted U-tubc bundle
containing some 78 km of tubing and back to the channel head. A partition
plate divides the channel head into in let and outlet sections. The channel
head is fahricated from fcrritic steel and clad internally with stainless steel.
The tubes are usually fabricated from Inconel 600 or Ineoloy 800 and are
mounted on a thick ferritic steel tube plate also clad on the primary side with
lnconel. The tubes are rolled into the tube plate, welded to the primary side
cladding, and supported at intervals by tube support plates. Feed water
enters the steam generator in the upper shell and mixes with water separated
from the steam by the swirl vane separators. This water Haws down the

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474 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

n.._- GF~-
Steam
--- -- Noule .--

Positive
Entrainment
Steam Dryers

lliin"T1Jlt--
, Swirl
Moisture
Vane --!::~~r1lJT1i, i""'~-~
Separator

Feed·Water
Nozzle
Water

Anlivibration - -1!.'!"';
B"

...
"-,, ,.
L_~"b~:
Wrapper

T"be
,t.JlL+- - - Bundle - - -

Primary Inlet Primary Outlet

Fig.9.1. Inverted U·tube steam generLtlor (Westinghousc).

annulus between the steam generator shell and a baffle surrounding the tube
bundle. When the water reaches {he tube plate. it flows radially across the
upper surface of the tube plate into the tub..:: nest. Boiling occurs on the
outside surfaces of the tubes within the bundle and the steam-water mixture
passes upwards into the swirl vane scparator~. Natural circulation is induced
as a resu lt of the density difference within the bundle and the annular
downcome r. The steam from the separators pa~ses through impingement· type
driers and exits from the top of {he shell. Difficulties have been expe rienced

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with some designs of inverted U-tubt: steam generators in maintaining the
integrity of the boundal)' between th e primary and secondary (shell) side. A
detailed review of these difficulties has been given by Green [2}.
Whilst the majority of PWR and HWR power plants arc equipped with
steam generators of the vertical shcl!, inverted U-tube recirculating design,
other steam generator designs are employed in some PWR plants.
In the original Shippingport PWR plant [31, the steam generator equip-
ment consisted of four units each comprising a heat exchanger, a steam
drum, and connecting piping. Two different types of heat exchanger, a
horizontal U-tube design supplied by Babcock and Wilcox and a horizontal
straight-tube design supplied by Fo:-.ter Wheeler, were installed to evaluate
the relative performance of the two designs (Fig. 9.2). Each heat exchanger
was of the shell-and-tube type. Primary coolant Howed through the tubes and
steam was generated on the shell sidt:. The steam-water mixture passed up
the rise rs to the steam drum where standard separators and driers were used
to separate the water from the steam . The water returned to the lower heat
exchanger via the downcomers. The Babcock and Wilcox design was rated at
75 MW(t) and contained 921 x 19 mm stainless steel tubes 15 m long. The
Foster Wheeler design was also ratnl at 75 MW(t) and contained 2096 x
12.7-mm stainless steel tubes 9.5 m long.
Horizontal natural-circulation steam ge nerators arc also widely uscd in
PWRs constructed in the USSR [41. The units for the 440-MW(e) plant
consist of a horizontal shell 11.5 m long and 3 m in diameter (Fig. 9.3).
Venical tubular headers located half way along the shell act as the inlet and
outlet for the primary coolant. Hori zontal bundles of 5536 U tubes mounted
on these headers provide the heat transfer surface, These particular units are
rated at 250 MW(t), but units of 800 MW(t) have been manufactured for the
IOOO-MW(e) plants.
In the United States, one PWR supplier, Babcock and Wilcox, has
equipped its reactors with a vertical shell, straight-tube once-through steam
generator (Fig. 9,4). The primary coolant enters the header at the top of the
unit and flows down through the tubes 10 exit at the base. On the secondary
side, the feed waler is boiled in the interspace between the tubes, totally
evaporated, and slightly superheated (by 30°C). The positioning of the feed
nozzles and steam outlet on the shell and the use of some of the steam to
preheat the feed waler in the annulus around the tube bundle overcome the
problem of differential thermal expansion of the tubes and shell. A feature of
the once-through sleam generator. which was significant in the accident at
Three Mile Island in 1979, is the reduced water inventory in the unit
compared with the recirculating design which, in turn, leads to a shorter time
before the unit "dries out" in the even! of a loss of feed water.
Even with the vertical shell. inverted U-t ube recirculating units, there are
significant differences between vendors in respect to design details such as
thermohydraulic parameters, methods of construction, tube supports, and
materials which profoundly inHuence their performance.

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476 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WI\$TE HEAT SOlLERS

Steam
Steam Drum
t t

Downcomer

/ h~/J'AI \ ~j~~1J\
_ ~...I.!\X-I~ - Primary
Coolan t

~::~ ___ ~t:~'fdhir1.f~ Heat Exchanger

Tube Sheet

Foster Whee ter Steam Generator

Steam
Steam
t

~,",- "M Water

Prrmary
Heat Exchanger Coo<ao,

Tube Sheer

Babcock arid W,tCOx Steam Generator

fig. 9.2. Two diffe rent designs or slc" m IIc nc r;r!m u~cd al Shippingpmt (Babcock a nd
W ilcox and Fosle r Wh eeler).

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 9. 3 THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF BOILER 477

Vessel Steam
Water
Steam Header

Tube Bundle

Fia. 9.3. Horizontal shell natural-circulation steam generator designs used in PWRs
const ructed in the USSR.

Some units are equipped wi th a feed-water preheating section or econo-

mizer located just above the tube plat ~ on the cold leg side of the U tuhcs.
T he feed water enters [he pre heater and is heated almost to saturation
temperature by countercurre nt heat transfer from the reactor coolan t within
the tubes.
In the design of the unit offe red by Foster Wheeler [51 (Fig. 9.5), the
massive thick tube plate and channel head is dispensed with and is replaced
by two cylindrical horizontal headers upon which the tube bundle is mounted
directly. The primary reactor coolant passes through a vertical penetration in
the steam generator shell to this horizontal header feedi ng the tube ban k and
exits by way of a si mi lar header and s hell penetration. The advantages
claimed for this design include the avoidance of sludge deposilion on the
tube plate and the elimination of tube-to-tube plate crevices.
Tube support designs [6) arc particularly important because of the conse-
quences of corrosion of the tube support material. Since the corrosion
products of carbon steel occupy about twice the volume of the original metal,
il is possible, with some tube support designs, for the corrosion to dent the
tubes and to distort the support plate it self. Figure 9.6 s hows a variety of lube

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NEXT
 o 9t 4·m PnmafY _ _
Inlet NoJ:z1e

AUlli~ary
Feed·W3W ,,;,.. --_ff
Sleam Annulus _ __

o 6tQ-m Su~am
0utI0I NouJe , , , - -

Feed·Water Nozzles !32)

22 m
Sleam Recirculation m

H._
Feed·Water

35m

29m

Feed·Water
Heating Chambef

0 .7 1 ' .m .:::~~::.>:
Outlet NOllie
__.

Fig. 9.4. Once . through stcam gcnerato r supplied by [l:lhcoc k and W. lcUll.

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 93 THE PRINCIPAl TYPES OF BOILER 479

Pnmary 0utIe1 Primary Inlel

Header Header

Secondary
Waler

,
\ I.
\. }\
Thermal
Slee\le

Promary Coolant

Bonom End Arrangemenl

Hg. 9.S. Al te rna tive design of inve rted U-Iu bc steam ge ne rato r avoiding thick lu be
plale ( Foste r Wheele r).

support arrangement s used In the steam ge nerator units offered by the

va rious PWR suppliers.

SI.am Generators for Gas·Cooled Reaclors Whilst early gas-cooled

reaelors (Magnox) built in the United Kingdom employed recirculating
boilers to which the re<lctor coolant gas was passed via large-d iameter dU CIS,
stea m generators used on modern gas·coo\ed reactors arc of the once-through
type- that is, the water is evaporated to steam and superheatcd in onc single
pass. This des ign associa ted wi th the integra l ci rcuit contained wi thin the
prestressed concrete pressure vessel gives a simple compact arrangement
avoid ing the need for steam drums and the associat ed pcnctrat ions in the
pressure vessel wall . The stea m gene rator nOI only has economizer, e\lapora-
tor, and superheate r sectio ns but also a rehea ter sectio n to re heat the steam
between the high pressu re and int ermedia te cylinders or the turbine.
Examples o f two differenl designs of steam genera tor arc given be low. In
the case of the nuclea r stations at Hin kley Point B, Hun terslon e, Heysham
II , and Torness each 66O- MW(e) reactor has four boilers eac h made up of
three modules. The boilers arc insta lled in the annulus between the reactor

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 Support
Plate Tube
\
Circulation
Hole

Support
Plate

(al (01

Plate
Tube

(dl

FIK- 9.6. Tub..:: support plate designs (u) Wes tinghouse drilled hole. ( b) Babcock and
Wilcox trifllil plate fnr OTSG un i t~. (d KWU cg~ crate. and (d ) Wcstinghllusc
Oua trafoil fo r model F units.

core and pressure vessel wa ll. Each of the 12 modu les is 16 m high. we ighs
120 tons. and com ains 50 km of hoile r tuhing. T he units ( Fig. 9.7) arc huilt up
from 44 serpentine tube plate ns placed side by side and supported in a
reclanglJ lar stee l casi ng ope n <I t the top and bottom. Th e fee d ,Ind steam
connectors are taken out through pe netrations in the side wall of the
pressure ve5Sel. The hot gas from the reactor fl ows downwards first through
the re heate r sectio n and then th rough the su perhea ter, evaponttor, and
econo mizer. The construction materials a rc austcn itic steel 0 8% C r. 12%
Ni) above 520"'C, 9% chrome steel betwee n 520°C and 350°C for the evapora-
tor section. and ferrit ic stee l (1 % Cr, 0.5 % Mol below 35WC. A transition
section of Inconcl 600 is placed between the 9";f Cr and auste nitic sections.
T his transition is so located that the local gas temperature docs not exceed
550"C and the superhea t in the steam at this poim is not 1eS$ than 7(fC to
avoid the risk of stress corrosion.
An alt ernat ive design of sleam gene rator is employed at the Heysham A
and Hartlepool reactors. In th is case the boile rs and gas circulators are
unitized with the boilers a rranged in eight ve rtical cavities or pod!> wi thin the
pressu re vesse l wa ll. Adjace nt pairs of boile r un its are con nected via external
circuits to for m fo ur boilers from an operational viewpoi nt. The helica l boi ler

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 ,
3 Reheale r ......, an<! or.AIeI
_ ral ","S
4 Ret>e.ler tube ~'O'"I$
S ~er tube SUPPOtI lIN'"

~ .
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supporrs cooI"'II SUPO'Y t)lpe5
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~
31 Rene... """11-' ~"'O""OC 80"-

~iR, 9.7. Once'lhrough steam ge nerator (or JJ "anccd gas-coolcd reactor (Hcysha m II),

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482 NUClEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND W,f,STE HEAT BOILERS

---. "

....

_...
-- r..cl"WII., I.....,
_ .... --IO!fI, ~ I'le l lbololy Spotll.

ria. 9.8. Helical design of once-through Sleam generators for ad\"anced gas-cooled
reactor (Heysham I/ Hart!cpooO.

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 TABLE 9.1 Main Design Parameter for Sturn Generators of Gas-Cooltd Reactors and Liquid-Metal-Cooled Reactors

MAGNOX AGR HTR LMFBR

TrJwsfynydd Oldbul)' llinkley n Hartlepool PfR
Type of boiler Drum Once Once Once Once Forced Once through
assi5ted through through through through circulation or forced
recircula t ion circulation
Steam pressu re. ba r 65 96 165 165 165 165 165
20.6 52
Tube geomctl)' Serpcntlne Serpentine Serpentine Helical Helical U tube U-tube helical
(finned) (finned) (finned) (finned)
Tube material
Evaporator Carbon Carbon Mild steel Mild steel As for AGR 2.25Cr-IMo
steel steel followed followed stabilized
by 9<:r-1 Mo by 9Cr-IMo
Superheatc r
primary Carbor; Carbon 9Cr-IMo 9Cr-IMo As for AGR Austenitic I ncolc'y
sted ~tcel ~I 3lf1ics,
~teel
Secondary Carbon Carbon Austenilic AustenitIC As for AGR
steel steel stamle,s ~tainless
Tube dimensions
Evaporator
OD.mm 56 38 28.6 18 (fin base) 20-30 25 15-25
Thickness. mm 7 5 3.25 3 3-5 2.3 2-4
$uperhealn
OD. mm 38 38 20 25-35 16 15-25
Thickness. nlm 5 4.1 J 2.5 2 2-4
Heat flux, kW 1m2
Evaporator
Inlet 2S 54 19 50 140 160 630
Outlel 1>3 190 ( 10 U7 320 380 110 700 150
3go 1)0 700

'~I 81
Peak 117 20 700

CONTENTS
Mass Ve IOClt~. kgl m 2 s
-gl

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BA,CKi Evapor~tor 31 BACK
~;_ ~_ ~1'50
M full load 575 410 5·10 1200 2030 2580 3000
CONti: NTS
u
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484 NUClEAR STEAM GE NERATORS AN D WASTE H EAT BOILERS

( Fig. 9.S) has the feed pipework run ning down a cen tral core whic h is
surrou nded by a helically wound boi le r lubing giving a long cyli ndrical shape
to fi t into the circula r cavi ties. All the feed. ~uper h ea t er. and re hea te r
con nections arc brought oul through the top of the hoile r. T hus the units
cou ld be completely works-fabricated ready for inse rtion into th e pressure
vessel.
T echnical details and main design paramete r!\ o f these gas-cooled reactor
units arc given in T able 9.1.

Steam Generators for Liquid-Metal Reactors A range of boiler designs

have bee n employed with sodi um-cooled reactor.i-both reci rculating and
once-th rough. Th e design of such units is primari ly dete rmined by the need
to prevent or at least minimi ze t he consequence of a sod ium - wate r chemica l
reaction in the case of a lea k in one of the boiler tubes.
Figure 9.9 shows an isometric view o f the U· tube design o f the evaporato r
used on the U K prototype fas t reacto r ( PFR). A tot al of nine sepa rate stea m

'"
Sleam ; wal81 0\111101 """,Ie
2 Walt: ' ''''!I
r>Oule
3 Sod ,um leye! gacoges (4 011)
4 C lo~,ng head
~ Argon "'lei
S Ga"~1I1
I OI.>8" le
6 lube grid plato s
9 Sod,urn / wale, reac!OQ<"I
0UI 1e1 ooules (. onl
10 Sod,,,,,, I\(rW dl!1'H!<:10<
I, 00111' shell
12 Inne, stoed
13 Sod,um ,nlel <lOules I,om
' llheale< IS 011)
I' 5ocIoum m""'g cl\ambe'
1~ SOd1um d<aon ooule

11 Sodo\lfTl ,nl.., <101:lle . I,om

' upe<f1eal8' 16 011)
11 Wal'" "'teCi"'"
nou'"
19 Tube bundle
r.J Sealin.;; billows
21 $<xl,,,,,, OUU", ro:>n:Je
2~ Sod,,,,,, pl\llse< hyd«:>gen
23 AnI, Q.n 1I ~'atnm"", lUCIe!
2_ Headel cit..., nou'"
2!0 Gasket ISSsemOty
26 Gas p/\Iose< toycI'oge<l
""'eel",t2 0111

Fig. 9.9. PF R cvaporalOrs.

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 9.3 THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF BOILER 485

generator units are installed on this reactor-each consist ing of aU-tube

bundle installed within its own shell. The evaporator employs parallel flow
whilst the superheater and reheat er units operate with counterflow.
An alternative design of once-through steam generator is used on the
French 1200-MW(e) Super Phenix fast reaclor. Four secondary circuits each
contain a single 750-MW(t) steam generator unit. Each unit comprises a
vertical cylindrical she ll enclosing a helically coiled tube bundle (Fig. 9.10).

Reheated Steam

SOdium Outlet

Fig. 9.10. Supcrl'henix steam generator.

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486 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

Sodium enters at the top of the unit via two opposed inlet nozzles and flows
through the tube bundle to exit through a single outl et nozzle at the base of
the unit. Feed water e nte rs through thermally sleeved nozzles at the base of
the units and water flows countercu rrent to the sodium heing first evaporated
and then superheated to 49O"C in a single pass before the steam exits the
outer shell again via the rmal sleeves. The 357 tuhes per unit are fabricated
from Incoloy 800 and 25 mm 10 /2.5 mm wall thickness 91.5 m long.

9.3.2 Waste Heat Boilers

A wide variety of waste heat boiler designs have been constructed to recove r
heat from various chemical processes. Such ho ilers may have to accept
process gases at temperatures up to lOOO to l 2(.KrC and pres.'iures up to 30
bar. As a result severe problems often arise due to loca l overheating
somet imes associated with both fouling and corrosion. Typical of the curren!
designs are the following.

Vertical Calandr;a Units In this fire-tube hoiler design, a vertical calan-

dria (Fig. 9. 11 ) is formed by tubes located hctween two horizontal tube
plates. The hot process gas passes upwards inside the tubes whilst water is
fed to the shell side of the ca landria at its basc o Th c steam-wate r mixture
generated wi thin the shell is taken off at the top to a steam drum to separate
the steam. The bottom tube sheet is exposed to the hot process gas, and
cooling by the water on the shell side may become inadequate if the

_ Steam/ Water
[ O,,,,O,,m

_ Feed Water In

Fig. 9.11. Vertical calandria type waste

heat boiler.
t
Hot Gas In

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 9.3 THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF BOILER 487

Water In

I
Tube Sheet 10f
Inner Tubes
Steam and
Water Out
--c::=:
Tube Sheet /Of
Gas O\It Outer Tubes

1
H o t Gas In

ri~. 9.12. Vertical bilyonct -Iubc wasle heal boiler.

circulation is impeded by the large v\llume o f steam ge nerated in this region.

The usc of ferrules at the en trance to the tubes can alleviate the problem.
hut it is difficult to find materia ls that wi ll withstand the arduous cond itions.

8syonel·Tube Un/Is A commo n waste heat boi ler design, pMticularly in

ammoni a plants, is the bayonet-tuhe design (Fig. Y. 12). In this de sign the
problems of the lowe r tubc plat e arc dim inated by havin g a ree ntrant des ign
of wa ter tube boi ler. The water enh:rs the uni t from abovc. into an upper
plenum, ;md thence to a series of dnwncomer tubes. AI th e hollom of th e
downcomer tube the flow reverses, .tnd the steam-water mixture then flow s
upwards in the annu lus between the inner downcomer lube and an outer
tubc which is in contact with the ga~. The hot gas en ters at the bottom of the
vesse l. flows across bames, and exits at Ihe la p of the unit. These units have
in the past suffered from problems of overhea ting althe point where Ihe flow
reve rses al the base of the bayonet lube. from erosion, and from a rat her
complex lube shee l de.~ ign.

Vertical U·tube Units In thi s arrangement the bayonet tubes arc replaced
by U tubes (Fig. Y.13); otherwise, the arrangeme nt is s imi lar to the hayone t-

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 ~Waterln
I I I
Tube Sheet !Of U Tubes

~~~J~~~=::- Gas Out

l-tr- u Tubes

t
Hot Gas In

Fig_ 9.1J. Vert ical U-tubc waste heal boiler.

lube design. Forced circulat ion is preferred with Ihis arra ngeme nt as natural
circulation may be slow slarting o r may even occur in the wrong direction .
The sodium· hcatcd evaporator shown in Fig. Y.9 is an example of such a
U-tubc waste hea t boiler design .

Horizontal U-Tube Units In th is design a hurizontal bundle of U tu bes is

moun ted in the form of a shell-and -Iube heat c.\:changer (Fig. 9.14). Water is
fed to the lower li mb of each U tube and the Sleam-waler mixture gene rated
within Ihe un it passes Oul to a sleam drum from the upper limb. Dryoul heal
Huxes arc much lowe r in horizontal tubes compared with vertical tubes, and
the silUation is made more complex by the presence of the U bend. Flow
separa tion effects can occur downSlream of the bend induci ng premature
dryout and ove rheating. The problem may be all eviated by Ihe insertion of
twisted tapes into the tubes. but this increases the pressure drop. The
problems of U-t ube waste heat boilers have been discussed by Robe rtson [7).

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 9.3 THE PflINCIPAl TYPES OF BOILER 489

To Steam
Drum Ho< Ga,
F,~

Steam
Drum
1 I
To Steam
Drum
Boiler Fee<!
Water

....ig. 9.14. H o r iwnl~1 U-tu bc waste heal boiler.

Horlzontsl Crossflow Units Th l). design of a fir e- tube unit involves the
hOI process gases passing through a se ries of horizon tal smoke tubes muunted
between two ve rlically o rie nt ed tunc plales (Fig. 9.15). The steam - water
mi}l;ture ge ne ra ted un the shell side I ' taken off through a se ries of rise r pipes
10 a steam drum a nd [he separated water is returned 10 the shell via

ProtectIOn Insulatlllg Fiber

PI~te ~~,<'~"...~
. ~ F.,,",. Process Gas Outlet

1 Tube Sheet
Concrete

o
. 1 " -4 External Insulation

. : .~
.... -' ~~
....
l.J,.. """,,"=<; WClter Oowocomer Pipes
HoI Gas
~,~~
, Slowdown Connection

InsulalmQ Concrete

Refractory Concrete

Fig. 9. 15. Horizontal firc-tul:oc waste heal hoiler.

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490 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

downcomer pipes. T he gas inlet is insulated using refractory and insul ating
concrete. Fe rrules arc inserted at the tube entrance, but wi th the ve rtica l
tube plate less fo uling oecurs and the inside surface is swept by the reci rculat-
ing steam-wa ter mixture .
Furthe r deta ils of the various designs of waste heat boiler unit s have been
given by Hinch ley (8, 91 and by Smith (101.

9.4 THE THERMAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN OF BOILERS

9 .4.1 General
T he design basis for waste hea t boilers and for nuclear power plant boilers
arc si mi lar. The basic steps arc:

I. Se lection of the type of waste heat boile r ha!<.ed on previous expe rience.
2. Prepara tion of a rough design to establish the basic dimensions of the
un it. T he surface area of the boiler ca n be estima ted from

Q
A
VaT
where Q is the tolal heat load o r dUly. V is the overa ll hea t tra nsfer
coemcie nt, and :l. T is the log-mean te mperature differe nce be twee n the
pri mary si de and the evaporating side. Guida nce o n va lues of the
pri mal)'-side heat transfe r coefficie nts have hee n give n in a numher of
sources includ in g Smi th (10). For hot water a va lue of 4000 W / (m 2 . K)
might be used: wh ilst for hot gas lOll to 2110 W/( m ~ . K). wou ld be
acceptable dependi ng on the gas pressure. For liquid sod ium 10,000 to
20.000 W/ (m 2 • K) would be appropriate.
3. E.<;ti ma tion of the numher, le ngth, and diameter of tubes based o n the
appropriate fl uid ve locity and pressure drop limitations.
4. Re fi nement of the design using more accurate analytical proced ures.

9.4.2 Primary Side (Unfired Boller) Oesign

Certainly fo r nuclea r power plllnt stea m generators. it is ofte n necessary to
know in some considerable detai l the fl ow and tempe rature patte rns on the
primary (hea ti ng) shell side. An exam pl e of the current techniques used to
as.'iCSS th ese fl ow- tcmpera tu re fields has hee n given hy Webster [I ll for the
PFR evaporator described ea rlie r. The shell -side sodi um How is very com-
plex, being convol uted and strongly three d imensIonal. T he simu lation model
makes usc of the "porous med ium model'" approac h by Sha ( 12] in which the
transport equations are solved numerically in I.;onjunction wit h anisotropic

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 94 TH E THERMAL ANO MECHANICAL DESIGN OF BOILERS 491

continuum propcrt lCs of porosity. permeability. and resistance drag. These

properties refl ect the detailed lUbe hu ndle and tuhe suppor! geome tries.
The model grid involved 47,000 ccll1<o. each 68 mm squa re and 100 mm high.
The results were provided in t he fo rm of ve locity vectors an d temperature
conto urs. Simila r three-di me nsiona l models arc ava ilabl e for steam genem-
tors installed in gas·cooled and water-cooled reactors. The porous medium
approximatio n is a very powerful method fo r ma king detailed analyses of
complex plant compone nts such :1.<' U tuhes, helical boile rs, and the like. An
exa mple of the appl ica tion o f a two-di mensional computer code BESANT to
predict the detailed nnw and temperatu re distribution on the prima ry side of
a sodium-heated once- through stc;lrn ge ne rato r has bee n given by Brown
1131.

9.4.3 Water-Side (Evaporator) Design

Boiling within Tubes Th e physical processes th at occur whe n water is
boiled within a ve rtical hea ted tube ilre I,;omplex. involving as they do the
two-phase now of steam and wate r in a va riety o f now patt erns and associ-
ated with these fl ow patte rns many d ilferen! heat transfer regimes. These
processes have hee n descr ibed in detail by Collier (14J and it is not necessary
to review them here. Basically. the boile r designer is concerned with just two
(IUesti ons:

I. What is the circulation rale wil hin the hoiler, is it sufficient. and is it
stabl e for all like ly o perating o lllditio ns of the boiler?
2. Is the circulation and th e heal Ilux di strihution in all pans of the hoiler
sufficiently well matched to prcve nt the tube material overheating?

Circulation In II natural -circul ation boil er the driving forl,;C to inducc wa te r

circulation is the d iffe re nce in dell:-;ily be twee n the wat er in the down comer
,101.1 the steam- water mixture in the waste heat boiler and rise r tubes. Th is
circulation is o nly induced once hoil lnS start s in th e steam gene rator and
increases as the volume of stei.lm in lhe ri se r sectio n increases and the densit y
falls. Since th e pressure d rop around the complete circuit must be O. the
circulation is set by the cond ition that the d ifl"crence in hcad between th e
riser ;lnd downcomcr blll anccs the fri ctional and momentum losses in
the tu bes, be nds. heade rs, and sepa rators.
Clea rly, as the steam pressure rises towa rd th e critical pressure , th e
differe nce in den:-;ity betwee n steam and water reduces with a consequent
reduction in the drivi ng force for nat ural circulation. Thus at high suberitical
pressures, pumps arc oft en installed il l the base of the downcomers to assist
circul atio n.
The thermo hydraul ic conditions wit hin the boiler a rc usually incorporated
into a compute r·based model 115. Ill]. Th e hydraulic circuit is modelled in a

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492 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

series of parallel -series pathways with nodes representing the steam drums,
headers, and so on. connected by pathways representing a group of geometri-
cally si milar tubes exposed to simila r heating conditions. Further subd ivision
is possible to distinguish betwee n say tu bes near the shell wall and those in
the cenie r of the bundle . Apart from geometrical data other input data
required include the pressure and feed-wa ter temperature in the drum . An
esse nti al element of the calculation is the eval uation of the pressure loss
along the steam generator tube in which boiling occurs. This involves inte-
grating a loca l pressure gradien t along the tu be length. This local pressure
gradient is made up of three se parate components: a frictional term, an
acccicrational term. and a static head term.

_(dP) __ (dP F) _ (dl' A) _ (dP ,) (9.1 )

dz TP dz (Iz dz
Using the separa ted fl ow model, in which the sleam and water phases are
assumed to flow al different mean velocities each occupying a fraction of the
total fl ow cross section. these three componenls are, respectively, given by

- (:~ F) - - (:~ F ~~o to (9.2)

whe re !/Ito is known as the two-phase fr ict ional multiplier and

- (-dP
dz
F)
l.O

is the frictional pressure gradient calculated fro m the Fanning equation for
the tot al flow (water and steam) assumed to be water:

- (-dP)
dz
A , d (X-"'G- + (I -X )""' )
- G -
dz a
'-cc--'-c--".
(I -a)
(9..1 )

where G is the lotal mass velocity, x is the steam quality, a is the void
fraction (fraction of cross section occupied by steam), and I·G and /.,./. are .
respectively, the steam and water specifi c volumes:

- (-dl') (a (I-a))
z - g si n 8 - + (9.4)
(iz l 'r. /·1.

where g is the acce leration due to gravity. and (J is the angle of indination of
the tube to the horizontal .
To evaluate the local pressure gradient. expressions are required for the
functions ~i.u and a. A very large number of correlations have been
proposed for these fun ctions, and a summary of the better known correla-
tions for ~Lo is given in Table 9.2. A number of workers have carried out

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 TABLE 9.2 TWD-Phase Pressure Drop Correlallons for Slum-Wat~r Mixtures

Correlation

Homogeneous
Collier [14 J
~Lo ~ [I +X(PI'p~PG)][1 +x(JLL/l-eJLc)rI /4
2 2 2 4>~o(G=1356)=fn(JLd/lc)o.2(PdPL)1·x)
BaroC1:y [17J ~ 1.0 ~ 11 tPLOf G = 1356 kgj(m . s)) where [ 0.2 . 1
11 = f( (Ild/ld (pdPL). x)
t/ 2
ChIsholm [181 ",2
'PLO
1
=.... (r 2 - 1)(8x 1'-~
- )/2(1 - x )(2"n\I '
- + :.c '-")
- h
were r = [ (dPJdz)Go/(dP/dzho )
B=/(C.r)

ClSE dP) [Kcnf.08<>crO.4] r- = [x/Pc + (I -- ..r)JpJ

Lombardi [!9\ ( -dz TP = 12 where K = f (geometry)
D'
n ~ f (geometry)

Martinelli and Nelson [20] 4>Lo = fn(P, x)

1/2 ]2
Smith and Macbeth [2I1 d>i.o = [{( e(J - x) + (::).r) (e( I - x) + x) } + (I - l')( I -:.c) where e = 0.4

CONTENTS
BA{;:K
- lD-

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494 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT SOlLERS

systematic comparisons between th ese various correlations and data hanks

conta ining large numbers of experi mental pressure lIrop measurements for
stea m- water mixtures. A su mmary of these va rious comparisons is given in
Ta ble 9.3. A lthough ldsinga [241 concl uded from his study that the homoge-
neous model was best when compared wi th his database, ot he r studies agree
that the most accurate correlat ions fo r q,Lo a rc those of Baroczy [17].
Chisholm lil'll. and C ISE 1191 but that in each C,I~C the standard deviation of
e rrors abou t the mean is 30% to 35'Yo . Per haps this agree me nt is not so
surprising given the considerable overlap in the dat,lhase for stea m- water
pressure drops used by the various stud ks. Mure recent ly, Friedel [26] has
published what is probahly regarded as the most accurate generally available
correla tion for fbTJI'
To eva lua te the changes in momentum (or kinetic e ne rgy) and also the
mean de nsity of a two-phase flow , it is necessary to be able to establish the
locnl void fraction or fraction of the flow cross section occupi ed by stea m.
Once aga in a large number of correlations have been proposed for the
eva luation of vnid fractinn. a. Some times the correla tion is expressed in
terms of the slip veloc ity ratio, S, which is defin ed :IS the mean ve locit y of the
steam phase lIivided by the mean velocity of thl' wilter phase and rela ted to
the void fraction hy the ide ntity:

s- L~x)(;:, )(~) (9 .5)

A su mmary of the be tt cr known correlations for 5 or a is give n in Table

9.4. Similarly, systematic compa risons have bec n carried out hetween the
various void fraction correlations and data bank, containing large numhers of
expcrimenlill measures of either void fraction or fluid density measureme nt s
for steam - wate r mixtures. A summary of these cl)mparisons is given in Table
9.5. 11 ca n be see n that the various studies ,lgrce thai the most accurate void
fraction correlat ions a rc those of Sm ith [29], e lSE [301, and Chisholm [311.
wi th the laller having the added advantage of great simplicity. Again. the
standard deviation of error on the mean densit y is ahout 20% to 30%.
Having established it me'lns of calculating the two-phase pressure loss in
the steam generator tuhes. the eomputer-hased model is used to establish a
set of flows such Ihat thc net pressure loss around the ci rcu it is O. The output
from the model gives the /low. pressure. and steam quality for each pathway.

Dryout Flowing high-pressure water or steam - water flows provide good

heat transfe r and can remove re la tively high hea t flux le\'cls with only small
inc reases of tube wall temperature over the sa luration temperatu re. How-
ever, if the heal flux is in creased above a critical level. than a disproportion-
ate increase in tube wall tempe rature occurs often resulting in damage to the
boi ler tube. This critical level of heating is usually refe rred to as the "critical"
heat flux or "dry ouC heat flux . 11 is a complex functio n of the tube diameter
and the inclination, steam pressure, steam quality, anti flow rate. as well as a

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 TABLE 9.3 Two-Phase Pressure Drop Data for Steam-Water Mixtures

Data Bank ESDU [22] Friedel [23] Idsinga 124] Ward [25]

Upflow. downfiow. and

Flow Direction horizontal UpRowonly Upflow and horizontal UpAow and horizontal

Correlation II e u n e (J' n e a n e (J'

Homogeneous
Colliedl41 1709 -110 34,2 2705 - 19,9 42.0 2238 - 26.0 22.8 4313 - 23.1 34.6
Baroczy [I7J 1447 4.2 30.5 2705 - 11.6 36,7 2238 - 8.8 29.7 4313 - 2.2 30.8
Chisholm [IB] 1536 J9.0 36.0 2705 -3.8 36.0 2238 0.5 40.5 4313 13.9 34.4
CISE Lombardi (J9j 2705 16..3 28.0 2225 22.6 28.9
Martinelli and Nelson [20J 1422 16.3 36.6 2238 47.8 43.7
Smith and Macbeth 1211 4313 - 16.6 24.1
II = number of da1a points analyzed; e = In~JII error, % = (aPe.1 - Jlp"p) X IOO/ap",p: 17 = st~ndard deviation of errors abou1 1he mean, %.

... tiil

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CONTEN~ Z Z

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496 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATOflS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

TABLE 9.4 Void Fraction Corrdations for Steam-\\'ater Mi1dures

Co rrelation

Lockhart and Martinelli [27J IT - f(X)wh", X - [(d~)

fl,
/(d~) .]'"
I. d~ c,

Hughmark [281 ('( - K where K - fI Re, Fr,(1 - .t3l1

Smith [29] S - e + (I - e)

pd pc; + dl / x - 1)
where j' - ()A
1 + ('( 1/ .\"-1)

C ISE Prcnluli [3()] S - 1((;. D. p, . /' (., ~I' (T , fj) +

Chisholm [J II s- H::;)· -,f' (I

ThOnl [32] S - r( p,. )

PG

- IT
Bankotr and Jones [JJ] S- [A a , ( 1 Ala
H] where A. 8 - f(p )

- IT
Bryce [.l4J
S - [A a -+ {I A la' ]

A - j{I', G.X'/'(;,PIJ
whe re
B -[(/'.(I(;,P\)

numbe r of secondary va riables. Boiler designers usually generate critical hea t

fl ux data experi men tally simulat ing, as closely as possibl e, the expected
thermal conditions within the steam generator. One experimenta l racility is
thill opera ted by the CEGB at its MaTChwood Engineering Laboratories [361.
II has the capacity to test full -size tubes (J2 to 52 mm 10) under real ist ic
pressure, flow, s team quali ty, tube inclination. and heating. Typica l resu ll s
arc shown in Figure 9. 16.
The eri liea l he:lt flu x:
I. Decreases with increasing steam quality
2. Decreases wilh increasi ng press ure for a give n stea m qua lilY and mass
nux
3. Decreases al low flow ralC and Ih en increases again at high flow rate
fo r a given stea m quality and pressure

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 TABLE 9.5 Void Fraction Data for Steam-Water Mixtures

Analysis of Mean Density Analy.~is of Slip Ratio

Data Bank Freidel (23) Bryce [34] ESDU [35J Bryce [34]

Correlation n e (J' n (? (J' n e (T II e tY

Lockhart and Martinelli [27) 59R - 57.6 50.3

Hughmark [28) 484 -10.8 33.0 598 -9.1 29.2
Smith [29) 484 0.5 26.8 639 8.6 31.5 639 18.0 77.8
elSE Premoli [30J 484 9.3 35.0 639 - 1.4 22.7 598 -23.7 27.2 639 - 1.2 68.6
Chisholm [31] 484 -0.4 26.0 598 - 14.5 30.8
Thorn [32] 484 7.4 36.5 639 43.3 61.7 639 132.6 2()().O
Bankotf and Jones [33J ~ 9.32 31.6 639 34.5 137.6
Bryce [34] 639 0.1 20.7 639 6.1 86.9
n = number of d3r3 points analyzed; e = mean error. % ~ (cal - exp) x \OO/exp: u = standard deViation of error abouJ the mean, %.

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 498 NUCLEAfI STEAM GENERATORS ANO WASTE HEAT BO~LERS

Critical Heat Flu,.;

Steam Quality
Cnllca1 Heat Flux

Steam Quality 0.2

400 kg/(m 1 . s 'l Mass Flux

100 ''0 ''0 160 ''0 200

Pressure. bar
Critical Heat Flux
Steam Quality 02

205

800 1200 t 600 2000

° '00
Mass Flu~. kg / (m ~ s 'I

Fig. 9. 16. Typical c~pcrimcntal critical hL-at flux data.

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 9.4 THE THERMAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN OF BOILERS 499

There are also effects due to nonuniform versus uniform heating and
between vertical and horizontal tuhe~.
Dryout in a horizonta l tube differs from that in a vertical tube in two ways:

I. Stratification of the flow can occur at low velocities for both low-quality
and subcooled conditions. Such conditions can lead to overheating of
steam boiler tubes at quite modest heat fluxes.
2. Dryout of the lUbe at high vapor qualities occurs over a relatively long
tube length, starting at the top of the tube where the film thickness and
flow rate are lowest and ending up with the final evaporation of the
rivulet running along the bottom of the tube. Under these conditions
the vapor flow in the upper part of the tube may become superheated
before dl)'out occurs at the base of the tube .

Styrikovieh and Miropolskii [37] reported the effects of strat ification of a

high-pressure steam-water mixture in a horizontal pipe. These caused wide
temperature differences between the top and bottom of the boiler tube.
Experiments were carried out on a ~ingk 7.5 m, 56 mm ID tube at pressures
between ]() and 220 bar with heat fluxes in the range 22 to 135 kW /m 2 and
inlet velocities between 0.24 and 1 m/ s. It was found that there was a critical
two-phase velocity, j, below which strati fication occurred and above which it
did not. Using an alcohol-water analog for steam-water flow , Gardner and
Kubic [38] established an expression for the critical velocity, j .

· 1.S = 3U 43
D 'I ' ( ( + )} U.5
- ug PI. Pc;
) . liMn 2 ( ~.6)
PI.' }J./:

Table 9.6 gives the va lues of j calculated from their equation for
steam -water flows over a range of pressures and tube diameters. Excellent
agreement was seen with the data of Styrikovich and Miropolskii and this
approach is recommended as giving the minimum single- or two-phase
velocity below which stratification will occur in a horiwntal tube.

TABLE 9.6 Values of j, m / s, to Prevenl Stratification for Steam-Water Flow

in Horizontal Tubes

~
D.mm

20
33.5

2.7l
1>4.2

2.47
112.9

2. 11
146

1.82
165
1.63
,<7
1.37
40 2.92 2.67 2.28 1.97 1.77 1.48
6U 3.06 vm 2.38 2.06 1.1'15 1.55

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500 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

Stratification may also occur in ven ical bends :t nLl in helical coils. For the
case of ,I vertica l bend, Bailey [391 showed thaI the gravi tational force
maintaining slTatified flow is supplemented by cen tri fugal forces .

Boiling on the Shell Side Boiling on the outside of a bundle of horizontal

tubes occurs in shell boil ers and in Soviet-designed nuclear steam genera tors.
Although a large amOunt of resea rch has becn carried out with respect to the
boiling of water at va rious pressures from submerged horizontal isolated
lUbes, considerably less information is available fo r tube arrays. What expe ri-
mental evidence th ere is suggests an enhancement of heat transfer coem-
denls. especia lly for those locations within th e lube bundle bathed by steam
from tubes lower down in the bundle. One stutly by Cornwell et al. [40, 411
indicates that the heat transfer coeflicie nl increases from the base to the top
of the tube bund le by a factor of 3 to 6 as the steam quality rises. Those
coefficients at the base of the bundle correspon d to those expected for pool
boiling on isolated tubes.
FOr a tube bundle the cri tica l heat flux leve l i~ reduced compared wit h
that for an isolated horizonta l tube [421. Various mechanisms arc possible
whereby a critical or limit ed heat flux (or bundle power) is reached within the
cube bundle. These depend on the extent to which the bunJIc geometry
perm its or docs nO( permi t recirculation of the wa ter to the hase of the tube
bund le. They may be briefly uescribed ;IS follow , :

I. Pool boiling crillcul 11('(11 1Iu)(. This mechanism will occur in small
bundles with wiJely spllced tuhes. In this case the flow passages within
th e bundle arc essentia lly fi lled with liqui d and the limiting process is
th e sa me as that for an isolated single tube.
2. Zero circulutiofl and floodillR limitell. Th j~ mechanism tx:curs when
th ere is no net circul;l(ion through the tuhe bu ndle. Liquid en teri ng the
bundle can do so only from above and is hinde red in doing so by the
vapor being rcle:lscd from the bundle. A iiooding condition is reached
where the vapor release is such as tu preven t sufficient downflow uf the
liquid to reach all the heati ng su rfaces within Ihe hundle. This mecha-
nism is more likely to occur in large bundles with closely spaced tubes.
Downflow can occur in some lanes and with upflow in others. giving an
apparent internal circu lation.
3. Circulalioll alld floodillK limited. T his mechanism is simi lar except that
some sma ll circulat ion into the bundle from the sides and base occurs.
This low inflow of liquid is cVllporatcJ within the bunJlc anJ the
resulting vapor passes upwllrd to join Ihat ge nerated from the liquid
passing into the bundle from abovc. Again, the limiting condition is
reached when this tota l vapor Row is such as to prevent a sufficient
liquid inflow from above. This mechani~Tll occurs in large hundles wilh
closely spaced tubes.

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 9.4 THE THERMAL AND M ECHANICAL DESIG N OF BOILERS 501

4. CirculQlioll limited. As the ci rcula tion throu gh the bundle increases. a

condition is reached where the vapor fl ow produced from this circula -
tion alone is sufficient to preven t any liquid entering the bundle from
above. The limiting condition is th en complete evaporation of the
liquid feed. starving the upper lubes in the bund le of liquid . Such a
conditio n mi ght occur in narrow but tall tube bundl es.

In practice it is difficult 10 distin guish among some of these mechan isms in

actua l tube bundl e geometries.

5. Enrroinmel/l limited . As the circulation through the bundle is furth er

increased, a substanti al amount of liquid may he entrained as droplets
within the vapor flow and thus lIryout will occur on the upper tubes on
the bundle at vapor qua lities considerably less than 100% .

A simple analytical expression can he derived for th e cond itio n where the
bundle is limited by zero circulation on the assumption that fo r a hundle of
circular cross section located within a blind-ended rectangu lar chan nel.
floodin g wi ll occur fi~t at the horizont:11 diameter of the bundl e.
Thi s expression for the critical he;lt flux in a tube bund le can be consid-
ered the product o f two terms: a bundle geome try-characterizing parameter
and a liquid physical property group. As might be expected lI,., inc reases :IS
the bundle size decreases ( D ..,/N increases) and as the pitch. p. to tube
diameter. D . ratio increases. Should lI" predicted from this equ ation exceed
the va lue calculated for an isolated ~ing le tube, then the laller value should
be used . The situation is then that correspo nding to pool boi ling described
previously.
Palen and Small 143] has given a correl ation for thc critical heat nux wi thin
a tube bundle under conditions whL're the liqu id circul ation is limited. It was
arrived at by modifyi ng the isolated .<.ingle-tubc value. The cri tica l he:l t flux is
aga in expressed as the prod uct of a dimension less tube density factor rP and a
dimensional physical property fac tor <p.
(9.7)
The variation of the bundle cri tical heat flu x as a function of these two
parameters is shown in Fig. Y. 17. Avai labl e experimen tal evidence suggests
that the pred ictions of both are conM:rvative. and , given the onset of steam
blanketing within II bundle. Sch uller and Cornwell [40] recommend th at.
provided the steam quality from the tube bundle docs not exceed 15%. the
critica l hea t fl ux is unlikely to be les)' Ih;m one-th ird of the isolated horizontal
tube value.
Computer codes (cf. T HIRST (44]1 hased on the porous media approach
11 J] arc available 10 l'Omputc the three-dimensiona l steady-state thermohy-
draulic characte ristics of boiling on the shell side of vertical inve rted U-tubc
stea m generators fo r ligh t·wate r or heavy-water cooled reactors.

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502 NUClEAA STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

5 ): IO~ f-- - - - - t - - - - -- t-:...,""!8-1

.
.....E 2 x IO ~ 1------+-----,
~

~ 5 x 10 ' f------;
r
§
< 2 x W'f---
,~
W·

0001 001 0 .1 0.'

Tube DenSity Factor. 'I' IO,meoslOOless)

Fig. 9. 17. Maximum heat nux in hmil.ontal tube burllllc.s( Palc n and Small).

Use of Enhanced Surfaces (4S) Although buth high-fi n and low-fin sur-
faces are used on Ihe gas si de of nuclea r slea m ge nera tors and waste heat
hoilers, enhance me nt devices are nol on Ihe w;lI,,: r-stea m side e;(ccpl in
special circumstances. Twisted lape inse rts have been used to increase the
crilical heat flux in horizontal U-tuhe waste he;lI boilers (7] in cases whcre
stratifica tion has occurred due 10 low fl ow.
In general, nuclea r steam genera tor.; and waste heat boilers ope rate at
lowe r pressures and lower peak heat fluxes Ihan fossi l-fired central stalion
boi lers. T he increase in cri tical heat fl ux with decreasing pressure is such that
even fo r horizont a l tubes there is usua lly no requi re ment for enh ance ment
devices.

9.4 .4 An Example: PWR Inverted U-Tube Recirculating

Steam Generator
The fo llowi ng is an exa mple of the general design method outlined in Seelion
9.4.1. Steam gener.a tors are required for each loup of a four-loop PWR wilh
the fo llowing characteristics:
Stea m Pressure fly bar
St,,:am tlow ra te 47() kg/s
Steam lemperalure 2H5¢C
Feed·wate r temperature 277"C
Primary reactor coolant
Inlet 325°C
Out let 29JOC
T hermal rating 850 MW(t )

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 The design is to be an inve rted U-tube reci rcula ting type (Fig. 9. 1) with a
single shell pass a nd two tube passes. The te mperature distribution (Fig.
9.18) is as follows.
Because the shell-side steam tempc r:lIure is essentia lly constant, no cor-
rection factor is needed for the LMTD:

(40 - ')
LMTD .. = 1~ .9"C =0. 20"C
In ( 40/8)

An appropriate value of the overall heat transfer coefficient for this design
is 7500 W /(m 2
• K).

Q 850 X 101>
A
UH

Studies have shown that the optimum design of vertica l na tural-ci rculation
steam ge ne rators, corresponding to th e minimum cost (capital and opera tin g),
will be achieved with the smallest tubes cons iste nt with fouling. vibration , and
inspection considera tions. An appropriate minimum tube diame ter would be
17.5 mm 00 X I mm tube thickness Inconel 690. To fit into the steam
generator she ll , an appropriate overall le ngth of the average U tube would be
18 m. The number of tubes ami the diame te r o f the shell can now be

3'0 r-----,-----,-----,-----,-----,

- Primary,SIde Hot Leg

320

COld Leg

280 / Shell-Side Steam

2ro ~--~~---L----~----~'--~
o 2 4 6 a 10
Tube Length. m

Fig. 9.18. Te mperature dis tribution in PWR U·1Ube recirculating steam generator.

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504 NUCLEAR STEAM G ENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

estima ted :

A
N-
"DL

5666
x 17.5 x 10 -·' x 18

= 5725 tubes

These tubes ca n be fitt ed into a 3.S-m vert ical she ll.

The next stage is to fill ou t the basic mcch<mical design dimensions.
Details of the wrapper around th e tuhc hundle 10 form the downcomer: the
tube sheet; the number, type, and material of the tube su pports a nd the
antivibration supports in the U-tube region need to be established. The basic
" firs t cut" dimensions can the n be used as ini tial input to one of the
proprietary computer-based steam generator thermohydrau lics codes such as
TH IRST [44]. These treat the shell side as a porous medi um (the presence of
lubes, baffles, and other objects is desc ribed in te rms of a spatially variable
porosity) in which the basic conserva tion e quat ion~ lIf cont inui ty. axial, rad ial.
and circumferent ial mome ntum, and e nergy a rc solved . These codes. how-
ever, do require specifica tion of various Huid How and heat transfe r correla-
tions to effe ct closure of the transport e q uation~ . Since these correlations are
derived from expe riments in simple geomet ri e~ such as tubes. a nnuli. or
sim ple bundles, the re is likely to be conside rable uncert ain ty associated with
their applicat ion in a steam ge ne ra tor code.
The output from th e code provides both contours of stea m quality a nd
mass velocity throughout the steam ge nerator :<.he ll, as well as spatia l varia-
tions of tube wall temperature and heat Hux. Importa nt design parame ters
which can be esta blished incl ude the recircu lation ratio (the ratio of th e total
How through the bundle to the How rate of steam out of the steam nOlzle ),
the heat duty, the maximum local quality, and t he maximum quality at the
tube shee t (as a resu lt of heat tra nsfe r a nd boiling in the hot leg region). as
we ll as the performance of the unit at part -load conditions and under
cha nges of plan t state. A lthough recirculat ion ratios as low as 3 or 4 can be
used with ca reful design. highe r values (6 to 7) allow increased ve loci ties
across the tube shee t, whic h reduce debris buildup, and lowe r steam quali-
ties, which reduce the probability of local dryout a nd concentrat ion of
aggressive che micals l1 ear tube supports.
The effects o f various alternative e mpirical corre lations for pressure drop.
void fra ct ion. and heat transfcr on the prc di ction .~ of the THIRST code have
been reported by Ca rlucci and Sutherland (461. The va rious correlations
investiga ted arc shown in Table 9.7, and the resu lts for a typical inverted
U-tube steam generator [work ing pressure 60 bar. thermal rating 632 Mw(t)1

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 9 0" THE THERMAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN OF BOILERS 505

TABLE 9.7 Correla tions I"l°t-stigated in THIRST Code Study (Take" rrom 146))

Na me uf Source of Correlat ion

Parameter Refert'nee Variant

Prc s.~uredrop
Single·ph'lse p<lr'lllcl-flow
friction faclor Rc hmc [47] Mille r (48)
Single-phase erossflow
friction faclor Zukauska ~ [49] Grimisl.ln [50]
Two-phase friction
multiplier H omogcneous Baroczy-Chisholm [1M]
Marti ne lli 'lOLi Nelson [20J
Martinelli a nd Nelso n. Jo nes [51]
Tho rn [32]
Void fraction Homogcn,;ous Tho rn (32) and Smith [21,1]
C hisholm [31]
Armand and Trcshchc v [52)
Secondary-side heal transfer
Single-phase parallel flow Groeneveld [53] Inayalov [54]
Singlc.phase crossflow Zukau~ka ~ [41,1] GrimiMm [511]
Two·phase heat InlOsfer C he n [55 ) Shrock and Grossman (14 )
Thorn [56] and Je ns- Loltes [14[
Rohscnow/14]

arc shown in Table 9.8. II ca n be wncludcd fhat:

I. The choice of si ngle-phase tube bundle friction factor or hea t tran sfe r
coe ffi cien t correlation does nO! significant ly influence the magnitude of
the globa l or local parameters.
2. T he c hoice of two- phase voiLl fract ion o r fric tion multiplie r correlation
docs ma rked ly affect th e code predictions. Compared wi th the pred ic-
tion made using the homogeneous model , circula tion ratios. local
velocities, and local qualities are conside rably reduced. The chuice uf
correlat ion for the two-phase frict ion multiplie r is of greater impor-
tance tha n that fo r void fraction (sec Section 9.4.:n T he chuice of
two-phase hea t transfer corre lation is not part icularly import ant in
re la tion to global design parameters such as the recirculation ratio or
heat duty. However. the vario us correlations do have a marked effect
on the predicted wall temperature and hea t fl ux distri h u t ion~.

Very little expe rimental evidence is avai lable to check the choice of the
most appropriate correlation in the specific geome try of the steam gene rator.
The only reported data arc from e lSE [57, 581. These tests were carried out
in a test section consisting of nine tubes arranged vert ica lly on a squa re pitch.

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TA.BLE 9.8 Variation 01 Key Output Parameters a.s Percentage Deviation
from Reference Case

Recirculation Heat Maximum Maximum Tube

Ratio. Duty MW( t). Quality, Sheet Quality.
% % % %

Refere nce Value 5.97 632 25.3 3.0

Vari,jlll corrclat ioll

Single-phase pressure
drop
Miller - 3.4 - 0.2 + 4.8 +5.0
Grimison - 3.4 - 0.2 +5.7 + 18.2
Two·ph,jsc friction
pressure drop
Baroczy and Chisholm - I ft l - 0.2 +23.3 +29.9
Martinelli and Nelson - 35.2 - 0.3 + 56. 7 + 76.8
Martinelli. Nelson.
and Jones - 33.7 - 0.3 - 553 + 71.2
Thorn - 4.8 0.0 + 4.0 + 7.3
Void fraction
Smith - 5.9 O.(J +5.R + 6.b
Chisholm -5.5 0.0 +6.2 +6.3
Thom - 6.9 0.0 + 5.0 +8.3
Armand and Trcshehcv - 2.2 (1.11 + 2.1:1 + 2.b
Single-phase heat transfer
lnayatov - 0.3 + 1.1 + 1.2 +0.3
Grimison 0.0 - 0.3 + O.l:I - 1.:\
Two-phase heat transfer
Thorn - 1.2 - 1.7 - 2.b + 7.9
Jens-Lottes -0.5 -0.9 - 2.1 + 4.6
Rohsenow -1.3 + 1.7 + 2.8 +- 11.9
Shrock and Grossman +0.2 -1.\ -0.7 - S.b

The tube mat erial was Incond 600; the tube outside diameter was 19.05 mm ;
the wall thickness was 1.09 mm: the pitch was 27 mm; and the test section
was 8.22 m long. It was heated by passing water through the tubes at 155 bar.
~ mass flux of 4250 kg/ (m 1 . s), and inlet temperatures of 325°C for hot leg
tests and )OZGC for cold leg tests. The shell side was simu lated by a vertical
upf\ow of water at pressures between 35 and 80 bar, mass velocities of 180 to
1000 kg/ (m 2 . s), and exit qua lities of 5% to 80% . The experimental program
invc~tigaled void fraction pressure drop, heal transfer coefficients, and dryoul
on the secondary side. Experimental measurements of the heal transfer
coefficient we re compared with the predictions of a number of standard
corre lations. All the corre lations underpredict the obsclVed heat transfer
coefficient: the best agreemen t was obtained by Jens-Lottes and Chen. Even

I
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 9 .5 COMMON PflOBLEMS IN THE OPERATION OF BOILERS 507

better agreement was obtained by setting the nucleate boi ling suppression
factor. S. in the latter correlation to unity. It was suggested that at low mass
velocities. the thic kness of the wate r fi lm on the tubes will be higher than in
simple tubular geometries. leadi ng to l e~ suppression of nucleate boiling.

9.5 COMMON PROBLEMS IN THE OPERATION OF BOILERS

It is perhaps appropriate to indicate the order of magnitude of the costs

stemmi ng from operational proble ms with boilers. Large companies are often
rcluctant to publicize the details of specific plant failures and consequen t
production losses for obvious reasons. However. some details have emerged.
On fossi l-fired centra l sta tio n boilers operated by the CEG B, these losses
amount to around £23 million per year. whilst for nuclear plants the equiva-
lent figure is around £0.2 million per year. The loss of e lectricity ge neration
att ributable to stea m generator unreliability for U.S. pressurized water reac-
tors averages about 3% or 10 to II days per year. Each individ ual outage
lasts an average of 20 days, equivalent to an economic loss of £4 mi ll ion . A
study of 27 ammo nia plants carried (lut in 1973 showed that waste heat boile r
problems were the second most fre quent cause of shutdowns. On average.
one failure enu ld he expected every) years and this fail ure caused 5 days of
lost o utput. Thu s the average annu .. 1 luss of income due 10 boiler failure s on
ammonia plants was then around £IOQ,OOO (considerably higher at today's
prices). For some plan ts the failures were more serious. causi ng the plants to
be shut down for SO to 100 days.

9.5.1 Causes of Steam Generator Problems

Some of the causes of boiler problems in service are [59]:

I. Fouling
2. Maldistri bution of now
3. Corrosion
4. Erosion
5. Vibra tion
6. Therma l fatigue
7. Corrosion fatIgue
8. Matopcration
Y. Water hllmmer

Sometimes two or more of these mechanisms can act simultaneously. For

exa mple. fouli ng in steam-genera ting systems is invariably linked with corro-
sion and erosion. These arc topics to which the boiler designer, fabricator.

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and operator must give specia l al!en tion. Of the factors listed previously. the
fi J>it two can result in a degraded thermal performance from the unit, whilst
the remainder if not checked in a grea ter or k sser loss of in tegri ty of the
unit.

Fouling Scali ng in steam genera tors ca n ca use , in extreme circumstances,

I. The bursting of tubes in water tube bo il er~

2. T he cracking of tube ends and ligamen ts In tube plates in waste heal
boilers

Usua lly the water Qua lity in both process chemical waste hea l boi lers and
ce ntral power station nucl ear units is tightly con trolled so that fou ling is not a
problem and indeed control ove r water Quali ty and puri ty is the only
satisfa ctory way of preventing sca ling.
In PWR steam genera tors water-side corrosion products and other solids
ca rried into the un its tend to accumulate on the upper side of the tube sheet.
Tens to hund reds o f kilogra ms of magnetite have been removed from such
units by sludge lancing. If such materia l is allowed to remain , high concentra-
tions of aggressive !><t Its can build up and induce tube th inning and other
types of corrosion.

Maldlst,lbutlon of Flow A significant cause of stea m ge nerators f;til ing to

meet thei r design rating is th at the nuid nows du nut be have on the idealized
one-dimensional basis assumed. For exa mple , it is unlikely that all the many
tubes in the steam ge nera tor will sec eq ual nows. while Slagnan! regions and
lea kages past baffles and around the tube bundles reduce the effectiveness of
the shell ·side now.
A particu larly striking example of how fl ow and tempera ture maldistribu-
tion ca n limit steam generator perform ance h a~ bee n given by Collier and
Wh itmarsh-Eve riss [60). In this case extreme se nsit ivity to minor changes in
the physical geometry of th e tube bundl e, coup led with the choice of an
opera ting point on the boile r cha racteristic where the performance of the
unit was ve ry sensitive to primary-s ide now and tempera ture di stributiuns,
limited the boiler's capacity to ahout 75 % of design. The lessons learned
from this study included :

I. The need for uniformity of the shell -side inlet temperature .

2. The choice of an opera tin g point in se nsitive to s he ll -side fl ow- temper·
ature maldistribution; this can be achieved by grea te r levels of orificing
on th e tube (wate r) side to reduce the steady-state ga in .
3. The need to study the various plant operating states which ca n intro-
duce asymmetries into the boundary conditions for the boiler.
4. The importance of not having an overrigid specification of mater ial s at
th e design stage with their attendant limit ations on operating tempera-

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 9.5 COMMON PAOOLEMS IN THE Of>EAAnON OF BOILERS 509

lUre, especially for plants required to operate over a wide range of

ope rating st ates.

A part icula rly se rio us problem is the distribution of two-phase gas- liquid
flows. Basically, the gas and the liquid have a tende ncy to sepa rat e at any
obstruction, bend, or the like. This makes prediction of the behavior of a
heat exchanger involving such fl ows vcry difficult and wheneve r poss ible this
problem sho uld be avoided at the dc.'> ign stage. Strat ifica tio n of a fiow in a
horizontal channel due to gravitatio na l fo rces ca n also be considered as a
form of maldistribution. A numbe r of cases have been reported where wasle
heat boile rs have fail ed due to dryout and overheating of horizontal boiler
tubes.

Corrosion Oil-load corrosion is a pa rticu la rly ra pid attack of boi ler tubes in
zones of steam generators whe re Sleam is raised. In pa rticular, pioneering
work carried ou t by Masterson , Ca~tle. and Mann [6 1] e lucidated three
mechanisms whereby salts normally in the ppm ra nge in boil e r feed wate r
may he concen trated by factors of 10 1 o r more.

I. Dryo ut -ci thcr complete as in a o nce- through boile r or partial as may

occur due to maldi stribution or stratification in horizonta l boile r tubes.
A number o f exa mples have hcen reported were acid c hloride attack
has resulted in the deep gougi ng 'Ot ramline" corrosion of such tubes at
the positio n of the wate r-steam inlerface.
2. Crcvices-a particu larly seve re example of this type o f attack has been
in the steam generators of pressurized-water reactors (PWRs). In
ce rtain designs of the inverted U-tube boilers. the tubes were supported
by carbon steel plates drilled to permit passage of the tube with lillic
clea rance (Fig. 9.6). Boiling occurs on th e shell side of these units. A
crevice is formed between the tube support plate and the tube. Seve re
corrosion of the ca r.bon stee l su pport plate has occurred res ulting from
the concen tration of acid chlori de in the crevice. Since the corrosion
product occupies a pproximate ly twice the volume of the metal (Oon_
sumed, this expa nsion cru s h e~ the tubes and distorts the support plate.
One ot he r consequence of th e physical distortion caused by this "dent-
ing" has bee n the increase d strai n at the apex of the U tube . The tubes
have distorted into an Oval cross section and some stress corrosion
cracking has occu rred in this region . In this specific example the
proble m is so se rious that a redesign of the steam generator has hcen
undertaken. The crevice has !:leen removed by replacing the drilled
support plate by a broached "qu atre- foil"' design (Fig. 9.6). The mate-
rial of the support plate has bec n cha nged from a mild steel to a 12%
Cr stee l and full -Bow condensate polish ing and high -integri ty conden-
sor designs have been recom mended.

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 3. Porous deposi ts-when steam-genera ting surfaces become fouled, wa -
ler is drawn inlO Ihe porous deposit by a "wieking" elfect, whilst steam
is released into '" tunnels" in the deposit. Very high conce ntrations of
aggressive salts occur within deposits leading to the type of pitting
corrosion referred to previously. Imilanecs have been reported where
massive formation s of magnetite deposits have res ulted in the fai lu re of
unheated pipework in boilers as well as heated tubes.

Slress corrosion crackillg. For stress co rr o~io n cracking to occur, three

factors mu st be prese nt toge ther. First, th e levels o f slress in the component
must be at or close to the yield stress of the material conce rned . Thi s is oft en
the case where th e residu al st resses due to wel ding, say at the tube-to-tube
plate joint. have not been relieved by heat trea tment. Second, an aggressive
agent such as chloride, ca ustic, or nitrate ion needs to be presen t in the fluid .
Third , the materi;ll needs to be in se nsitized condition . Austenit ic stai nless
steels, particul arly close to weld s, are often in such a cond itio n, and care
must be exercised when such mat erials arc used in superheate rs or reheaters
to prevent ca rry-ove r of wate r droplets which may contain chlorides. Some
alloys arc resistant to stress currosion cracking. pa rticularly those with high
nickel contents. Stress relieving of welds may prove effective and of course
the e limination of th e agg ressive agent in the wa ter by conde nsate polishing
will be beneficia l.

Erosion Accelerated metal wastage may occur in regions of high veloci ty

particularly for metal s that rely for their protection on the formation of a
protective surface film. This protective film is eroded by cavitation, exposing
the bare metal to chemical or electrochemical attack. The effect of ve loci ty is
usuall y important. One exa mple of It significan t outage involving the loss of
approximate ly 1000 G Wh of electrica l power production concerned the
erosion of the boile r feed regulating orifices for the Hinkley B Advanced
Gas-Cooled Reactor. These boiler orifices arc fitted at the entry to each
boi ler inlet tube to provide flow regulation and overall hyd rodynamic stabil-
ity. It was found that the screwed carriers holding the orifice p lates were
lea king along the screw threads on aboUi ha lf the tubes. The lea kage fl ow
increased rapidly due to erosion to the extent thai some orifice plates were
comple tely bypassed and ma ny tube ends were completely eroded away. All
the tube ends were even tually cut off and replaced with new tu be ends of
more resistant mate rial. A sim ilar occurre nce has bee n reported for the
stea m generators of the Fre nch liquid-sodium ·cooled Phenix reactor. Wastage
has also been observed in the low-temperature sect ions of some se rpentin e
boilers in the region of the l SOO return bends. He re again, erosion of mate rial
at temperatures below that at which the protective magnetite fi lm is fo rmed
is suspected.
Prevention or reduction of erosion damage involves the use of more
erosion-resistant materials either locally or overa ll (e.g., Incone)), improve-

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ments in design to limi t as far as possible local regions of high vclocity, and
sometimes controlled additions of oxygen to promote the formation of a
protective magnetite fi lm.

Vibration A major cause of failure in steam ge nerators is tube vibration.

Tube vibratio n may result in failure by mechanical fatigue, by frctting
corrosion of the tubes al the lube shee t, or, most likely, by impact and
rubbi ng of the tubes with the ba Ules or with one anot her at the midspan.
Although there are many mechanisms that can induce vibration, the mecha-
nisms of most conce rn relates to flow-induced vibration. Basica lly, there are
three .such mechanisms.

J. Fluid -c lastic instabil ity which occurs for the core of a tube bundle
exposed in total or in pan to il crossfl ow. Above a critica l velocity a
coupled o rbital whirling motion occurs for a number of tube.s in a given
row.
2. Turbulent buffeting ca n induce random excitation forces which increase
as the sq uare of the velocity and excite the tube natu ral frequency and
induce damage if the dampin g is low.
3. Periodic vortex shedd ing which may occur from tubes at the edge o f the
tube bundle, pa rt icularly the last row of tubes.

Various analytical methods [62J arc avai lable for checking fo r such mecha-
nisms, but these methods require a deta iled knowledge of the flow patterns
and loca l velocity distributions in the unit. In the case of waste heat hoilers
heated by hot -gas, acoustic oscillations may be set up. The various flow-
induced excitation mechanisms can he amplified when the freq uency of this
excitation coi ncides wi th the acoustic frequency of a standing wave across the
diameter of the shell. Such acoustic osci llations can produce in tense noise
but arc seldom damaging. They can he readi ly overcome by dctuning the
system by inserting suitable transverse acoustic baffles.
Before leaving vibrat ion it should be noted that failures often occur due to
excitation of fore ign objects within the steam generator. Such ohjects left
after a maintenance period will bear on tubes, causing frening damage and
ultimately penetra tion.

Thermal Fatigue Thermal fa tigue results from the presence of alternat in g

thermal stresses Which, in turn, arise as a resu lt of changes in temperature.
These tempera ture cha nges could be as a result of random changes in
temperature at normal operat in g conditions, as a result of sta rt ing up or
shutting down a steam generator (which might occur hundreds of ti mes
during its lifetime), or as a resu lt of the turbulent mixing of a hot and cold
stream (e.g., near the feed poi nt o f a shell boiler). In the case of the steam
genera tors for water-cooled nuclear reactors. thermal fatigue of the feed-

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water nozzles has occurred in 16 instances. The problem seems to arise when
unheated auxiliary feed water is supplied to the steam generator. At these
low flows (just a few percent of normal feed-water flows), temperature
differences occur due to stratification in the pipe and these induce high local
stresses in the areas where cracking has been observed. The mixing of hot
and cold water, as well as these temperature changes, are prime factors in
inducing and propagating cracks by a thermal fatigue mechanism .

Corrosion Fatigue The fatigue process may be considerably enhanced

when the induced defect is exposed to a corrosive fluid. For example, crack
extension rates may be increased by a factor of 10 when ferritic steels are
exposed to high-temperature water.
Extensive cracking has been found in the main girth welds on the shells of
all four steam generators of a U.S. PWR. The girth weld in Question is
located just below the feed-water distribution ring manifold in the normal
operating water level where it may be subjected to thermal cycling. In
addition, problems had been experienced with poor secondary-side water
chemistry. This, together with the fact that the :.tea m gene rators underwent
numerous weld repairs during manufacture, points lO corrosion fatigue as the
likely cause of the cracking.

Maloperatlon Induded under this heading are a wide variety of concerns

nOI all directly re lated to the ope ration of tht.:: unit. Perhaps thc most
important is for the operator to check regularly that those protection devices
such as safety re lief valves and interlocks arc in correct working order.
Another area of general concern relates to the need to assess very
carefully all the consequences of a modification made to the equ ipment or to
the operation of the unit. The importance of the operator keeping within the
technical operating specifications in relation to rates of heat-up and cool-down
and with respect to water purity and quality cannot be overstressed.
Damage can occur 10 steam generalOrs during storage on site while
awaiting installation. One example of such damage relates to the steam
generator units for the prototype fast reactor at Dounreay. After being
stored in its shell on site for several months. one of the tube bundles was
found to have several tubes contaminated with water. Extensive inspection
and chemical cleaning were necessary. Corrosion pitting was observed and as
a result some 38 tubes (out of several hundred) were explosively plugged.
Therefore it is important that specifications call for adequate protection of
both internal and external surfaces during storage and for regular inspection
during this period.
Finally, a carefu l check on installation and maintenance work is advisable.

Water Hammer The problem of "water hammer" relates to the generation

of damaging pressure pulses due to condensation of steam onto cold feed
water or condensate. Typically, most occurrences have taken place during a

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 9 .5 COMMON PROBLEMS IN THE OPERATION OF BOILERS 513

boiler warm-through or on trying to restart feed-water flow following an

operational transicnt. Under thcse circumstances cold watcr may be intro-
duced into a long horizontal pipe fille;J initially with steam. A water slug may
form to trap the steam void and condensation of this steam void may create a
large pressure difference across the water slug so thai the laller will acceler-
ate rapidly. collapsing the steam void. The resultant pressure wave, if severe
enough. can se riously damage the piping and the boiler.
The problem can be overcome by eliminating horizontal pipe runs in
which feed waler or condensate may be deliberately or accidentally intro-
duced or alternatively ensuring sU\:h pipework is always water filled.

9.5.2 Worked Solutions

Example 9. 1. Estimate the fricti ona l pressure gradient in a 50.8-mm bore

cv<tpor<tling lUbe for the following conditions:

Fluid Stcam~w<tter
Pressure 180 bar
Inlet mass !low of satur,tted water 2.14 kg/s
Outlet sle.lm quality 18. 25%

Solulion: At this high suheritic,LI pressure the homogeneous model will give
satisfactory results. The estimated val ue can however be checked against other
methuds:

1. Physic<tl properties:

stcilm ~water at 180 bar

/./_ = 1.l'i4 X 10 - -1 mol/kg

/.(; _ 7.50 x 10 J ml/kg

iJ.1. - 6.44 x IO - ~ (N · s)/m ~

1J.r; = 2.57 X 10 - 5 (N . s)/m~

2. Assumptions:
(a) The overall change in 'lb.\ lliute pressure is small. the gencr<tlion of
v<tpor due [0 nashing is sm'll!. there are no compressibility effects. and
the physical property changes can be neglected.
(h) The evaporating tuhe is uniformly heated; the steam quality v<trics
linearly with the tube length.
3. General quantitics:

w 2.14 X 4
mass velocity (G) =
A
--:-:;==
." X O.05~2
- 1056 kg/ m 2 . s

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514 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS ANO WASTE HEAT BOILERS

4. Prcssu re gradicnl:

-- F ( dP) - -1 [,2 f "G' I' [l + x ('" - ,." )] cb.

d;: x () D t. 1"1

2G'"
- - - - [' ITP [ I .,. x ("" - " , ) ] dx
Dx () 1'1

if In is a constan t (i.e .. ITP - 11.0 ) !he preced mg eQu'lIion reduces 10

<il')
-
(- F
(/z
-
2(;'[",
- - - I"
£) 1-
[ I ...
i(",~") ]
For IT.. - 11.0' Ji - iJ.1·

(;D lOS{} X O.()SOK

'. RI' - - - -:-:c"""-"",' ~ IU3 x I() ~
ii 6.44 x IU

: .f 1"" - O.lJ02K'i ( Moody)

:. _ (dp F) _ 2 x 105(/ x 0.00285 x l.~x 10 - .1

dz O.OSOI\

1
0.11'l25(7.50 X 10 _. - I .H4 X
x 1+---
[ 2 1.84x W - ·1

- 295 Nj {m 2 m)

If we usc other methods wc ge l: Mat rinelli-Ndson me thod. 346 Nj(m~ ' ml;
Bamezy met hud. 37.s Nj (m " . m).

[xample 9.2. The steam gcneralOrs cmplo)·eu on PWRs const rueled in the
USS R consist of .1 horiwntal shel l within which fit s a horizunl;!l tube hundl.::
(sec Fig. 9.}). For !he lOOO-MW(C) design there .He four such unit s each with a
shell 14 m long and 4.0 mID . EOlch shell eOnlains 15,648 lubes 12 mm 10 x 1.2
mm wall thickness with an average lUbe length of ij.s m. The total heat transfer
surface is 5040 m 2 . The opcraling prcssu re is 60 bar. Under these circumstances
will dryout occur wit hin the tube hunule?

Solution : One method of est imating the critical heat flux for boiling on the shell
side is that of Pale n and Sm,lli :

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 9.5 COMMON PROBLEMS IN THE OPERATION Of BOILERS 5 15

lOo'here K is an empirical constan t (for 0.1)6 < 41), K - 1.2.1. <l> is a dimen.'>fon·
less tuoc densi ty factor

op is a dimensional physical property factor

At 60 bar for water

Ilh , - 12 11 kJ / kg

Pi; - 30.)9 kg / m'

PI. - 759 kg / m '

(7 - 0 .0:20 N/ m

W
., - 1211 X 5.5 12 X [0 .020 X 9.807 X 729t

- 23.1125 kW / m ~

4 X 14
- 0.0111

Therefore

ij<J - 1.23 X 23.025 X 0.0 111

- 3 14 .4 kW / m:

Now the power from one steam generator is 750 MW(t), that i ~, 7S0,nOO kW.
The surface area is 5040 m ~. ThcrcfoTl' the ave rage heat flux is 14ij.g kW / m ~ .
Thus Ihere is approximatcty a factor of 2 betwec n the bundle average heat
flux lind that predicted to cause drynul. This should be sullicien l to acco mmo·
da te nonuniformities ilnd uncertainties in the analysis.

Example 9.J. A waste heat hoiler is heing designed in which the luhe~ arc
formed into a scrpentine composed of horizontal 56 mm ID lu beS connected by
:1 180" return bend. The unit is to be operated with an exit steam qualit}' of 25%
and at a pressurc of 55 bar. The initial choicc of ma~ vctocity is 600
kg/(m ~ . s). Wh:11 will. be the consequences nf prolonged ope ration under
these conditions'? What is the minimum value of mass velocity required to
prevent stratification and overheati ng of the upper lube surface?

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516 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAl SOlLERS

Solulion: In order to estimate whether .~trati r.Cillum could occur at the condi·
tions given, it is projX)sed to usc Eq. (9.6>. At a pressure of 55 bar,

TSA "' - 27(f'C (JI. - 768 kg / m ~

I'f; - 28 .09 kg/ m '

(T " 0.02 1 N / m

Thus. for a mass velocity of 600 kg/(m~ . s) and <l steam quality between 0 and
25 %, we have

G( I - x) if x - Il i l - U.7~ m/ s
if x - 1l.25 if - 0.586 m/s

(j, if x - 0 ju - (I m / ~
if. - ifx .. 0.25 i(; - S ..\4 m /s
Pc:

if x - 0 1 - 0. 7f! m/s
i - i l + i (i if x - U.25 i = 5.1)) m/s

The critical velocity below which ~tra tificat ion occurs is given by

." 30 J D H~• { ug ( PI - PI ;
)} '"
f - .4. !J~lI l (9.0)
PI. lA ,

( 56 x 1O -·1)U.1[1l .!l21 x \).1'107 x 74()t ~

iI ~ - 30 .43 .:..------,-'---'------'"~---'- - 6.53
768()·K x (1.01 x If) ~t~

i - VB m/s

Thcrefore. for :Ircas of the horizontal lUbe where j is below 2.83 mis,
stril lifieation, overheating. and on·lo<ld corro~i(ln arc p(l~sihle_ This corrc~ponds
to parts of the tube where the steam qualit)' is below 10%.
One remedy would be to increase the mass vdocity so that j at all locations
is above the minimum value determined previously. Therefore the mass velocity
must be raised above (2.83 x 768) - 2173 kg / (m l . sl.

Example 9.4. A waste heat boiler consists of 78 vertical tubes 44.5 mm 00,
35 .6 mm 10. each 10 m long. Saturated water 101 ken from a stearn drum is fed to
the base: of the tubes at a pressure of 132.5 bar (TSA ,. - 332°C). The water mass
velocity in the tubes is 912 kg / (m 1 . s). The tubes are heated hy a gas stream on
the shell side passing co-c-urrent with the evaporating .....ater. Decide whether a
crit ical heat flU)( (dryout) condition will occur on the water side for these

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 9 .5 COMMON PROBLEMS IN THE OPERATION OF BOILERS 517

conditions. Use Bowring's correlation together with the "overall powe r" hy-
pothesis. that is. t hat thc tube powcr up to dryout is independent of l he heat
nux profile .

Solution:

In let Outlet
z = 0 z=4m l ~ iO m

local ove rall value of heat

transfer cocllkic nt. U, kW /(m 2 . "C)
(referred to gas-side area) 0.960 0.875 0.850
Local gas tempefillurc. "C 957 571 3W
Temperature driv ing force, ~C 625 239 58
local heal flux, kW / m~ (referred
to g<lssidd 600 209 49
local heat nux, kW /ml (referred
to water !>ide) 750 261 6 1.6

The variation o f the mass frac tion steam x(z) ean be ca lculated from

4ij(z)
6.x - ~z
DG toll, .

where lJ = 0.0356 m, 6.11 , = 1100 kJ/kg, and G ~ 912 kg/(m 2 . s). The v,lfi,,-
tion of thc inside heat flux and quality arc given in the following table:

' .m o 2 4 6 8 10

(j(z), kW /m2 75() 397 261 170 1lOA 61.6

x( z) o 0.128 0.188 0.236 0.266 0.286

The average heat Aux for this profile il - 225.3 kW/m l :

A' ,. 3215

c' - 1.6209
Therefore

3215
iier = 1.6209 + 10 - 276.65 kW /ml

So t he average heat flux at the critical condition for a lube 10 m 101lg for a
saturated inle t now is this value. It will be seen that the margin to a c ritical
condition is q ui te small: (276.65/255.3) 1.08 or 8%. The uncertainty in [he
values of A ' and C ' derived from the correlation and thc inaccuracy of the
"overall powe r" hypothesis is considerably grealer than this small margin. One
 alleviati ng faclar is t hat for this particular heat flux profile (i.e., a sharply
decreas ing heal flux with length) it has been found t hat the power thaI ean be
extracted from a long tube is slightly greater (up to 10%) than for a uniform
profil e.

9.6 CONCLUSIONS

Experience shows that the reliabil ity of individual boilers tends to improve
over their early operating life, as wea knesses due to manufacture are weeded
out. If the necessary changes are cost effective, similar weaknesses due to
design or operating strategy ca n also be reduced. Experience also shows that ,
when changes between successive units are gradual, analysis of past operat ing
history points to steps that ca n be taken to improve future plants. Improved
fabrication methods and increased levels of preservicc inspection can avoid
or detect defects before the se are translated intu COSIly in-service fa ilures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wou ld particularly like to ack nowledge th e help of Roger Pearce in

preparing thi s manuscript for publication.

NOMENCLATURE

A function in Bankoff-Jones corre lation (Table 9.4); function in

Bryce corre lation (Table 9.4)
B function in Chrisholm correlation <Table 9.2); function in Bryce
correla tion (Table 9.2)
D tube diameter, m
Dh bundle d iameter. m
e fraction of liquid e ntrained
Fr Froude number, GllpZgD
g acce lerat ion due to gravity. m /s2
G mass velocity, kg/ (m 2 . s)
J two-phase veloci ty. m/s
K function in e lSE correlat ion (Table 9.2); fu nct ion in Hughmark
correlation (Table 9.4); fu nction described by Eq. (9.7)
II function in e lSE correlation (Table lJ.2)
N number of tubes
p tube pi tch, m
P sta tic pressure, N/m ~
q:;, critical heat flu x, W 1 m 2
Re Reynolds number, GDIJ.I.

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 REFERENCES 51 9

S slip rat io
I' ~pcc ifk volume. m J I kg
x mass va por quality
X Ma trinc lli parameter (Table 9.4)
: axia l coordinate. m
(dPl dz) pressure gradie nt , N / (m 2 . m)

Greek Symbol s
a void fr action
fJ volume tric qu ality
r fun ctio n in Chrisholm corre lation (Table 9.2)
8 a ngle to horizont al plane. n
J1 viscosity, (N . s)/ m 2
p lIe nsity, kg / m '
(1 surface te nsion , N/ m
dl ~() two-phase fri ctional mu ltiplie r based o n pre ssure gradient for total
now assumed liquid
1> d ime nsio nless tuhe de nsit y facto r [Eq. (9.6)J
el) tube de nsity fa ctor
IfJ dime nsiona l physical property fa ctor [Eq . (9.6)]. w1 m 2
o fUllc tio n in Ba roczy corre la tion (Table 9.2)

Subs cripts
A acce le rat iona l
h hund le
cr crit ic:tl
F fri ction a l
G gas o r vapor
GO assuming tota l now to be ga~ or vapor
L liqu ill
LO assuming to ta l fl ow to be liquid
TP two phase
: static head

Superscripts
average based on homogeneous mode l

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ve rtical two·phase now. Europea n Tw,l-Phase Flow Group Meeting. l ~ pr 'l . Italy.
27. Lockhart. R. W.. and Martine lli. R. C. (1949) Proposed correlation of data for
i.wtherm .. 1 two-phOlsc, two compunent flow in pipes. Ch~m. £l1g . Pmc. 53(4)
62-65.
28. Hughmark. G . A. (1 %2 ) Hold·up 10 gas- liqu id now. Ch~m . Eng. I'roc. 58(4 ,
62-65.
29. Smith. S. L. (1%9) Void fr .. c t ion~ III two· phase flow . A cnrrclllll<m based Iln 1m
equOllvelocity head model. PrOt: . III fI. Mech . EIIX . 1841. 36) 647-664.
30. Premoli. A.. Oi Francesco, 0 .. and Prim'l . A . (J970) An empirical corrclli tinn flIT
evaluating two-phase mixture de ns il~' unde r adiabatic conditions. Europe.1n Two-
Phasc Flow Group Meeting. Papel B9, Milan.
31. Chisholm, D. (l973) Research note' void fraction during two-phase now. 1. Ml'Ch.
Eng. Sci. 15(3) 235-230.
32. Thom , J. R. S. C1964 1 Prediction of pressure drop du ring forced circul ation hailing
of water. /111 . 1. Heal Mu.u Trun.Jj"rr 7 7(1'.1- 724 .
33. Jones. A. B. (1961) Hyd rodynamic ~t ab il i t y o f a boiling channel. KAPL -2 170.
34. Bryce. W. M. (l977) A new flow-dependent sli p correl.llion which gives hype rbolic
steam- water mixture How equations. AEEW- RI 099.
35. ESOU (1977) The gravitational componen t o f prt'ssurc gradicnt fur twO·ph ilse gils
or Y3!X>ur / liqu id flow through straigh t pipes. Engineeri ng Sciences Da ta Un it
(ESOU). london.
36. Hump hries. P.. Derrctt , G . F.. and Scruton. B. (l984) Critical heatllux character·
istics for ye rt ical ~team generati ng tuhes with circumfcrentially non-uniform
heating. First UK Nat. H~(Jr TrulIsfrr Conf.. pp. 8 17- K28, Leeds.
37. Slyrikovich. M. A. . and Miropolskl i, Z. L. (]9S0) Dokl. Akutl. N/Juk SSS!? 71( 2 ).
38. Gardne r. G. c..
and Ku bic. J. (197M Flow of two liquids in sloping tubes: an
analogue of high pre s.~u re steam and water. Irlt . 1. Mullip/rUSf Flow 1. 435 - 45 1.
39. Bailey, N . A . (1977) Dryout in the bend of a ve rticil l U-tu bc cYilPt)rator. Pcrsonal
commun ication.
40. Schuller. R . B.. and Cornwell. K. (I()84) Oryou t un the shell side of tu be bundles.
Finr Nar . Ht'111 Trl1l1sfrr Conj.. DP 7~5-K()4. Leed~.
41. Leong. L. S .. and Cornwell. K. (1 979) I·leat transfer cocHicicnts in a rcboiler tu be
bundle . Tht' Chtmlcu/ Engml't'r 343 2 19-22 1.

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522 NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATORS AND WASTE HEAT BOILERS

42. Collie r, J. G. (]9!))) Boiling outside tubes a nd lube bundles. Heat Exchanga
lksign Handbook. Sect ion 1. 7.5. H emisphere, New York.
43. Pa lcn. J. W ., and Small. W. M. (HI64) A new way ttl dcsign kettle a nd internal
reboi lers. Hydrocarbon Proc. 43(] I) 199-108.
44. Carver, M . B., Carlucci. L. N .• and Inch, W . W. R. (l9!-i1l Thtnna(. H)·drau/ics in
Recirculating SlI'am Generators: THIRST Cod~ USN Manual. Atomic Energy of
Canada. Report AECl ·7254.
45. -S mith, R. A. (191\7) Priv;lIe commun ication.
40. Carlucci, L N.. and Sut he rland, D. (l98\) The e ffects of ~'ar iou s e mpirica l
correlat ions o n the predictions o f a steam generator therma l-hydrau lics code.
Paper pre ~ n ted at the Winter An nual Meeting of t he ASME, November 15-20,
Washington. D.C. (81.WAjNE·5).
47. Re hme, K. (1973) Pre.~s ure drop performance o f rod bund les urra nged in hCJ(ugo·
na l arrangements. Int . J. Heat Mass Transfer IS 2499- 25 17.
48. Tong, L S. (1%8) Press ure drop performance of a rod bundle ASME Symp.
Heal Transfer in Rod 8wulles, New York.
49. Zukauskas, A. (]972) Heat tr(lnsfer from tu bes in crossfl ow. AdJ'. in Heat Transf,.,
8 93-160.
50. Grimison. E. D. (1937) Correlat io n a nd ut ilization of new da ta o n now resis tance
and heat transfe r for cross flow o f gases over tube banks. Trans. A5ME 59
583-594.
51. La hey. R. T .. a nd Moody, F. J. (1977) Th~ Thuma/·Hydraulics of a 80/I/II!: Willer
Nuclear Reactor , p. 2..10. AmcritiH1 Nuclear Socict)·.
52. Armand, A. A., und Tr e~hehev, G. G. (1947) 1 nvc~tigation during the movement
of steam -wate r mixtures in a he<l ted boile r pipe at high pressures. AERE Trans!.
816, 1959.
53. Groeneve ld, D. C. ( 1973) Forced convective heat transfer to supcrhe<lled steam in
rod bundles. AECL-4450.
54. Inayatav. A. Y. A. Correlation o f data on heat transfer: flow parallel to tube
bu ndles at relative tube pi tche~ of 1.1 < p jd < 1.6. Heal Transft'r -Sodt!1 Re·
sellrcll 7(]) 84-SK
55. Chen. 1. C. Correla tio n for boiling heat trunsfcr to saturated Auids in convective
tluw. 1 & E C Process Design De!"t'/opmenl S(]) 322 - 329.
50. Thnm , J. R. 5., ct a l. 0%5- 1906) Boiling in sub·c(lOled water during flow up
hea te d tu bes o r ann uli. Proc. Ins/. Mech. Eng. ISO 226-246.
57. Cattildori. G .. Masin i. G .. and Mazzocthi, L. (1983) £:'!pc ri mental tests on U·tube
steam ge nerator thermal hydraulics. European Two- Phase Flow Group Meeti ng,
Zurich.
58. Caltador i, G .. Masini. G .. a nd Mazzocchi , l. (l9!\4) Steady state tests on U·tube
sleam ge ne rator thermal hydraulics. European T",·o· Ph a~e Flow Group Meet ing.
R ome.
59. Collier, 1. G. (1910) Reliability proble ms of heal transfe r equ ipment. Pape r
presented at Rel iabili ty 83. The Fourth Nationill (U K) Reliabili ty Conference.
J uly, NEe. Birmingham.

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bOo Collier. J. G .. and Whitm 'ln; h - Evcri ),~. M. J. (P~l!I5) Opening address: the urilicing
of once-through boilers for gas-coolcd reactors. Prot:. CO/I/. Boiler /)ynumit"S alld
CrHl/rui ill Nlldl'ur Pm..'", S/II/U}fIS. PI'. I- I I. British Nuclear E ne rgy Society.
61. Masterson. H. G. , Castle. J. E .. and Mann. G. M. W. (l1)69) Wate rside corrosion
of powe r station boiler tubes. C/WIII. amlllld. 126 1- 1266.
62. Carlucci , LN ., Clmpagn,l, A. 0. , ;md I'cll igrew, M. J. (1'}~5) Thermal .hydraulie
and vih ralion analysis of (I nuclear recirculating steam generator. Proc. COli/.
Boi/,.r Dpwmin und COIUTOI ill Nude"r Power Sin /ions. pp. 175- 180. Bri tish.
Nuclear Energy Society.

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MI
a::
w Ohapter 10
MI
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A Heat Transfer
Z
o in Condensation

..'"
MI
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P . J. Marta

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Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 10 Contents
10. Heat Transfer in Condensation
P. J. Marto

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Film Condensation on a Single Horizontal Tube
10.2.1 Natural Convection
10.2.2 Forced Convection
10.3 Film Condensation in Tube Bundles
10.3.1 Effect of Condensate Inundation
10.3.2 Effect of Vapor Shear
10.3.3 Combined Effects of Inundation and Vapor Shear
10.3.4 Computer Modeling
10.4 Film Condensation Inside Tubes
10.4.1 Flow Patterns
10.4.2 Condensation in Horizontal Tubes
10.4.3 Condensation in Vertical Tubes
10.4.4 Condensation in Noncircular Passages
10.5 Pressure Drop During Condensation
10.5.1 Shell-Side Pressure Drop
10.5.2 Pressure Drop Inside Tubes
10.6 Condensation Heat Transfer Augmentation
10.6.1 Shell-Side Film Condensation Using Integral-Fin Tubes
10.6.2 Dropwise Condensation
10.7 Condensation of Vapor Mixtures
10.7.1 Equilibrium Methods
10.7.2 Nonequilibrium Methods
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

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 CHAPTER 10

HEAT TRANSFER IN
CONDENSATION
P. J . MARTO
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, CalIIomia 93943

10. 1 INTRODUCTION

Condensation heat transfer occurs in numerous e ngin eeri ng applicatiuns. It

OlilY occur homoge neously as a fog or cloud of microscopic droplets when a
vapor is cooled below il s saluration temperature, or wh en a vapor - gas
mixture is cooled below ils dew point. II may also occur when V3JXl f comes in
d ifec t conlar.:1 with a subcoolcd liquid. ~uch as introducing a spray of liquid
drops, je ts. or sheets in lO the vapor space, o r injecting vapor into a pool uf
subcoolcd liqu id .
The most common type of co nd cn~ation involved in heal ext:hilngc rs is
surface condc ns:Hio n whe re a coole d wall. at a temperature less tha n the
lOCal sa turat ion tempe rature of the Vil l)Of, is placed in contact with the vapor.
In this situatio n. the vapor molecules that strike the cold surface may stick tu
it and condense in to liquid. The resulting liquid (i.e .. condensate) wi ll
accumu late in one of two ways. H the liqu id ·' wets" th e cold surface. the
condensate will form a continuous lilm. and this mode of conde nsation is
referred to as filmwi sc condensation. If the liquid does not " wet"' the cold
surface. il will form into numerou), microscopic droplets. Th is mode of
condensa tion is refe rred 10 as dropw ise condensation and resul ts in much
large r hea t tra nsfe r coe fficient s than during filmwise conditions. Since long-
term dropwisc conde nsation eonditulIls arc very difficult to sustain. all
surface condense rs today arc designed to operate in th e filmwisc mode.

&>rtr'l. £'·llfKl'(111),., (1"'/ emtdl'll.' '''.'. !;.Jited hy S" dik Kak".;;

ISBN 1l-47 \-fl2 t70 .fI O l'i'!1 John Wi ley & S(>ll'. IIIC

525

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526 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

During condensatio n heat transfer, therma l resistances exist in the con-

de nsa te, in the vapor, and across the liquid -va por interface. The resista nce
in the conde nsate is due primarily to conductio n of heat across the conden-
sate fi lm. In the va por, the resistance depends on whether the vapor is pure
or is mixed with o the r vapors or with no nconde nsable gases. The thermal
resistance at the liquid - vapor inte rface is due 10 Ihe nonequilibrium mass
fl ux of molecu les toward and away from the inte rface. An approximate
inte rfacial heat transfer coefficie nt may be written as II I:

( 10.1)

where u is the conde nsatio n coeffi cie nt (i.e., the fraction of vapor molecul es
striking the conde nsate surface that actually stick a nd condense on the
surface). In recen t years, the va lue of (T has been measured to be nca r I, so
the first fact o r in Eq. (lO. 1) is not fa r fro m 2. The interfacial therma l
resista nce is no rma lly very sma ll for o rd inary flu ids and can be neglected
without too much eonscque nce. However, it i~ of crucial importance for
dropwise conde nsa tio n [2] and condensa tion of liquid me tals, particularly at
low pressures [3J.
This chapter stresses condensation of a pure vapor where the inte rfacia l
resistance is assumed to be O. Condensatio n with noncondensablc gases and
condensation of vapor mixtures are briefly descrihed. Emphasis is placed on
providing information that is sui table for designing conde nser equipme nt.
For additional informat ion on condensation heat tra nsfer phe no mena, th e
reade r is referred to Rohsenow [4), Butterworth [51. Marto [61, and Rose [7J .

10.2 FILM CONDENSATION ON A SINGLE HORIZONTAL TUBE

10.2.1 Natural Convection

Nusselt (81 treated the case of laminar film condensation of a quicsl;c nl vapor
on an isothe rma l ho rizontal tube as depicted ill Fig. IfU. In this sit ua tion.
the motion of the conde nsate is dele rmined by a ha lan ce of gravit ational and
viscous forces. Nusse lt ·s analysis yields a solution for the local film thickness
8 as a funct ion of ci rcum fere ntial angle q, wh ich is given by

(10 .2)

The fun ctio n X is tabul ated very accu ra te ly by Abramowitz [91. In the
Nusselt ana lysis, conveclio n terms in the energy equation a re neglected, so

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CONTI!NT' N.'"
NEXT
 o Quiescent
Saturated
Liquid Vapor

Fig. 10. 1. Film condcns<ltinn profile on a horizontal tube.

the local heat transfer coefficient around the tube can be written simply as

k,
h(~) ( 10.3)
o( ~)

Clearly, at the top of the tube. where the film thickness is a minimum, the
heal transfer coefficient is a maximum. Conversely, at the bottom of the tube,
the heal transfer coefficient falls to 0 as the film thickness increases toward
00, The Nusselt theory yields the following average heat transfer coefficient:

( 10.4)

For ordinary liquids, Eq. (lO.4) generally underprcdicIs the experi mental
data by about 10% to 20%. A convenient alternative form for the average
coefficient in terms of the film Reynolds number ReI" is given by

1.51 Re r
1/3 ( 10.5)

where ReI' equals 4r/p-/ and r is the liquid film flow rate per unit length.

Example 10.1. Quiescent rcfrigcnmt-22 vapor at a saturation temperature of

47"C is condensing on a horizontal smooth copper tube whose outside w<lll

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528 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

te mpenHure is maintained constant at 400C. The ou tside diameter of the tube is

II,! 111m. Ca lcula te the average conde nsat io n heat lTansfer coefficient on this
tuhc.

Solution; The average heat t ransfer coefficient ca n be calculated using the

Nusselt expression, Eq. (10A) .
The thermophysical propcrties of R-22 at 47'"C arc as follows:

k , - 0 .077 W/ (m' K)

J1., - 0 .176 x 10 - 4 (N· s) / m ~ [kg/ (m ' s)]

i ,~ - 158.1 kJ / kg - 1.511 x 10 ' J / kg

Upon substitution into Eq. (10.4). we get

(11.1177) ( HmA)(HI!,I9.4 - 71,! . 1)(9.XI)(1.58 x \O ~ HO .O I9) " ) ".

h - 0 .728 - - -
'" (0.0 19) (0 . 176 x \0 ~)(4 7 40)(0.077)

- 3124 W / (m !· K)

10.2.2 Forced Convection

When the vapor surrounding a horizontal tube is moving at a high velocity,
the analysis for film condensa tio n is affectcd in two important ways: (I) the
surface shear stress be tween the vapor and the cQndensate must be included ,
and (2) the effect of vapor separation mu st be accurately treated. Rose (71 has
recently provided a n exce llc nt review of forced convection condensation.
The ea rly analytica l investigations of this proble m were extensions of
Nusselt's analysis to include the interfacial shea r boundary conditio n at the
edge of the conde nsate fi lm. Shekriladze and Gomclauri [1 0) realized that the
mass now across a condensi ng intcrfllcc is vel)' import an t. They the refo re
assumed that the primary con tribut ion to the surface shear stress was due to
the change in momentum across the interface. TIleir simplified solu tio n for
an isothe rmal cyli nder witho ut separa tio n and with no body forces is

IIm D ~I / ~
Nllm - = O.9Re ( 10.6)
k,

where Re is defined as a two- phase Reynolds number involving the vapor

ve locity and conde nsate prope rt ies uIID /v/. When both gravilY and veloci ty

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 10.2 FILM CONDENSATION ON A SINGLE HORIZO NTAL TUBE 529

arc ind uded, t hey recommended the rela tionship

NU m
_1 / 2 ( 10.7 )
Re
where

( 10 .8)

Eq uation (1 0.7) neglects vapor separat ion. wh ich occurs somewhere betwee n
M2 and I HO" from the stagnation poi nt of the cylinder. After the se paration
poin t. the conde nsate fi lm rapidl y thickens and , as a result . heat t ransfe r
is de teriorated. A conse rvative approach suggested by Shekri ladze and
Gomclauri (JOJ is to assume thfl t there is no heat transferred beyond the
separation puin l. If the minimu m separation angle of sr is then chosen. the
most conserva tive equ ation 11,. •• tJlts. and the heat tra nsfe r decreases by ap-
prox im ate ly 35 ';(.,. T herefore Ell . ( I O.6) red uces to

_1 / 2
Nil", = O.59Re ( 10.9)

An interpola tio n formula based on this conserva tive approach, which satisfies
the extremes of g ravi ty-cont rolled and shear-controlled conde nsat ion, was
proposed by Butte rwort h [I I I:

Nil ,"
_1 / 2 - 0.4 lh{1 ( 10.10)
Re
A va riety of more complex analyt ical models exist in the li te ratu re and are
thoroughly discussed by Rose (7). Vapor boundary layer effects. especially
separation. and the effect of the pressure gradient around the lowe r part of
the tube provide significa nt di llicu lties in arrivi ng at an accurate analytica l
solu tion. As a resu lt, approximate, conse rvative expres.<;ions are used. Rose
[7] compared the experiment al uolla of a number of investigators a nd d iscov-
ered a considerable spread especially at high vapor ve loci ties [i.e., low va lues
of F as defin ed in Eq. (lO.S)]. Figure 10.2 compares the predictions of Eqs.
( 10.9) and (10. 10), along with the NU5.c;clt equa tio n, Eq. (10.4), to the da ta
provided in Rose (7). In general. Eq. 00.10) is conservat ive and can be used
with reasonable confid ence.

Exa mplt 10.2. Sup~ Ihal Ihe rcfr igeranl ·22 vapor in Example 10.1 were
moving downward over the lube at a velocity of 5 m/ s instead of bei ng
q uicsce nl LIS o rigin ally stilted. Calculalc Ihe average heal Iransfe r coefficienl in
this situa tion.

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530 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

'0,-----,------,------,------,------,-----,

~,
I<!
I~ Eq. (10.10)

Nusseh Theory. EQ. (10.4)

o, 0001
~~~~----~----~~--~~--~=_--~
0.01 0.1 10 10 100 1000
F

Flc. 10.2. Condensation in downnow over horizontal tubes (adapted from Rose P]).

Solulion: For dO\llllward-moving vapor ove r a horizontal tube:. the averaae heal
transfer ooefficic nt can be calculated using EQ. ( IO.IO):

h 0 I l l _Il l
-"-- _ 0.416{1 + (I + 9.47F)'/ zl &
k,

From Eq. ( IO.!S):

Fo

Upon substitution of the R-22 properties as listed in Example 10. 1,

(9J!\ )(0.019)(0 .170)( ICJ - ' )( 1. 5~ x 10 ' )

(5) '(0 .077)(47 - 40)

- 0 .0385
The two-phase Reynolds number is

_ PluxD
R, o - - -
",
(1099.4)(5 )(0 .1119)
(0.176 X 10 .)

_ 5.93 X lOb

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 When these vatues for F and R; arc substituted into EQ. (lU.IO). we gCI
(0 .077) , In II I
h ~, - 0.416 (0 .0 19) {t + (1 ~ (9 .47)(O.0385) I/ - } (S.93 x IU")

= f"1047 WI m ~ . K
which rcprCSCn\S a 94% incrcas(' ,)Vc r th e quiescent vapor case of E:>:amptc 10. t .

10.3 FILM CONDENSATION IN TUBE BUNDLES

Duri ng fi lm condensation in tube bu nd les. the conditions arc much differe nt

than for a single tube. The presence o f neighboring tubes creates severa l
added complexit ies as depicted sche matica lly in Fig. 10.3. In the idealilcd
case, Fig. 1O.3u. the condensate from a given tube is assumed to drain by
gravity to the lower lUbes in a cont inuous. laminar shee t. In reality, de pe nd-
ing on Ih e spaci ng-to-dia me ter ra tio of the lUbes and de pe nding on whe the r
they lire arranged in a staggered or in-line configu ration. the conde nsate
from one IUhe may not fall on the tube direct ly be low it but instead may now
sideways. Fig. 1O.3b. Also. it is wel l known expe rime ntally thilt cunde nsil te
docs not drain from a horizonta l luhe in a continuous sheel hut in discre te
droplets along the lube axis. Wh en these droplets strike Ihc lowe r lUbe ,
(onside rablc splashing can occur, Fig. iO. 3c. ca using ripples a nd lu rbulence
in the condensa te fi lm. Perhaps most importa nt of all , large vapor ve locities
ca n crcate significant shea r force s on the conde nsate. strippi ng il away.
independen t of gravi ly, Fig. HUd.

-
- '"'-
-~: ­
_\....E,........
-Q;
.
- - '
-. ~
.

I')
Nusselt
Ibl
Side· Oramage
1',
Ripples .
)d)
High
idealized Model Splashing. Vapor
Model Turbulence Shear

Fig. 10J. Schematic reprcsc nlalion of condcnsale flow (from MariO (21]).

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532 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

10.3.1 Effect of Condensate Inundation

In the absence of vapor velocity. as condensate flows by gravity on to lower
tubes in a bundle. the condensate thickness around the lowe r tubes shou ld
increase, and the condensation heat transfc r cocfficient should thcrefore
decrease.
Nusse lt (8] extended his analysis to include film condensation on a vertica l
in+line colum n of horizonta l tubes. He assumed th at all the condensate from
a given tube drains as a cont inuous laminar sheet directly onto the top of the
tube below it. With this assumption, together with the assumption that the
temperature d iffe rence across the conde n:\ale film (T,.al - T... ) remains
t he same for all the tubes. he showed that the average coefficient for a
vertical column of N tubes, compared to the coefficie nt for the first tube (i.e.,
the top tube in the row), is

( 10.1 1)

In Eq. (10.1]), hi is calculated using Eq. (10.4). In terms of the local

coefficient for the N th tube, the Nusselt theory gives

( 10. 12)

Kern [1 2] proposed a less conservative relationship

( 10. 13)
h,
or in terms of the local val ue ,

h
_N _ N ,j , - (N _ I)'' j h ( 10.14)
h,
Eissenberg (1 3] experimen tally invest igated the effects of condensate inunda-
tion by using a staggered tube bund le. He postulated a side-d rainage mode l
that predicts a less severe effe ct of inunda tion

.- O.6fl + O.42N - L: 4 ( 10.15)

Numerous experi men tal measurements have been made in studying the
effect of condensate inundation. The data, however. are vel)' scattered. As a
result, it is not too surprising that there is no successful theoretical model
today that can predict accurately the effect of conde nsate inundation on
condensation performance for a variety of ope rating conditions. For design

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 10,3 FILM CONDENSATION IN TUBE BUNDLES 533

00000
00000
0000000
0000000 (a)
0000000
00000
00000

0000
0000 000
000000
0000000 10)
000000
0000000
0000 I-'Ig. 10.4. Tube bundle layout: (0) square, in-li ne
arrangement. (hi triangular. stagge red arrangement.

purposes, the Kern expressions (either Eq. (10.13) or (10.14)] are conserva-
tive, and have been recommended by BUllerwonh [11] .

EXlmplt 1003. Su ppose that the refnge rant -22 in Example 10. 1 is condensing
under quiesce nt condi t ion~ on the shell side of a bundle of 41 tubes. The
bundle c.:lin be confi gured in a squarc.:. in-line arrange ment or in a triangular.
stagge red arrangeme nt as shown in Fig. lOA. Find the ave rage shell-side
coefficien t for each o f the configurations.

SoIwion; To find the a . . c.:rage heat transfer coefficient for the bundle. we
correct the Nussclt expression for it single tube, Eq. (lOA). using the Kern
rela tionship. EQ. (10.13),

t. Squart, m·lmt orronstmtnl. FIg. JOA(a) . With th is confi guration. there are
&"e columns of seve n tubes each and two columns of three lubeS each, This
arrangement would be equivalent to approximately sc . . en colu mns o f six
tubes each. Therefore N '" 6, From Eqs, (10.4) and (l0. 13),

h ... ~ _ h ,(6) Ifb _ ]124(0.74 18)

_ 2317 W/ m1 . K

2. Triangular, 51a~rtd arT/lngtmtnf. Fig 1O.4(b). With this configuration. as·

suming thai the condensate fall s st faiaht dow n and not sideways. there arc
seven columns of three tubes. four columns o f four lubes, and twO columns
of two tu bes. Th i~ arrangement would be equivalent tu approximately
thirteen columns of three tubes each. Therefore N '" 1 O nce again , from

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534 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONOENSATION

Eqs. (10.4) and (10.13).

h ... . ) _ 3124(3) _ 1/6 _ 3123(0.8327 )

- 260 IW/ m l . K

Therefore, by using the staggered ar rangement of tu bes. the average heal

transfer coefficient is 12% larger t hiln the in-line arrangement.

O ne way of preve nting inundat ion of condensate o n lower tubes is to

incli ne the tube bundle with respect to the horizon tal. Shklover and Buevich
(14) conducted an experime nta l investigation of stea m condensation in an
inclined hund le of tubes. T hey fo und that incl ination of the bundle increased
the average heat transfer coefficient over the hurizontal bundle result by as
muc h as 25%. These favorabl e results le d to the design of an inclined-bu nd le
conde nser with an inclination a ngle of 5°.

10.3.2 Effect of Vapor Shear

In tube bundles. the influence of vapor shea r has been measured by Nobbs
and Mayhew (1 5], Kutale ladze et al. (16], Fujii CI al. (17,18], and Cavallini
e l aI.119]. Fuj ii c l a J. [18] fo und that the re was little diffe re nce between the
downwa rd-flow a nd ho rizontal-flow data obtained. but the upward-flow data
were as much as 50% lower in the range 0.1 < F < 0.5. T hey arrived at the
following empirica l expression which correlated the downwa rd-flow and
horizontal -fl ow data reasonably well

Nu
_172 = O . 96F 1/~ ( 10.16)
Re

for 0.03 < F < 600. Cavall ini el al. {191 comparet! the ir data with the predic-
tio n of She kril ad ze a nd Gomcla uri [ IOj [Eq . (lO.7 )j, and found the prediction
to be conservative.
In a tu be bundle, it is nol clear which local vapor velocity should be used
to calcul ate vapor shear effects. Butterworth [11 J poin ts out that the use of
the maximum cross-sectio nal area would give a conservative prediction.
Nobbs and Mayhew (1 5) have used the mean loca l ve locity throug h the
bundle. They calculat e this veloci ty based o n a mea n flow wid th give n by

( 10. 17)

where PI and P, a re the tu be pitches (i.e .. centcrline -to-centerline distance)

in the longitudinal and transverse d irections. respective ly.

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 10.3 FILM CONDENSATION IN TUSE BUNDLES 535

10.3.3 Combined Effects of Inundation and Vapor Shear

init iaily. the effects of inundation and vapor shea r were treated sepa rate ly.
The combined average heat transfer coefficien t for condensation in a tube
bundle was simply written as

( 10.18)

where h i representS the average coefficient for a single tube from Nusselt
theory [EQ. (IOA)J and C N and C,, ~ are correct ion fac tors to account for
inundation and vapor shea r, respectively.
However. in a tube bundle. a strong interact ion exists between vapor shear
and conde nsa te inunda tion, and local hea t t ransfer coefficients arc very
difficult to predict. Bu tt erwort h [11 J proposed a relationship for the local
heat transfer coefficien t in the N th tube row whic h sepa rates out the effects
of vapor shear and condensate inundation. A slight ly modi fi ed form of his
equa tion is

( 10. 19)

where h'h is obta ined using Eq . ( 10.Q) and h i is obtained using Eq. (10.4).
McNaught [20J suggested that shell-side condensat ion may be treated as
two-phase forced convection. He the refore proposed the following relation-
ship for the local coefficien t for th e Nth row:

( 10.20)

where h e; is given by EQ. (10. 14); thil t is,

h (; = h l (N ~ / ~ - (N - 1) 516)

and h .h is given by

lI 'h = 1.26 - I
[ X"
l"" h, (10.21)

In Eq. (10.21), X II is the Lockhart - Ma rtin ell i parame ter, defined as

X - ( -I _ x ')"' ( -P, ) " ' ( -~,

" X . PI iJ. g
l'" ( 10.22)

and II / is the liquid-phase forced convection heat transfer coefficient across a

bank of tubcs. This is ge ne rally expressed as

( 10,23 )

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536 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONOENSATION

Vapor Velocity

jjjjj III
I 888--"" L ____ .J N, . Width 01 Duct

000 P

I p
I
_Fig. 10.5. Schematic of square, in·line tube arrangement.

where C, m, and n depend on the now conditions through the tube bank.
T he numerical values in Eq . (]0.2)) were obtained for steam condensing in a
bank of in-line or staggered tubes under thc following conditions (I 5]:
p
- ~ 1.25
D
10 $ G s: 70 kg/ m t . s
0 .025 s: x s 0 .8
0 .008 s: X" s: 0.8
The cor relation includes Ihe effeet of conde nsate inundation . McNaught [20]
found Ihal Eqs. 00.20) and (10.21) correlated 1Xl% of the steam data 10
within ± 25%. Care must be taken to avoid using this corre lation when the
operating conditions fall outside of the rallges indicated previously.

Eum plr 10.4. Steam at a satu ra tion temperature o f lOO"C is condensing in a

bundle of 320 tubes within a O.50·m wide ducl. The tubes arc 25 mm in
diameter and are 4 m long. They are arranged in a square, in-line pitch
(p - 35.0 mm) as shown in Fig. 10.5. The: bundle is made: up of 20 rows of
tubes with 10 lubeS in each row. The lube wall te:mpcrature in each row is kepi
constant al 93~C. The steam flows downward in the bundle and at the sixth row
of tubes, the local mass flow rale of vapor is
m, - 14 .0 kg / 5

Find the local heal transfer coefficient for this sixth row of tubes using the
me thod of Butle:rworlh [I I].

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 10 3 FILM CONDeNSATION IN TUBE BUNDLES 537

.W/utiOfl : The th ermoph~K:al JlwpCrlic~ nf steam ill 10000e arc as follows:

{I I - I}~ 7.4 ka / m '

v. - 0 5 9~ ka / m \

k l - IU>K I W / (m ' k)

J.i , - 2 N x 10 4 kg / (m . s)

~ ... 1.1 )( 10 ~ kg / (m . s )

" ... 2.257 X 10 ' kJ / kg

r pi - 4 .2 14 kJ / (kg ' K )

111c local ~ t C<lm velocity can be c;llcul <lICd as follows:

" .. --- /;r .

p.A,.,

where A ", i..: the mean now <lr~·a. Thi.~ melln Ilow lIrea ClIn hoc written in t\' rm ~
of thc number of units cells N, and Ihe mellll width per cell w:

Am" .... N,L

where It' is givcn by Eq. (10.17) .

. "

III lhi~ c~amplc . PI .. p, .. I' - I) OJ5 m. Therdore

(O .OJ5)! - TT (0 .025) !/ 4
(O.OJ5)

.. O.[I:!I III

Th(' mean flow arc·a is then

A ", .. (0 .021)( Ib)(4)

The local steam velocity is

( 14 .0)
Il .. -
(0 .598)( 1.344)

.. 17.4 m/s

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538 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

Using the method of Butterworth (J 11. the local heat transfer coefficient is
given by Eq. (10.19):

where

( 10.9)

(10.4)

The two-phase Reynolds number is

_R, - (P,U.D)
--
",
(957 .9 )( 17.4)(0.025 )
(2 .79 x (0 - ')

Therefore

(0.681) 10' )'"

h 'h - 0.59-(- - ) (1.49 x
0.025

= 19.6 1 8 W / (m~·K)

From Eq. (lOA).

(0.681) ( 957.9)(957 .9 - 0.598)(IJ.K I )(2.257 X ]((')(0.025 ) \)

,.
h - 0 .7 2 8 - -
1 (0.025) (2.79 X 10 - 4 )( 100 - 93)(0.681)

- 13, 859 W/ (m!' K)

Therefore, upon substitution into Eq. (10.19), we gel

h ~ - 13,519 W /( m2 . K)

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•• XT
 10.4 FILM CONDENSATION INSIDe T\.I8ES 539

10.3.4 Computer Modeling

Compute r modeli ng must be used to predict accu rately the average shell -side
heat transfer coefficie nt in a tube bu ndle. Marto (21] has reviewed the
evolvement of com puter methods to predict shell-side conde nsation. The
vapor flow must be followed throughout the bundle and within the vapor flow
lanes. Knowing the local vapor velocity and the loca l va por pressure and
temperat ure. as we ll as the distribution of condensate from ot her tubes (and
the local concent ration of any noncondensable gases). it is possible to predict
a local coefficient in the bundle wh ich can then be integ rated to arrive at the
overall bundle pe rformance. Early effo rts to model the thermal performance
of condense rs were limited esse ntially to o ne-dimensional routines in the
plane perpendicu lar to the lubes [22 -25 ]. Today. more sophisticated two-
dimensional models exist which have been utilized successfully to study the
performance o f complex tube bundle geometries (26-3 I].

10.4 FILM CONDENSATION INSIDE TUBES

10.4.1 Flow Paftems

During film condensation inside tubes. a variety of flow patterns can exi~t as
the fl ow passes from the tube in let (with a quality near 1.0) to the exit (with a
Quality nca r or below 0.0). This is illustrated in Fig. 10.6 for a low and high
mass flu x situat ion. The flow can pass through mist. annular. wavy, and slug
patl erns. Eve ntu ally, depending on the heat flux, all the vapor can condense.
resulting in single-phase, subcooled liquid at the tube exit. Of cou rse, these
different flow patterns can alter the heat transfer considerably. so that local
calculations mu st be made along the length of the tube .
The previously mentioned flow patterns have been studied by numerous
investigators in recent years [32- 371. The transition from one How palle rn to
anot her must be predicted in order to make the necessary heat transfer
calculat ions. Breber et al. [36] have proposed a simple method of predicting
How pattern transitions that depend on the dimensionless mass veloci ty g.
defined as
xC
(10.24 )
[gDp, (p, - p,) I' /'
and the Lockhart - Martine lli pa ramete r X". Eq. (10.22). Their flow palle rn
criteria arc
f.· > 1.5 X" < 1.0: mist and annula r ( 10.25.)
., < 0.5 X" < 1.0: wavy and stratified ( 10.25b)
J,
.,
J, < 0.5 X" > 1.5: slug ( 10.250 )
1,·> 1.5 X" > 1.5: bubble ( IO.2Sd)

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 540 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

High Mass Flu)(

SIngle-Phase Plug and Single-

Superheated Mist Flow Annular Flow Wavy Flow Slug Flow Phase Subcooled
V'po< Uquld Flow

Low Mass FIU)(

Single-Phase
Annular Of Slug Flow Strahhed
Superheated Wavy Flow
Semiannulal Flow (In Some Gases) Flow
V'po<

Fig. 10.6. Flow pattern development du ring horizontal in-tu be condensation (from
the Encyclopedia of Fluid M~chanics. volume 3. by Nicholas P. Cheremisi no ff. Copy-
right 0 1986 by Gulf Publishing Company HOUStOn. TX . Used with p!.: rmi ~i nn. All
rights reserved.)

From these criteria, it is clear that transition ba nds separate each of the
flow patterns. Recent ly. Rahman et al. [34] obtained new dala for steam
condensing inside horizontal tubes. They compared their data to the various
fl ow pattern classification methods and found good agreement with the
method of Breber et al. (36]. During horizontal in-tube condensation, the
transition from annular to stratified flow is most important. Equations
( 10.25a) and (1O.25b) can the refore he used for design purposes. Soliman (35]
has recently provided a Froude number criterion for both the spray-annular
transition and the an nular- wa\l)' transition . Soliman [38] has also proposed a
We ber number crite rion for the mist-annular transition .

10.4.2 CondensatIon In Horizontal Tubes

During conde nsation inside hori zontal tubes, diH·c rent heat transfer models
are used, depending on whether vapor shear or gravitational forces are more

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 10.• FILM CONDENSATION INSIDE TUeES 541

Condensate
Film

Stratified
Layer

Fig. 10.7. Idealized condensate profile inside a horizontal tube.

import anI. When the vapor vclot'ity is low (i.e., lll'" is less than 0.5), the flow
will be dominated by gravitat ional forces and st ratification of the condensate
will occur. At hi gh vapor velocities (i.e., j: > 1.5) where interfacial shear
forces are large, gravitational forces may be neglected and the condensate
now will be annular. When the flow is st ratified, the condensate form s as a
thin film on the top portion of the tube wall s. This condensate drain s toward
the ootlom of th e tuhc where a str;lIitied laye r exists as shown schematically
in Fig. 10.7. The stratified layer fluws axially due to vapor shea r forces. In this
circumstance, the Nusscll theory for laminar flow is generally va lid over the
top. thin film region of the tube. However. Butterworth [51 points out that if
the axial vapor velocity is high . turbule nce may occur in this thin film and the
Nussclt analysis is no longe r valid. In the stratified layer, heat tran sfe r is
generally negligible. For lamina r fl ow, the average heat transfer coefficient
over the entire perimet er may he expressed by a modified Nussclt result:

(10.26)

where Ihe coefficient n depends on the fraction of the lube that is st ratified.
Jaster and Kosky [391 have shown that n is related 10 the void fraction of the
vapor 0 , :

( 10.27)

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where

( 10.28)
',~ I + [(I - x) / x J( p~/fJ , )'1'

I .. the annular How regime, there are many predictive techniques that are
ava ilable /401 Generally, laminar How models (has.cd on a Nussc lt analysis)
predict heat transfer coefficien ts that are tOO low. and tu rbu len t flow mode ls
must be used. These turbulent How mode ls are either empirically based.
dimensionl ess correlations or are based on the heat transfer - momentum
analogy. Some of Ihe mode ls are rather cumbersome tu use and result in
expressions thai arc inconvenient for design purposes. Tahlc 10. 1 summarizes
the most common ly used methods, Eqs. (10.29) through (10.43).

TABLE 10.1 Annular- Flow Models

Refe re nce Mdhod

Akers e\ al. [411 Nu _ hD, _ CR~"Pr,' /.; ( 10.29)

k, '
where
C - 0.0265 n - 0.8 for Re r > 5 x 10 4

C - 5.03 n ., ~ for Re r < 5 x IO ~

.,
D,Gr
R, , . - - (10.30 )

(10.31)

Cavallini and Zcechin (42) Nil - 0.05Rt ~·~ Pr u. )) (10.32 )

1/ 2
Boyko and Kru zhilin[43i Nu - O.02IRet ~/·r:u~ [1 + x(p,IP~- I )l (IU.]] )

.,
GO
Re, - - '

(10.34 )

where
p
p, - P",
Nil, - O.023Re)'·~Pr?4 ( 10.35)

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 TABLE 10.1 (Conlinued)

Reference Method

Kosky imd Stauh [4SJ (1Il.36 )

where

( 11l.37)

o':s; 5 ( 1O.3tla)

T' = S{P,/ + In(1 + P,,(S ' j5 - I»)]

5 < 05':s; 30 ( 10.38b)

T' = 5 [p,/ + In( I + 5P'I) + ! InC 0 + j31l) ]

( IO.3Ik)
ou*
" -- ( I0.39a)

D - . (R"
- "
2
J" Rei < 1250 ( 1O.39h)

o. = 0.0504 RI'))'~7.~ Rei > 1250 ( 10.39c)

(l - x)GD,
RI' I~-----

",
- D . dP)
( lOAD)
T ... - 4:ldZ f

{Method for c3lculating the two-phase frictional pressure grad ient (dP jdz), arc
presented in Section 10.5.2.)

N P R o~ FI(X,,)
Traviss e\ al. [4()j U = 'I 1'1
F 2( Rel'Pr I )
(10.41)

where
(I - -I lCD,
Rel - - - - -
",
FI = O.15[ X" I + 2.85X,~o.47hl ( 10,42)

F2 "" O.707Pr, Re!'·s Re, < 50 ( 10.43a)

Fl - 5Prl + Sln[1 + Prl(O.0964Rer ~~·~ - 1)1

50 < Rt', < 1125 (IO.43b)
F2 - 5Pr, + Sln(] + 5Pr,)

+ 2.5In( 0.0031 Rt'y-~12 ) Rei > 1125 (10.43c)

543
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NEXT
544 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

All of the expressions for the local heat transfer coefficient must be
integrated over the lengl h of the tube in order 10 find an average heal
transfer coefficient

( 10.44)

The proble m of co mple ting the necessary integration lies with the depen.
dence of the quality x on ax ial position z. T his ge ne rally will require
subdividing the overall length into a number of subcleme nts of length ~ z
and followin g the process from inle t to outl et. using local heat transfe r
coefficients for each subclement. If the quality is assumed to vary linea rly
(which unfort unately does not occur in many cases), then an average heat
transfe r coefficient may be found by using an ave rage quality x - 0.5 in the
local exp ressions listed in Table 10.1.

10.4.3 Condensat ion In Vertical Tubes

Conde nsation heat transfer in vertical tubes depends on the flow direction
and its magnitude. For downwa rd-Howi ng vapor. at low velocities, the con-
de nsate flow is controlled by gravity and the he,ll tr<lnsfer coefficie nt may be
calcul ated by Nusselt theory on a ve rtical surface

( 10.45)

If the conde nsate film proceeds from la mina r. w'lVe·free to wavy conditions, a
correction to Eq. (10.45) can be a pplied

"......
- ~ 0 .8
(Re
-
I' )1111 ( 10.46)
II", 4

where the film Reyno lds numher Re I' > 30. If turhulent condit ions ex is t, Ihe n
the average hea t transfer coefficie nt can be calculated by one of the methods
described by Marto [6]. If the vapor ve locity i ~ very high , then the flow is
controlled by shear forces and the annular fl ow mode ls out li ned in Table 10. 1
may be used.
For upward · fl owi ng vapor, inte rfacial shear will rela rd the drainage of
condensate. As a result, the conde nsate fi lm will thicken and the hea t
transfer coefficie nt will decrease. In th is easc. 1::q. (10.45) may be used with iI
correctio n fac tor or 0.7 to 1.0 applied, depending on the magnitude of the
vapor velocity. Ca re must be exercised 10 avoid vapor velocit ies that are high
e nough to cause " floodin g," which occurs whe n Ihe vapor shear forces
prevent th e downftow of condensate. One crite rion to predict the onset of

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 " Hooding" is due to Wallis 1471 whic h is based on air-water systems

( 10.47)

where

v; '* --;
p'" v
--:--:-'-"""''----,-,'" ( 1O.48a)
18D,(p,- p,)I '"

( IO .48b)

The velocities VIf and VI shou ld be calculated at (he bottom or the tube
(where they are a t their maximum values). Wallis 1471 de te rmined the
parameter C to be 0.725 based on his measure me nt s or air and wa te r.

~ ! Is! f f I ~
5

".s
"
3

~
2

i
J1 10'
j N

8
.~
7

~ • 5
•,•
3
0
2 o MeasUi ed
- TheoretICal

2
10 1 .2 1.0 0 .• OS O. 02 0 - 02
OualllY. Vapor Mass FractlOl"l

fig. 10.8. Local heat transfer coefficients ror eonde nsatto n of nit roge n in a plate-fi n
heal exchanger (from Hase ler (48)).

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546 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSAnON

Butterworth [5] suggests th at C s hould be corrected for surface te nsion and

for tube e nd effects using the relationship:

C' - 0.53 1'. F, (10.49)

where F" is a correction fa ctor for surface te nsion and F~ depends on the
geome try of the e nd of the tube.

10.4.4 Condensation in Nonclrcular Passages

In recent years, there has been significant int e rest in conde nsa tion within
plate-fin heat exchangers [48 - 5 1]. In this case, condensation occurs within a
noncircular passage which may be rectangular or triangular in shape and the
heat tra nsfer is controlled by large vapor shear fo rces. Figure 10.8 shows a
comparison between the local heat transfe r coefficien ts for nitrogen condem,·
ing in a plate-fin heat exchanger as measured by Hasele r (48], and the in-tube
correlations of Nusselt (8], Boyko and Kruzhi lin (431. and Shah (441 for
circular tubes. None of the correlation s give reasonable agreement. and they
all underpredict the measured results. This discre pancy may be due to
surface tension effects which have been neglct.:ted in all of the existing
models (50].

10.5 PRESSURE DROP DURING CONDENSATION

The pressure drop during condensation is made up of te rms involvi ng wall

friction. flow acceleration. and gravity. In gencr~ 1. the gravity te rm is small
a nd ca n be neglected . The acceleration te rm may result in a pressu re gain
since there may be a decele ra tion of the vapor as mass is re moved by the
conde nsation process.

10.5.1 Sheil-Side Pressure Drop

Despi te the imporlance of knowi ng the shell·side pressure drop in conde nse r
design, especially fo r steam powe r plant conde nsers that operate unde r
vacuum conditions. lillie research has bee n pe rformed on shell-side , two·
phase How wi th condensation. Most of the pressure drop information in the
lite rature pe rtai ns to adiaba tic How.
For s implicity. shell-side losses may be calc ulat ed by using si ngle-phase
(i.e ., dry-tube) correlations of the form
u'
ilP ", 4f",N, p, 2'" (10.50)

where N, is the number of lUbe rows. 11m is the maximum vapor velocity in
the tube bund le (i.e .. based on the minimum fl ow area). and 1m is the friction
factor. whic h for a limi ted range of vapor Reynolds numbers may be ex·
pressed as a / Re~· 2.

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 105 PRESSURE DROP CURING CONOENSATlON 547

The coefficie nt Q in the frictio n fac tor expression depe nds o n the geome-
try of the tube bank . Equa tio n (10.50) has been used successfull y to predict
the pressure drop during horizont al Row in cond ensing lUbe banks. but the
determination of the ave rage ve locity u'" to pe rfo rm the calculatio n remains
uncertain . In rece nt years. seve ral more accurate me thods have bee n pro-
posed to pre dict the two- phase fr ietio na[ pressure drop during she ll -side
conde nsation 152-54]. These a re di:.cussed more tho roughly by Marta 161.

10.5.2 Pressure Drop Inside Tubes

The [ocal pressure g rad ie nt durin g conde nsation inside tubes may be writt e n
as

( 10.5 1)

where the gravi ty te rm has been neglected (it may he important fo r lo ng

vertical tubes) and whe re the second tc rm o n the right -hand side represe nts
the acceleration te rm . In Eq . ( 10.5 1). a ~ represents the void fraction of the
vapor. Eq. (In. 2M). The two-phase fr ictional pressure gradien t may be re[ated
to th e single-phase flow of e ithe r the liquid or th c vapor. assuming that th ey
are fl owing at the ir actual respective ma ss flu xes (e.g .. (i~ - xU). or to the
si ngle ' ph ase now of either pha se, assuming that c ithe r phasc is flowing at thc
total mass flux [55 ):

(-d/'
liz,
) - <b'I lliz
'dl')
-
i
- ¢ ' (dl')
-
j(dz,..
( 111 .5 2)

(-dl')
tlZ !
- ¢'
I"
(,/1')
-
liz I"
- ¢' ("1')
-
~" dz ~
( 111 .53 )

where <PI' <P1i ' cPIO' and q, ~ arc two-phase fri ctional multiplie rs . The respec-
tive single-phase pressure grad ie nh arc

(dl')
dz ,
~ 2j,G' ( I - x )'
(10 .S4a)
1'1°,
2f~ G l x l
("I')
dz ,
~
1'/1 0 ,
(10 .54b)

2/1<>(; 1
( ~: L PI D,
( 10.54c)

2f.,Gz
(:~l.. - I', D, ( !D .54d)

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where the friction factor / depends on the respective Reynolds number. One
such relationship is the Blasius equation :

/ = O.079Re - u.2'i for Re > 21)(x) ( 10.55)

There arc many two-phase- How frictional multiplier correlat io ns in the

open literature. Hewill (55 ) makes the fo llowing tentative recomme ndations:

\. For I-' J/ I-' . < 1000, the Friedel [56J correlation should be used.
2. For J.l-.t/J.l. x > 1000, and G > 100 kg/ (m 2 • s), the Chisho lm (57) correla -
tion should be used .
3. For I-' t/I-' . > 1000 and G < 100 kgj(m 2 . s). the Martinell i [58. 591
correla tion (as modified by C hisholm (60]) should be used .

These corre lations arc listed in T abl e 10.2. The correlations arc hased on
adiabat ic, two-phase-flow data. During condens<l tion. because of the mass

TABLE 10.2 Two-Phas~ "ow Frictional Multiplier Corn-lations

Refere nce Correlation

Friedel (561 ( IO.S/)

where

( 10.57)

(lO.SIS)

( 10.5'1

G'
h - - -, ( 10.00)
gD,Pk

G 2D,
Wt - - - (1ll.6 1)
p, u

( 10.62)

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TABLE 10.2 (C()fItimmJ)

Reference Corre la tion

Chisholm [571 r.b~ - 1 +( Y ~- 1 ~8.f (Z ~ )1 2 (1 _ x)' 1 ~ )/1 +X 2 - " J (10 .633 )

where

-l
1/1
( d /)/dZ )IO]
)' ( I O . ('~h)
( liP/ liz ) ...

/I is the Reynolds number cxpone nt in frict io n fac tor rc lationships (e .g .. 11 • 0.25. Eq.
(]O.5S)j

Fo r 0 < Y < 9.5,

55
G ~ IIJIIU kg / (m l . s)
(;1 /2

8 - 2400 ( 1O.64a)
500 S (i S 1900 kg/(m 1 . s)
G
4.8 (; < 501) kK / (m l . s)

Fm9 ..'i < Y < 2X.

520
YG' /~
( IO.Mb)
H- 21
{ G > fl(IU kg/ (m 1 . s)
)'

for Y >~,

15, lXlO
B - y ZG ' / l ( 10.64<)

Martinelli 15K 59) C

as modified by 4>~ - 1+ - + - (10.65)
Chisholm (W) XII X,~
4>; - I + ex" + x ,; (10." )
whe re
1/ :
X ~ [(tlP /dZ ) / ] ( 10.67)
" (dP/ dz) .

[sce Eq . ( 10.22)J
20 for turbulent - turbulent now
C _ 12 for viscous- turbu lent now
{ 10 fo r turbulent -viscous now
5 viscous-viscous Ilow

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550 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

transfer across the liquid - vapor interface. a correction must be made to the
frictiona l pressure g rad ient. Sardesai ct a!. [6 J} ~ uggest the fo llowing correc-
tion :

(dP) (dP)
dz ,, "" elz f O
( 11l.68)

where

. ~ -:-----'--
~
I - exp( - rb)
( 10M, )

cG--,·(_u-'-'_-_u--,;~)
~ ~ - ( 11l.6.b)
"
The fri ctional pressure drop must be calculated in a stepwise man ner. The
tuhc or channel is divided into a numbe r of short, incremen tal lengt hs A 1,
over which the condit ions change moderately. The pressure drop over one of
these lengths would be

( 10.70)

where the gradient (dP/dz), is eva lu ated using the flow conditions at the
midpoint of the length Az.

10.6 CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER AUGMENTATION

Numerous techniques have been proposed to augment conde nsation heat

transfe r. During film condensation of a pure vapor, anything th at ca n be
done to thin the condensate fi lm will augment the heat transfe r process. This
ca n be accomplished on the shell side by usi ng extended surfaces. !luted
surfaces. roughness elemen ts, and condensate IIrainage devices. If dropwise
conditions can be promoted . the heat transfe r process can be increased by
more than an o rder of magni tude. The most common enhancemen t tech·
niques for in· tube fil m condensa tio n involve inte rna l microfin s, twisted tapes.
and roughened surfaces.

10.6.1 Shell-Side Film Condensation Using Integral-Fin Tubes

During shell·side condensa tion , the most common technique to enhance the
heat tra nsfer is with the use of integral fin s. The fi ns not only increase th e

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 Fig. 10.9. Liquid retcntion on a finned tube.

surface area but also introduce surface tension forces which can playa
significant role in thinning the condensate film. Marto [62] has provided a
critical review of the literature pertaining !O film condensation on horizontal
integral-fin tubes, and has concluded that fin geometry (including spacing,
thickness, and height) can have a significant effect in determining the best
condensation heat transfer rates.
When a horizontal integra l-fin tube is placed in contact with a wetting
liquid, surface tension forces cause the liquid to flood the space between fins
on the bottom portion of the tube. This phenomenon is known as "flooding,"
" retention," or "holdup," and is shown schema tically in Fig. 10.9 under static
(i .e., no condensat ion) conditions for a tube with rectangular-shaped fin s. On
the bottom part of the tube, the condensate completely fills the space
between fins, whereas on the top part of the tube, only a small liquid
" wedge" exists at the intersection of the fins and the tube surface. The
flooding angle ,pf is defined as the angle from the top of the tube to the
circumferential position where the condensate just completely fill s the in-
tertin space.
Honda et al. [63] have arrived at an approximate expression for the
flooding on a horizontal finned tube with trapezoidal-shaped fins

r$f = cos
_((4(a,/p,)WS8)
I - I
) (10.71)
gsD"

As fin spacing s decreases, more flooding occurs (Le., I/o! decreases) and at a
critical fin spacing s'" it is possible for the entire tube to be flooded (i .e.,
<p! = 0). Since heat transfer in the flooded zone is less than in the unflooded
zone, it is clear that for a given fluid, an optimum fin spacing must exist
which results in the best heat transfer.

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 >0
e .. I .Dmm
I .. O.5 mm
9

Beatty and Katz 164)

a
7 0
0

6
\
\
/ '"",,m,,'"
Data

, \

-,
\
, \
,, 0

,, 0

,,
3 , ,

2
---
Alea Ratlo

O~~---7--~--~--~~
0 2 3
s / mm
Fill:_ 10.10. Comparison of measured heat transfer ~ nha occ mcnt to Beally and Kat z
[(4) prediction (adapted from Marto cl al. [65]).

The literature contains several theoretical models to predict the heal

tra nsfer coefficient on a single integral·fin lube. These models vary in
complexity and accuracy. For design purposes, the simple model of Beatty
and Katz (64J is still preferred. even though it completely neglecls surface
tension forces. Because of this simplifying assumption, their model is conse r-
vative when compared to data on finned tubes. This is demonstrated in Fig.
10.10 which compares the heal transfer e nh ancement dal a of MariO c t al.
(65] for R·II) conde nsing on a finned copper tuhc to Ihe theoretical prc::dic-
lion of Beatty and Katz [64]. At a near-optimum fin spaci ng of U.5 mm, thc
Beauy and Katz (64) model is about 20% less than thc data. Thc Bcally and
Katz [641 t:llpression for the average heat transfer coefficient on a single
finned tube (bascd on an effective finned lUbe surface area A ef ) is

"
",.r
,.. 0.689
(k"iP,aTD
JI./
. )'I'
g/,~
"
(10.72)

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 to.6 CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER AUGMENlAnON 553

where

[~, r
AI, I A" Ao
1. 30 71, - -I ! ~ + --- + - -- ( 10.73)
Ad L Ad D~/4 Ad D} /~

1T( D; - D})
I ( 10.74)
4Do

( 10.75)

A" is the sur~ace area of the fin sides, An is the surface a rea of the fin
tips, A" is the intcrfi n surface area of the lube, and 71r is Ihe fin efficie ncy.

Example 10.5. Consider the conde nsat ion of R-22 vapor under the same
conditions as Example 10.1, except that the smooth copper tube is to be
replaced wit h an integral-fin copper tu be having rectangular-shaped fins and
the following dimensions:

Outside diameter Dc = 19mm

Root diameter D, - 17mm
Fin th ickness 1 - O.3mm
Fin spacing s ~ 0.5 mm
Fin height e ~ 1.0 mm
Fin pilch p - O.8mm
Number of fins per unit length tI , -- 1250 fins/rn (32 fin s/in.)
I /p

Find the average heat transfer coefficient and the heal transfer augmentation
using this lube compared to the smooth lube of Example 10.1.

Solutio,,; We calculate all the surface areas per meIer of tube length.

AI> - 2t1 , 1T(D; - 0/) / 4

- 2(1250)(~)I(O.0 19 ) ' - (0.017)' 1/'

- ( 1 250)(~)(O .OI9)(O.OOO3)

- 0.0224 m ~ /m

A" - " 11T O, s

- (1250)( ~ )(11.011)(0.11005)

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554 HEAT TRANSfER IN CONDENSATION

Sincc Ihe tube is madt: of copper and the fin s 11ft.: very shorl. it is safe to assume
that the fin efficiency TI t is 1.0. We now calculate the 10lal effective surface area

- (1.0)(0 .1414) + (1.0)(o.onq + (11 .0334)

- 0 .1972 m ll m

L _ 1"T(D ~ - Dl )/ 4D
0> , "

- o[ (0.019)' - (0.1117)' \ 1 (4)(0.019)

- 0.00298 m

1 11/ • (0. 14 14) 1

[ D~ .. \.30( 1.0) ~(0"'."
19;;72~) (0.00298) I I ·
(0.0224) I (0.0334) 1
+( 1.0) (0.1972) (0.0I9) 1 /~ + 1;;;9;;72~)
( 0;-.
7. (0 .017) 1/ .

Using the properties of R-22 from Example 10. 1. the ave rage heat transfe r
cocllicient can be clliculated from Eq. (10.72);

- 5329 W l(m 2 . K)

The heat transfer ra te of the finned lube per meter of tube lenglh is

- (5329)(0. 1972)( 7)

- 7356 W / m

The heal transfer rate of the smooth tube per meier of lube length is

q, - h", . ,A.(T.. , - T~ )

- (3 124)(0)(0.019)(1)

- 1305 W/ m

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 Therefore, by adding integral fin s to the smooth copper tube (using the same
envelope diameter, D,,), the hellt tra nsfer rate can be lIugmented by the ratio
q,N, = 5.6.

The ave rage heat transfer coefficient in a bundl e of finned tubes may be
expressed in a si milar way to Eq. (10. 11):

( 10.76)

However. the exponent a in Eq. (1fI.76) is not precise ly known for finned
tubes although prelimina ry data in the lite rature indicate that a s 0.1 . For
conservative design purposes, the Ke rn [1 2] value of ~ [Eq. (I0.13)] can be
used. The influence of vapor shear on finned tube condensation is very
complex and there is almost no information in the literature. The data of
Gogonin and Dorokhov [66] for R-21 indicate that the effect of vapor velocity
for finned tubes is very small comp;tred to the effect for smooth tubes. For
conscrvativc design purposes, it is recommended that the influence of vapor
shear be neglected for finn ed tubes.

10.6.2 Dropwlse Condensation

Dropwise condensation is a complex phenomenon which involves a stochastic
process that includes nucleation of microscopic droplets at discrete locations,
the rapid growth of these droplets, their coalescence into larger droplets. the
formation of large inactive " dead" drops, and the eventual removal of these
"dead" drops from the surface e ither by gravity or vapor shear. The removal
of a large drop, with its sweeping act ion of all condensate in its path, allows
fresh microscopic droplets to begin to grow again. continuing the process.
In order for dropwise conditions to occur, the condensate must he pre-
vented from welling the solid surfa ce. For this to happen , a su itable pro·
moter must be used on the surface. Some common promoters for steam are:
oleic acid, benzyl mercaptan, and . ge nerally, any oi ly or waxy ma lCrial.
Howeve r, with most of these organic materials, the promoter gets washed off
the surface with time, eve ntu ally exposing the hare metal to the vapor and
crealing filmwise conditions. In recent yea rs, a number of investigations have
occurred to arrive at a " permanent " dropwise coat ing. Either noble metals
like gold, silve r. and platinum. or organic polymers or inorganic oxides may
be used. Figure 10.11 shows the da ta of Woodruff and Westwater [67] for
conde nsation of steam on different gol d-plated, vertical surfaces. The shaded
area, labeled DWe, denotes good-qualily dropwise condensation. The lower
curve. labeled FWe, denotes filmwi se condensation conditions. The curves
between these two extremes correspond to differen t gold· pl ating techniques
and plating thicknesses. Woodruff and Westwater [67] found that a st rong
correlat ion exists between the heat transfer performance and the chemical
composition of the surface. A predominance of gold together with carbon

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 1.200 r--~--~--~--;;;=~--~--~---'

F , 5,000;'
, E, 2.500 A •
E
;:
x
9IJ() ~:"-7'.£:~=====:3';:i.F, E.200500A A
._
Vapor, 1,000;'

F, 1.000 A
• Vapor, 3.400 A

300 ;~~~~~:=::::~H~.~I.:OOO~A----:
• ..----;Wc;
H . 200 A

I E . l°OA

00 l~::~~~~~==~~~~~~~~~G~.~2~00~'~I~OOO~~.20~.O O: ~A'~--l.
5 10 15 20
H . l .000A .
\ Vapor . 200 A
25
.IT, Temperature Diffemnce Steam 10 Surface. K
30 35

Fig. 10. 11. Dmpwisc wnJcnsalion he;!! lransfc r curves for different gnld-coalcd
su rfilccs Hrom Woodruff and Westwater (67)l.

gave the best dropwisc conditions (and a thermal performance improvement

over the fi lmwisc case of 5 to 10), Nash and Westwate r [68J have recently
concluded that pure, organ ic-free gold will nOI produce dropwisc condensa-
tion. and that dropwisc condensation will require the presence of some
organic material on the surface. Marto ct al. WI] stud ied dropwisc condcnsiI-
tion of steam on horizontal tubes containing either " permane nt " organic
coati ngs or electroplated si lver. The silve r-plat ed tube gave an en hanceme nt
of about 8 over the smoot h tube. The best organ ic coat ings (f\uoracrylic and
Parylene) gave enhancements of about 3 to 5.
Despite the difficulties of specifying the precise surface conditio ns of the
condensing surface. together with the stochastic natu re of the process, there
has been good success in predicting dropwisc condensation heat transfer
rates, Rose (701. In tube bundles, there is evidence that dropwise condensa-
tion heat transfer is not deteriorated by condensate inundation. Because of
the swee ping effeet of the large drops on the lo'Wc r tuhes in the bundle, the
overall bund le performance may actually increase over the single-tube result.

10.7 CONDENSATION OF VAPOR MIXTURES

There are many si tuations in practice where w nde nsation occurs with a
mixture of vapors or in the prese nce of a noncondcnsable gas. The condensa-
tion process the n becomes far more compl ex than for a pure vapor, involving

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 10.7 CONOENSAnON OF VAPOR MIXTURES 557

Equilibrium
Condensation
Curve

Coolant Temperature

Specific Enthalpy. J ...

Fig. 10.12. Equilibrium condensation curve.

mass transfer effects that create add itional thermal resistances, thus lowering
the overall heat transfer coeffi cien t.
Condensation of mixtures diffe rs from condensation of a pure vapor in
severa l imponant aspects. First of all, the vapor temperalUre at which
condensation occurs can change markedly throughout the condenser. This is
illustrated in Fig. 10.1 2. which shows a typical eq uilibrium condensation
CtJrve for a mixture of vapors, where the equilibrium vapor temperature T/,
is plolted versus the specific enthalpy of the condensing mixture im from inlet
to outlet. assuming a constant pressure throughout. Sometimes this CUNC is
plotted ve rsus the cumulative heat release rate Q which is re\ated to the
specific enthalpy by

( 10.77)

whe re m is the 10lal mass flow rate of the mixture. The curve clearly
indicates that along the path of condensat ion, as the less volatile components
condense OUI. the cqui librium condensi ng temperature drops. As a result , the
temperature difference be twee n the vapor mixture and the coolant is re-
duced, leading to a lowe r heat transfer rate . ihe real condensing curve may
not fo llow this equilibrium curve closely since condensation is a nonequilib-
rium process. Nevenheless, this curve shows the correct trend and the
implications for design. Equilibrium condensation curves may be of the
integral type (where it is assumed that the vapor and the liquid arc not

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558 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION

Interface
p;--"\.--cr-4r,-,V (pure Component)
i ,Pure Component
..-- - - -T
:,T ...
, . • ",. T
Coolant
Side ,, r. ,,<
"
Wilh Noncondensables

T, . ,,~
f.

---- p"
• Inlerface
.~(Wlth Nonconde n~abl es)

~t':-;T~"~b,;-::~.11:.~.:~~ Condensate FIlm

Wall

Fig. 10.13. Boundary layer temperature and preSSUT\: dl~tributions for pure compo-
nent condensation (dashed lines) and with noncondcn~abJes (solid lines) (from Webb
and Wanniaraehchi [72J).

separated from one another, as might occur during oondensation inside a

tube) or of the differential type (where it is assumed that the condensate is
separated from the vapor. as might occur on the s hell side of a shell-and-tube
condenser). Butterworth [71] describes the calculational procedures to obtain
these condensation curves.
AI a given point along the condensation curve, the local temperatures and
pressures vat)' from the bulk conditions of the mixture toward the interface.
This is best illustrated by Fig. 10.13 (Webb and Wanniarachchi (72]), which
shows schematically the profiles for a vapor containing a noncondensable gas.
The presence of the gas decreases the resulting local heat transfer rate in two
ways. First, in the presence of a noneondensablc gas, the vapor exists at a
panial pressure P~I> causing the bu lk vapor temperature Tlil to he less than
T"". In addition. as the vapor molecules migrat e toward the cold wall, they
sweep noncondensahle gas molecules with them . Since the noneondensable
gas does not condense at the prevailing operating conditions in the COIl-
denser, these gas molecules accumulate near the liq uid -vapor interface. The
concentration profile of these gas molecules reaches an equilibrium condition
due to a local balance of vapor momentum etrects in one direction and
back-diffusion effects in the other. As a result. the local partial pressure of
the noncondensable gas increases to a maximum at the interface. The vapor
molecules must travel through this gas-rich layer and, si nce the total pressure
of the mixture is constant. the vapor partial pressure decreases from PIiII> to

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P" , This lower vapor pressure at the interface corresponds to a lower vapor
temperature T,. which creales a reduced effective temperature difference
across the condensa te film. Condensation of vapor mixtures creates similar
phenomena to those described previously. The more volatile components will
tend to accumulate at the liqu id-vapor interface and the less volatile compo-
nents must diffuse through this laye r.
The condensate that collects on the cold wall is usually a completely
homogeneous, or miscible. mixtun: of compone nts. However. there are some
applications (involving, fo r example. stea m and some orga nic vapors) where
the condensate forms an immiscible liquid mixture. This liquid mixture can
form in severa l ways th at complicate the resulting fluid flow and heat
transfer.
Because of the added complexities noted previously and the important
role of mass diffusion during condensation of vapor mixtures, the analysis
of these processes is more complex than during condensation of a pure
vapor. Reviews of these analytical methods have been provided recent ly by
Butterworth 1711. Webb and McNaught [731, Sardesai et al. [741. Stephan [75],
Jensen [761. and Lee and Rose [77]. The methods described in these reviews
vary in both complexity and accuracy. and may be categorized into " eQui-
librium methods" and " nonequilibrium methods" [78]. These arc briefly
described in the followin g sections.

10.7.1 Equilibrium Methods

These methods, as proposed by Silve r [79]. Ward (80). Bell and Gha ly (HI],
and Roetzel [82], all assume that the re is local equilibrium between the vapor
and the condensate throughout thc condense r. Thus the gas temperature
follows the equilibrium condensatiun curve (i.e .. T~ = T/). The method of
Silver (79) is described in the fo llowing di scussion.
The local ove rall heat transfer coe ffi cient from the bulk vapor mixture to
the coolant is written as

1
- - - +R+ - ( 10.78)
U II , he!

where Ir ( is the heat transfer coefficient on the coolant side. R is the the rmal
resistance due to the tube wall (a nd any fou li ng), and her is an effective
conde nsing-side heat transfer coeffi cient , which includes the thermal resis-
tance across the condensate film , as well as the sensible cooling of the gas.
This effect ive coefficient is obtained by writing the overall temperature
difference from the bulk gas to the wall as

(T: - T.) ~ (T: - T,) + (T, - T•.) ( 10.79)

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560 HEAT TRANSfER IN CONDENSATION

Si nce each temperature difference may be written in terms of a heat flux

divided by a heat transfer coefficie nt, Eq. ( 10.79) may be expressed as

q"
+ h, ( 10.80)

Therefore

( 10.81)

The ratio q;/q" is usually written as Z whe re

( 10.82)

In Eq. ( 10.82). i l{ is the mass flow fra ctio n of the gas (i.e .. mll / ril). cpt is the
specific hcat of thc gas, and dT/ /di", is the local slope of the equi librium
condensation curve (see Fig. 10.12). h~ is calcu lated for the gas phase flowing
a lo ng by itse lf and sho uld be cor recte d for mass transfe r effects as proposed
by McNa ught [8J}:

hO_ h(_a_)
If e" _If I ( 10.83)

where

( 10.84)

Therefore, knowing the equilibrium condensation curve, the local conditio ns

o f the m ixture, and represen tative values fo r h / a nd h, (and thus II ,"), hd
can be readily calcula ted. The total condense r surface a rea can the n be
o btained by inregration:

(10 .85 )

The preceding methodology can readily be used for conde nse r design,
although the re may be some situatio ns where the details of the o utle t stream
are crit ical and this method would not provide these details. In these
situations, the more complex nonequilibrium methods must be used.

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 10.7 CONDENSATION OF VAPOR MIXTURES 561

10.7.2 Nonequillbrlum Methods

Arlvanccd methods for eondcnSal iun of multicomponent mixtures include
film, penetrat ion, and boundary layer models (76}. These model s provide
physically realistic fo rmulations of the problem, yielding more accurate local
oocltlcients at the expe nse of considerable complexity. Colburn and Hougen
184] developed a trial-a nd-error sol ution procedure for condensation of a
~mglc vapor in the presence of no ncondensable gas. Colburn and Drew (85)
later extended the method tu indude condensation of binary vapor mixtures
(with no noncondensahles). In reccn t years, considerable progress has been
made to fUrlh c r improve upon th is method of analysis for applicat ion to
mullicomponen t mixtures [Hft-I}O]. The procedure of Sardesai et al. [74].
which out lines the work of Krishna and Panchal [87}. is described in the
follow ing discussion.
At any local point along the condense r, the heat flux can be writte n as

q" = h/(Tx - 7J + 1:" Ti , ~ri, . , ( 10.86)

i- I

where

( 10.87)

The heal flux therefore includes three con tributions: (I) sensible cooling of
the hulk vapor mixture as it moves through the condenser, (2) se nsible
cooling of the bulk vapor mixture a~ it !lows from the local bulk conditions to
the interface (at a temperature T,) , and (3) latent heat of conde nsation of the
various condensi ng species. The condensation flux of the ith component fI , is
given by

( IU .88)

Two mass transfer models exist: (I) interactive models (due to Toor [H61 and
Krishna and Standart (89]) and ( 2) noninte ractive models known also as
effective diffusivity models. For the inte ractive models, the diffusion flux
J;b is
( 10.89)

where (81 is a mat rix o f binary mass transfer coefficie nts {3" for all the
component p'lirs and the bulk vapor composition, [{) is a correction matrix
that allows for net mass flow o n the mass tran sfer coefficient s, and (Y,b - Y,,)
is the vapor mole fraction driving force of the ith component. For the
noninteractive, or e ffective difTusivity methods. Eq. (10.89) is simplified to

( 10.90)

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where ~ /Jet ~ and ~ (d ~ represent diagonal matrices since each species is
assumed to have no interaction with the ot her species involved. Sardesai
el al. [74] compared each of these methods to e)(i sting experimenta l data for
ternary syste ms and found that each method agrced with the e)(perimental
data 10 within aoout ± 10% . Since the effective diffusivity mel hod is less
complex. it requires less computation time and is consequent ly the preferred
method to usc. Webb and McNaught [73] provide a comprchensive, step-by-
step design example for a multicomponent mi)(ture where the results of the
previously ou tlined methods are compared.

NOMENCLATURE

A area, m~
Q constant; parameter defined by Eq. Clu.x·n
B parameter defined by Eq. (10.64)
(BI multicomponent mass transfer coefficient matrix, kmolj( m!' s)
~ Bd ~ diagonal multicomponcnt mass transfe r coefficien t matri)(.
kmolj(m ! . s)
C constant
CN correction factor for condensate inund,lIion
cl , specific heat . J j (kg . K)
mol .tr specific heat, J / (kmol K)
'"
C", correction factor for vapor shear
D diameter. m

,£ dimen sionless parameter defined by Eq. ( 10.57)

tin height . m
F dimensionl ess p;ITameler defined by Eq. (10.8); dimensionless pa-
rameter defin ed by Eq. ( ID.SS)
F, dimensionless parameter defined by Eq . ( 10.42)
F, dimensionless parameter defined by Eq . ( \0.43)
F" correction factor for su rface tension
F, correction fa cto r for geometry
h Froude number. G Z/gD,PI,
f friction factor
G mass ve locity, kg/(m 2 . s)
g gravitational accelenltion. m/s2
H dimensionless paramet er defined by Eq . (10.59)
h heat transfer coefficient. W / (m 1 . K)
corrccted hcat lTansfc r coefficient defi ned by Eq. (10.83),
W j(m ~ ' K)
enthalpy per unit mass. J j kg
molar enthal py. J / kmol
' II/ laten t heat of vaporiza tion. J j kg

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 NOMENCLATURE 563

'I, molar latent heat of vaporization, J j kmol

j diffusive flux, kmolj(m l . s)
j mass flux. kg/ (m l . s)
k thermal conductivity, W /(m . K )
L length, m
L average condensing length tic fin ed by Eq. (10.74)
M molecular weight , kg/mol
m mass flow rate, kg/s
N number of tubes in a vertical column
Nt number of tube rows; number of unit ce lls
ti, molar condensing flux, kmolj(m ~ . s)
nf number of fins per unit length, m - I
P pressure, N/m l
P, critical prcssure, N/m2
t!.P pressurc drop, Njm 2
Pr Prandtl number
p pilch. m
f', reduced pressure, P f Pc
Q cumu lative heal release rate , W
qw heal flux , W/ m2
R unive rsa l gas constant , J/ (mol' K); thermal resistance. (m 2 • K) / W
Re Reynolds number
~r film Reynolds number, 41'/ /J.1
Re two-phase Reynolds numba, u ~ D//I(
s fin spacing, m
T temperature, K
r dimensionless temperature defined by Eq. (10.38)
T/ equilibrium vapor temperature, K
tJ.T tempe rature difference, (T"" - T,,), K
I fin thickness. m
U overall heat transfer coeffi cient. W j(m 2 . K)
u velocity, m js
u* friction velocity defined by Eq. (10.37)
(. velocity, m/s
1'* dimensionless velocity defined by Eq. (10.48)
We Webe r number, G 2 Djapi>
w mean flow width per unit ce ll. m
X function defined in Eq. 00.2 )
X" Lockhart - Martinelli paramete r, defined by Eq. (10.22)
x vapor quality
Y dimension less parameter defin ed by Eq . (lO.63b)
y mole fr action of componen t in gas phase
Z fun ction defined by Eq. (10.82)
z axial posi tio n, m

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Greek Symbols
a void fraction
[' film !low rate per unit length. kg/( m . s )
[) film thickness. m
8' dimensionless fi lm th ickness defined hy Eq. (10.39a)
£,)T heat transfe r e nhanceme nt ratio, defin ed as the ratio of finned tube
vapor-side coe ffi cient to smooth tube v;lllle at the same vapor-to-wall
temperature difference and based on the smooth tube surface area
of diamet er 0,
11 fin efficiency
[{ I high nux correct ion matri x
... { cr ~ diagonal high flux correction matrix
8 function defined by Eq. (1O.69a); fin half-angle
J.t dynamic viscosity. Pa . s (kg/( m . s»)
II kinematic vi scosity, J.l./p. m ~/s
p density, kg/m \
(r surface tcn sion . N/ m; condensation coe fficien t
., shea r stress, N/m 2
rP function defined by Eq . ( IO.69h); two-phase frictional multiplier:
circumferentia l angle
rPr flooding angle defined by Eq. (10.71)
n coefficient defin ed by Eq. (10.27)

Subscripts
b bu lk
c coolant; corrected value ; critical point value
(' eq uivalent
ef effective
f friction; fin
fs fin sides
ft fin tips
g vapor phase
go vapor on ly
G gravity controll ed
h homogeneous mixture
inside; int erface
In inlet
I liquid pha!tC; lo ngitudin al
10 liquid only
In mean or average value; maximum value; mixture va lue
N result for N tubes
o ou tside
out ou tlet

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, mot
, smOOlh
sat sa luration cond ition
,h shea r cont roll ed
lotal; transverse
unfinncd
" wall
"1 single tube
r film

REFERENCES

l. Berman. L D. (]967) On the effec t of molecular kinetic rcsiSl;lnCC upon heat

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14. Shklover, G. G .. a nd Buevi<:h. A. V. (1')78) Investigation of sleam condensation in
an inclined bundk or tuhc~ . "J1r('rmall~118. 25( M 49-52.

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15. Nobbs, O. W., and Mayhew, Y. R. (l97b) Effect of downward vapor velocity and
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19. Cavallini, A., Frizze rin. S .. a nd Rossetto. L. (1986 ) Condensation of R- Il vapo r
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22. Barsness. E. J . (1963) Calculation of the pe rfo rmance of su rface conde nsers by
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23. Emerson, W. H. (1969) The application of a digital compute r to the design of
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26. Hopkins, H. L. , Loughhcad. J., and Mo nks. C. J. ( 1983) A compute rized ana lysis
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27. Shida, H. , Kuragaska. M.. and Adachi , T . (1 '11'\2) On the numerical ;lOil l ysi~
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28. AI-Sanca, S., Rhodes, N .. Tatchcll, D. G., and Wilkinson. T. S. (1 983) A
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29. Caremoli. C. (1 983) Nume rical compu ta tion of ~ team flow in powe r plant con-
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89-96. Pergamon, London.

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30. Beckett. G .• Davidson. B. J .• and Ferrison. J. A. (]9H3) The usc of computer
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with change of phase. Complders wid Chem. Eng. 8 367-375.
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R. K. Shah. E. C. Subbarao. and R. A. Mashelkar (cds.). Hemisphere. New York.
]3. Soliman. H. M., and Azer, N. Z. (1974) Visual studies of flow patterns during
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J 24 1- 245.
]4. Rahman. M. M., Fathi, A. M., and Soliman. H. M. (1985) Flow pattern bound-
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547-552.
]5. Soliman, H. M. (1986) Flow pattern transitions during horizontal in-tube conden-
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Houston.
36. 8reber, G .• P,llen, J. W .. and Tahore k. J . (1980) Predil·tiun uf horizontilltuhcside
condensation of pure components using flow regime criteria. 1. Hem Transfer 102
471 - 476.
]7. Tandoll. T. N.. Varma, H. K.. and GUllta. C. P. (]982) A new flow regime map for
condensation inside horizontal tubes. 1. Heal Transfa 104 763 - 768.
]8. Soliman, H. M. (1986) The mist- annular transition during condensation and its
influence on the heat transfer meclwn ism. Inl. 1. Mtl/liphusl! Flow 12 277-28K
39. Jaster, H., and Kosky. P. G. (]97h) Condensation heat transfer in a mixed flow
regime. 1111. 1. Heat Mu.~ Trun.~fer 191J5 - 99.
40. Royal, J. (1975) Augmentation of horizontal in-tube condensation of slCam. PhD
Thesis, Iowa State University, Ames. Iowa.
41. Akers. W. W .• Deans. H. A .• and Crosser. 0. K. (J959) Condensing heat transfer
within horizontal tubes. Chem. EliI'. Prog. Symp. Ser. 55 171-176.
42. Cavallini. A.. and Zeeehin, R. (l 1J71) Pro£". 13th lilt. C(J/lgre.\·s Rljrigcrarimz,
Washingtoll. D.C.
4]. Boyko. L. D .• and Kruzhilin, G. N. ( 11)67) Heat transfer ,lOd hydraulic resistance
during condensation of steam in a horizon tal tube and in a bundle of tubes. btl.
1. Ht'tIl Mass TruII4er 10 361 - 373.
44. Shah. M. M. A general correlation for heat transfer during film condensation
inside pipes. Inl . 1. Heat Ma.n Trall.lfa 22547-556.
45. Kosky. P. G .. and Staub. F. W. (1<)7 1) Local condcnsing heat transfer cocflicients
in the annular flow regime. AIChI:; J. 17 1037-1043.
46. Traviss. D. P.• Rohseno ...... W. M .. and B<.Iron, A. B. (1972) Forced cunvection
condensation inside tubes: A he;lt transfer equation for condenser design.
ASHRAE TraIlS . 79157 - 165.
47. Wallis. G. B. (1%]) Flooding velocities for air and water in vertical tubes.
UKAEA Report AEEW-RI23.

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CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
568 HEAT TRANSfER IN CONDENSATION

48. Haseler. L. (1980) Condensation of niuogen in brazed alu minum plate-fin heat
exchangers. 19th Na tional Hea t Transfer Conl.. Orhmdo. ASME Paper IiO-HT-57.
49. Robertson. J. M. (1980) Review of Nliling, condcnsing and other aspects of
two-phase flow in plate-fin heat exchangers. In COnlpaC I Heat Exchangers. R. K.
Shah (cd.). HTD-Vol. 10. ASME. New York.
50. Westwater, J. W. (1986) Compact heat exc h an~crs with phase change. Prot:.
Eighlh Int . Heal Transfer Con/., San Francisco 1 26C,1-278.
51. Robertson. J. M., Blundell. N.. and Clarke. R. H. ( 1C,186) The condensing charac-
terist ics of nitrogen in plain, brazed al uminum. plillc-fin heat exchanger passages.
Proc. Eighth Int . Heat Transfer Con/., SUII FrullC/.lm 41719- 1724.
52. Grant , I. D. R.. and Chisholm. D. (1979) Two-ph ase fi()w on the shell-side of:1
segmentally baffled shell-and-tube heat exchanger. 1. Ileal TrallJfu 101 38-42.
53. Grant. I. D. R. and Chisholm, D. (1980) Horizon l;! 1 two-phase flow across tube
banks. Inl . 1. Heal Fluid Flow 2(2) 97-\00.
54. Ishihara. K .• Pale n. J. W.. imd Taborek, J. (198(1) Critic,ll rcview of correlations
for predict ing two-phase flow pressurc drop acro<;s lube ban ks. Heal Transfer
Eng. 1(3) 23-32.
55. Hewin. G. F. (1983) Gas-liquid flow . In Heat F..xf hungt'r Dr:ilgn HlmdlxK!k E. U.
Schli.indcr (cd.), Section 2.3.2. Hemisphcre. Ncw York.
56. Friedel. L. (\979) Improved friction prcssure drop correlat ions fo r horizontal and
vertical two-phase pipe flow. European two-phase flow group meeting, ispra.
hal y, Paper E2.
57. Chisholm. D . (1973) Pre~~ure gradients due to fri!;tion during the 11~lw Ilf CV,Ir'I-
rating two-phase mixtures in smooth tubes and channcis. Jilt . J . H I'al M(lss
Trans!", 16 347- 348.
58. Lockhart. R. W.• and Mart im.. lli. R. C. (J949) !'r" r osed correlation of data for
iSOIhcrmal two-phase two-component flow in pipes. Chern. EflR. Prof.!. 4S( I)
39-48.
59. Martinelli. R. C. and Nel~ n , D. B. (1948) Prediction of pressure drop during
forced·circulation boiling of wate r. TrailS. I1SM!': 70 f,C,15- 702.
60. Chisholm. D. (\967) A theoretical basis for the Lnekhart-Marti nelli correliltion
for two-phase flow. Illi . J. fleat Ma.u Transfa 10 1767- 1778.
61. Sardesai. R. G .. Owen. R. G .. ,md Pulling. D. J. (lW~21 Pressu re drop for
condensation or a pure v,lDor in downllllw in ,I \'ertical luhc. Proc. St'f 'l'lIlh Int .
Heat Trallsfer Con!.• MWlich S 139- 145.
62. Marto. P. J. (J988) An evaluation of film condcn~itt io n on horizontal integral-fi n
tubes. J . Heat Transfer 110(48) 12f;7 - 1305.
63. Honda, H .. Nozu. S.. itnd Mitsumori. K. (1118)) Augmentation of condensation on
horizontal finn ed tubes by attaching It porous drainage plate . PrQC. ASM£-JSME
Thermal Eng. loint Con/.. Y. Mori and W.-J. Yang (cd ~.). 3 289- 296.
64. Bcally. K. 0 .. and Katz. D. L. (1948) Condc n.<.atiun of vapo rs on outside of finn ed
tubes. Chern. Eng. Prog . 44(1) 55-70.
65. Marto. P. J .. Zebrowski, D., Wanniarachchi. A. S.. and Ru~e, J . W. (IC,lIs!:O Film
condensation of R-\ i3 on ho ri zontal fi nned lu bes. ASME PrO(". Nat. H I'(11 TrailS.
Con/. H. R. Jacobs (cd.) 2 583 - 592.

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 REFERENC ES 569

66. Gogonin, I. I.. and Dorokhov. A. R. (] 9g J) Enhanceme nt of heat transfe r in

horizontal shell-and-tube condensers. Heal Transfer-Soviel Research 3(3) 119-126.
67. Woodruff, D. W., and Westwater. J. W. (1981) Steam conde nsatton on various
gold surfaces. J. Heal Transfer IOJ 685 - 692.
68. Nash, C. A .. and Westwater. J. W . (l987) A study of novel surfaces for dropwise
condensation, Pmc. Second ASMF.-JSME Thermol Eng. Joil1l Conf., P. J. MarIO
and I. Tanasawa (cds.), 2 pp. 485-491.
69. Marto, P. J., Looney. D . 1.. Rose. J. W ., and Wa nniarachchi . A. S. (J986)
Evaluation of organ ic coatings for the promotion of dropwise cunde ns,ilion of
steam. Inl . J. Ileal Mass Transfer 29 11 09- 111 7.
70. Rose. J. W. ( 1988) Some aspects of condensat ion heat transfer theory. Inl.
C()l1lm. Heat Mass TrallSfer IS 449-473.
71. Bullc rwonh, D. (1983) Conden ~a tiun of vapor mixlurc ~. In Hea l Exchanger
Design HandlxxJk, E. U. SchlUnder. (cd.). Vol. 2, Section 2.6.3. He misphe re. New
York.
n. Webb, R. L. a nd Wa nniarachc hi . A S. (1980) The effect of no ncondcnsiblc gases
in wa ter chille r condensers- li terature survey and theoretical predictions.
ASHRAf TraIlS . 86 142- 159.
13. Webb, D. R.. and Mc Naught, J . M. (1980) Condensers. In /XI'I'lopm('n/S in I/('al
Exchangers T('drnoIQ1(Y, D. Chisholm (cd.), 7 1- 126. Applied Science Publishers,
London .
74. Sardesai. R. G., Shock, R. A.. and BUl1e rwonh, D. (]982) Heat and mass transfer
in multicompone nt condensation and boiling. Heal Transfer Eng . J<3-4) 104- 114.
75. Stephan, K. (1 98]) Hea1 transfer wit h condensation in multicomponent mix1ures.
In Heal Exchangus: Therma/-H)"t/ruu/;c Fundamentals and Design, S. K'lk a~ . A. E.
8crgles. and F. Mayingc r (cds.), PI'. 337 - 355. He misphere, New York.
76. Jensen. M. K. ((988) Condensation with noncondensablcs and in multicompone nt
mixtures. In T...."O-Phase Flow H I'"I &cllunger$: Thermal-Hydraulic Fu"dllml'nlll l.~
and ()e$ign , S. Kakafi. A. E. Bergles. and E. O. Fernandes (cds.). pp. 293- 324.
Kl uwer, Dordrccht .
77. Lee, W. C, and Rose. J. W. (l9K3) Comparison of calculation methuds fllT
non-condensing gas clfccts in condensation on a horizon1al tube. In COlldrnwrs:
Theory and Practice. I. eliI'm . E. Synll'. Sa., No. 75. pp. 342-355. Pe rga mon.
Londo n.
71:1. Butte rworth, D. (1988) Private communication.
79. Silver. L. (1947) Gas cooling with aqueous eondenu tion. Trans. lro/. Chern. Eng.
25 30- 42.
SO. Ward. D. J. (1 960) How to design a mul tiple component partial condenser.
Pclrochem . Eng . 32(10) C42-C4K
81. Bell, K. 1.. and Ghaly, M. A. (1 1)73) An approxima te gene ralized design method
for multicomponcntjpan ial condensers. AIChf Symp. Su. 6~:rH) 72-79.
1i2. Ruelzel, W. (1975) Appro~imat e desig n method fo r mi.~ed va por condcn~crs.
Wamlf' Slo!JUlNrtrag. 8 211 -218.
83. McNaught. J . (1979) Mas transfer correction terms in design methoos for multi-
component/pa rtial condensers. In COlUlensalion Hem TfllIlSfcr, P. J. Marto and
P. G. Kroege r (cds.), pp. 111 - 11 8. ASME. New York.

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570 HEAT TRANSFER tN CONDENSATION

84. Colburn, A. P., and Hougen, O. A. (9)4) Design of cooler condensers for
mixtures of vapors with non-condensi ng gases. /"d . Eng. Chern. 2:6 1178- 1184.
85. Colburn, A. P.. and Drew. T . B. (1937) The condensation of mixed vapors. Trans.
AIChE 33 197-215.
86. Toor. H. L. {I9641 Solution of the linearized equat ions of multicomponent mass
transfe r. AIChE 1. 10448- 460.
87. Krishna, R .. and Panchal. C. B. (1977) Condensat ion of a binary va por mixture in
the presence of an inert gas. Chern. Eng. Sci. 32: 741 - 745.
88. Taylor. R .. and Webb. D. R. (1 98 1) Film models for multicomponent mass
tnlO!'fe r: computational methods: the exact solution of the Maxwell-Stephan
equations. CornputerJ and Chern. Eng. 5 61-73.
89. Krishna. R .. and Standart. O. L. (1976) A multicomponcnt film model incorporat·
ing a general matrix method of solut ion to maxwell-stephan equations. AIChE 1.
2:2 383-389.
90. Taylor. R" and Webb. D. R. (19&)1 On the relationship be tween the exact and
the linearized solutions of the Maxwell - Stephan equations fo r the multicompo'
nent film model. Ch~m . Eng. Cumm. 7 287-~.

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MI
a:: Ohapter 11
w
MI
Z
w
A Steam Power
Z
o Plant and

..'"
MI
Process condensers

a::
o
l-
D. ButterwDrth

e
a::
..
o
I
MI
a::
w
-..o
~

Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 11 Contents
11. Steam Power Plant and Process Condensers
D. Butterworth

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Shell-and-Tube Condensers for Process Plant
11.2.1 Horizontal Shell-Side Condensers
11.2.2 Vertical Shell-Side Condensers
11.2.3 Tube-Side Condensers
11.2.4 Subcooling in Shell-and-Tube Condensers
11.2.5 Choice Between Types
11.3 Shell-and-Tube Condensers for Power Plant
11.3.1 Steam Turbine Exhaust Condensers
11.3.2 Feed-Water Heaters
11.4 Plate Exchangers
11.5 Spiral Exchangers
11.6 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
11.7 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
11.8 Direct-Contact Condensers
11.9 Thermal Evaluation Methods for Shell-and-Tube Condensers
11.9.1 Introduction and Definition of Terms
11.9.2 Co-current and Countercurrent Condensers
11.9.3 Shell-Side, E-Type Condenser with Two Tube-Side Passes
11.9.4 Shell-Side, E-Type Condenser with Four or More Tube
Passes
11.9.5 Crossflow Condensers
11.9.6 Nonequilibrium Calculation Methods
11.9.7 Multidimensional Shell-Side Flows
11.10 Thermal Evaluation Method for Direct-Contact Condensers
11.10.1 Spray Condensers
11.10.2 Tray Condensers
11.11 Reasons for Failure of Condenser Operation
11.12 Examples
11.12.1 Process Condenser
11.12.2 Power Condenser
Acknowledgment
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

MAIN PAGE
 CHAPTER 11

STEAM POWER PLANT AND

PROCESS CONDENSERS

O. BUTIERWORTH
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS)
Harwell Laboratory
OxIordslme, United Kingdom

11 .1 INTROOUCTION

The more important types of contkTlsin g equipmen t aTC described in t his

chapter including she ll-and-tube for power a nd process applications. plate.
spiral. plate-fin, air-cooled. and di rect -contac!. Advice on the choice between
the types is given. Methods "vtli lable lor the design and check rati ng of these
exchange rs arc given, with particu lar e mph asis on the shell and lube w hich is
the most common type. These methods build upon the detailed theories and
rorrcla tion.~ for individual condensing processes, which a rc descr ibed in
previous chapl er."" An important calcu lation step is the dete rmination of the
mean tempe rature difference and me ;tn overall coefficien t from the ir local
values. This problem is therefore disclissed in some detail. Possible reasons
why condensers fail to ope rate as e;(peeted arc noted .
Condensers may be classified in to two main types: those in which the
coolant and condensate Mreams a re se parated by a solid surface. usually a
lUbe walL and those in which the coolant and condensing vapor arc brough t
into di rect contact. Each of these two types may be subdivided in to further
ca tegories. as ill ustrated in Fig. Il. l. The direct-con tact type may consist of a
vapor wh ich is bubbled into a pool of liquid. a liquid wh ich is sprayed into a
vapor, or a packed-column in which th e liquid flow s dow nwards as a mm uver
a packi ng material against the upward flow of vapor. Thmc in which the
st rea ms arc ~paratcd may be suhdividcd into three main types: ai r-cooled,

&tlU1. f-; n '{X"'(l'vn ,,,,d ("",,,Inm·n. E,jil<:,j h) s",j! k Kaka"

[SBN 0-47\-1i1170·o (') [991 John Wik~' & S"',,. 111(".

571

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 Condensers
I
Dlrec1 ContaC1
I
Streams Separated
I I
I I I I I
Shell
Packed Pool Spray Plate Air Cooled
Column (Vapor and and
Suppression) Tray
I T~be

I r I I
Process
Spiral Plate Plale Power
Fin (TEMA Types)
Plate and I
Frame ( Cryogenic) I
Turbine Feed-Water
Exhaust Healers

Fig. 11.1. Subdivisions of condenser types.

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 11 .2 SHEl1.·ANO-TUBE CONDENSERS fOR PROCESS PlANT 573

shell·and·tube, and plale. In Ihe air-cooled Iypc, condensat ion occurs inside
lube~ with cooling being provided hy air which is blown or sucked acros... the
tubes. Fins are usually provided on the air side to compe nsa te for the low
air-side coefficients, by having a large surface area. The shell-a nd· tube type
consists of a large cylindrica l shell inside which there is a bundle of tubes.
One fluid stream flows inside the tubes while the other Rows on the outside
of the tuhc~ (known a~ the "~ h e ll ~ ide " ). The condensation may occor inside
or outside the tubes, depending on the design requirements. Although
shell·and-tube condensers are used both for process applications and power
generation, there a rc wide differences hetween the two types, and it is
therefore worthwhile considering them separate ly. There are many different
proce~~ type~ which arc given lctler~ of designation by the Tubular Ex·
changer Manufaclure rs Associa tion (TEMA) [1). Power Stat ion condense rs
can be subdivided into those used at the exhaust o f the low-pressu re steam
turbines, ar.d those used for heating the boiler feed water. A plate may be
used instead of a tube wa ll to d ivide the coolant and conde nsing streams. In
one design, the plates arc corrugated to give rigidity and also to improve heat
transfer. These are then held together in a pres)' or frame, with gaskets
belween the plates 10 prevent flu id leakage. In the ··plate·fin " design. the
plates arc flat hut corrugated met;)] shee ts arc sandwiched be~'een them to
act as fins. In the spiral piate tYPl', two plat es arc rolled into a spiral.

11 .2 SHEll-AND-TUBE CONDENSERS FOR PROCESS PLANT

11 .2.1 Horizontal Sheil-Side Condensers

Perhaps the simplest form of this type of condenser is that shown in Fig 11.2.
which is desigmHed by TEMA as an t:-type shell with a si ngle lube-side pass.
hE_IYPC " means that the shell-side fluid enters the exehanger.lI one end and
then flows in a relatively straightforwa rd way to the othe r end of the
exchange r. where it then leaves. 'Ine shell-side flow path is not completely
straigh tforward. though, because ba ffle s arc inserted which serve hoth to
direct the fl ow into a zig-zag path and 10 suppoTl the tuhes at regu lar
intervals. The batHes lend to ca u ~e the fluid to flow pc rpcndiculilr to the
tubes as the fluid flows between pa irs of hatHes, and then to flow parallel 10
the tubes as il flows from one bame compa rtmen t to the next. Figure 11.3
shows the main features of the mOM common type of baffle which is a single
segmental batHe. By "si ngle segme ntal" we mean that one segment of a
circular plate is cuI away. as shown. Holes are dri lled into or punched out of
the batHe through which the tubc~ pass. The various conSlfuClional detai ls of
sheJl -and-tuhe exchange rs are dc ~e ribcrJ in TEMA. and this chapler is
restricted to those special featu res which arc relevant to condensers.
A vel)' importanl feat ure of a cnnden:>e T, as compared with any other Iype
of heat exchange r, is thaI il must have a Yent fo r removal of noncondensable

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 Impingement
Plate
Vapor
Inlet

I Shell
. -,
Tie Rod s
Vent
Ga,
Oullet

t
Coolant
Inlet
I

I
Coolant
Tubes Ve rt ically I
Col Condensate
OuUet
Segmental Oullel
8allies

Fig. 11.2. Example or shell ·side condenser : TEMA E-typc shell with single tube·side
pass.

LocaIJOI"\ oj
Bailie
Sealtng Slrtp

__"':'~-f-__ ,4 Tube Holes

0000000
0000000000
00000000000 Co,
000000000000
000000000000
000000000000
0000000000000
0000000000000
0000000000000
0000000000000
0000000000000
000000000000
000000000000
00000000000
0000000000
000000000
00000000

Ofatnage Noteh

Fia. 11 .3. Si ngle s.c gmental baffl e with vertical eu\.

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 gas. Thus an E-type condenser will have two o utle t pipes (known as
" nou les"); one for the vent and the o th er for the condensate ou tl et.
Noncondensables have the effect both of de pressing the conde nsation tem-
perature, and there fo re reducing the temperature d iffe rence between the
streams, and lowering the effect ive condensing-side coefficients. It is clear,
therefore, that we want to make absolutely sure that any noncondensables
present before start-up can be removed, and tha t Ihe re is no chance of
noncondensables accumulating during conde nser ope ra tio n. Hence the vent
is provided. It is prudent to provide a vent if it is believed that the incoming
vapor is pure. This is because eve n a very pure vapor will contai n a small
amount of noncondensables which wi ll gradua lly accumulate in the exchanger
over a very long period if no vent is provided. Of course, some of the
noncondensables will dissolve in th e condensate, bu t it is not prudent to rely
on this. Perhaps o ne rare occasiun when a vent may be justifiably omitted is
when the vapor is in a closed cycle, suc h as a refrigeratio n cycle, which
operates above a tmosphe ric pressure. If, howeve r, such a cycle were operat-
ing below atmosphe ric pressure, leakage of air into the equipment is a
possibility. Even with a high-pressure closed cycle, a ven! will be needed for
slart-up.
The vent should be located as ncar as possible to the coldest part of the
condenser Which, of course. is where the coola nt e nte rs. It should be high
enough up that it does not Hood with condensate, so that in the sim pl e
arrangement shown in Fig. 11.2. il is convenien t to have the vent at the top of
the shell. The baffles should be positioned so that there is a continuous
onward flow of the vapor-gas mixture from the inlet nozzle to the ve nt
noulc. wi th no possibility of areas of stagnant o r reci rculating now forming
where noncondcnsables could accumulate in a " pocket." By havi ng the vent
as far from the inle t as possible. and by having it at the coldest pa rt o f the
condenser, we ensure that we are venting from the point where Ihe noncon-
densables have their highest concent ration . We are the refore throwing away
as little va po r as possible. It is extremely important that there is no short cu t
which would allow the vapor to go straight (0 the outlet wi thout being forced
across the tubes. This would again cause us to throwaway vapor unnecessar-
ily.
Battles in condense rs are usually arranged with the cut vertical, so tha t the
vapor How is from side to side. This aHows the condcm;ale to {an ~moo\h\y
downwards and away from the tubes and thus collect in the bouom of the
shell. Drainage notches must be cut in the baffles as shown in Fig. 11.3 to
allow this condensate to run along the shell to the condensate outlet.
Condensate will a lso lea k through the clearances between the baffles and the
she ll and between the tubes and the baffles. In addition, condensate can back
up behi nd baffles and How arou nt! the e dge of the baffle cut. It is debatable,
therefore. to what extent the drainage no tch is a ma in channel for conden-
sate flow du ring normal condenser opera tion, but nevertheless, it is still
necessary to have a drainage notch to make absolutely sure that the ex-

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changer may be fully dra ined during plant s hutdown. Also, to ensure such
drainage. the exchange r must be inclined towa rd the condensate outlet.
As has already been men tioned, baffles also serve to su pport the tubes. It
is usual {O allow alternate baffles to ove rlap by al least two tube rows. Some
tubes are on ly supported at alternate baffles and the maximum unsupported
length for these tubes is laid down in the TEMA standards. It may be
necessary to have the baffles close together in order to prevent the tubes
from vibrating. T he optimum spacing of the baffles depends on the trade·off
between good heat transfer and [ow pressure drop. As the vapor velocities
and noncondensable concent ration increase toward the outlet of the con·
denser, it can sometimes prove very beneficial to have the baffles close r
toge ther toward the out let end. Webb et al. [221 have suggested that an ideal
design is one wh ich the pressure d rop per row crossed is a constant through·
out the exchanger. They therefore start with an ideal design and then try to
approximate th is in a pract ica l unit by careful arrangement of the tubes and
the baffles.
A variety of alternative baffle arrangemen ts are shown in Fig. 11.4. The
baffl es in this figure are shown shaded, and the W signifies the bamc

NO Tube s In Window
Single Segmental Double Segmental Triple Segmental Bundle

, ,, 1
, ,,
, II, I, Jl
'
r....J,.. '- i
,,
,,,
, Internal
, Suppon
,,,
r- - -J
,
L_,..._..J
,
1- ', - ,
, '
, - I -t 2
I - ..J' __ ..,:
r
,• -, ,
, Internal

,
L. _ _ _ ..,
, ,r _
1--1 ,
,
L _,
,, ,
, t. -,,, Support

,,
- - 13
r-- __
,
1 , , , , -j
L_ ..... ..,_J
, ' ,
Internal

,
,
J
, ,
L_ .. _ J
, Suppon
, 1- '= ,
I " 1
r

• 0' .'
• 0, 0 ' .'
,
'

.' • ' . ' "• .0..

Suppon

Fig. 11 .4. Alternative bame arr angements.

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NOleT
 11 .2 SHELl-AND- TUBE CONDENSERS FOR PROCESS PLANT 577

"window." The window is the part of the naffle which has been cut away to
allow [he she ll -side ~tream to flow form one nattle compartment [0 [he next.
The fi2ure also illustrates the ftow paths taken by the fluid stream, as viewed
from the top. for the various baffle arrangements. With most of the baffle
typeS. having the hattles clo.~c r togethe r increases the she ll-side fluid veloci-
ties. Thi ~ woult.l be undesirable if vibralion o r high pressure drop is a
problem. The design with no tubes in the window. however. allows one 10
have additional int e rmed iate baffles which support the tubes without having
any significant effecl o n the flow . However. such it design is expensive
because there is a large volu me of empty shell.
Tubes arc usua lly left ou t of the nundle nea r the inlet nozzle to prevent
excessive flow constriction which could create problems due to hi gh pressu re
drop. tube erosion. or vibration. Leavi ng these tubes oul may give a path for
the vapor to flow along the top of the she ll directly from the vapor inlet to
the vent without crossing any tube rows. To prevent this h:lppening, a sC:l lin g
strip shou ld be placed (liong the top uf the shell in the position shown in Fig.
ILl Tubes may also he left out ncar the bottom of the shell to allow good
condensate drainage.
It is almost universa l practice to have an impingement plate under the
vapor in leI nozzle to preven! tube e rosion. This plate should be located
perpendicular to the inlet nozzle. just above the firsl row of lubes met by the
vapor inlet flow (see Fig. 11.5). With ~mall nozzles the plate should be slight ly
larger than the nOl.zle: with large nOlzles it should extend to the shell ,
utherwise the ou tc r tubes of thc first ruw cou ld be subject to seriuus damage
due to the vel)' high velocity with which the incoming vapor will hit these
tubes. With the latter arrangeme nt. the vapor esca pes from the noa.h!
IongilUdina lly and adequate space must he allowed heyond the edge of the
plate and the tube plate, and beyond the other e dge of the plale ilnd [h e
battle. fur the vapor to flow into the bundle, as shown in Fig. 11.5. An
allcrnal ive. though expe nsive , way of "voiding high ve locities is to provide a
vapor belt. as shown in Fig. 11.6. Wh en flow-induced vibration is a problem.
an extra tube support plate may be in!'!erted ncar the inlet nozzle. as shown in
Fig. 11.7.

[mpmgemenl
Pla1 e

,
Bame
Fill.. 11 .5. Impingement plate.

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 Fig. J 1.6. Vapor belt .

Extra Tube Support

Plale

Fig. 11 .7. Extra tube s upport plate to help

preve nt vib ration of lubeS near the inlet
nozzle.

The IUbe·side fluid may be made to pass alung t he exchanger more than
once as il flows through the exchanger. The addi tional tube-side passes are
achi eve d e ilhe r as a result of having plates in the header o r by using U tubes.
So far. we have only described the simplest TEMA shell type, the E type.
Figure 11.8 shows the other shell types designated by TEMA. Wilh Ihe
exce ption of the K type, the olher Iypes may be used as shell -side con-
densers. although the F shell is unusual. The broken lines in these figures
denole a longitudinal baffle. The 1 shell has a great advantage over the E
shell in that il ca n be arranged with two nozzles, one al either end, for the
va por in lei, a nd wil h one small nozzle in th e middle for the conde nsate
o utlet. Of course, one would normally have a small nozzle in the middl e at
the top in order to ve nt noncondensables. By having these two inlet nozzles,
a larger vapor volume coming into the conde nse r ca n be accommodated more
easily. Also, by splitting th e vapor Row into IWO and by halving th e path
le ngth for vapor fl ow, the pressure drop may be reduced substantially over
tha t fo r a similar size E shell . It is gO<Xl practice with a 1 shell to make sure
that there is the same heal load in both halves of the exchanger to prevent
the possibility that nonconde nsed vapor coming from one e nd o f the e x-
changer meets subcooled liq uid from the othe r. Th is could give rise to
period ic viole nt vapor collapse and possible exchange r damage. This proble m
usually means that j she lls should not be designed with a si ngle tube-side
pass if there is a large temperature va riation in the tube-side Huid as it flow s

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 ~ [$=---- iJl]
E : Ooe·Pass Shell F : Two -Pass Shell
[14~~
G. Spill Flow
with LongI tude Balfle

I I

[l$*~ D~)f-' ~ [I'Z ~!il]

(I '

H . Double Split Flow J ' DIVIded Flow X: Crossllow

[Combmed Flow
for Condenser)

T
V Shows Locahon of Vent

K : Kania -Type Reboller

Fig. 11 .8. TEMA shell types.

from one cnd of the exchanger to the other. J shells wou ld normally have
hafllcs similar to those found in I:" shells. except that a full-circle tube
support pia Ie milY be placed in the ce nter of the exchanger.
The (; shells and H shells can also have transverse baffles in addition to
the longitudinal baffles. Full-circle tube support plates may be placed in line
with the nozzles and. for H shells. addilional full-circle tuhe support plates
can Ilc placed halfway along the s hell. An H s hell woul d therefore have three
lube support plates a long the le ngths of the tubes and it may be pOlisiblc to
avoid having further segme nted baffles supporting the tubcs. In liuch circum-
stances, an H shell gives a fairly low pressure drop. The vent nozz\cs in (;
she lls and /-J shells have to be placed in the side o f the shell above the
condensate ou tlet nozzles but. o f murse, below the longitudinal bames. If
there are multiple tube-side passc ~ in G and H she lls, these should he
arranged so that the coldelit pass I ~;II the bo1tom and warmest at the top, liD
that there is some d eg ree of counll' rcurrcnt now.
The crossflow, or X-type exc h ~l1lgcr, is :I very usefu l unit fo r vacuum
operation. In such operating cond itio ns, large vol umes of vapor must be
handled, and it is therefore useful tn kl.!ep the flow a reas in the exchange r as
large as possible to avoid the chan ce of the tube vibration. The large flow
area combined with the short Iluw path alsu means that pressure drops can
be kepI low. It is particularly impo rtant to keep pressure drops low in
vacuum operation so as to avoid n:ducing the saturation temperatu re, and
therefore losing te mperature dilfercnce. Figure 11.9 shows a typical crossflow

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 U1
CXI
C

COOlanlOul Vapor InletS Perforated

D,stributor
Plaia

Tube
Bundle Tube Support
Plates (BaNles) COOl ani In

Condensale Drain

Fig. 11.9. Main features of a C o.ss/low condenser (TEMA X type).

CONTENTS
(I)

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 , 1:2 SHEll-AND-TUBE CONDEN SERS FOR PflOCESS PlANT 581

Vapor Inlet
Nozzles

Ven t - - Vent

Condensate Outlet

Fig_ 11.10. Alte rna l ive lu be bundle layout for a erossflow condense r.

unit. This part icul ar un it has three inlet noules to avoid havi ng a ve ry large
single in let noule which may lead to difficulties in mechanica l construction.
A large space above the top of the bundle is necessary to give good vapor
distribution along the exchanger length, and this may be ass isted by the
introductio n of a perforated distributur plate. The large space also he lps to
preve nt tubes encoun tering high vapor ve locities. As many full-cirde tube
support plates may be inserted as is necessary to give sufficient tube support
to avoid tube vibrlltion. Noncondc nsahlc gases must be vented from as low as
possible in the exchanger, as shown in Fig. 11.9.
Varia tions on the tube bundle layou t are possible in crossftow condense rs,
and one alte rn at ive arrange ment is shown in Fig. 11 .10. Here, a V-shaped
space is left at the top of the bundle for distribution of the incoming vapor
and to reduce Ihe vapor velocity a cro~s the w bes. In addition , the ven ts arc
placed at t he side of the condense r amI special baffles introduced to preve nt
the vapor ta king a direct path 10 the ve nt poin!. As with G and H shells, X
shells with multipl e tube-s ide passes should be arranged wit h the coldest
passes at the bottom.
Wehb et al. [221 have proposed thc usc o f :I hybrid conde nse r wh ich is pa rt
X shell and E shell. This is done by having a very large baffle space at t he
vapor inlet to th e conde nser which act s as a crossAow region. The rest of t he
conde nse r h:ls close r baffl e spaci ng more normal to an £ she ll.

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582 STEAM POWER PlANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

11 .2.2 Vertical Shell-Side Condensers

T£MA t.·-typc shells may also be insta lled ve rl ically. as shown in Fig. 11.11 .
The vent line must, as usual. he as far as possihle from the vapor inlet and at
the cold end of the excha nger. This wou ld mean hilving it very close to the
bottom tube plate but. clearly. it must be raised a little bit to avoid tak ing
condensate out through the ou tict nozzle. Th ese \'crtieai shell-side units give
very good mixing be twee n condensate <tIllJ Vilpor. 'Wh ich therefore means tha t.
with mix tures. int egra l conde nsa tion is obtained wi th improved temperature
difference between the phases.
It is theoretica lly possible to have these types 01" units wit h the vapor inlet
a t the bott om :tnd the vent at the top and to have the vapor ft owing
countercurre nt to the conde nsate produced on the tubes. However. s uch
designs arc unusual because of the difliculty of knowing th e precise cond i-
tions which lead to fl oodi ng in t hese circumstance .... These uni ts mus t not be
designed with ve rtica l upflow of both phases heca use of the almost total
impossihility of ensuri ng that the condensate m'IY be dragged upwards and
out of th e top o f the unit.

11.2.3 Tube-Side Condensers

Conde nsa tion inside tubes is ofte n JUSt as convenient itS conde nsation outside
the m. Indeed . when consideri ng muhicomponent mixtures. in- tube condensa-
tion ca n help to e nsu re integral condensa tion and he ller temperatu re differ·
e nces th:ln wou ld be the case for. say, conden !>a tion ou tside tubes in a
ho rizontal E sheil. However, diff"erenl ial condensation may be ohtained in
horizont al tu bes during stratified flow.
Mul tiple passes wit h headers must be avoided in tube-side conde nse rs.
This is hecausc it is impossible to say how a two-phase mixture discharging

Oul -
'"9==? v apor
In

Ven1 -
Co ndensa1e
0 ..
CooIanl _ ~~===f~
In

fig. 11 . 11. Vertic:.t E ~hctt a~ Ctlnttcn>;cr

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 5S PLANT 583

from one pass will distribute itself on entrance to the next pass. An unpre-
dIctable amou nt of separat ion will occur. making the design of the condenser
extremely uncertain. In add ition . such se paration would often lead to a loss
of thermodynamic efficie ncy o f the exchanger. This could occur. say, because
some of the tubes arc flow in g full of liquid and are therefore rapidly cooled
to a close approac h with the coolant temperature, thus renderi ng these tubes
significantly less usefu l for heat transft:r. In addition. instabilities cou ld arise
whe re the subcooled conde nsate from these liquid-fi lled passes meets vapor
discharging from other tubes at the e nd of such a pass. One obvious way of
avoiding these problems. and ye t still have two passes. is to usc U tubes.
Howeve r. it is dangerous to go to more than tv.'o passes.
With vert ical exchangers it is eve n more necessary to keep to a single
tube-side pass. Such exchangers arc often designed with downward flow of
both the vapor and the conde nsate. Two tube-side passes, usin g U tubes.
would be possible whe re the re is upward fl ow in the fi rst pass and downward
How in the second. It is th en necessary to ensure that the vapor ve locit ies at
the top of the first P elSS a rc high enough to drive the condensate up and
around the be nd.
Veniea l tube-side conde nsers m;IY also be designed to ope rate in th e
reflux mode. with upward flow of vapor but with a downward counte rflow of
any condensate form ing on the tuhc walls. Qearly, such units can only
operate provided the flooding phe numenon is avoided.
Again. it is possible to design tube-side condense rs with ve rtical upflow of
both the conde nsate and vapor. This is usually rathe r difficult becaUSe there
is often insufficient vapor at the top of the tubes to e nsure that the
condensate is dragged smoot hly away under all possible operating conditions.
Hence this design is best avoided unless absolu tely necessary.
As with the shell-sidc condenser:<-, tube-side condensers must havc ade-
quate vent ing. In ho rizontal units, the ve nt should be placed in the highest
conven ien t position in the outlet header. In vertical units with downflow. the
vent line should be placed in thc lowe r header above a ny possible pool of
condensate which fo rms there. Some "art of shroudi ng or cover near the vent
nozzle may be necessary to avoid entrain ment of condensate into the vent
line. With condensers opera ting in th e reflux mode the ve nt should be in the
top header.

11.2.4 Sub-cooling In Shell·and·Tube Condensers

It i~ often dc!'irable to subcool any condensa te leaving a conde nscr to prevent
nashing in pipcwork and equipment downstrea m of the eondenscr. A sm,tll
amount of subcooling in horizontal units can be achieved by having some
level control in the condenser which .:a uscs some of the tubes in the oonom
of the unit to be flooded. However. it shou ld be realiz.ed that the baffles have
bee n arranged in ordcr to dea l s<llisfactoril y with the condensation heat
transfer. Hence the gcometry in the hotlom of the condenser is not we ll

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•• XT
584 STEAM POWER PLANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

suited for the liquid cooling requirement. Typically, conditions there are of a
very low velocity pool of condensate. The heat transfe r coefficie nts in this
pool are both very low and are extremely difficult to predict accurately. Also,
it is quite difficult to know what the liqu id level is throughout the condenser.
Even though the level may be controlled in the outlet baffled compart ment,
the level elsewhere through the unit will depend on the pressure drop in the
vapor phase, the hydraulic grad ien ts in the condensate pool, and the precise
nature of any leakage paths from baffle space to baffle space. This, again,
adds considerable uncertainty to the prediction of the amou nt of subcooling
in such units. Having said all this, t he deliberatc Hooding of a few tubes is
often carried out to provide a little bit of subcooling, and this is fine provided
one does not have to rely upon having a precise amount of subcooling.
Where a large and precise amount of subcooling is required from such a
unit, a sepa rate, specially designed, subcooling exchanger is preferable as
illustrated in Fig. t 1.1 2.
Subcooling with shell-side condensation in vertical tubes is somewhat
easier to achieve than with horizontal tubcs. Again, some sort of liquid level
control is needed. Additional baffling may be provided in this pool to try and
give higher liquid ve locit ies and therefore increase the coefficien ts, but there
is usua lly not much to be gained from Ihis because the shell diameter that
has been obta ined to ge t the condensation right is usually rather large to get
a se nsible design in the subcooling region. Again, therefore, a sepa rate
subcooler may be the better solution.
Subeooling during condensation inside horizon tal tubes can somet imes be
convenien tly obtained by havi ng a special pass set aside for the subcooling
duty. Hence, for exam ple , the unit may be designed with all Ihe required
condensa tion achieved in th e first pass. The vent line would then be placed in
the header at the end of this first pass. The liquid level would be maintained
in Ihis header and the second pass would be running full of liquid. With this
particular method of achieving subcooling, howeve r, a much sma ll er number
of lube~ would normally be required in the second pass to give high velocities
to ensure gcxxl heal tra nsfer.
For conde nsation inside vertical tubes. subcooling ca n be achieved by
having a liquid level control and running the tubes full of liquid up 10 a

r I

~
t
Fig. 11.12. Subcool ing in separate con·
denser.

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 11 .3 SHELL·AND· TUBE CONDENSEAS FOA POWER PLANT 5 85

certain height. However. th is is clea rly o nly possible if there is no incondens-

able prescnt. ot herwise there is no convenient way of venting such no ncon-
densablcs.
At this point, it is worth re marki ng that noncondensahlcs, which a rc a
nuisance in most othe r respects, are helpfu l in achi evi ng subcooling. T his i!'>
because they suppress the condensing temperature be low that for the pure
vapor. Hence the condensate drain ed from a condenser with vapor and
noncondensable gas will have effective subcooling unl ess the conde nser
layout is such that this condensate can be rehea ted with fresh vapor. This
phenomenon is oft en used to adva ntage in order to achieve subcooling wh en
condensing in side vertica l tu bes.

11 .2.5 Choice between Types

Some advantages of particu lar types of condensers over ot hers have already
been mentioned . Furth er si mpic rules arc given here . When all else is equal,
il is best to have the dirtiest nuid in the lubes Ihan on the shell -side bccau!'>c
it is usuall y easier to make provision for clea ning inside lubes than outside
the m. In addition, it is best to have Ihe highest·pressure strea m inside the
tubes hecause, the n. only the tubes anu t he heaJ ers nec<.l be built to han<.lle
the high pressure, while the s hell (which is very often a very costly item) need
only handle II lowe r pressure. Also, when specia l materials are required to
handle corrosive fluid s, such flu ids arc better o n the tube side in order to
avoid having Ihe shell made out of special materials.
Additional guidance on th e variou~ types is give n in Table 11.1. which is
adapted from Be ll and Muelle r [21. Whe n there is no obvious advanlage in
one type of exchange r ove r another, il may be advantageous 10 design th e
alternative types and see which is the cheapest.

11 .3. SHEll-AND-TUBE CONDENSERS FOR POWER PLANT

11.3.1 Steam Turbine Exhaust Condensers

For historica l reasons, these eon<.lellSers arc often referred to as "surfa ce
condensers."' In principle, they are nl) different from Ihe shell -side con-
dense rs just describe<.l; in particu lar. Ihe X type . In practice, Ihe re arc
certa in seve re demands placed on these unit s which have been ove rcome by
~pceial design features. These spec ial dema nds arise from the large hc:1t
duties th at they must pe rform and from the necessi ty to ma intain a low
conde nsing temperature 10 ac hieve the hi ghest possible power sta tion efli-
eieney.
The aim is to ope rate with the condcnsi ng temperature only a few degrees
above the cool ing-wale r temperature. Typica lly, the coolin g water is about
20"C, with conde nsation laking place at around JO"c. Saturation preSsure of

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 TABLE 11.1 Guide to thf Selection of Type of Shell-and-Tube Condenser
&l
a>
Pressure Range
(For Pres.sures between
0.04 and 10 bar, All For Corrosive
For Subcooled For Mixed Vapors Types Are Satisfactory) If Fouling or Condensates
Type Condensates and/or Noncondensablcs Below 0.4 bar Above 10 bar Polimerization or Vapors

Inside tubes
Vertical upflow Not lIPplicable Limited to small Very poor Good Not Fair
(with reflux quantity of low applicable
condensate) boiler
Vertical Good Excellent Poor Excellent Fair Good
down flow
Horizontal Vel)' poor but Good in annular Poor Excellerll Fair Good
possible with flow, poor in
separate sub- sua I ified flow
cool ing pass
OutSide: tubes
Vertical Possible but Guod Fair Poor-high Very poor Poor- ·alloy
not recommended shell cost shell required

Horizontal Not recommended Poor for wide Fair Poor-high Very poor Poor
since predictions condensing mixtures. shell cost
of cooling Good with
coefficien t ilud noncondensab les
effect ivc a rea if baffle spa ce
arc unreliable is varied. Heat
Cii1

CONTENTS
BACK I and mass transfer
Z
1 NEXT
~I
BACK
predIction is LU
CONTENTS
unreliable ~ I-
co Z
NEXT u
 11 .3 SHELL·AND· TUBE CONDENSERS FOR POwER PlANT 587

Steam Inlel

AIr OtIt:ake
- (Vent)

Outlet

Fill. 11 .1.\. Small turbi ne exhaust conde nser: areas occupied by tubes shown shaded .

waler at this tempe ratu re is 0.042 ha r absolute, which is a typica l ope Taling
pressure for these condensers. Clea rly. there is little pressure available for
pressure drop Ihrough the unit. There is also little tempera lure diffe rences to
spare in order to overcome the cfr..:,1 of noncondensable gases. Hence the
design of surface condensers is gove rned by Ihe need for good venting and
low pressure drop.
Often these condensers a rc very large. There may. for example , be two
condensers serving a single 600 MWe turbine sc I. Hence eac h condenser
must bandle around 200 kg/s of steam, wilh an approach ve locity of up to 60
m/ s.
Surface areas arc around 25,000 m'. which may be achieved by having say
1500 tubes of 25 mm diameter with a length of around 20 m. These very large
condensers often have box-shaped shells, bUI Ihe sma ller ones, with surface
areas less than about 5000 m 2 , may have cylindrical shell s.
Surface condense rs vary widely in their geometric detail and various types
arc described by Ihe editors of P()wer [31, Simpson (41, and Sebald 15].
Siundards for their design are given by the British Electrical and Allied
Manufacture rs' Associalion 1111 and hy the Heat Exchange Insti tute {7].
Nevertheless, there arc many featur..: s that a re common to most designs, as
shown in the diagram of the relatively small surface condens..:r in Fig. 11.13.
This is not an actual unit bUI a drawing iliustraling some of the main
features.
The vapor inlet ve locity is very high because of the high thermal duty
combi ned with the low pressure. Tuhes nca r the inlel are Ihercfore on a
wider pitch than those el sewhere, anti tubes are leC! out in places to provide

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588 STEAM POWER ptANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

paths for steam la nes to guide steam into the bu ndle . The combination of
sleam lanes and pat hs around the bund le means thaI there is a large bundle
perimeter allowing the steam to e nter the bundle , the reby minimizi ng the
effects of the vel")' large inlet velocity. As the steam passes through the
bundle towards the vent line. its flow rate decreases and the air concentra-
tion increases. Therefore closer tubes and less superficial flow a rea arc used
toward the exit in order to keep the steam ve loci ties up. This improves the
gas-phase heat and mass transfer and reduces the danger of stagnant pockets
of air forming. There is usually a separate compartment just by the vent line
that has the smallest tube pitch and the coldest cooling water in the tubes.
Because most of th e steam has been ext racted from the air by this stage, thl!
compartment is ca lled the "air cooler." The purpose of this sect ion is to
extract the last possible moist ure from th e air, which includes knocking out
a ny e ntra ined condensa te. As with any other vented condenser, care is taken
to avoid a short-cut path betwee n the steam inlet and the vent line. These
condensers are ofte n also used as a condensate deacrator. This is done by
allowing some of the steam to flow through condensate dripping from the
tubes.
Many of the features just described can be achieved by having a condense r
with radial flow paths, as shown in an early Wes t ing hou~ design in Fig 11.14.
The idea here is that the steam flows radially in from the outside toward the
space in the middle of the unit. from whieh noneondensables are vented
axia lly. Such units cannot, however. be made completely radially symmetric
because of the location of the vapor inlet and, uf course, gravity causes the
conde nsa te to move preferentially downwa rds. Problems associated with the
design of such units arc discussed by Coit [8).
As with any other shell-and · tube un it, tubes in ~ u rfal'e condensers must be
supported at regula r intervals along their lengt h with tube support pla tes.
Such sUPlX'rt plates also have the adva ntage of deliberately preventing any
axia l fl ow of vapor, thus making it easier for de"lgner~ to ensure that vapor
flow pat hs through the bundles are relatively straightforward, giving rise to
no recirculat ion pockets whcre noncondensables can accumulate.
There IS such a variety of dillerent surface condenser designs that it i~
impos..... ible to illustrate them all here, hut man y examples of modern con-
densers are described by Seba ld [51.

11.3.2 Feed-Water Heaters

Feed-water heaters usc steam bl ed from turbin e~ in order to heat the boiler
feed water. The steam used may be ;1\ pressure" uf up to 40 ba r. and the
water may have pressures of up to about 200 bar. As might be expected from
the guidelines given in Section 11. 2..5, the higher pressure of water is placed
in the tubes with the lower pressure s team condensing on the shell side. The
feed water may often pass in se ries through a number of feed heaters, each
operating with condensing steam at a differe nt pressure. The feed water

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 11 .3 SHELL·AND- TU BE CONDENSERS FOR POWER PLANT 589

fia. 1J.14. Radial steam How. circular bundle design, 1948. Westinghouse (courtcsy of
Chochranc Environmental Sy~tem~) .

would then first meet heaters ope rated with the low pressure condensing and
Ihen pass through condensers with successively higher condensing pressures.
The condense r with the lowest pressure may we ll be ope rating under v,!Cuum
conditions at aroun d 0.5 ba r.
There is no reawn in princi ple why feed-water heaters shoul d not have
the same sort of design as the TEM A types of exchangers already described.
However, as with steam turbine condense rs. the ir designs have evolved in
order to meet the special requiremen ts of power station opera tion. It has
already been mentioned that conventional shell-side condense rs are not
normally vel)' good fo r handling cond ensi ng an d subcooli ng in the same unit.
With the high-pressure feed-wa ter heate rs. howeve r. because of the expense
of the high-pressure shel l. there i~ a great incen tive to cope with both
operations in th e sa me shell . The desig n has therefore been refined in order
to handle these IWO processes etl"eetively. Another fea t ure of feed-wa te r
heaters is th at th ey can be fed wit h su perheated steam. This superhea t is

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 Honzontally Vertically
CuI Battles Cut Baffles
Desuperheating for Tube Support
SectIon U-Tube
Bundle

VertICally Subcooling SectIon :

Shrouds Cut Baffles DraIn Cooler

."ig. 11.15. Example of a horizontal feed-water heater.

used to raise the temperature of the feed water leaving the exchanger to a
much higher tcmpe ralUre than is achieved in the condensing region. Aga in,
therefore, there are special features in the design to cope wi th this desuper-
heating.
Feed-water heaters usually have two tube passes, achieved by having U
tubes. The shell may be oriented horizon tally or vertically and, with vertical
arrangements, the header or channel for the tube-side fluid may be at the top
or bottom of the exchanger (often referred to as either "head up" or "head
down" designs, respectively).
A feature of the feed-water heater is that the sections for desupe rhea ling
and subcooling arc usually partitioned off by enclosing the tubes with a
shroud of wrapper. The subcooling section is oflen called the "drain cooler."
The desuperheating section has transverse baffles (usually single segmental)
which are fairly closely spaced to give fairly high velocities in order to
increase the single-phase gas-cooling coefficient. The condensing section has
widely spaced baffles whose main purpose is \0 support the lubeS. High
velocities are not requ ired in this region because the steam-condensing
coefficients arc high . The subcooling. or drain-cooli ng. section again often
has closer baffling to increase the coefficients in this region . Figure 11.15
ilJuslratcs these main features for a horizontal feed- wate r hea ter. The sub-
cooling section in this exchanger only uses some of the tubes in the first pass
and is sa id to have a "split-pass drain coole r." When all the tubes are used, it
is known as a " full -pass drain cooler."
An interest ing feature of high-pressure units is that they ofte n do not need
any vent line. This is in contradiction to the rule s elsewhere in this chapter,
but is acceptable in these circu mstances because th e steam at this point in
the cycle is free of air because all air has been removed ea rlier in the circuit
by deaeration in the turbine exhaust condenser. ,lOd further de aeration in

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specia lizcd equi pment. Howeve r, a vent is required for initial start-up and, of
course , ve nts arc required on the unit s using vacuum stea m.
Further informatio n on the design and construction of these units is given
by the editors of Power [3) and by Spcnce et al. (9). Standards for the design
of such uni ts are provided in the Unit ed Kingdom by the British Electrical
and Allied ManufaclUrers' Association [10], and in the Un ited States by the
Heat Exchange Institute [ I ll.

11.4 PLATE EXCHANGERS

Pl atc exchange rs consist of a large nUll1her of plates, which arc scaled round
the edge by means uf gasket)) and arc held together in a large press known as
a ·' frame ." Th ese plates arc corru ga ted in various patterns, both to improve
the heat transfer and to increase the rigid ity of the plates. The patlerns in the
plates arc arranged so that s uccessive plales touch one anOl her at many
points across the surface but there is still a path , albeit a tortuous one, for
the fluid stream to pass from the inlet purt to the out let port in the plate.
The gaskets around the parts arc arran ged so that the two fluid streams arc
made to fl ow betwee n alternate plates. Plate exchange rs arc usually lim ited
10 fluid streams wi th pressures below about 25 bar and temperatures below
abou t 25()"C. These limits arc dicta ted by the maximum pressure load ings
which can be tolcrated by th e plates and by the maximum pressure loadings
and temperatures which can be withstood by th e gaskets. Further detail s of
plate heat exchangers arc given by Alf;! Laval [121.
Plate heat exchangers have bee n mainly deve loped for single-pha se duties
and have particular advantage when one of the "uid streams has high
viscosity. They te nd not to be we ll su ited for condense rs. One limitation
arises because of the size of the ports in these plates, which arc often rathe r
small for handli ng la rge-vol ume flows of vapor. Another difficu ltly is that one
can not conveniently have se parate condensa te and vent uut lets when the
design demands this. However, such exchange rs arc more compact than
shell-and-tube exchange rs and are fr eq uently used with service steam on one
side being used to hea t some process stream. Some thought is present ly being
give n to the design of special plate typcs and exchange r configurations for
evaporation and condensation systems.

11 .5 SPIRAL EXCHANGER

Figure IUb illustrates the main features of a spira l heat exchange r used for
condensi ng duti es. It consists of two flat plates which are wound around a
ce ntral core to form two spiral channels. Studs arc normally welded at
regular spacing on one side of the plates before roll ing to provide a unifom
channel separatio n and to support the pl ate aga inst internal and extern al

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Fi". 11. 16. Spiral exchanger for condenser applic;uions (COU rlC&y or AI'V Inte rna·
tional. Ltd .l.

pressure. Channel widths are typically 4 to 20 mm and the two fl ow channels

can be of different widths if the duty so demrmds. A pressure shell is
achieved by forming the last. outer spiral into a thicker ma te riill on which arc
wci ded end flan ges to receive the end covers. Theses exchange rs ca n he
manufactured from stain less steel, high nickel alloys. or any special mate ri al
that ca n be cold worked and welded. They can ope rate at pressures up 10
about 20 bar and te mperatures up to about 4(Mrc.
Like plate exchange rs. spiral exchange rs are more com pact than shell-
and ·tube exchangers. The configuration shown in Fig. 11.1 6 has. however. the
adva ntage ove r plate configuration s for handlLng large vapor volu mes with
low pressure drop.

11 .6 PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGERS

Figure 11.17 shows th e ge nera l form of a plate · tin heat exchange r. The fluid
st reams arc separated by nat plates be tween which are sandwiched corru·
gated fins. A more apt name for th is exchan ger is th erefore " ti nned-plate"
excha nger. Plat e-fin heat exchangers are often used in low-temperature
(cryogenic) plants and whe re the temperature d ifferences between the streams
are small ( I 10 SOC). They are very compact unit s ha~' in g a heat transfer area
pe r un it volume of around 2l1tXl m 1 / m J . SpeCial manifold devices are pro-
vided at in let and ou tlet to these exchangers to provide good How distribu-
tions Jcross the plates and from pla te to plat e. The plates are typica lly 0.5 to
1.0 mm thick and the fins IU S to 0.75 mm thick. The whole exchange r is

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 Flat Plate

Sealing Bar

Corrugated Plate (FlO)

Fig. 11 .17. Basic construction of a plate-fin exchanger.

made of aluminum alloy and the various components arc hrazed together by
brazing in a salt bath or now more commonly in a vacuum furnace.
Plat e-fin exch angers can be arranged into a variety of configurations wi th
respect to the fluid streams. Figure 11. 17 shows the arrangement for co-cur-
rent or countercu rrent Row between the st reams. Alternatively, the streams
may be arranged in crossflow. While most heat exchangers exchange heat
between two streams. plate-fin units may be arranged to distribute hea t
among a large number of streams. Streams may also be in trodu ced and
removed al points along an exchange r.
The corrugated sheets which a rc sa ndwiched between th e plates serve
both to give extra heat transfer area and to give structural support to the l1a t
plates. The re are many different forms of corrugated sheets used in these
exchange rs, but the most common types arc:

I. Plain fin
2. Plain-perforated fi n
3. Serra ted fin (also ca lled " lanced," "interrupted," or "multie ntry")
4. Herringbone or wavy fin

The plain type is used most frequent ly for condensing duties. Figure 11.18
shows these four Iypes. The pe rforated type is essentially the same as the
plain fYpe except that it has been formed from a Rat sheet with small holes
in it.
The Row cha nnels in plate-fin e.'(changers a re sma ll which means that the
flows also have to be small [10 to 300 kg/ (m 1 . s)1 to avoid excessive pressure

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 (a) (bl

te) (a)

Fig. ILIK. Fin Iypc ~ ill pl;lle-tin c"chang<:r:.: (II) pl ;ilJl . ( h) r>erfm!ltcd, (e) serrated ,
(d) hcrringbonc.

drops. This may make the channel prone to fouling which , when combined
with the fa ct that they ca nnOI be mechanically clea ned, means that plale-fin
exchangers arc restricted to clean fluid s. Th ey arc freque ntly used for
condensa tion duties in air liquefaction plants. Furthe r informa tion on these
exchangers is given by HTFS [131.

11 .7 AIR-COOLEO HEAT EXCHANGERS

Many coolants 3rc possible for process conde n:.crs: for examp le, ai r, cooling-
towcr water, or a colde r process stream which requires heating. In areas
where there is a shortage of make-up wate r, air-cooled condensers may be
favured . They ca n also becume economical if cundensation is laking place at
temperatures which arc more than allOut 2(fC above ambien\. They suffer
the disadvantage. huwever, uf occupying a rclati\·cly large gruund area and of
generating noise from the fans .
Figure 11.19 illustrates a typical air-cooled hcat exchange r which may be
used as a condenser. It consists of a horizonta l bundle of tubes with the air
being blown across the tubes on the ou tside a nd condensa tion occurring
inside the lubeS. The unit shown is a forced·dr aft unit since the air is blown
across. An alternative design is the induced·draft unit which has the fan s on

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 Vapor
Fmned Tube Bundle
t Vent

Fans
I Condensate
J=x===>n~
Outlet

Plenum
~
Chamber
Fan Motors

A" _ _~
••
Flow
. 'il!:' 11 . 19. Forced-draft, <l ir -clIoled exchanger used as a condenser.

top which sucks the air over the tu bes. The tubes arc finned with transve rse
fins on the outside to ove rcome the effects of the low air-side coefficients.
There would normally be a few tuhe rows amI the process stream may take
one or more passes through the unit. With multipass condcnsers, the proh-
lem arises with redistributing the two-phase mixture on en try to the next
pass. This ca n be overcome in some cases by using U tuhes or hy having
separate passes just for subcooli ng or dcsurerheating duties. In multipass
condense rs, it is important to have each successive pass below the previous
one to enable the condensate to cont inue downwards. Furt her information in
air-cooled heat exchangers is givcn hy Ludwig [J 4] and by the American
Petroleum Institute [1 5].

11.8 DIRECT-CONTACT CONDENSERS

Direct-contact condensers arc cheap and simple devices hut have limited
application because the process strea ms and coolant are mixed. The removal
of the intermediate wall means tha t they are not prone to foul i n ~ and very
high heat transfer rates per unit hrlume can be achieved.
Some direct-contact exchangers inject vapor into a pool of liquid. This may
be done to heat up a process fluid or to suppress vapor released from a
reaction vessel as a result of an accident or malfunction. Two difficulties arise
with this method of condensation . The tirst is that the condensation fron t
may move back into the vapor inlet line, causi ng the liquid to be periodically
ejected, often with some violence . The second is that a very large vapor
bubble may form in the liquid pool and th is may collapse suddenly, ca using
damage to the vessel. These problems m.ty he avoided by havin g the vapor

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BACK CONTENTS
CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
596 STEAM POWER PlANl ANO PROCESS CONDENSERS

Sprays on Ring MaIO

tVen!

Produc1

Vapor

File. II .ZO. Spray condense r.

injecled Ih rough a large number of small holes ur by using special ejectors

which mix the incoming vapor with liquid in a spec ial mixing lube .
The most common [ypc [ 0 direct·contact conde nse r is one in which
subcooled liquid is sprayed inlO the vapor in a large vesse l. This arrangeme nt
is illustrated in Fig. 11 .20. Very often. these un its arc used for conde nsing
ste<cm using water as a coolanl. In these casc~. the mixin g of water with
condensate prese nts no major problem. Whcn condensing a vapor whose
condensale is immi ~ib le with the spray liquid , however, a sepa rator is usually
required after the condenser in order to reoover the product. Alternatively.
the condensate product may be cooled In a sin gle-phase exchanger and some
recycled as coolant spray. At first sight , the re then seems little benefi t in
having a direct-contact condenser and a conventional single· phase exc hanger
instead of using one shell-a nd-tube condenser. The advant age a ppea rs.
however. when the conde nse r is operat in g under vacuum . As has a lready
been secn, tubular condensers for vacuum opcr<ltion are large and complex.
It can therefore be sometimes he econom ical 10 re place suc h a condenser by
a simple spray condenser and a compact sin gle-phase cooler.
Spray condensers cannot be used with dirty coolants since the spray
nozzles mHy become blocked. In these circumstances, a tray condenser may
be used, as illustrated in Fig. 11.21. The [rays may be sloped sligh tly to
prevent dirt accumulating on them. The tray arrangement can have a slight
thermodynamic advantage over a spray unit beca use some degree of counte r-
current fl ow may be achieved betwee n the falling liquid and upward flowing
vapor-gas mixture. In spray units, by contrast, the gas phase is usually
thoroughly mixed throughout the vessel, thus maki ng cou nterflow impossible.
Even better coun tercurrent flow may be obta ined using a packed column
but these units give a high pressure drop on the gas-vapor side and are more
expensive than spray and tray exchangers, The packing usually consists of

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 19 THERMAl. EVAlUAnON METHODS FOR SHEll.·AND·TIJBE CONDENSERS 5 97

Vent
t

V'po<

'" - Product Fia. 11 .11. Tray condenser.

r<tndomly packed rings, but a lower pressu re drop may be obtai ned by using
slHcked rings or grid packing.

11 .9 THERMAL EVALUATION METHODS FOR

SHELL-AND-TUBE CONDENSERS

11 .9,1 Introduction and Definition of Terms

The term thermal evaluation method i!o used to sign ify the calcu lation process
by which, for a known exchanger gcome l!)" the thermal duty may be
calculated or, alterna tively, the required heal transfer area determined to
suil the duty. In Ihe laller case, Ihe calculaled heat transfer area may be
incompatible with the assumed geometry. These calculations fall short of a
full design calculation which involved calculating st ream pressu re drops as
well as repeating the calculations for many different assumed geome tries in
orde r to find ones which satisfy all the Imposed conslrainls. The final s tage of
design is to c hoose th e best design on the basis o f. say. capital cost.
The basis of the rmal eva luation methods is an equal ion of Ihe form

dQ
<fA ~ un (11.1)

where Q is the heal transfe r rate . A is the heal transfe r area, U is the ove rall
heat transfer coefficient, and 6 is the Icmpc rature difference. It is imponanl
to appreciate that both U and fJ can vary significanlly Ihroughout a con·
denser and hence Eq. (J 1.1) is based on the local values. The lemperalUre
difference (I may be defmed in a number o f ways provided Ihnt it is consislent
wilh the definilion of U. One definilion often u~d for 6 is [hat it is Ihe

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598 STEAM POWER PLANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

difference between th e equilibrium tempera ture of the two streams if each

were well mixed at the point in qu estion . T his would. for example. be the
right defi nition of fJ to use when det erm ini ng U by the Silve r [16) and Bell
and Ghaly [17] method described in Chapter IU. It is the definition useu in
Sections 11.9.2 to 11.9.4.
Th e ove rall coefficient, U, may be regarded a~ being made up of a number
of components as follows:

I '. (11.2)
+ ' ''''' + + +
U "ho. k.. 11 ,,,1,1
' eIlhl

where II "", and h ~' ~d arc. respectively. the "film " coclficients for the hot and
cold streams, ' hul a nd ' c"IJ arc the respect ive fou ling layer thermal resis-
ta nces, s ... is the lube wall thickness, and k i). the tube wall th ermal
K

conductivity. Fo r thick-walled tubes, correctiom arc necessa ry to allow for

the different s urface areas inside and outside tht.' tubes. A simplified form of
Eq. (11.2 ) will be used in subseq uent calculation:--:

I
( 11 .3)
U

where, is the combined therma l resistance of the tube wall and fou lin g. This
resistance will be taken as a consta nt throughout the exchange r, whe reas h tl<.)1
and ll co1d ' and consequently U. may vary considerably. The dete rmin ation of
h hot. and h cold is discussed elsewhere in this book. an d it is the refore assumed
in this chapter that we know how to calculate them locally. This chapte r
therefore concentrates on how to use this information in thermal evaluatiun.
When considering pure vapor, 11 ""1 is the coefficie nt for the conde nsat e laye r
and when condensi ng a mixture it is the effective condensing-side coefficient
which combines the glls ph ase anti conde nsate tilm coefficient.
Equation (I L)) can be rea rranged and wri tte n in an int egra l form as
follows:

f -dQfJ - f
Q, A,
UdA ( 11 .4)

where the subscript T refe rs to the lotal val ue for the exchangers. Heat
exchanger designs are usually summll rizcd in tcrms of mean quantities which
arc related by an eq uation as follows:

Q 'r " U..,A /8 ... (11.5)

where U,,, is the mean ove rall coe ffi cient and 8," is the mean temperature
difference. Comparing Eqs. (1 1.4 ) and ( 1\.5) suggests the follow ing defini·

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 119 THERMAL EVAlUATION METHODS FOR SHELl-AND-TU6E CONDENSERS 599

lions for the mea n Quantities:

_I f dQ (11.6)
Om Q, Or 8

I
Um - - / UdA ( 11.7)
AT A ,-

In practice. it is unnecessary to eval uate both Eqs. (11.6) and (11.7), si nce
whe n either 8,., or U", has been determined the other may be calculated from
Eo. (t 1.5).
Equation (11 I) may also be written as

A, ~ f(J , -dQ
U8
( 11.8)

Combi ning this with Eq. (I 1.3) gives

( 11.9)

Dividing through by ATU,., and using Eqs. (I 1. 5) and (11.6) gives

(11.10)

which, on comparing wilh Eq. (11.3). suggests the following definitions for the
mean "fi lm '· coefficie nts:

I
_m __ I f dQ
_
( 11.11)
hm U",A T OT hB

The derivation leadi ng 10 Ih is [asl equluion was proposed by Sm ith (I HJ.

Using Eq. 01.1), an alternative form of this definition is

(11. 12)

Some special cases of Eqs. (1 1.6) and (11.7) are useful. If 8 varies linearly
with Q. Eq. (J 1.6) ca n be integralcd to give

(11.13)

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where 8 LM is the well-known logarithmic-mean temperature difference and
0" and 0" arc the end val ues of 0. It is most un usual in a condenser fo r () to
vary linearly with Q over the whole exchanger but small portions of the
exchanger can often be identified over which thi s llssumption i .~ well approxi-
mated. Examples of this will be seen below.
If V varies linearly with A. Eq. (J 1.7) may he mtegrated between V" and
Vb to give

(11.14)

If both V and 8 vary linearly with Q . Eq. (J 1.7 ) may be inlegra tetl wi th the
aid of (11.1) 10 give

um - (11.15)

This resu lt was first obtained by Colburn 11 91. If bolh I jV and 8 vary linearly
with Q. Eq. (11.7) may he integrated with the ,lid of (11.1) to give

- + (1 1.1 6)
V,,, V" 8" - 8/, V/. (I" - B"

Again. these equat io ns will not usually be va lid over the whole of the
condenser but may apply to sma ll portions of it. It is nol always clear which
of the preceding equat ions is valid for a given SCI of circumstances. Howeve r.
if U" and Vh vary o nly by a sma ll amount. Eq. ( 11. 14) is preferred because of
its simplicity. There is a long tradition in the usc of Eq. (I 1.15) but with little
justification. Equation (11.16) seems more in line with the variations o bserved
in conde nsers and is hence recommended in those situations when Eq.
(11.14) cannot be used due to the large differe nce between u~ and U". O f
course, any quest ion about which equation is more accurate can always be
avoid ed by dividing the exchange r into a large number of sectio ns.

11 .9.2 Co-current and Countercurrent Condensers

The procedure given he re a pplies to TEM A I-:-type ~ h ells with a s ingle
tube-side pass. It also ap plies to a j shell whic h can be divided duwn the
middle and treated as two c)(changers. one with en·cu rren t How and th e other
with countercurrent flow. Cuuntercu rre nt Row I ~ more usu;11 in £ shells since
it makes best use uf the temperature diffe rence betwecn the streams. Ind eed.
some duties arc not po!'.siblc in co-current flnw but can he handlcd without
difficulty in countercurrent flow . The followinlo; t1c~n ipt io n is in terms of
countercurrent flow but the same approach can be used for co-currcnt flow.
and the difference!'. in the results obtained arc noted .

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 11.9 THERMAL EVALUATION METHODS FOR SHELL·AND·TU8E CONDENSERS 601

,•.
® I
Ie---+-!iT-'---;--::~S

Fig. 11.22. Counterflow heat exchanger.

Figure 11.22 illustrates a countercurrent flow exchanger. In this diagram

and the subsequent discussion, the shell-side stream is denoted by a prime
(,). Hence the shell-side stream ent ers with specific enthalpy jin and leaves
with specific enthalpy j~u,. The tube ·side specific enthalpy changes from i ,n
to j""". The shell-side and tube-side mass flows are, respectively, W' and W.
A heat balance over area A of the exchanger gives
W'
i 0:= iin + -W(i' - i:,u,) (11.17)

where j' and j are the shell-side and tube-side specific enthalpy, respectively,
at position X on Fig. 11 .22. The corresponding equation for a co-current
flow exchanger is obtained by replacing i~u, by iln and W' by (- W').
The first step in the thermal evaluation is to plot the equi librium tempera-
ture, T', against I' for the shell-side stream. The equilibrium temperature is
used in accordance with our definition of the overall coefficient. U. Such a
plot is shown in Fig. 11.23. Using Eq. (11.17) and the temperature-specific
enthalpy relationship for the tube-side fluid, the corresponding tube-side
temperature, T, may be plotted on Fig. 11.23 as shown. This diagram is
extremely useful in condenser design and will be ca lled here the "exchanger
operating diagram." Figure 11.23 is typical of a condenser with a desuper-
heating zone and where condensation is occurring in the presence of noncon-
densable gas. The tube·side curve shown would occur, say, if a pure liquid
were being heated up and then boiled. The design is impossible if the two
curves cross or touch an}Where.
The next step in the thermal evaluation is to divide this diagram into zones
for which both the T curve and the T' curve are linear. This is shown by the
vertical broken lines in Fig. 11.23. Now, over each zone, (J (i.e., T' - T)
varies linearly with j'. This is the same as saying 8 varies linearly with Q,
since
Q = W ' (iin - i') (11.18)

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602 STEAM POWER PlANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

,.

, I
, Zono
, ,
Zon. I Zone
I
• I
I
I t-- .l'1 --i
Fig. 11 .23. Example of exchanger o perat-
ing diagram fo r 3 countc rnow excha nger.

T hus the logarithmic· mea n te mpera ture di ffere nce, as defm cd by Eq . ( 11. 13),
a pplies for eac h zone and can be eva lu ated . The appropriate 0" a nd 0b fo r
zonc 2 a rc illustrated in Fig. 11.23. A lso. thc ove rall coe fficie nts a t the zone
bound,tries may bc calcula ted a nd a mea n ove rall coe ffi cie nt for each zone
calcula ted using Eq . (1 1.1 4), (11.1 5 ), or (11.1 6). whic heve r is most appropri·
a tc. Equat io n (J 1.5 ) may thc n be applied 10 each zone in the fo rm

W 'll i;
,
A - ( 11.1 9)
U... . 18 L..M ,/

whe re the subsc ript j refe rs to zone number and lli; is the specific e nthalpy
change o f the shell-side flui d in the j th zone. Clc a rly, the total heat transfe r
a rea is give n by

( " .20 )

Equa tions ( 11.6) a nd (1 1. 7) may be expressed in summat ion form to give

Um a nd 8... for the who le e xchange r:

( 11.2 1)

and

( " .22 )

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In the preceding calculation. t he heat load o n the exchanger is known and is
given by

Q T = W ' (ii" - i~ ..,) - W( i ..... , - i,,,) ( 11.23)

Therefore it is no t necessary to eval uate both EQs. (1 1.2 1) and (J 1.22) si nce
U 0,." and QT arc related via Eq. (11.5). However. it is useful to evaluate
M
•

Eqs. ( 11.2 ) and ( 1).22) and substitu te the results into EQ . ( 11.5) in order to
cross-check the arit hmetic.
A conve nient feat ure of the preceding calculation procedu re is that Fig.
11.23 docs not depe nd o n the heat transfer coeffi cient and hence is indepen-
dent of detai ls o f the geometry like the nu mbe r of tubes. baffl es. and so fo rth .
The same appl ies to the zonal and exchanger mean temperature d ifferences.
These quantit ies may the refore need only to be recalculated whe n the
num be r of passes is changed.

11.9.3 Sheil-Side, E-Type Condenser with Two Tube-Side Passes

Figure 11.24 ill ustrates the ope ration of an E shell with two tube-side passes.
A heat ba lance ove r area A gives

' ) _ W( il - i . + i OU\ _ i ll )
W '( i ' - i ou, In
( 11.24)

where the supe rscripts J and II refer to the first and second tu be-side pass,
respectively. Combin ing t his with Eq. (J 1.23) gives

W
i' - ji" - -
W'
, -,( ' 11 " ) (11.25 )

i'
°
I

_ --;-,!:,,'~::'
W

_i0J -_ _- _ _ ,
i ..__-_ w_' _---'I )
'~"-,,-_- ____f,,~·,~T_·r'______---,
,
I--f"'----'A'---_~ dA f - -

Fig. 11 .24. Exch;J ngcr with onc she ll -side pass and twO lube passes.

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604 STEAM POWER PlANl AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

This result is for the first tubc pass countc rcurren t to the shell-side flow . If,
however, it is co-curre nt. the result is

W
i' = i'
OUI
+ -(i" - i ' )
W' (11.26)

Heat balances ovcr arca dA fo r passes I and II give. respectively,

dA
Wdi' = + U'(T' - T') - ( 11.27)
2
and

<fA
W(/i ll - - UIl(T' - T II ) - ( 11.28)
2

Dividing Eq. ( 11 .28) hy Eq. (11.27) gives

UIl(T' - T il )
(11.29)
U'(T' - 1")

The sa me result is obtained if the she ll-side stream is co-cu rrent to the first
lube-side pass.
It is very convenient to simplify Eq. (1 1.29) by assuming Ull/V' is I. This
is often a reasonable approximation for the shel l-side condensers provided
that the tube-side coefficient is constant or not wn trolling. With this assump-
tio n, Eq . (11,29) becomes

( 11.30)
T' T'

The right-hand side of Eq. (11.)0) is a known function of ill and i ', as
becomes evide nt when one realizes Ihat T' is <I known func tion of I ', T a
known fun ct ion of i (whether superscri pted I or II). and i' is related to ill
and i ' hy Eq. (11.25) or (11.26>. Hence Eq. (11.30) can be integrated alung
the exch.LOger with the initial boundary cond ilion ~ th ;1I i 1 - i," when i ll = i"ul'
For example. a simple numerical intcgnHinn can be done by updating i'
and ill as follows:

( 11.31)

and

( 11.32 )

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 "9 THERtML EVAlUATION METHOOS FOR SHELL·,6,ND·TUSE CONDENSERS 605

T'

/_~ - --- - -- --- -- - --

T'

Shell,S,de Specific Enthalpy. "

Fig. 11.25. Example of ope rating diagram for shetJ·side condense r (E type) with two
tube passes.

whe re {jil is a small change in ;1 . There arc, of course, more soph isticated
intcgration mc thods for usc with comput e rs. This sort of integration may be
used to construct the ope rating diagram shown in Fig. 11.25. As with the
countcrflow exchange r, this openlling diagram is inde pendent of deta il ed
geometrical fea tu res and, the refo rt'. applies to all two-pass £ shells.
The heat leaving the shell side In area dA is
dA <iA
dQ = U1(T' - 1'1 ) - + UIl(T' - 1'") - (11. 33)
2 2
which , since U 1 _ U II - U (say), gives

dQ - (T' - T)UdA (\1.34)

where

(\1.35)

that is. T is the average temperature between the passes at a given point
along the shell .
The CUNC for f ca n be plolted un the ope rating diagram as illustra ted by
the broken lin c in Fig. 11. 25. Equation (1 1.34) is now ide ntical to Eq. (J 1.0.
exce pt that 8 is re placed by T' - f The refore the re mainder of the the rmal
evaluation is now the sa me as for the cou nte rflow excha nger except T is
replaced by f.
An example using the preceding calculation procedure is given in Section
lI .12.1.

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11.9.4 Shell-Side, E-Type Condenser with Four or More Tube Passes
An ana lysis of the type described previously c;ln be extended to exchangers
with 4, 6. 8, or more even·number passes. The calculations become progres-
sively more complicated. however. as the numbe r of passes a rc increased..:.
Furthermore , it is found in practice that the avcr:lge tuhe-side tem perature T
(now averaged over however many passes there aTe) docs nOt change sig nifi-
cant ly as the number of passes arc increased beyond 4 (sec Butterworth (20]).
Since the ohject ive of the first part of th l.'" thermal eva luation is to
const ruct an operati ng diagram con taining th e r
curve, we could construct
this for a four-pa ss exchanger and usc this for a ny num ber of passes. The re
is, however. a convenie nt method of finding f for an infinite numher of
passes which we can usc in stead. Thi s mc thuu IS slight ly less gene ral than
that given previously si nce it only applie:- . when there is a linear
temperatu re-e nthalpy curve for the tube-side stream. Nevertheless. this
covers the most important pn.ctical case uf a single-phase coolant.
The method is due to Emerson [2 11 who presents a more rigorous
derivia tion than thilt give n here although he did not spot some minor
algebraic manipUlations which arc used here to sim plify the calculation
procedure. 11 is reasonable to postul ate that the tube-side stream sees a
consta nt ~ hell -s i dc temperature, Tc'n say. as it traverses the length of the
exchange r iln infini te numbe r of time s. The loga rithmic-mean temperature
difference then applies for heating the tulle-side ~ince it has a linear temper-
a ture- en thalpy curve:

T..'U I - Too
8,.. (11 .36)
Tc'ff Too
In
T~'(( T"ul
We know also, for a large number of tube pas:.<.:s. that the mean tube-side
temperature. T, is a constant, independent of i '. We can therefo re wri te 0, ..
as
0,., = 7~'rr - T (11.37)

Hence combining Eqs. (11.36) and (11.37) gives

(lUX)

But 8m is also given by integrating EQ. (11.6)

The proced ure for obtaining the ope rating diilgr;lnl is the refore as fo llows:

I. Plot the temperature versus specific enthalpy for the shell -side strea m.
2. Guess a value of T,-'Il (betwee n T,~ ,lnd 1::",).

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 11 .9 THERMAL EVALUAnON METHODS FOR SHEU·MlD·TUBE CONDENSERS 607

3. Calculate T from Eq. (! I.]H) and plot this as a horizontal line on the
operating diagram.
4. Determine 8,.. by the methods already described for a counterflow
exchanger, that is, divide the d iagram into li near zones, determin e 8 lM
for each zone, and combine these using Eq. (11.21).
S. Recalculate Te'n from Eq . (11.37) using the previously calculated 8",
and T.
6. Repeat the calculation from step 3 and con tinue the process until
convergence is obtained. This usually takes two to three iterations.

The procedure described here wi ll give reasonable results also for a mult ipass
jshell.

11 .9 .5 Crossflow Condensers
Let us first consider a single'pass condense r as illustrated in Fig. ) 1.26. A
heat balance over area dA of this condenser gives

dQ ~ UedA (11.39)

For single-phase coolant, and because the shell-side temperature is constant

in area dA, (J is given as

T, - T ,n
(11.40)
Tcc'~TO',"
In cc
T' - T~

3
r.Z -
---
, --

I"",. r,;..
Fig. 11 .26. Crossftow condenser with single tube·side pass.

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608 STEAM POWER Pl.ANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

where T, is the temperature at exit to the lubes in question. Note that this is
not the same on the coolant outlet temperature to the exchanger which is
obtained after mixing the coolant from each tube. A heat balance ove r dN
tubes si lting in area dA gives

(11.41)

where G< is the coolant mass flux, c pc is the coolant specific heat, D, and Do
are the tube inside and outside diameters, respectively, and L is the tube
length . This eq uation can be si mplified to

( 11.42)
where

(11.43)

Combining Eqs. ( 11.40) and ( 11.41) gives (after some manipulation)

1 - < - ( '/1
• - (T' - T,") ---CU
"'Bo- (11.44)

Substituting this into Eq . (J 1.39) gives

(11.45)

The heat transfer area, or the heal load for a given area, can thus be
dete rmined by integrating Eq. (1 1.45). It must be borne in mind when doing
this that bot h U and T' vary with Q.
A crossflow condenser with two tube paSM!S may be treated as two
crossflow units in se ries and hence the preceding method is used again. Thi s
assumes, howeve r, good mixing over the condenser length (which is not
always the case) and that there is mixing of coolant between the passes.
Mixing between the passes is, of course, not possible in a U-t ube condenser.
Multipass units are usually arranged with tube-side passes layered and with
the coolan t flowing from lower to higher passes. Hence a crossflow exchanger
will approximate a cou nterflow unit when there are many passes.

11 .9.6 Nonequlllbrium Calculation Methods

The me thods presented so far are equ ilibrium ones in so far as the local
steam temperatures are taken as their equi libri um values. The overall coef-
ficient is then calculated in a way which is consistent with this. Howeve r, it

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 11 .9 THERMAL EVALUATION METHODS FOR SHEU-AND-TUBE CONDENSERS 609

becomes very difficult to esti mate a suitable ove rall coefficien t in some
silUation s; particularly when condc nsing mixtures of fl uids with large relative
vola tilities. In addition, the equilibrium te mperature met hod hides the actual
liquid- and gas-phase tempe ratures whic h may be crucial parts of the design.
For exa mple, the method will not tell one whether the gas phase is super·
heated or supersa turated . If the laller. the re is danger of fog formation. The
me thods give n so fa r, therefore , have severe limitations. Re moving these
lim itations. unfort una tely. makes the analysis much more complicated.
In order to illustrate some o f the complexities of nonequil ibrium me thods,
and how to dcal wi th thesc, we will take the case of conde nsing vapor in the
presc nce of a noncondensable gas. The equa tions for cooling the gas phase
and re moving vapor from the gas phase a re, respect ively,

dT,
( 11.46)
dA
du.:. ( 1 1.47)
dA " - G,_

where Til is the gas·phase te mperature, T, is the gas-l iquid in te rface te mper-
ature, h): is the gas-phase heat transfer coefficien t (not corrected for mass
transfe r). W. is the gas· phase mass fl ow rate (vapor plus noncondensables),
It: is the vapor mass flow ra te, (I, is the mass flux of condensing vapor
towa rd thc intc rface. a nd a - G, c",/h. (whe re cP ' is the vapor specific
heat ).
Let us assume fo r the mome nt that the coolant te mperature, Te. is
constanl and that the condensing stream follow s a single path (or ide ntical
paral lel paths). The ful l thermal analysis therefore consists of inlegrating
Eqs. ( 11.46) and (11.47) along the condensing path. In doing this, it is
necessary a t each int egration ste p to solve iteratively nonlinear equations in
order to obta in val ues TI , G,. , and a to use in the preceding equations.
If now we let the coolant temperatu re vary. we have 10 integrate a furthe r
equation to obtai n this temperature as the integration proceeds. This integra-
tion is straightforwa rd if th e coola nt and conde nsing streams follow paralle l
paths which are eith e r co-current or countercurre nt. The appropriate equa-
tion is Ihe n
dT,.
(11.48)
dA

whe re ~y,. is the coolant mass fl ow ratc and li d is the heatlransfer coefficie nt
betwee n the int e rface and coolant. The positive sign is for co-current flow
and the negative sign fo r cou nte rcurren t flow.
The integratio n o f th ese equations, whi le not trivial , is certainly a feasible
design approac h give n computers with standard library subroutines for inte-

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grating equations. A slight addit iona l complication arises with countercurrent
flow becausc the coolant temperature may not bc known at the start of the
integration (because it is the coolant outlet temperature). However. in such
cases. the outle t temperature may be guessed and the inlet temperature then
determined by integration. If the calculated coolant inlet tempe rature is
different from its known val ue. a new guess has to be made for the inlet
temperature.
So far we have only out lined th e nonequilibri um calcula tion for a rela-
tively trivial case. A slightly more complicated case is that of a TEMA E
shell with shell-side condensation and with two equal tube-side passes. If we
assume good radial mixing on the shell side, Eg. ( 11.46) now becomes

dT,
<fA

_ ~[h.(T, -
2 W(c p •
T,) ( - "
c" - I
1]" (11.49)

where the superscripts I and II refer to conditions pe rtaining to the tubes in

passes 1 and II . respectively. We also have to int egra te separate equations fo r
the pass 1 and II coolant temperatu res :

dT',
(11.50)
<fA

dT/ 1
(11.5 1)
<fA

In selling out the signs of the right-hand sides of Eqs. (J 1.49) to (J 1.5 I), it has
been assumed that the integration is proceedin g from the front-end header
::l nd tha i Ihe shell-side inlet nozzle is at the front end . In addition to th ese
integrations. some iteration is normally required to match the calcu lated
tube-side temperat u res, T/ and Te". at the rear-cnd header.
Clearly. the calcu lations just outlined for 1\ two-pass exchanger become
even more involved when one goes to more passes or if some of the lUbes are
submerged in condensate. Nevertheless. such calculations can be handled
economically with good computer programs.

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 II 9 THERMAl EVAlUAT10N METHODS FOR SHELL-AN D-TUBE 611

The pape r by Webb et al. {22j gives a useful discussion of the advantages
of the noncquil ibrium method when applied to the design of condensers.

11.9_7 Multidimensional Shell-Side Flows

The calculation method given in the previous sections. although Qui te com-
plex, still contai ns a major simplify ing assumption. T his is that the flow paths

•
(b )

Tube Bundle
,, -' --
_ .
....... .,. " "" ... , , '

,-, -... ~- - ---~~ ... - - , .. .. . .

.-.- # ## • • • , , _. ,

Fig. 11.27. Flow pr c d iction ~ in a power plant conde nser using the HTFS SPQC code:
(a) illustrates the velocity distribution and ( b ) the corresponding air concentration
contou rs.

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are one dimensional. In some situa tions, though . particularly that of ste'lm
power condensers, the multidimensional nature of the shell -side flow is a key
feature of the design. It is beyond the scope of till s (.:hapter to deal wi th this
problem in depth. An ou tline on ly is th e refore given. together with refer-
ences to papers where furth e r information of rclevance to condense r design
is given.
The first step in multidimensional ana lyses is to determine Ihe flow
panern. This has been anempted hy two methods. The first is a subchan nel
method [231 in which a flow network is set up with the nodes in that network
being the regions belween three adjacent tubes (in an equilateral triangle
tube layou t). Mass balance equations a rc se l up al eac h node and momentum
balance equations arc set up between each pai r of adja(.·e nt nodes. Th is leads
to a very large number of nonlinear algebraic equ at ions which must be solved
for th e flow pattern . The allcrnatiw, and now more usual. method is the
continuum method which essen tially Ireats the rod bundle as an anisotropic
porous medium with flow-dependent permeability. This leads to partial
different ial equations of mass and momentum conti nuity which are solved by
finite -diffe re nce or finit e-clement methods. Davidson 124. 25] has reviewed
the application of this method to large power station condensers.
The second stage in the multidimensional analysis is to detl-rmine the
transport of noncomlcnsablc gas. This is difficult because the turbulent
diffusion of the gas can he very important. especially in stagnan t regions. The
problem then centers on estimating the diR'usion coefficients for turbulent
two-phase fl ow with tubes occupyi ng some of the .~pace. Of course. the a rl of
g<x>d design is to avoid stagnant regions.
Figure 11.27 illu stra tes the flow pa Herns and te mperature profi les for an
irregularly shaped bundle as caleulated using thiS type of two-dimensional
model. The figure shown was determined using the HTFS SPQC program.
For a well-designed steam power condenser. the multidimensiona l models
give very similar predictions of overall heat transfer performance as the much
simpler methods given in the Heat Exchange Inst itut e Standards [7]. The
main purpose of the more detailed analysis is therefore to ensure the
condenser is well designed . By th is, it is meant that the fl ow dislributions arc
good and give rise to no dead areas of regions of e xcessive ve locity.

11 .10 THERMAL EVALUATION METHOD FOR DIRECT·CONTACT

CONDENSERS

11 .10.1 Spray Condensers

These are rather difficult to design with any degree of precision because of
the uncertainlies in droplet size, dropl et trajecto ry. droplet coalescence, and
flow patte rn s in the gas phase. However. the simplicity of the basic geometry
means that th ey can be oversized without much addi tiona l cost.

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 I 1.10 THERMAL EVALUATION METHOD FOR DIRECT ·CONTACT CONDENSERS 613

A preliminary step in spray condense r design is the selection of nozzle

type and the determi nation of th e nozzle hehavior for the liquid being used.
Steinmeyer [26] descr ibes various lypes of spray nozzles a nd discusses their
method of operation, advantages. and disadvantages. Spray condensers wou ld
usually operate with the simplest type of nozzle in which the source of
atomization is the pressure loss in the nozzle.
Nozzle types vary 50 widely from o ne manufacturer to another that it is
necessary to use the manufacturer,,' data to dete rmine such quantities as the
pressure drop in the nozzle. the mean droplet size, and the initial droplet
velocity. Unfortunately. the data give n by manufacturers are usually limited
to wat er at around 200C spraying into ambien t air. Often, howeve r, the re ;s
enough information given to calculate the pressure drop and, from thi s. the
inlet veloci ty. /(,, may be dete rm ined as

" , = 10:.
_(20P)'"
-- ( 11.52)
P,

where d(J is the nozzle pressure dro p and PI is the liquid dens ity. K is a
coefficie nt which wou ld be I if there were no e nergy losses in the nozzle. A
reasonable va lu e of K for estim at ion purposes is 0.8. The mean drop-
leI diamete r for water ca n be det e rmined from manu fac turers' data, a nd
Steinmeyer [261 suggests an approximate equation for correcting this for
other liquids:

u )"' ( ~ ,
d
( (I'wal
)'U(Pw", )" -' ( 11.53)
'" /J."at -;;;

where d is the druplet diame ter, d . . ~ 1 is th e diameter for water sprayed wi th

the same volumet ric How through the nozzle. JJ./ is th e liquid viscosity. lJ. ....al is
the viscosity of water a t 2WC, PI is the de nsity of the liquid . and P"' al is the
densi ty of water at 200C. In rea lity. the dependence of droplet size on fluid
properties is very complex. and hence the preceding equation should be used
with cau tion .
The problem of subcoolcd d ropk,ts injected inl0 sa turated vapor has been
analyzed by Brown [27J. He treat ed the droplets as solid spheres and solved
the transient conduction equa tion in o rde r to give the te mperature rise in the
drople t as a fu nct ion of exposure time to vapor. The droplet d iameter is
assume d to be indepcnde nt of time. which is reasonable since very little
vapor can condense be fo re the dropkt is heated up to, or dose to. satura tio n.
The droplet temperature risc is give n by Brown as

I;'UI - T,,, ~ 6 ( I _4_"_'_~~'_.~"~, )

· - I - ..., L --, cxp - /' ( 11.54)
T,a' - 1 on rr -,. ,"- (-

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 0.0
0." Droplet
0.8 Oiameter,
0.7

1,
~l
,
,
0.6
0.5 O.
0.4
03
02
0. '
mm

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0 .' 0.0 10
El(posure T,me, t,. S
Fig. 11.28. Temperature rise as a function of lime for water droplets in satu rated
steam (Browll (27)).

where T OUI is the mean outlet te mperature, T,n IS the inle t tempe rature. T""
is the saturation temperature . U, is the liq uid therma l diffusivily, and I , is t he
contact time. Figure 11.28 shows the results of this equat ion plotted for
low-pressure water. These results may be used to de term ine a n etfcct ivc
mean coefficient h for a given temperature ri sco The results of such a
calculation arc given in fig. 11.29. This figure may be USed in conjunction
with the following equation in order to determine the desired contact time.
t c:

t, ~ ( 11.55)

80

70

60

50

,~ I-- 40

30

20

10

0
Fig. 11.29. Effective mcan heat transfer 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 08 LO
coefficien t for droplets in fl lIrc vapor T"" - T'"
(Brown [27]). r.:-=-r:;

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 "'0 THERMAl EVAlUAnON METHOD FOR DIRECT·CONTACT CONDENSERS 615

The coefficien t h can be very large and, indeed , compa rable with the
Interfacial or molecular-kine tic coc tficienl. This is particularly so when , as is
often the case, the condense r is ope ra ting a t high vacu um. In such circum-
stances, Eq. ( 11.55) should be eva lu ated with h replaced by htll which
combines h and the interfacial coe fficient . " " as follows :

- + (11.56)
Ir Ir I
" tff

Having dete rmined the contact time ' ... it is necessary to est imate how fa r
the droplets will travel in this time. thus enabling one to estima te th e vessel
size. A fo rce balance on the drople ts for vertical downward mO( ion yields

d" d" -rrd : p u l

Mu - - M- - Mg - CD -4- - '2- (11.57)
d, dl

where It is the droplet velocity. At is the droplet mass. z is the d istance, t is

the time, g is the gravita tional accele rat ion. CI) is the drag coe ffi cient , and PK
is the g••s·phase density. For horizon wI Row, the same equation applies but g
is O. Also, g is oft e n small compa red with the ot he r te rms for high-ve locity
drople ts. Pita and John 128) have integrated th is equat ion analytica lly for the
case when g is O. In orde r to do th is, they used the Ingebo (2\)J eq ua tion fo r
Co which applies for 6 < Re < 400 :

( 1I.5H)

where

( 11.5Y)

and whe re Il ~ is the gas-phase vi ~cos it y. Pe ta and John obtained the total
dista nce traveled. L , in lime f ro ;l ~

( 11.60)

where U
z ;s the veloc; ty at time I, give n by
r, - "2 ~

11 2 - ( 11 \- " ". - 3'3 ' )

.4. tJ LIU (1 1.61)

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616 STEAM POWER PlANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

a nd where r is a physica l prope rty grouping given by

( 11 .62 )

As an alternative to the preceding ca lcul a tio n me thod. Fair (30j gives

empirical calculat ion procedu res based on the volume tric heat tra nsfe r cod·
ficie nt.
The estimation of the effects of noncondc nsa hles is Quite difficult a nd
involves step·by-step calculations of the type deSl' ribcd by Pe ta a nd John for
droplet evaporation .

11.10.2 Tray Condensers

The uncertainties involved in the design o f spray t:onde nsers become even
more severe with tray condense rs. It is possible to usc the preceding hca t
transfer calculation method while using a large droplet diame te r (say grea te r
than 5 mm) but this can lead to error if the shect does not brea k up into
droplets before fa lling onto the next tray. The vc nical distance traveled by
the droplets can be determined by assuming that th ey fall freely under
gravity. Altc rnatively, empirical calculatio n me thods have bee n devised by
Fair [30] which use volume tric coefficie nts.

11.11 REASONS FOR FAILURE OF CONDENSER OPERATION

Stei nmeyer and Mueller [31 ) chaired a panel discussion session on why
condensers do not operate as they a re supposcd to. Some of the main points
arising from this discussion are noted he re:

I. The tubes may be fouled more than expct:ted - a proble m not uniqu e
to condensers.
2. The condensat e may not be drained prupe rly causing tubes to he
Hooded. This could mean thai the condensate out le t is too small , too
high, or blocked.
3. Venting of nonconde nsables may be inadequ ate. Re ma rks on thc
prope r a rrangeme nt of vcnts we rc give n in Section 11 .2. 1.
4. The conde nse r wa s designed on the basis ur e nd te mpe ratures witho ut
noticing that the design duty would involvc a te mperature cross in the
middle of the range (sec Section 11.9).
S. Flooding limits have bee n exceeded for condensers with bac kHow of
liquid against upward vapor flow.
6. Excessive fogging may be occurring. This can be a prob le m whe n
conde nsing high mo lecula r weight va pors In the prese nce of noncon·
densable gas.

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••XT
 An additional problem not mentioned in this panel discussion is the
possibility of severe maldistribution in parallel condensing paths particu larly
with vacuum operation. This occurs because there can be two Row rates
which satisfy the imposed pressure drops. An example might be that in which
the pressure drop is O. One channel may have a very high vapor inlet flow but
achieve a zero pressure drop because the momentum pressure recovery
cancels out the frictional pressure loss. The next channel may achieve the
zero pressure drop by having no vapor inlet flow. To be stahle in this case.
the channel would be full of noncondensables. This problem may occur with
parallel tubes in a tube-side condenser or with whole condensers when they
are arranged in parallel.

11.12 EXAMPLES

11 .12.1 Process Condenser

A Meam- hydrocarbon-air mixture, whose condensation curve is given in Fig.
11.30. has to be condensed in a TEMA E·typc condenser wi th cooling water
avai lable at 25°C. The process data are as follows :

T,~ - 172"C

T..... , - 55°C T,:." = 54°C

W - 14.5 1 kg/s W ' = 2.72 kg/s

The shell-side ent ha lpy curve has been approximated by a number of

straight lines for the purposes of this calculat ion. The differences between
these straight li nes a nd the detailed curves a rc small.
The tube-side enthalpy can be de termined from the tube-side specific heat
cp as follows:

which, if c p - 4.18 kJ / (kg' K), givcs

i - 4.IX x T kJ / kg (I \.63,)

T - i/4 . 18°C (1I.63b)

We wi ll conside r the shell·side Row hc ing co-current to the first tube·side

pass. Hence Eq. (J 1. 26) is used with

w 14.51
- 2.72
-- - 534
W· .

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618 STEAM POWER PLANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

'50

\'
•5
!!! 100
1:.
E
!"-

T'

i' - i;,... kJ j kg

Fia. 11.30. Tempe rature distributions for the process condenser ex.ample.

(11.64)

We will choose steps 6i l of 10 kJ / kg. Hence pUlling 8i l \0 in Eq . (\ 1.32)

gives

T t _ T1I
10 T' _ Tl kJ / kg (11.65)

Note thai new j I values for each ca lcu lat ion step are determined as follows:

i~cw- il + \O (11.66)

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With this information. the calcu latlu ns shown in Table 11,2 may proceed by
going left to right on ench linc and hencc from linc to line. The calculation is
started by

,I = i,n = 4.H~ X 25 = 104.5 kJ / kg

when

ill = i"ul = 4. 1 ~ x SS = 22Q.9 kJ / kg

The method fo r calcul ating each it e m in the table is indicated above the
appropriate column . The calcu lation is stopped when j' - i~u, becomes 0 or
where i ' = i".
The result s of this cak ulation ilrc shown plotted in Fig. 11.30. The
calculation fo r thi s eXlImplc could have been simplified considerably since a
linear temperature - entha lpy eUI"\'C i:-. used on the lube sidc. Equat ions
(1 1.64 ) to (] 1.(6) cou ld have heel1 wri tten directly in te rms of tube-side
temperature. thus avoiding the step o f converti ng e nthalpies 10 temperatures.
However, the calcu lation wu:-. done in full he re to s how how wc would set
abou t dealing with nonlinear. temperature- en thalpy curves on the tube side.
To calcu late the hea t transfer area, we must be able to calculat e local
val ues of the overa ll heat tnlllsfc r cudlicicn l. U. Since this is discussed
elsewhere is thi s book. the coeltiClents a rc taken here as those given in
Fig. I 1.31.
Equation (11.19) can then be u ~c d 10 dete rm ine the he,1{ tran:-.fcr arell.
The eq uation was applied to give A , fo r each o f the stmig ht-line sec tions o f
the shell-side, temperature-enthllipy curve given in Fig . 11.30. The requ ired
T' - f values we re read uff from thi S figure lind the currespond ing U values
from Fig. 11.31. The ste ps in the caicul ation a rc shown in Table 11.3.
If required, the mean lemperaHl r..: difference and the mea n overa ll coef-
ficient for the whole exc hanger may be calculaled usi ng EQs. (11.21) a nd
( 11.22), respectively. T hese ca lculatio ns are summarized in T able 11.4. Hence
the mean temperature difference i... de termined from Eq. (11 .2 1) as

x 15.08
1169

~ 0 .0225

Hence

0", - 44.4"C

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 TABLE 11.2 Worksheet for Temperature Distribution Calculation

T' - TI TI + Til
-II ., '/ I Til T' - T' - Til. I
tl, I , I - 'OUI' T , T', rl, T' - T , 2,
Step kJjkg kJjkg kJjkg °c °c °C °C °C °C

EQ. (J 1.66) Eq. (t 1.65) Eq. (11.64) Eq. (] 1.63) Eq. (I 1.63) Fig. U.30
1 104.5 229.9 669 25.0 55.0 172.0 117.0 147.0 0.796 40.0
2 114.5 221.9 573.5 27.4 53.1 128.6 101.2 75.5 0.746 40.2
3 124.5 213.6 475.8 29.8 51.1 109.9 80.1 58.8 0.734 40.4
4 n4.5 206.3 383.2 32.2 49,3 94_5 62.3 45.1 0.724 40.7
S 144.5 199.1 291.4 34.6 47,6 80_7 46.\ 33.1 0.718 4Ll
/) 154.5 1919 199.8 37_0 45.9 78.3 41.3 32.4 0.784 41.4
7 164.5 184.1 104.7 39.4 44.0 73.2 33.8 29.2 0.864 41.7
8 174.5 175.5 5.3 41.7 41.9 41.8

CONTENTS
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 500

'50

i! '00
..5
,
~
350
~

~ 300
~

8
1 2SO

200

'SO
a ' 00 200 300 ' 00 500 600 700
,. - '~. kJ j kg

Fig. 11 .3 1. Overall coc fficic nt\ used in the pruccss conde nser example .

The mean overall coeffici e nt is dete rmined from Eq. (11 .22):
1 2
U... - 115.5 X4 IJI60 - 355 W/ (m · K)

We ca n cross-check the arilhmct u; by usi ng Eq . (11 .5):

Qr - U",ArO, ..
- 355 j( 155 .5 x 44.4
- 1.82 x 10' W (1 .82 MW )

The heal duty is also given by

.. 2.72(M9X IO J )

= I.S1 x lOt> W (1.82 MW)

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 TABLE 11.3 Worksheet for Heat-Transfer Area Calculation

u,n,," 8 lM ", A",

I ~ i au"
- ili; . V~" Vb' W /(m 1 . K). 8~. 8b • °C m-
kJjkg kJ/kg W/(m 1 . K) Wj(m 2 , K) [Eq. (J \.14)[ °C °C [Eq. 01.13)) [Eq. (11.19))

0 37 360 397 378 12.2 27.0 18.8 \4.2

37 139 397 447 422 27.0 36.8 31.6 28.4
176 126 447 413 430 36.8 40.0 3g,4 20.8
302 238 413 253 333 40.0 80.0 57,7 317
540 55 2SJ 209 231 !W.O 92,5 86,\ 7,5
59.5 74 166 166 166 92.5 132.0 111.1 10.9
TOIal AT = 115.5

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U I- LI.I
CONTENTS I ~ Z Z
. 0
U
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TABLE 11.4 Work.~het't ror Calculation or Mean Temperature Difference
and Mean Overall Coefficient

i~- ;;"',. Doi ;. 8 ,. 10.1 .1' A I; A ,Um.1' ili;/8 I-M."

V·i'
kJ / kg kJ / kg W/ (m . K) "C m' W/ K kJ / (kg' K)
() J7 37~ !lUi 14.2 5,368 l.%H
37 IlQ 422 .' 1.6 28.4 11.985 OW!
176 126 430 38.4 20.8 8.944 3.28 1
302 2JH ]]3 57.7 33.7 11 ,222 4. 125
54() 55 231 :-;6.1 7.5 1.732 0.639
595 74 '66 lJl.) 10.9 1.:-;09 1l.Mo
Totals 41,060 15.08

11.12.2 Power Condenser

Wet steam at 0.1 bar with (mixture) specific en thalpy 2426.3 kJ /kg enters the
conde nse r at a flow rate, W, of 245 ..14 kg/so It is designed to conde nse the
vapor without subcooling. A sin gle tu be-side pa ss is useJ and the (';ooling-
water velocity is selected as 2 m/s as 11 good compromise between fouling
and erosion . Cooling wat er is avai lahl c at I j Oe and ca n ex it th e condense r at
2S"C.
The condense r tube details arc as fo llows:

Outside diameter. D" "" 0.0254 m

Inside diameter. d, - 0.02291 m (i .e .• 18 BWG)
Wall therma l conductivity, k 2 = 111 W/ (m . K) (admirality metal)

The fouling resistances inside and outside the tube are, respectively,

r, ,., O.(J(X)IX (m 2 . K) / W

' " - 0 .00009 (m ' . K) j W

The required fluid properties may he obtai ned from stea m tables as follows:

Cooling water (at the mean tempe rature of 20°C)

p, - 997 kg/ m.l

c,,€ '"" 41 80 J/ (kg ' K )

IJ. ~ = 0,(X)10 1 (N . s) / m2

k, - 0.602 W / (m . K)

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 Saturated liquid properties of condensate (at 0.1 bar)

PI = 990 kg/m 2

ill( = 2392 kJ / kg

k, ~ 0.635 W/(m ' K)

J.L, = 5.88 X 1O - 4 (N· s)/m 2

i, = 191.8 kJ / kg

The condenser heat load, QT' is calculated from

~ 245.34(2426.3 - 191.8)

~ 5.412 x 10' kW (548. 2 MW)

Hence the cooling water mass flow rate, Wr' can be detennined from a
heat balance

(5.482 X 10 5 ) X lO3

(25 - 15)4180

= 1.311 X \0 4 kg/s

The number of tubes, NT' is then determined from the fixed cooling-water
velocity, u r ' as follows:

4 x 1.311 X 10"'
997 X 2 X 11" X (0.02291) 2

~ 15,950

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 11 . 12 EXAMPLES 625

In o rder to calculate the conde nsing-side heat transfer coefficieOl, we need

an estimate of the number of lubes in a vertical column. From typical
condenser tube layouts. this was estimated as 70.
The coola nt -side heat transfer coefficient , h e. can be estimated by single-
phase. in-tube heat transfer coefficient methods (see Chapter 3). The tube-side
Reynolds number is first calculated :

D,u rPr
H, - - - -
",
0.02291 x 2 x 997
0 .00101
= 45,230
The Petukhov- Kirillov corre lation can the n be used 10 determine the heat
transfe r coefficient (see Chapter 3):

where

f = (1.581n He - 3.28) - 2

- [1.58 10( 45,230) - 3.28) - '

= 0.(l0536
Hence

f _ 0.00268
2

OJ)0268 x 45230 x 6.96

Nil .-
1.07 + 12.7(0.00268 )1 / 2[( 6.98) 2/ 3 - I]

- 300.4
Hence

30().4 x 0.602
0.02291

= 781){} W / ( m 2 . K)

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626 STEAM POWER PLANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

The mean temperature difference for the exchanger may be taken as the
logarithmic mean because the temperature difference between the streams
varies linea rly with the amount of heat transfe rred to the tube-side fluid .

B," - (45.8 - 15)

and
B~, ~ (45.8 - 25)

1·lc nce

30.8 - 20.8
1"(30 .8/20.81

- 25SC
The next step in the calcu lat ion is to determine the shell-side heat transfer
coefficie nt in order to determine the overa ll coeffi cient. Unforlunate ly, this
coefficient depends o n the local heat flu x and hence an iteration is necessary.
The equations required in this ite ration are developed first.
The overa ll heat transfer coefficien t, U, based o n the tube outside diame-
ter, is given by
I
-= R+
U II "

where "v
is the coefficient outside the tubes and R is the sum of all the other
thermal resistances given by

R = r +
" k. D•.
where

I
- 2:( 0.0254 + 0.0229) ~ 0.0242 m

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The wall thickness, $ .... is given by

.f ... - Ie D" - Dr )

- j(0.0254 - 0.0229)

= O.(lO]J m

Hence

R = O.{){XK)9 + ( -I- + O.OOOIH ) -

0.0254 (O.lKII3) ((l.{1254)
- + -- --
7H90 0.0229 III 0.0242

= 4.42 X 10 - 4

Hence

= 4.4 ~ x IO - ~ + ( 11 .67)
U ""
The conde nsing-side heat transfer coefficient may be calculated by the
NU!isdt method with the Ke rn correction (or condensate inundation (see
Chapter 111). Hence

where tlT... is the difference betwee n the sat uration tempemture and the
temperature at the surface of the fouli ng. This equation has been simplified
because PI :::t> p~. Hence

, \ I /~
(99!W(9.M I)( 2392 x 10·')(0.635) ) I
h" = O.72H ( (5 .88 X I(l - J) AT,..(O.0254) (7U) 1 /~

( 11."")

Now, the tempera ture diffc rem:r.:. AT... is given by

AT. - O - Rq

where q is the heal ftux. But

(/ - UB

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626 STEAM POWER PLANT AND PROCESS CONDENSERS

TABLE 11.5 Iteration for Overall Coefficient at the Inlet of the Po~u Condenser

t:.T~,. °C h". W / (m ; · K) U. W / (m ~ · K)
(Eq. (] 1.(9)] t&!. (11.<*1)] IEq. (1 1.67)]

10 50:'\.'i 1563
9.52 5 11,11 1."iIW
9.44 512') 1570
9.43 5 1.10 1570

Hence
H. - O( 1 - RU)

"" 8( I - 4.42 x 10 ~U) ( 11.09)

A suggested iterat ion is the refore to

I. Guess ~T...
2. Calculat e Ii " from Eq. (1 1.68).
3. Calcu late U from Eq. ( 11.67).
4. Recalculate ~T... from Eq. (J 1.69).
5. Repeat the calcu lations from step 2 and continue the iteration until U
converges.

Tahle 11.5 summarizes the resulls of this it eration fo r the inlet of the
condenser when tJ = 30.S°C. The initial guess of 6 T... is ](rc.
The process is repeated for the outlet e nd of the condenser, where (] is
20.8°C. The ove rall coefficient obtained is lh26 W/ (m '· K). The mean
overall wcfficient can then be determined from Eq . (11.14) as folluws:

Um = 1(1570 + 162ft)

= 1598 W /(m l . K)

The required surface area for the exchanger is therefore given by Eq.
(1 1.5) as follows:

54H.2 X lO h
1598 X 25.5

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 629

TABLE 11 .6 Comparison of Thenmd Resista nces III Ihe Inlet of the Condenser

hem Given by Va lue. (m < . K)/ kW %

1 D"
Tube-side fluid 0 . \4\ 22
h, D,

Tube-side fouling ,, -Do

D, 0.200 J1

s ... D"
Wall 0.012 2
k~. D~.
Shell-side fouli ng 0.090 14
'"1
Shcll ·~ id e fl uid 0.195 31
h"

Hence the required tube length is del ermined using

A,
L

1.345 X 10 4
J5.lJ50 x 1T x 0 .0254

10.0 m

II is inSlruclive to compare the various thermal resista nces in th is con-

dense r. Table 11.6 docs (his for the inl et end of the condense r.
It can be seen thaI considerable resistance is due to the foulin g, pa rticu-
larly the tube-side fouling . In practice, therefore. much effort often goes into
keeping the tube -side clean. This is done by ca reful control of the cooli ng-
water chemistry and hy use of mechanical clea ning met hods such as balls
which are passed down the tube~ .

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This cha pter is an exte nded and modified \'ersion of a chapter previously
published in Two-Phase Flow H eal t:..r:c/rOflgers, by Kluwer Academic Pu blish-
ers ( 1988). Thanks are due the publishe r for pe rmission to use the material
here .

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 NOMENCLATURE

a G,.cpl/h K
A heal transfe r a rea. m 2
B paramete r defi ned by Eq. (J 1.43)
e,l speci fi c heal capacity al constant pressure. J / (kg' K)
CJ) drag coe ffi cie nt
d droplet diamete r, m
D lUbe diameter, m
f friction factor
g gravi tational acceleration, m/s 2
II heal transfe r coefficient, W j(m 2 • K)
specific e nthalpy, J / kg
k the rmal conductivity, W / (m . K)
K parame te r in Eq. (J 1.52)
L length, m
G mass How per un it area, kg/ (m " s)
M mass of a droplet , kg
N Jlumber of tubes
Nu NUSl!&lt number, hUl k
p pi~<;" ,f{c.
Pa
Pr PranGli; numbcr, c"IJ,./k
Q leatJIow th rough exchange r surface, W
r iherm .. resistance, (m 2 • KljW
IV ~M D01ds number
$ tbkkncss, m
lime, S
(c cont act lime, S
T tem per a ture, K
u ve I Ol~ity. m/s
U overall heat transfer coeffkie nt , W j(m 2 . K)
W mass fl ow rale, kg/s
z distance. m

Greek Symbols
a the rma l diffusivity, m!/s
r physical property grouping defined by EQ. (1 1.62), m lM /so.1>4
6. i e nthalpy c ha nge. J / kg
il p pressure drop, Pa
9 te mpera ture difference between streams, K
IJ. viscosi lY, (N . s)/ m 2
)J kine matic viscosilY, m 2/s
p den sity, kg/ m 3
(J" surface Ic nsion , N/ m

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 REFERENCES 631

Subscripts
Q, b zone boundaries
c coolant
cI octwee n coolant and int erface
cold cold stream
cff effective value
g gas phase (includi ng vapor or gas- vapor mixtures)
hOi hOI stream
ins ide o f luhc
in inlet to exchanger
j for j th zone
I liquid phase
LM loga rithmic mean
m mean va lue for exchanger (or for zone in exchange r)
o ou ts ide lube
sat sa turated
T [olal va lue for exchange r
I' vapor
wat ambien t wa ter
I initial value
2 fi nal value

Superscripts
1 first pass
11 second pass
shell side

REFERENCES

l. TEMA (\988) Standard of Tubulu r ExchaflRtr Manufoclllrtrs' AssO('io/i(III , 7th cd.

Tarrytown. New York.
2. Bell. K. J .. ;md Mueller. A. C. (1117 1) COlldt'nsatiml 1Il'U! T ramjl'r and COtldl'II..,U
Dl'Sif{n. A IChE Today Suies. America n Institute of Chemical Engineers,
New York.
]. Edi10rs of POWtr (]967) Po wl'r (jl'n('ra/ion Sys/l'm s. pp. 265 - 2%. McGraw-Hill.
New York.
4. S imp~n n . H . C. 0%9) Outline of curre nt problems in condenser design. PrO('.
Sy",,, . 10 Cr/rbrolr Ihr Bicrnll'nury of thr Ju m rs Wall Putl'nl. University of
Glasgow. Se ptember 1- 2. pp. 91 - 134.
5. Seba ld. J. F. ( 1979 ) A de\'c!opmental history of steam surface condensers in the
electrical utility indust ry. ASME / AIChE Nat. Heat Transfer Cont.. San Diego.
A ugu~1 6- 1( 1979; also published rn lIl'al Tronsfu £IIg. 1(3) HO - H7; 1(4) 7b-~ 1.

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632 STEAM POWEFt PV.NT ANO PROCESS CONOENSERS

6. Britis h Eleclric:al a nd Allied ManufaclUrers' Association (1967) R«ommmd~d

PraCllCf' fo r ,It~ ~si~" of Surfac~ T)'{N S'~am C{mdt"fLJmg Plam . BEAMA Publica·
tio n 222. London.
7. Heal Exchange Institu te (984) Sla"durd ffJr S It"um SUTfac~ Co"dt~r.t , 8t h ed.
Cle\"el:lIld. Ohio.
K COIl. R. L ([ 984) A designe r's app roach to surface condenser ven ting and
deaera tion. In Po ....'(r COttd~~r Htu l Trarufu Tt"ch"uJogy, P . J. Marto and R. H .
Nu nn (cds.), pp. 163 - 180. Hemispherc. Washingtlln, D.C.
9. Spence. J. R .. Rydall , M . L. and McCon nell, A. 1l%7 - 196S) The devciopment
and production of high pressurc fe ed heaters fo r modern central power stations.
Proc . flU' . M« h . E"g. 182(36) 735 - 756.
10. British Electrical a nd Allied Manufacture rs' A"...cll,:i.. tiun (1 968) Guidr to Iht
Drsign 01 f«d .....altT Hra lmK Pfanl , BEA MA Pubhcation 226. Londo n.
II. Heat Exchange Inst itute (1984) Siandards lOT C/ow'd F('edwatrT lira/us. Cleve-
la nd, O hio.
12. AUa LMval ( 1%9) Th",m u( Handbook. Sweden.
13. l-ITFS PI:ltc·Fin Study G roup (] 9ij7) 1'latt·Fin U ro/ £.xcha"/Jtr.t - (juidr /0 ThriT
Specijicu tiOl! and Use, M. A. Taylor, (cd). HTFS. O\:fmdshire, U K.
14 . Ludwig, E. E. (1965) App/itd Procrss ~siRn In,. Ch~miCQf and Pnroch~mical
PfafllS, Vol. 3, pp. 146- 131. Gulf '>ublishi ng. H ou ~ ton.
15. Ame rican Pc t ro le um Instit ute (\96Kl Air Cooled Heal Exchangen for Gtntra/
Rrfint'ry Sadcr, A PI St;mdard 66 1, Was hi ngto n, D .C.
Ih. Silvcr, L. (1947) Ga,; Cooling wit h Aqueo us Condensation. Trans. IrlSl . Chtm.
EIIR. 25 30- 42 .
17. Bell , K. J .. a nd Ghaly, M. A. (1973) An approximatc ge ne ralized design me thod
for mu hlcomp(JnCnt / panial condensefl'. Amu. InSf. Chrm . Eng . Symp. $I'r.
69( 131) 72- 79.
18. Smith. R. A . (1976) Private Communication .
19. Colburn , A. P. (1933 ) Mean te mpera t ure diffe rencc 1md heal t r;msfer eocflici c nt
in liquid heat e)(ch;-IIlge rs. /ml . Ens . OIl'II! . 25 H7J - H77.
ZO. Butte rwo rth, D. (1973) A calcula tion me thod for ~ h c ll -'lIld · tube heat exchangers
in which the ovc rall codlicic nt varic ~ alo ng the lenKth. COllI . (m Ad! 'anC~5 in
Thermal and Medwllical {)('siJ:l! of Silelf-(l/U/· Tl j/J(> lIeat Exchangtrs, NEL Report
590. Pl'. 5(1- 71. NatillOal EnKinccrina Laboratory, EaM Kilbride, Scot land.
11. Emcrson. W. H. (\ 973) Effective IUhe-side temperatures in multi.pass heat
c)(ch111lKe rs with non -uniform hcat -tnmsfer codliClc nt s and spccitic healS. Co"r.
011 A (it '(mces;11 Then1w/ (md M echOll icul ~s;gll vf Shell-(llld·T,jlN Heal Exchang-
er.". NEl. Report 59U. pp. 32-55 . Nat ional Engineen ng Lanoratory, Ea~ t Kilbride,
Scotllmd.
22. Webb, D . R., Bird. R ., and Mangnall, K. (1988) A new approach to thc design of
vacuum conde nscn. Second U K Nat. Conf. on Heat Transfe r. Uni versity of
Stra thctydc. Glasgow. Vol. 2. Pape r C206/ 83. pp. 'J -'9 - 9M.
23. Wilson. J. L (1976) NEl twO dimensional cooden~er compute T progr.. m. Meeling
on Sira m Turbine Condcrutrs. NEl Report 6 19, PI' 152- 159. Nation;!1 Engineer-
ing Labora tory. East Ki lbride, Scotland.

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 REFERENCES 633

24. Davidson. B. 1. 119761 Computational methods for evaluating the performance of

etJndc n~c rs. Alee/ing (}II St('um Tumilll' ("olldel1S('fS, NEL Report 61 Y, pr. IS2- ISY.
National Engineering LabonIlOT)·. East Kilb ride, Scotland.
25. Davidson. B. J. {19MIl Simulation uf power plant condense r performance by
computiltional methods: <I n overview. In /'o .....er CondemCf Heat Transfer Technol·
ogy. P. J. Marta and R. H . Nunn (cdsJ , pp. 17- 49. Hem isphere. Was hington.
D.C.
26. Steinmeyer, D. E. (19TH Ph<lse d i.~rer' ion s: liquid in gas dispersions. Chemical
En~illem Ham/book, 5th cd . R. H . Pe rl)" and C. H. Chilto n (cds.). p. 18- 62.
McGraw- Hili, New York .
27. Brown. G . (IIJSI) Heat transmission by condensation of steam on spray of water
drops. Insl . Aff'ch. Em:. Pmc (It'llt'm! /)isCIIssion 011 Heal Tralls/rr 49-52.
28. Pita, E. G., ,md John. J. E. A. (lY7CI) The clfect of forced convcl.:lion on
evaporati".e cooling of sprays in ai r. Proc. FOllrth lnl . Heal Trurlsf('f COllf.
Versuilln, Vol. 7. Paper CT3.12. Elsc".ic r. Amste rdam.
29. Ingcbo. R. D. (1951) Vaporization rilll.:s ilnd ho.:<ll transfer wctlkients fo r purc
liquid drops. NACA. TN 2368.
30. Fair. J. R. (1972) Design of direct contact coolers/condense rs. Chmr. Em:. 79.
91 - ]()().
31. Steinmeyer. D. E .• and Muelle r. A. C. tl(74) Why Conde nsers Don't Opcril tl.: ilS
They Arc Supposed To. Chrm. Ell/-!. Pr01{rC'ss 7017}. 78- 1l2.

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MI
a:: Ohapter 12
w
MI
Z
w
A Evaporators and
Z
o Condensers for

..'"
MI
Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning
System
a::
o
l-
e M. B. Pate
a::
..
o
I
MI
a::
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~

Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 12 Contents
12. Evaporators and Condensers for Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Systems
M. B. Pate

12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Background
12.1.2 Typical Evaporator Behavior
12.1.3 Typical Condenser Behavior
12.1.4 Types of Heat Exchangers in Refrigeration and Air-
Conditioning Applications
12.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis
12.2.1 General Equations
12.2.2 Lumped Heat Exchanger Analysis Approach
12.2.3 Local Heat Transfer Integration Approach
12.3 Evaporator Coils
12.3.1 Description and Special Considerations
12.3.2 In-Tube Refrigerant Evaporation Heat Transfer
12.3.3 In-Tube Heat Transfer Augmentation
12.3.4 Air-Side Heat Transfer
12.3.5 Wet-Coil Heat Transfer
12.3.6 Frosted-Coil Heat Transfer
12.3.7 Fin Bonding and Thermal Contact Resistance
12.4 Condenser Coils
12.4.1 Description and Special Considerations
12.4.2 Similarities between Condenser and Evaporator Coils
12.4.3 In-Tube Refrigerant Condensation Heat Transfer
12.4.4 In-Tube Heat Transfer Augmentation
12.5 Flooded Evaporators
12.5.1 Description and Special Considerations
12.5.2 Shell-Side Refrigerant Heat Transfer
12.5.3 Shell-Side Heat Transfer Augmentation
12.6 Shell-and-Tube Direct Expansion Evaporators
12.6.1 Description and Special Considerations
12.6.2 In-Tube and Shell-Side Heat Transfer
12.7 Shell-and-Tube Condensers
12.7.1 Description and Special Considerations
12.7.2 Shell-Side Refrigerant Condensation Heat Transfer
12.7.3 Shell-Side Heat Transfer Augmentation
12.8 Heat Exchanger Design with Alternative Refrigerants
Nomenclature
References

Go to Chapter > 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 Appendix & Tables

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 CHAPTER 12

EVAPORATORS AND
CONDENSERS FOR
REFRIGERATION AND
AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

M. B.PATE
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Iowa Stale University
Ames, Iowa 50011

12.1 INTROOUCTION

12.1.1 Background
Every refrigeration and air-conditioning system based on a vapor-compres-
sion cycle contains an evaporator and a condenser. A schematic diagram of a
typical vapor-compression cycle showing these heat exchangers in relation-
ship to other major components. such as the expansion device and the
compressor, is shown in Fig. 12.1. The thermodynamic processes and slates
for the working fluid (i.e .. refrigerant) during a vapor-compression cycle are
demonstrated in the pressure-e nthalpy (p-h) diagram shown in Fig. 12.2.
Both an ideal cycle and an actual t:ydc, which contains non ideal processes
such as pressure drops in the evaporator and condenser, arc shown. The
thermodynamic states at the inlets and exits of the heat exchangers are also
marked on both figures . For example, entering the evaporator is a saturated
mixture (4) while either a superheated or saturated va por (la) exits. For the
condenser. a superheated vapor (2a) enters while a subcooled liquid (3) exits.
Another important observation that can be made from the pressure-enthalpy
diagram is that condensers operate at high pressures and temperatures while

Bm/us. EI'uporalOrs (md Cond,'merJ, Edit~d hy Sadik Kak a<;

ISBN O·471·/l2170·O 0 19Ql John Wiley & SOilS. tnc.

635

CONTENTS
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NEXT
636 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

J
Condenser
/' -
,.

, Compr&ssor

~
ExpanSion
Valve ... I"- p
, ~r'
AcctJmulator

y Evaporator .., f-r-

6/ ' '-- "
"-Ig. 12.1. $chematH: of typical rcfrigcr3tion system.

evaporators operate at low pressures and temperatures. The addition al

pressure drops shown for the actual cycle at the inlet and exit of Ihe
compressor occur in the compression intake and discharge valves.
Figure 12.2 also shows that the refrigerant drnps in pressure as it flows
through the evaporator and condenser. This drop in pressure in the e\lapora-
lor is undesirable for the performance of a refrigeration system because as

3· CondensaTIOn
,
3 -- ---
Con<>emo'oo
2.

'e
I ·~
,e
,a
•~
,,:)
••
,
~
, ,
,.I
Evaporalion
EvaporaTion
-----

- - - Ideal Cycle
- - Actual Cycle

Enthalpy

Fig. lZ.2. Pressure -enthalpy diagram .... ith vapor- compression cycle.

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 12. 1 INTRODUCTION 637

the low-side pressure decreases, more specific compressor work is required .

Thus Ihe coefficie nt of perfo rma nce (CO P) o f the sysle m decreases. For the
conde nse r. the drop in pressure also has an undesirable effect that can be
better unde rstood in te rms o f sa tu ra tion te mpe rature. Because the sta te of
the refri ge rant in most of the condense r is sat urated, the pressu re and
tempe rature 3rc depe nde nt , which means that the refrig erant temperature
also drops. As a res u~t , the te mperatu re difference between the refrigera nt
a nd the cooling fluid (e.g. , air or wa ter) decreases. t hus red ucing heat
Iransfer in the condc nse r. The desire to min imize pressure drops in both the
conde nse r and evapomtor fo r the reasons discussed previously is an impor-
tant conside ra tiun for " designer who is considc ring the installatIOn of
e nh a nced tubes on t he refrigerant side.

12.1,2 Typical Evaporator Behavior

The refrige rant flowing through an evapora tor absorbs e nergy as it cools a
fluid (usua lly wate r or air). The fiuid-C(X)ling process is the reason for the
exi... te nce of the refrigerat ion system in most applications. Insigh ts into the
be havior of an evaporator can be gai ned by analyzing sample te mpera ture
proJ'iles as a fun clion of position shown in Fig. 12.3a (ror a coun te rflow
arrangeme nt) and Fig. 12.3b (for a parallel-flow arrangement). The (.;uorui -
na les on these figures are nOI exact, especia lly the position coordi nate,
because they depend on th e type of heat exchange r a nd the tube 's circ uiting
arrangement. As me ntioned previously. in the two-phase or satura ted refrig-
e ra nt region the te mperature tre nd follows the pressure tre nd . Th e refriger-
ant e ntering the evapora tor is a t a sa turated state. genera lly at a qu ality of
approximately 10%. The liquid phase of the refrige ran t is then vapori zed as il
fl ows through the evapora lor, thus inc reasing the qua lity o f the re frige rant.
In some types of evaporators (e .g., flood ed evaporators), the refrige rant cxils
as a satu ra tetl vapor a t 100% quality. In OIher [)'pes of evaporators (e .g.,
direc t expansion evaporators), the refrige rant superheats before it exits.
Superhea ting is shown in Fig. 12.3. as evidenced by the sha rp te mpe rature
increase ncar the exi t. Superheated vapor exiting the evapora tor will p reve nt
liquid slugging of the compressor and ensure the maximum refrigt:. rat ing
effect.
Both flow a rrange ments. counte rflow and parallel flow, are used in evapo-
ra tor designs. T he adva magcs of a counterflow arrangement in terms of heat
exchanger perfo rm ance are discussed in nume rous texts. However, the fact
th at the refrige rant tempe rature drops even tho ugh heat is being added also
suggests some advantages for parallel fl ow. In fact. achieving a rela tively
consta nt temperature dilfe rcnce hetwee n the rwo fluids may in some eases be
easie r to accomplish in a parallel· flow a rrangeme nt than in a counte rflow
arrangeme nt. The protiks in Fig. 12.3 are examples o nly. and the refore a
designer muSI either pe rform dela iled calculations o r conform 10 indust ry
practice when select ing a flow arrange menl.
 :!! FlUId Being Cooled

~~~ Evaporating Refrigerant Superheated

~ t---~-.../

Inlet Position E~II

(a ) Counterflow Afrangement

FlUId Betng Cooled

i"ig. 12.3. Typical Icmperalurc profiles for Inlel POSition EXit

an evaporator. (0) Parallel·Flow Arrangement

12.1.3 Typical Condenser Behavior

The condenser is used to reject both the work of compression and the heal
absorbed by the evaporalOr. To reject this heat. the condenser's refrigerant
temperature musl be higher than thai of the fluid, usually ai r or water,
cooling the condenser. As with the evaporator. temperature profiles can be
used to demonstrate the behavior of a typical condenser.
As shown in Fig. 12.4 the refrige rant state enlcring the condenser is
superheated and in many cases close to the state exiling the compressor,
depending on the heat tra nsfer and pressure drops in thc piping connecting
the two compone nts. A short distance after e ntering the condenser the
refrigerant is cooled to the saturatio n point. Condensat ion then occurs over
most of the heat exchanger lengt h as the refrigerant goes from 100% to 0%
qualify. The temperature decrease in this two-phase region is the result of
the refrigerant pressure drop. Beyond the point where all the vapor is

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 12.1 INTRODUCTION 639

y superhealed

,.. ~ / Condensing Refrigerant

J S"bcOO"d~

=.,------;c-:c:--:-:--- -- -=-' to'ig. 12.4. Typical tempera tu re profiles for

Inlet Position E ~II a conde nser .

condensed, the refrigera nt is subcooled until it exi ts the condense r and ent ers
the expa nsion device. As the cooling flu id absorbs energy. its tempera ture
increases as shown in Fig. 12.4. This cooli ng flu id is single phase except ill the
case of cascade refrige rat ion systems and evaporative conde nse rs.
Most condensers for refrigera tio n and air-conditioning application s a rc
manufactured in countertlow arrangements as shown in Fig. 12.4. The reason
for this arrangement is that cou nlc rfiow heat exchange rs have higher hea t
exchanger performance compared to parallel flow .

12.1.4 Types of Heat Exchangers in Refrigeration and

Alr~CondltlonlngApplications
Two·phase heat exchangers in refrigera tion and air-cond itio ning applications
can be categorized accord ing to whe ther Ihey are coils or shcll·and · tuhe heal
excha ngers. Evaporator and condenser coils are used when the second fluid
is air because a much larger surface area is required on the air side.
Shell-and· tube evaporators and conde nsers arc used when the second flu id is
a liquid, such as water or a brine. The five major types of heat exchangers
used in refri gera tion and air-condi tioning industries are shown in Fig. 12.5
under th e major categories of coils or shell·and-tube heat exchangers.
Some genera l characte ristics. such as whether the refrigerant or fluid flows
inside or outside of the tuhcs. arc also listed in Fig . 12.5 . Two types of
shell-and-tube heat exchange rs shown in the figure (namely flooded evapora-
tors and shell-a nd-tubc condensers) have the refrigerant fl owing on the shell
side . while the liq uid being cooled or hea ted flows through the inside of the
tubes. The three remaining heat excha nger types (evaporator and condenser
coils and DX evaporators ) have the re frigerant fl owing inside the tubes. It
should be noted that a shell ·and-tube heat exchanger with in· tube condensa-
tion. analogous to a DX evaporator. is not shown. The reason is that this
condenser type is not as commonly used as the othe r types listed.

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 I I
RetrtgeratiOn and Alr-Condll.lomng
Two-Phase Heal Exchangers '

I
I
I Evapofators
I Condensers I
I
Shell-aM·Tube Type Shell-ancHube
OX Evaporator COil Condenser Coil
(UQulCl Chillers) Condensers
Characteristics Characteristics : Characteristics .
• In-t ube • In-lube • Sheil-side
refrigerant now refn gerant flo w retngeJant flow
• Air flows • Air flows . l..Jquld !lows
over finned lubeS over tinned tubes through lubes

Flooded Shell-and-Tube
Evaporators OX Evaporator
Characteristics . CharacteristiCs .
• Shell-side • In-lube
refrigerant 80w refrigerant now
• uqUid !lows • liquid flows
through tubes over tubes

' Sevefal other types oj heat exchanger s are used in refngeratlOr'l and iilr-condttJon.ng
applications. However, their use in induStry IS limited compared to the lolal usage 01 the
preceding heat e:w::changers. The other heat exchanger types not COllared are plate-lin heal
exchangers and double-ptpe 0.8 .. lube-tn-lube) heal exchangers.

Fig. 12.5. Common heat exchanger types used in refrigeration and air·conditioning
applications.

Flooded evapora tors and d irect expansion (DX) evaporato rs perform

si milar functions: however. they differ in thaI one is based on she ll-side
evaporation and the other is based on in-tube evaporation. as noted previ-
OUSly. The advantages of a DX evalXlrator over a ftooded evaporator is thaI
better oil circu lation ca n be achieved inside tubes and tha t a superheated
refrigerant can be returned to the compressor. The advan tage of Hooded
evaporators is that How dist ribut ion problems on both the refrige ran t and
liquid sides are minimized .
The five types o f heat exchange rs ment ioned previously are described in
detail in this chapter because they represe nt the majo rity of hea l exc hanger
(}'pes fou nd in refrigeration and air-cond it ioni ng applications. However, the
reader should be aware t hat othe r types of heat exchange rs arc also used . but
on a more limited basis. For example. plale·fin heal exchangers and doublc-

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 12.2 HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS 641

aipe (i.e., tube-i n-tube) heat exchangers are used for some automotive
air-conditioning syste ms and low-tonnage liquid-cooling and heating systems,
re~pectivcly.
Nearly all of the tubing used in refrigeration and air-condition ing applica-
tions is round tubing made from copper or al um inum. Th e exception to the
use of round tubing is oval tubing. which is used in some coils man ufaclUred
for automotive applications. In addition, the exception to the use of coppe r
or aluminum tubing is when the refrigerant is ammon ia, in which case caroon
steel tubing is ge ne rally used. A lso. stee l tubing is used in refrige rator
applications for the condenser.

12.2 HEAT EXCHANGE~ ANALYSIS

12.2.1 General Equations

Heat exchangers for refrigeration and a ir-conditioning applications can be
analyzed and designed by ge neral techniques that are used in single-phase
applications and in o ther two-phase applicat io ns such as powe r plant s and
chemical processing. Specifically, thc energy equations and the methods used
10 solve them are similar fo r thcse different applications. The major differ-
ences between these different applications a re in the corre lations used and in
the types of heat tra nsfer enhancement installed. The correlations used to
describe evaporation and condensat ion of refrigerants a rc often different
from ot he r ftuids in that they a rc derived from a refrigeran t database. Also.
the methods of en hancing heat transfe r reflect in some cases specia l req uire-
ments for refrigeration systcms, such as low pressure drops. Other differ-
ences also exist. Much of this chapte r deals with the presentation of methods
for quantifying the effects tha t arc different for re fri geration and air condi-
tioning. Howeve r, this sectio n is an overview of general heat exchanger
analysis and design tech niques along with special considerat ions requi red for
refrigeration and air-conditioning applica tio ns.
Two possible approaches arc used fo r analyzing heal exchange rs. The fi rst
approach is a lumped analysis, in which the heat exchanger is analyzed as a
single control volume with two inlets an d two o utlels. The second approach is
a loca l analysis_ in which the heat exchanger is divided into segme nts or
multiple control volu mes, with the outlet of one control volume being the
inlet to an adjacent control volume, and vice versa. In the local analysis
approach , the heat transfer ra te for the hea t exchange r is obtained by
integrating the local values. The first approach is more common and simple r,
and it often times provides reasonably accurate resulls. Efforts to develop
computer models based on the second approach a rc ongoing; however, most
of this work is proprietary because o f the compe titive nature of refrigeration
and air-conditioning indust ries. T o date, no widely used computer models

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642 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

based on the local approach are available in the public domain, even for a
specific type of heat excha nger, such as those listed in Fig. 12.5.
For bot h of the heat excha nger analysis approaches, lumped a nd local, the
basic working equation is the re lationship for calculating the overall heat
transfe r coeftic ie nt. This equation ca n be derived by treat ing the heat fl ow
path between the twO fluid s (e.g., refri gera nt and air or water) as a se ries of
thermal resista nces. The following thermal resistances a re applicable to most
refrigeratio n and air·condilioning heat exchanger!>:

R, - convection inside the tube

h,A p,

R, - inside deposit
h d,A p,

t,
R"J = - -- tu be wall
A p",kp

contact between fin and tube wall

outside deposit

Rb = (see discussion) fin

convection outside the tube

The subscripts on the areas, A , represent only the outside area of the tube in
the case of " po" and the to tal area including fins in the case of "0." The final
ove rall heat transfe r coefficient, which is obtained by combining the rmal
resistances and is based on the outside area, is

u, - A. A "tp ~ A" A"

+ - -- + +- + + +
~)
Ap,h, A p", k p h" A p, h d , li d" heA p"
h n( ; ; +

( 12.1)

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•• XT
 12.2 HEATEXCHANGERANAlY$I$ 643

For clea n tube surfaces, the va lues of h d' and li d/> for the inside and
outside deposits, respectively, arproach 00, signifyin g negligible thennal resis-
tance. It is important to notc th ill refrigera nt s are no rmally free of cont ami-
nants, and therefore the deposit thermal resistance on the refrige ran t side is
O. In addition, the walls of tullcs are quit e ofte n made of high thermal
conductivit y metals. such as coppe r and aluminum, and as a resuit, the
,hermal resistance for th e tube wall . H.l ' is neg:igible. The exceptions arc
when earbon stee l tubin g is used for those applications described previously.
As was noted at the beginnin ~ uf this sectiun, much uf this chapter is
devoted to showin g the designer how to calculate various parameters in the
preceding equation. Because he,ll exchange r types differ, there may be
several ways to calcul atc each parameter.
The differenti al hea t transfer r,l tc can be defin ed for three differential
control volumes defined on th e rcirigc rant side. the non refrigerant fluid side.
and in the wall - fluid inte rface region. respectively, as follows:

/jQ, """ III , Iii, (12.2)

( 12.3)

6Q E U. , dA " H ( 12.4)

where Il.T is the loca l temperatu re difference belwee n the refrigerant and
fluid . Th ese heat transfe r rates arc equ al for sleady stale when hea t losses
from the hea t exchange r to the surround ings are negligible.
It is important to note that the form of the energy equation presented
previously assumes th at the nonrcfrigerant fluid is both single phase and
single componen t. such as air or water. Huweve r, for cooli ng air in evapora-
lor coils. watcr vapor is frcque nl ly condensed out so that ei ther a wet fi lm o r
fros t layer builds up on the air-!)ide surface. In Ih is case, Eq. (1 2.3 ) is
modified to include the othe r phase. and this equ ation is written in terms of
enth alpies instead of temperatures.
The diffe rence be twee n the lumped and local approaches depe nd s on how
the preceding heal transfe r equ ations arc solved. For the lumped analysis,
these equations are solved by trea ting the heat excha nger as a single control
volume characterized by ave rage properties and parameters (e.g. , heat trans-
fer coe ffi cients. temperatures. quali ty. etc.) with the boundaries being the
inlets and outlets to the heat exchange r. For the local analysis, the eq uations
arc solved over increme ntal hea l excha nger lengths from one end of the heat
exchange r to the other end . The heat transfer rales for each increment are
then integrated over the hea t exchanger to obtain the total heat transfeT .
Both approaches arc described in the following seclions.

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644 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

12.2.2 Lumped Heat Exchanger Analysis Approach

The lumped analysis approach is based on the assumption that the heat
exchanger can be defined by average characteristics. th at is, properties and
parame te rs. As a result, the preceding heat transfer equ ations can be
integrated over the length of the heat exchanger as follows:

Q,= m,{i, - i , )
" - ( 12.5)

( 12.6)

(12.7)

The average tempe rature difference can be defined as the log-mean tempera·
ture difference. provid ing th e refrigerant is two phase over the le ngth of the
heat exchanger and the othe r fluid is single phase. The log-mean tempe rature
difference is

tJ.T, - ilT]
( 12 .8 )
In(tJ.T1/ilT2 )

whe re tlTI a nd ilT2 are the differences in tempe ra ture for the refrigerant
and the fluid at adjace nt positions. For example, for a counterflow heat
exc hange r (see Fig. 12.3 a) the refrige rant inlet is adjacent to the out le t of the
Huid. while for a parallel·flow heat excha nger (sec Fig. 12.3b) both inle ts a nd
exits are adjacent to each other.
The complicating factor in refrigeration and air-condition ing hea t ex-
changers, is that the refrigerant is not two phase over all its le ngth . For
exampl e, evaporators (except fl ooded evaporators) operale with superheated
outlets. while condensers have superheated inlets. In addition, most con·
de nsers operate with liquid subcoolin g at the ou tle t.
Because of the existence of a two-phase region and multiple single-phase
regions. the assumption of constant specific heat that is used to derive the
log-mean te mperature difference is violated. In!'oight imo the e rrors in the
heat exchanger a nalysis resulting from basing :l"'1 a nd tl T2 on the refrige r'
ant inle t and outlet temperatures can be ga ined by observing the evapora tor
and condenser te mperalUre profile s presented earlier in Figs. 12.3 and 12.4.
For e xample, if the superheating at the evapora to r outlet is large, then AT2
can approach O. This can significa ntly reduce the average temperature
diffe rence (i.e .. log-mean temperature diffe rence) calculated from Eq. (J2.8).
One can easily observe from Fig. 12.3 that the average te mperature differ·
ence is actually much highe r, heing influenced much more by the tempera-
ture difference in the two·phase region than by the supe rhea t region at the
exit. For the case of the condenser in Fig. 12.4. the superheat region at the
inlet results in a n overestimation of the ave rage temperature difference a nd,

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 122 HEAT EXCHANGER ANAlYSIS 645

hence, an overestimation of the rat e of heat transfer. However, th e te mpe ra-

ture differcn..:e at the subcoolcd exit offsets some of this overestimation_
Because of the complicating faclOrs described previously, Ille lumped
analysis of refrigeration and air-conditioning heat exchangers can be ap-
proached in two ways: (I) The two-phase region determines the c haracte:-is-
tics (including tempe rature differences) of tlle whole heat exchange r, or (2)
the heat exchanger is divided into ~i ngle-phase and two-phase regions that
are a n al)~Led se parately. The basis fo r the first option is that the superheated
region. whether at the inlet of a co nd e n ~r or the exit of an evaporator.
makes up a smalle r percen tage compared to the two-phase region of the total
heat tra nsfer in a refrigeration-type heat exchanger.
For the firs t approach , th e refrigerant temperatures used in the calcu la-
tion of the log-mean temperature difference in Eq. (12.1'1) are the re£rigerant
saturat ion te mperatures closest to the inlet or exit. This guideline allows for
pressure drops varying the saturation te mperatures through the heat ex-
changer. These sa turation temperatures can be calculated from a combina-
tion of pressures and pressure drops or from the amount of superheating and
sulx;ooling. It shou ld be noted that the assumption of the two-phase region
detc rmining thc ave rage characte ristics alfecls the calcu lated log-mean tem-
perature diffe rence; he nce the calculated heat transfer rate is higher than
act ual for evaporators and lower than actual for condensers. In addition, the
calcu lated overall heat transfe r cocllicie nts may be slight ly higher than act ual
ones. However, since the refrigerant-side thermal resistance is o nly part of
the ove rall heat transfe r coe fficient. this effect is secondary compared to the
effect on temperature diffe re nces.
The second approach accounts tor heat transfer in the single-phase
regions by separating the heat exchange r into a si ngle-phase region and a
two-phase region. The two-phase region is treated as it was before; however.
only the heat exchanger surface area thai corresponds to the two-ph ase
region is used in th e calcula tion. The heat transfer in the s ingle phase,
whether superheated o r subcooled, IS calculated by treating it as a separa te
region with its own surface area. log-mea n temperature difference, and
ove rall he at transfer coefficient. Thi s approach may be difficult to implement.
depending on the heat exchanger type (e.g. , coil, shell and tube , etc.), fl ow
arrangement (e.g., parallel flow, counte rHow, elc.), and tube configuration. A
specific problem may be the diOicu lty in associat ing nonrefrige rant fl uid
temperatures with the refrigerant -side two-phase and single-phase !low re-
gions of the heat exchanger. This association is necessary for calc ulating the
log-mea n temperature difference for each region. An iteration procedure
may also be required fo r the heal exc hanger calculation depending on the
conditions that are known to a designer or analyzer.
It should be noted that the log-mean temperature difference is often
multiplied by a corrective fa ctor, F, to account for the fact th at a counterflow
heal exchanger assumption is used to derive the log-mean te mperature
difference. In reality, few refrigeration and air-conditioning heat exchange rs

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646 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

arc strictly counterflow. However, for two-phase flow heat exchangers where
the heat capaci ty approaches <Xl, resulting in a constant temperature, this
correction factor is I. Complications can arise when the temperature of the
two-phase refrigerant changes because of pressure drops or when single-phase
regions arc ana lyzed se parately from the two-phase region as described in the
second approach.

12.2.3 Local Heat Transfer Integration Approach

As mentioned previously, the local approach is based on dividing the heat
exchanger into control volume cleme nts and the n solving the governing
differential heat transfer equations for these clements. Depending on the
type of evaporator or r..:ondcnsc r, these con trOl volume elements can be whole
tube rows, an approach used in the past with flooded evaporators, or tube
length increment s, an approach used in the pa~t with coi ls. Typically. the
solution is marched through the hea t exchanger by starting from an element
where tempe ratures and other fluid properties arc known. However, the heat
exchanger configuration is ofte n such that conditions (e.g., temperature) for
one of the two fluid s arc unknown at the startin g element. In this case, a fluid
condition is assumed at the starting elements. If the fl uid conditions arc given
at the last clement, then the known and calcu latc.d conditions arc compa red
after the solut ion is complete to ve rify the accuracy of the assumed condi -
tions at the starting elements. The total heat tra nsfer rate for the heat
exchanger is calculated by integrating the increme ntal heat transfer rates
over the heat exchanger.
The three energy equat ions [Eqs. (12.2) to ( 12.4)J can be written in a
variety of ways since the equation form is dependen t on how the con trol
vol ume element is defined (e.g .. boundaries) lind on the methu<J used to
identify the elemen! (e.g .. grid system). Therefore the governi ng equat ions
for the local ana lysis approach are not presenteJ herein as they were for the
lumped analysis approach. However, two consiJe rations arc important for
the thi rd energy equation, containing the overall heal transfer coe ffi cient and
the tempera ture difference between the two Iluids. First. because local
conditions are calcula ted for each clement, it is possible to consider the
effects of temperature-dependent properties and refrigerant quality on evap-
ora tion and condensation heat transfer coefficien ts. As a result, the overall
heat tra nsfer cocfficienl varies for each c lement. The second consideration
deals with Ihe method of defining the temperature difference that drives heat
transfer through the tube wall. If thc control vol ume elements are small
enough, then the drivi ng temperature difference can be based on simple
ari thmetic average temperatures on each side rather than log-mean tempera-
ture differences.
Several heat exchanger models based on the loca l analysis approach have
been reported in the open lit erature for refrigeration and air-conditioning
applications. For example, Webb, Choi, and Apparao [I) reported a model of

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a flooded refrige rant evaporator ..... here each tube ro ..... was treated as a
control volume clement. Payva r (2l used a similar approach in a fu ll -bundle
submerged boile r, which closely r c~cmbles a fl ooded evaporator. An evapora-
tor and condense r coil model based on a local analysis approach was
reponed by Hu ang and Pate (3). In this latter study, control volume ele ments
consisted of tube le ngth increment~ . For example. in one case they d ivided a
3-m long tube in a coil into 28 increments.

12.3 EVAPORATOR COILS

12.3.1 Description and Special Considerations

Evaporator coi ls consist of plate -finned tubes wit h refrigerant flowing on the
inside of the tubes and aiT fl owing over the outer tube surface. A simplified
ske tch of a coi l consistin g of plat e fin .~ and round tubes is shown in Fig. 12.6.
Evaporator coils are used for many applications that re quire a wide range of
configura tio ns and siles. These siles and configurations also vaT)' from
manufacturc r to manUf:lctuTc r ev('n for the same application. For exam ple,
the capacity of evapora tor coils can be quite small- fract io ns of a to n- whe n
used for sma ll refrigerator applica tio ns. o r quite la rge- hundreds of
tons-when used wi th large bui ldi ng air-condi tio ning systems. Different
applications can a lso result in diffe re nt methods of moving ai r through the

- Air Flow

PassIVe Side

Relngeranl In

Refngeranl Oul

,
ria. 12.6. Typical plate-tinned-lube heal exchanger including end \'iews of Ihe aClive
and p35Sive sides_

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coil; forced circulation is used in most cases, but natural circulation is also
used.
Evaporator coils use round tubes for the most part; however, rectangular
and oval tubes are used for special applications. Typical tube sizes represent-
ing a wide range of applications arc outside diameters of 5/16.3/8. 1/2.
5/8,3/4, and I in . 0.9. 9.5. 12.7. 15.9. 19.1, and 25.4 mm). The tubes are
arranged either in staggered arrangements, forming equilateral triangles, or
in line arrangements, forming rectangles. The former is the prefe rred method.
The spacing of tubes ranges from 0.6 to 2.5 in. (16 to 64 mm).
The tubes arc finned in a continuous manner by using Aat plates installed
with typical densities of 41014 fins per inch (J.S to 6.4 mm apart). The lower
values of fin density (e.g .• fewer than 10 fins per inch) are used in low-tem-
perature applications such as refrigeration, where frosting and thus channel
blockage may occur. The higher fin densities arc used in higher-temperature
applications such as air conditioning, where the water vapor in the air stream
is removed by moisture condensation rather than frosting. Considerations
other than frosting and moisture accumulation to be used when fin spacing is
decided are frictional pressure drop and coil contamination due to lint. dust,
and so on. The thickness of the plates that are used to form the fins range
from 0.004 to 0.017 in. (0.09 to 0.42 mm). Note that thinner fins produce less
gripping of the fin to the tube and, therefore, less surface contact area for
heat transfer.
Evaporator coils consist of multipath tubing arranged in a serpentine
fashion running perpendicular to the air flow. Because of the wide range of
applications for coils and the practices used by manufacturers, an unlimited
number of refrigerant circuit arrangements exist. Some rules for configuring
coils have been suggested by Hogan [41. For example, an active side of the
coil should contain soldered connections and the inlet and outlet tubes, while
a passive side should contain only tube bends. (An example of a passive and
active side was shown earlier in Fig. 12.6.) Tubes should be arranged in
staggered rows to form equilateral triangles. Parallel-flow paths should be
arranged to form regions of symmetry in the heat exchanger. This is impor-
tant for maintaining relatively constant temperature differences in the coil
that in turn prevent uneven heat transfer rates. Hogan also suggests that the
heat exchanger should be divisible into unique subheat exchangers. which
contain equal refrigerant flow rates, and that each must end at a faee
other than the one where it starts. An example of a tube circuit that satisfies
the previous rules, as well as a circuit that violates the rules, is shown in
Fig. 12.7 [4[.
The inlet to the evaporator coil can be from a capillary tube in the case of
small refrigeration systems (jess than a ton), short tube restricters, orifices, or
thermostatic expansion valves. The capillary tube is low cost and most
applicable when the evaporator operates over a limited range of design
conditions. Most room and window air conditioners, household refrigerators,

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 FiK. 12.7. E.!I;amplc~ of aCl,:eptablc and
unacceptable tube ci rcuits for plate·
~a) Acceptable (b) Unacceptable finned · tube heat cxehangc~ [41.

and freezers operate with capill ary tubes. Thermostatic expansion val ues
have the advantage of be ing ahlc to control the exit superheat of the
evaporator by COni rolling the How rate through it. Typically. the thermosta tic
expansion valve controls the superhea t at the evaporator exit to 6 to 12QF (3.3
to 6.7°C). It is used with larger refrige ration and air'conditioning systems.
Larger coils supplied by the rmostat ic expansion valves have multiple
ci rcuits within the same coil. A dist ributor is placed between the expansion
valve and coil for the purpose of supplying equal amounts o f refrigera nt to
each circu it. These distributors consist of small·diameter tubes of equal size
and length to ensure eq ual flow restriction for the saturated mixture of vapor
and liquid rcfrigeranl passing through the distributor.
Since evaporator coi ls freq uently ope rate before the dew-poin t tempera-
ture of the air. moisture collects amI drains from the coil. To collect the
moisture that drains from the coil. a pan should be located at the bottum of
the coi l wi th the drain connection located on the downstream side of the coi l.
for large coil s scvera l pan s in the vertical plane may be required. Excc)'sivc
air velocities that might entrain the moisture and carry it downstream into
the ductwork should be avoided. Therefore design air velocities should b~ in
the range of 400 to 500 fpm (2 to :2 m/s) to prevent condensate ca rry·over.
Beca use of the diversity of evaporator coils. it would be impossihlc to
describe a single coil to represent all applicat ions; however. an evaporator
coil showing some of the basic elements-tuhes, plates. and distrihution
device - is shown in Fig. 12.8.
The information on evaporator coi l design presented in the followin g
sections deals primarily with methods for calcu lating the thermal resistances
that exist in the heat now path betwee n the refrigerant and air. Thc)'c! ,He
necessary for determining the overiJlI heat transfer coefficient hy usin g Eq.
(12. 1). The the rmal resistances discussed here arc associated wi th the in-tuhe
heat transfer coe mcients. fin bonding to the tube. and air-side heat transfe r
coefficien ts. An additional thermal resistance that mayor may not exist is

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 650 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

____ 1
1 J I_ _ _ _ _

Fig. 12.8. Typical evaporator coil with expansion device and distributOL

associated with layers of frost and films of water that condense out of the
air-flow stream_

12.3.2 In-Tube Refrigerant Evaporation Heat Transfer

The in-tube evaporation heat transfer coefficient must be calculated before
one determines the overall heat transfer coefficient. Prior to selecting a

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correlation for usc. the designer must consider several characte rist ics of the
evaporator that alfect heat transler:

I. Evapora tor tuhes arc horizont al.

2. Retu rn bends are 'J(.t i<l batic beca use they are located outsi de the
air-flow strea m.
J . T he refrigerant covers the fu ll range of boi ling mechan isms includi ng
nucleate boiling at low quali ties and convective boiling at high quali ties.
4. Common refrige ran ts arc R- l l. R- 12. R-n. R- 123. R-134a. R-502. and
ammonta.
5. Both smoot h and enhanccJ tubes are used.
6. Luhricants <Ire mixed in small conce ntrat ions wi th refrigerants in t he
cvapuriltor.

Seve ral correlations for loca l evaporation hea t t ransfer in smooth. ho rizon-
tal tubes arc prese nt ed here . These correlations have been ve rified for most
of the (."Ommun refrige rants; in fact, a wide r;mge of refrigeran t da ta was used
in the origi nal derivat ion. These L·orrclat io ns arc by Shah [5, 61. Kandli kar 17).
and Gungor and W in te rton [I'] fo r pu re refrige ran ts. Resul ts fo r
rcfrigem nt- luhrican t fixt ures ;lre also presen ted here. wh ile in-t ube evapora-
tion heat transfer for enhanced tube .~ is presented in a se parate section.
Sin(·c heilt trilnskr datil for e nhanced tubes afe usually referenced to
smooth-tube heat transfer. the corre la tions prese nt ed he re arc also ind irect ly
applicablc 10 en hanced tubes.

Single-Phase Heat Transfer Si nce the exit of an evapora tor coil is supe r-
heated vapor. single-phase heat transfer correlations arc also requ ired for
design calculations. Two single-phase wrrelations that have bee n extensively
verilied with experimenta l data for refrige rants are those by Dittus and
Boelter ( McAd ams [9J) and lly r ctukhov and Popov [10). Because of their
wm mon usage. they arc not presented here in equation fo rm. However, in
the author's experience with several different refrigerants. incl udi ng R-12,
R-22. and R-1 13. the r ctukhov - Popov equation is slightly marc accurate,
predicti ng expe ri menta l data to wi thi n 5% . Howeve r. the Ditt us- Boelter
equation rout inely predict s the ~a mc data bank to with in 10% .

Evaporation Heat Transfer for Pure Refrigerants In 19H2. Shah devel -

oped a correlation equation from an earlier chart-based correla tion IS. 6).
This corrc lat ion is appllc,lble tll nucleate. convection. and stratificd boiling
region.~ as evidenced by i ts functional relationship with scver:J 1 nond imen-
sianal nu mbers including the boiling number. Froude number. and convec-
tion nu mbe r. As expected, at low qual ities, nucleate boili ng domi nates, while

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a t high Qu ali ties, convection dominates. For huril.ontal How, Shah's corre ia·
tion is

( 12.9 )

where " , is the all-liquid convectiu n heal l ran~fc r coefficie nt which can be
calculated from corre lat ions presen ted in C hapter 3. The te rm '" is eval ua ted
by the fo llowin g proced ure:

( 12. 111)

( 12.11)

For N > I:

"'lib - BO lJo lI~ /Jo > 3.tl x IU -~ ( 12.12)

- 1 + 46 Bou .~ Bu < 30 X 10 -$ ( 12. 13 )

For 0.1 < N s 1.0:

( 12. 14)

For N s 0.1:

The va lue of '" is the la rge r o f "'"" and " 'nh or 'it",.
The cunsta nt E in t he precedi ng c){ press i un~ J e pcnds on the boi ling
numbe r, Bo:

I:' - 14 .7 Bo ~ II X III ~ ( 12. 1.)

E _ 15.4J /Jo < II X 10 4 ( 12 . 17 )

which ca n be calcula ted as

( 12 18)

The convect ion. Co. and Froude numhcr. Fr . also used in the preced ing

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 12.3 EVAPORATOf'I COILS 653

expressions. can be calculated as follows:

. (I -X)"'(P,),
Lo - - , ·,
, p,
( t 2.IY)

,"d
(12 .20 )

The preced ing equ atiun~ pn:~ellh: d f(lr the Shah currelation h.. vc heen
used extensively for refrigerants ~u c h a~ H- II , R- 12, and H.-H. Fur these
th ree rcfrigefant:-.. Shah re ports mcall deviation$ of 2Y-;' when cIlmparing th.:
correlation with expe rimen tal da ta. r he correlation pru~cd by K:lIldtlkar
17]alsl.l co nsidcrs nucleatc , convecliwl. and ~ tratiti cd hoiling flow . It i..

( 12 .21)

where if C" < 0.65 then

c~ - n.7

c~ = IU

and if C" > 0.65 then

- II .::! c~ = 0 .3

and h, is a liquid.-unly convective he;. 1 tr;lI1 ~rc r codlkknt ha~cd on a f.lrm Ilf
Ihe Dittus-Boe lt er equation,

(i(1 - .t")V)" !l Jl':'~ J.:. I

", ~ o.tln ( - (12 .22)
", 0
and possible effects of now stratifkat lon in the horizonta l flow ,He t.. ken into
account by the Froudc number. I-r. Thc coefficien ts V I through V " arc
defined in Kandt ikar t7\. Of all the in·tube evaporation currel .. ti(ln ~. this
correla tio n is the easiesl to usc . In dddition. il is Ihe aulhor's expe rience. un

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654 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

the basis of numerous comparisons with experim e ntal data, that this correla-
tion is rel iable.
The correlation of Gungor and Winterton [xl was derived from a large
database that induded halocarbon rdrigcriln \~ such as R-I L R-12, R-22,
R-I [3, and R-I 14. T he hasle form of the correl ;ll iun is

( 12 .23)

where the all-liquid convection heat transfer codlicient. h i' was defined III
Eq. (12.221. The othee pam me tee< ,.ce an cnh",,,"emen! factm. 0',

l:" = 1 + 2.4 X 10 4Soi I~ + 1. 37 - 1 ) """ ( 12.24)

f\ X II
a suppression factor, S, is given as

( 12.25)

and a pnol boiling term, "pt.,I' is given as

Also present in these e quations is the we ll -known Martinelli parameter, X".

x" ~ ( ~)"';("PI' )''' ' I iJ."')'"

.t
( 12.26)
x

The Martinelli parameter is sintilar to the convection number, Co, used in

the Shah and Kandlikar correlation except tha t the vapor viscosity dTccts arc
a lso considered.
For low froude numhcr ilow in horiwntal tuhcs, Fr < 0.05, Gungor and
Winterton recommend multiplying t: and S hy the fo llowing factors:

( 12.27 )

S1 = ~I Fr ( 12.2H)

Local heat transfer coellkients for the thTel' n )Trelalions presented before
ilre com parcd in Fig, 12,9. This comparison is lor !rl-tube flow of R-134a, an
alternative refrigerant with an HFC designatiull. which docs not affect the
ozonc layer <I S do the CFC refrigerant s such iI~ R-12. The quality r<lngc III
Fig. 12.9 is from 0% to 95% , which covers most of the conditions present in

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 12.3 EVAPORATOR COILS 655

Evaporation
local Heat Transler Coetlicien\
Mass Flux , 100 kg / (m 2 s)
4 - Temperalure. - 5°C -
Tube Diameler . 8.26 mm
Tube length . 5 m
Heat Flux . 1\ I kW / m~

E 3 -
•
~o ------ -------------------- -, ........ .
" 2 ,, __ _ ....
""".""-.
;-
--- ---
y R134a
- legend
- - Shah {1982)
•••••• Kandlikar (1987)
---Gungor and Winterton (1986)
o~~~. ~I~~~~~~~~~
0.0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 10
Quality

Fig. 12.9. L(loC<l1 eV<lporation heat t r<lnsfcr coctlit"ienls for in·tuhe flow of R-134a.

an evaporator. A typica l evaporator fl ow rate, temperature, tube diameter,

and tube length were se lected for the comparison. The Gungor- Winterton
and Shah correlations result in the highest a nd lowest heat transfer coeffi-
cients, respectively, ove r the full quality range. The results for the Kand lika r
corre lat ion are somewhe re between the ot her two correlations. Differences in
the loca l heat t ransfer correlat ions for the nucl eate and convective bo iling
regions can also be observed in Fig. 12.<1. Also apparen t is the fact that
convective boiling coeffic ients increase with quality because of higher !lnw
velocit ies.
Another comparison can be made by integrating the local heat transfer
coefficients over the tube length to tlbtai n average heat transfer coefficie nts.
The average hea t transfer coeffic i ent~ as a fu nction of flow rates are shown in
Fig. 12.10 for the same size tuhe . The relative magnitudes of the three
correlations follow closely with the l(loCal heat transfer coefficien ts thai we re
presented in Fig. 12.9 for a flow rate of ]()() kg/(m 2 . s). Considering the
uncertainties associated with two·phase flow and heat transfer, the three
correlations produce results that arc fairly close. In fact, several past stud ies
have shown that these corre lat ions can consistently predict hea t transfer
coefficients to within ±20% of experimenta l va lues [II. 12).

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656 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

Evaporation
Average Heat Transfer CoeffiCient
Quatity Change 0% to 100%
Temperature, - 5"C
Tube Diameter . 8 .26 mm
Tube Length . 5 m

R134a

Legend
- - Shah ( t 982)
•••••• Kandlikar ( 1987)
- -- Gungor an d Winterton (1986)

Mass Ftux. kg / (m < ~;:

Fig. 12.10. Average evaporation heal lrall~fer cocmclt.:l m for in-tube flow of R-134a.

Lubricant Effects on Heat Transfer The lubricant used in the compressor

circulates with the refrigerant through all wmponents that make up a
refrigeration system. including the evaporator an d condenser. The circulating
concentrat ion of lubricant mixed with refrigeran t probably varics from 0.2 %
to 10%, depending on the type of compressor (c .g .. reciprocating, rotary,
screw. or scroll) and on whether an oil separator exists. However. the actual
lubricant concentration in the cvaporator and condenser may bc higher than
thc circula ti ng concentration. This highcr concentration is the result of
high-viscosity. lubricant-rich lilms traveling alon g Ihe tube wall in an annular
flow pattern at a slow ve locity.
A detailed study of luhricant etfects on heat transfer by Schlager et al. (I L
[3, 141 showed thaI in 11 smooth tube. the hea l transfer coefficients were
higher when oil was added 10 the refrigerant. For example, heat transfer
coefficients increased by as much as 35% over pure refrigerant values as oil
concentrations were increased up to 2.5%. At hig h..:r oil concentrations. the
heat transfer coefficients hegan to decrease. wit h the value being on ly 15 %
higher than the pure refrigerant vailic at 5";'-, oil concentrations. The follow-
ing correlations can be used by the designer to account for the effects of oi l

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on smooth·tuhe evapora tion heat tra nsfer. For 150 SUS oil and R·22 (14],

(12.29)

and fur 300 SUS oi l and R·221i41.

( 12.30)

The EF in the preceding equation is a type of enhancement factor that

reflects changes in heal tran sfe r cocllicients due to the presence of oil. The
subscripts identify the heat transfer wcmcients used to calculate EF. For
example. the subscript .~ is the smoot h-tube heat transfer coefficient for the
pure refrigerant, while the prim e on the subscript s rep resents lubricant
mixed with the refrigerant. The lubrican t concentration W" is the fraction of
lubricant mixed with the refriger.ml ill the evaporator. Expe riments for R-22
showed that this value is approximately three times the concen tration of the
Rowing lu bricant-refrigerant mixtu re during evaporation . The mass flux, G',
used in the preceding equation is normalized to 300 kg/(m ~ . s).
Equat ions that account for the effects of lubricants have also been re-
ported for other refrigerants such as R-Il. Because thesc equations arc quite
complica ted and because of the phaseout of CFCs such as R.Il, they are not
presented here.

12.3.3 In-Tube Heat Transfer Augmentation

A number of techniques have hccn suggested for in·tube enhancement
during evapora tion. includi ng rough surfaces, extended su rfaces, and seve ral
swirl flow devices. Figure 12.1 t ': . hows several examples for each of thcsc
enhancement tech niques. Rough surfaces shown are helical wire inserts,
internal threads, and corrugatctJ tubes. while the twisted tape insert is
presented as a typical example of a swirl flow device. These rough surfaces
and swirl flow techniques have nut found widespread usage in refrigeratiun
applications because pressure drop en hancements have exceeded heat trans-
fer en hance men ts. Pressure drops in evaporator tubes should be kept to a
minimum because of the detrimental ctfect they have on the system coeffi-
cie nt of performance (COP).
In contrast to the preced in g two techniques. extended su rfaces have found
widespread usage in refrigeration applications. Examples of extended sur-
faces shown in Fig. 12.1 1 that have been used in refrigeration applications
arc high-profi le fins. microfins, annular offse t strip ribbon fins. and intersect-
ing fins. Of these examples of extc nded surface techniques. the microfin tube
is the most common ly used. In addition. it shows potential for even more
widespread use in the future. The micronn tube has gained in popula rity for

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 Rough Sur1ace

tmJ
HelICal Wire Insert tnt ernal Thread
.- Corrugated

mr::::2S:~:X:} TWisted Tap e Insert

Extended Sur1ace

High Profile Fins Mlcroflns

Annular Offset Stop Ribbon Fins Intersectong Fins

Fig. 12.11. Examples o f in-lube enhancement leehni4ucs for cv<tporlliing (and cnn-
dcnsing) rcfriger<tnts.

two reasons. First. it can ITlcreasc CYOJporatiotl h~ at transfer coe ffi cie nts by
factors o f 2 to 3 oyer smooth -tube values. The illl,: rease in pressure drop is
significantly less. on thc order of I to 2. Second. most enhancement tech-
niques require extra tubing mat eriill (e.g .. copped, which then raises thl! cost
of the e nh anced lube. The microfi.n lube. however. requires 1i11lc. if any.
additional tube mat erial.

BACK
BACK CONTENTS
CONUNTS .'Xl
NEXT
 12_3 EVAPORATOR COilS 659

The microfin tu tle is charactcrize.::d by having 60 to 70 fin s with he.::ighls of

0.10 10 0.20 mm and spiral ;lngles of 10 tu 3D". The shape of the fin tip ami
va lley can he ei ther flat. round. or s harp. Three different views of a Iypica l
microfin tube arc shown in Fig. 12.12. The exte nded surface enhanceme.::nt
technique closest to the microfin tubc is the high-profi le fin tube: however,
these two tubes differ greatly in the numher of fin s and th e height of the fin s.
For example , 010).1 high · profi le fin tu be). have fewer than 30 fin s ami fin
heights gre,lIer than 0.4 mm .
Performance data for eVapor;lt illrl he at transfe r arc prese nt ed here for
microfin luhes so Ihat a designer can pe rfurm hcal exchanger design calcula-
tions. The performance informat ion i.~ a lso applicahl e 10 she ll-and -moe DX
evaporato rs, which arc presented ill a lale r section .

Fi ll. 12.12. Pholngraph o f minolin tunc.

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660 EVA.PORATORS AND CONDENSERS

The pre~entat i o n of performance da ta is di . . llk d into ~eve ral areas. First.

plots of e nhance ment f<lctors. defined as th e c nhanced-tube heat transfe r
coefficient divided hy an (:quivalent-diame ter smooth tube measured at
si milar nuw conditions, arc presen ted . Th ese plots aTC for diffe ren! mierofin
tube geomet ries so that a designer can un<k r. . tand how heat exchanger
performance might possibly differ for different ( ype~ of microfin tubes. The
effcct of tube d iilmeter on the performancl: o f iI minonn tube is also
presented_ Finall y. the effect on microfin tuhc performa nce o f lubricants
mixed with refrigeran ts is covered.
A detili1cd comparison of three different mlcrol;n tube geometries for
9.52-mm (3.X in.) and l2.7-mm (] /2 in.) OD tubes with R-22 was reported oy
Schl ager ct al. [IS. 161. The tube dimension . . arc liMed in Table 12.1.
Enhancement factors. EF, for th e three geometries and two di!fere n! diame-
ter tubes are show n in Fig. 12.13 for cvaporatillil heat transfe r. The numbers
on the figure correspond to the tube numh er.~ li:-teu in Table 12. 1. In
addition. it is important to note that the curves shown arc spline fits of
several data points th at contai n experimental unce rlil intJes. Becau:-e of the
magnitude of the experim en ta l uncl!rtainties. lmc ca n conclude that the
effects of lUbe diameter and ;)Iso tubc geometrit.: . . arc minor. For example, a t
a mass nux of 250 kgj(m l . s). wh i,'h is it rcgion where the two diffe rent tube
d ia me ters overlilp, the EF for ;III the: 952-mm O/X-inJ tubes ranged from
1.6 to I.!}, while the EFs fo r the l 2.7·mm (I / Z-in.) tubes fall in a tight e r band
of 1.7 to LoS.
Figure 12.1.1 also shows that EF decrease:- a . . the mass ftux increases. A
possible reason for this behilvior may he th ai liS the Reynold:- number
increases, th e turhu1cnce induced hy the microfins is less important relative
tu the turbulen,·c level in the smooth tube . with a resulti ng deaease in th e
heat transfer augmentation due to turhulence .
The preceding evaporation perfornwnee dat;1 ea n he used by a designer in
two ways. First. if a heat exch,mgcr j .... being uc"igne<.l with e ithe r 3/8- in . o r

TABLE 11_ 1 Dime nsions or Microti.n Tuhes 11 5. 16 )

12.7-mm Tuhc.\ 9.52-mm Tubes

Smooth Microfin I Microfin 2 \1icroflll ~ ~·licrofin I Micwfin 2 \1icrotin J

iI ,,. mOl 12.7 12_7 12.7 12. 7 9.52 9.52 9.52

d, ~ •. , mm 10,1} 11.7 11.7 11.7 8.92 B.Y:! KIJ2
I. mm 0- .90 0.50 050 0.50 O.JO 0.30 0.30
f. mm 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.20 U.16 0.15

"
p. . W
,. 711 ~, flO
'" flO

A "IA , ..- l.51

15
1.33
25
I.J9 "l. !iS "I.3K
25
1.43

'" Rollio o f inside ~lLrf,,~c lUCil of the nllcrnfin luhe I" Ihe ;11>,de ilfe.' or" ~mol1lh lube h~vin~ 1he
~mc m"~'mum ms,dc l1mmch:r

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 12 7-mm lubeS
J 9 .52·mm lubes
22

20

1.6

"
' _2 Evaporation
P - 0 .5-06 MPa

G. kg (m 1 ' sl

Fig. 12. 13. Evaporation heat trim~fer ~' nh;mecment factors for thrc{' difkrcnl mi-
crolin turn:: gcometries and two dilfcrcnl diamdcn. [15, ]hl.

1/2-in . microlin tubes wil h geometrtcal parameters similar 10 those li sted in

Table 12.1, then en hancemen t facl llrs. EF. can be lake n direclly from Fig.
12.13 il l the desired mass nux. Second. ,\ designer citn extrapolate enhance-
ment fllctorS plotted fo r the d itferc llt diameter tubes to either small e r or
larger diameter tubes. Si nce EF i., o illy a weak function uf lubl:: diiunCler, an
cxtrllpolatiun tech nique should wurk ~a ti s ractorily. It i:- important to nute
that even though EF is n()t it stron g functiun of diameler, the in -tube hea t
transfer eocllil,: i;.: nt fo r thl.' microfin ([[be is a function of tube diarneh.'r. The
effect of diamete r on the rninotin tu be is accounted for when the smooth -tube
heat transfe r coeffi cien t. which v'H io..: ~ with tuhc diametc r. is multiplIed hy
EF.
Evcn thou gh thc previous stud ). alnng with severa l o th e r studies. has
compared th e ho..:at lransfer pcrfw ma nce nf seve ral different microfin tube
geometries. the re has not be e n a ~ !lJ(jy Ihal systema tica lly varied microfin
tuhe geometrical paramet e rs so th ill general correl ations could be developed.
These correlations would he extremely u:-cful to the designer in thilt one
could select those microtin tube diml.' nsluns (c.g .. spiral a ngle. tip a nd va lley
shape, number of fin s, etc,) that \.I\luld optim ize the rx:rformance of a heat
excha nge r fur a part icular ;tppJ it·il IIOIl. USIil l/. these Slime equation:-. one
could also perform hea t exchan~ l' r calculations for each of the sevcnll

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662 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

different mierofin lUbes avai lable from different manufaclUrers to determine

wh ich tube should be installed .
Of special importance for heat exchange r design with microfin tubes arc
the results of a study performed hy Schlager e t al. (17] o n a micronn tu be
geometry typical of those available from sever a l manufacturers. T his typical
microfin tube was evaluated for pure R-22 a nd for lubricant-refrigerant
mixtures fo r two diffe rent oil viscosities ( ISO SUS and 300 SUS). The
1).52-mm DjH-in .) 00 micronn tuhe used in this study had 60 fin s with
heights of 0.2 mm (O.cX)8 in.) and sp iral angle ..., of l1~o . The area increase of
the microfin tube over a n equivalent -diamet e r ~mOO lh tube was 1.5. The
results for a si ngle mass flux of :mo kg/em" . s) arc shown in Table 12.2 for
four different o il conce ntrations - namely. 0'/;. 1.25%. 2.5% . and 5%. Th e
heal transfer en hanceme nt factors. EF. shown in the table are based on
referencing the microfin tube data to smooth -tuhe da ta measured at sim ilar
cond itions. incl uding the same oil viscos ity and conce ntration.
Severill obse rvation s regilrd ing the trend~ III Tilb1e 12.2 will ilssist the
de signer. For example , e nh ancemen t factors decrease with the addition of
luhrieant to the refrigerant. In addition. en han cement factors arc not strong
functions uf oil vist;Usi ty. though they arc slightl y higher for the higher-viscos-
ity 3UO SUS oil . The designer can either usc the microtin tuhe pe rforman ce
dat a in Table 12.2 or obtai n <HJditional data from [ II, 13, 17]. A lso. a
correlation is presented in the following discussion for extend ing the e n-
hance ment factors in Tahlc 12.2 to other mass fluxes.
A genera l o ne-parame ter correlation_ namely a n en hancemen t factor as a
function of mass nux. has been reported [14\. This correlation is based o n a
best-tit c urve of enhancement factor data for ~cve ral different nticrotin tuhe
geometries as reported by several different investigators. In all cases the
refrigerant was R-22 and the outside diameter of the tu bes was :l / S in. (1).52
111m). The resu lting e mpirical expression is

(12 3 1)

TAHLE 12.2 Microfin Ttllx' Evaporation P("rformancl'" Dala for PUI"\' R-22
a nd Lubricant Mixlures al 300 kg / (m 2 • s) It 71

Oil
Olllccnlr(ltion .
Parame ter % 15f) SUS J{Kl SUS
Hcat tr(lnsfcr 0 2.05 2.05
cnhanccmcm f;lctor. EF 1.25 :: .00 1.95
2.5 1.7 l.'-XI
5.0 1.75 U~5

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 '2.3 EV~TOR COILS 663

Because this equa tion was ahle to w rrclate data from seve ral diverse stud ies,
it shou ld be s..1 tisfaetory for design in the absence of more a pplicable data.
However, Lt shuu ld be emphasill·J again that the accu racy of this correlation
is limited in thai it docs not account for the effects of ditrerenl mic rofin tube
geometries. To use the preeedinl/. cqu<ltion. one needs to know ill least one
\'alue of enhancement factm at a ~\Ve n mas... HUll. Anyone of several ditfcrcnt
enhancement factor s prese nted e;L r!ier. including those in T able 12.2, can be
used <IS <I given v<l lue in the prcvLo u ~ equa tion.
All of the preceding studies arc for R-22 on ly. The reason is that scveral
common refrige rants that arc CF(\, such as R- II and R-12. are being rapid ly
phased out because they have a destructive effect on the protectivc ozone
layer. AS:I result , no ne ..... heat exchanger design s arc expected for th ese Iwo
refrigerants. To date . the replacement refrige ran ts for R- II and R- 12. often
refe rred to as altern:ll ive refrigera nts. h,lVe not been tested with microfin
tubes. Until thi s info rmatiun is 'Lvai lab le. it is recom mended that des igners
usc the enh ancemen t factors prc'cnted previous ly when designing fo r aller-
native re fri gera nts.

12.3.4 Air-Side Heat Transfer

Most refri geration and air-eonciLt ioning air coi ls, whe ther evaporators or
w ndensers, usc ci rcular·finned tubes rather than plate-finn ed tubes. (The
exce ption is evaporators in ,LUtomntive air conditionin g.) The fin plal es used
on the air side call be OiLt o r pl,Lin ),urfaces. sta ndard ur sin e-wave corrugated
surfaces, o r louvered surfaces_ Examples of some of these fin surfaces arc
sketched in Fig. 12. 14 . The ordL; r prese nted represe nts increasing hea t
transfer performance; however. additiona lmanuf:Lcturing etfort is requ ired to
eith er deform and shape th e surface or, in the case of louvering, to cu t slits in
the surf:H.:e. It shou ld al so be noted that eve n thuugh the heiL! transfer
perfnrmance in creases. th e pre~~urc drop o n the air side. and . hence.
req uired fan power. al so inereasc' .
The discussion o f air-s ide heat tra nsfe r is organized around th e three
types of fin su rfaces. In addition . moi.\ ture huildup and frosting arc also
dise u ~~c d beca use in both CiL se), ;111 addition,LI the rmal resistance to heat
transfer result s. Additional information o n ai r-side heat transfer ca n be
fou nd in articl es by Wehh 118. 1111

Dry Colis Corre lat ion..; and / o r datiL plots fo r 'Iir·side hea t transfer in dry
coils arlO prc.~sc nt ed fo r the three Ir pcs of ,Iir-side fin ~ introduced previously.
Plain fin s havc heen studied the mO~ 1 hccau),e th ey werc the first tin type to
be used. In addition, the devcJopment uf gene ral corrcJations for plain-fin
tu bes has bee n successful bccau!'>t.· they can I1C defined by only a few
variahles. In contr<tsl. th ere arc nn genera l correlations for eit her corrugated
su rfa ces or louvered fin s. bceaU!'ol' of the large number of paramete rs re o

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664 EVAP()RATQAS AND CONDENSERS

~,~ =f]===F=!=O Plain Fin

la)

-
Au Flow
~

Wavy or Corrugated Fin

(Sloe-Wave)
Ib)

-
Air Flow

Wavy or Corrugated Fin

(Standard or Tua rl9UI3r )
)"
Fig. 12.14. Comparison of several fin plale ~ used on the air side.

Quired to define these surfaces. Several fl at or plain surfaces used in refriger·

at ion and air-cond itio ning applications a rc shown in Fig. 12.1 5.
Air-side heat tra nsfer for air·conuitiuning (,,:ui ls with plain fins has been
reported by McQuiston and Tree [2U], Rich 1 ~ 1. 22]. McQuiston [23]. and
Kays and Londo n [24J. Most of these studi es were for four-row heilt exchang-
ers with coil parameters as shown in Table 12.3. These experi mental studi es
are important because nearly all of the correlat ions ava ilable in the li le ralUre
have eithe r bee n derived directly from Ihis d.tta bank o r at least ve rified
again st it.
Several air-side heal transfer equation s for dry coil s arc presented in the
following discussion . A corre lation by McQuiston I25 J for a fo ur-row plate -
finn ed-tube heat exchange r using plain fi ns in terms of the j factor is

( 12.32)

where the Reynolds number is based on the lulle outside diameter and the

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Fig. 12. 15. Ph01<lllraph of pl,tin Wall ti n ,urfa(..:~ used in rdrigcr;ltuln and ;tir·( ondi·
tioning applica t ion:..

TABLE 12.3 Experimtntal Dala ror rour-Row ho:ul Ellchungtrs

lUsted in Chronological Order!

".
mm
Spacing.
linsjm
'.
mm S,jd Sli d
Number o f
C()il~ Reference

10.2 315 0.33 2A9 Z. If, Kays and Lo ndon [24\

17.2
lO A
3D5
157.55 1
OAO
0.16
2.22
1.69
~. 5K
1.'15 , Kays and London [24\
McQuislon

13.3 lI S-X I I (J.I S 2.39 :!.07 , and Trcc [201

R ich [21]
9.96 157- 551 0_ 15 2.2 1 255 5 McQui~lon [231

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area ralio is the ratio of the 10lal surface area to the area of a ha re lUbe
bank. Anothe r work ing equation derived by using dat a from the st udies In
Tablc 12.3 for a four-row coil i ~ hy Gray a nd Webb (26) as follows:

S )- 0 .:'01)= S un)11
.
J4- ,,_ = 0 . 14Re _ u l V( I5{' (
D ) ( 12.33)

When the previous two equations arc compa red lu th e expe rime ntal data for
some of Ihe studies shown in Table 12.3, the nns deviation is less than 10%.
For coils with other than four rows of tubcs.. different procedures are
followed depend ing on whether the number of lUbe rows is greate r than or
less than four rows. For example. the precedi ng equation for four rows is also
applicable if the number of tube rows is greater than 4. This observation was
verified by Gray a nd Webb (26) by comparing their equation results with
expe rimental data for five-row and eight-row heat exchangers. It shou ld be
noted that these dat a were not used in the original deriva tion of their
equation. When the re are less than four tube rows, Gray and Webb recom-
mend modifying their four-row equation by a factor ca lculated as follow s:

-J!:- = O.992[2.24Re - U,IJQ2 (N) _ II Ull j U.I'I07l. - N)

( 12.34)
J~ . "..... 4

where N is the number of tube rows, Figure 12.16 shows a comparison of the

Re, ' 10
7 8 9 10 25
0.012
5 6

N - lRow
" 20 30

0.011
omo ~"''''
'-
2
" J ... -q Not e Ra, 2,08Ra
.....................
0.009 ............... ...
4 ..........;-..........
~ 0.008 ................. ... ... <1"
u '...:::: ...
• 0.007 .'<i:~
~
u
• "~
~ 0.006

0.005 •0 N - 3 - Expeumental
N - 2 - Experimental
0 N - l -E xpenmental
0
0.00<>
3 , 5 7 8 9 10
Reynolds
6
Number (oG, . d < 10 ) "
Fig. 12.16. Comparison of predicted j f'lelors with <:x[Jc rimc nlal dala ror rour ·luhc
row~ or less [26).

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 1~ 3 EVAPORATOR COILS 667

preceding equil lion with experimclHill dina from Rich (22]lh<lt werc w~eJ to
originally derive Eq. (12.33).
The plain fins discu~~cd prc."illusly ca n hc modified sl ightly hy metal
stamping processes to [(Ifm wavy tin patterns. also ca lled corrugi1te(! oT ripple
tin patterns. Both sine ·wave (27, ~.s l and triangu lar-shaped [2Yj (also called
wedge-shaped) tins arc found in ,m
coils.
Several wav)' (corrugatcu <lnu ripple) tin ~ ur[ace~ used in refrigeration and
air-conditioning applications :Ire ~ hown in Fig. 12.17. lkcausc geometries
val)' slight ly from manufacturer In manufacturer, nearly all of the past studies
un wavy fins a re proprietary. In fa(.;t. there aTC onl), three reports of experi·
mental heat transfer and pressure drop data read ily available in the literature
(27-29]. The availability of correlatio ns that iteCQunt for geome tric parame-
ters is even more scarce. consisting only o f correlations by Beecher and
Fagan [2<.1J for wcdgc -~ h<lpcd tin:-. in staggered tuhe arran ge ment:-.. In the
absence of working equations. ~ome tlc~igncrs have appl ied enhancement
factors to th e plain-tin equation s p r~ scn t ed ea rlier (Eqs. (1 2..11) to {12.34)j.

Fill. 12. 17. Phnt"gr;lph of \.\ ;I\'}" (c,lrru g.lwd and ripple) lin 'lIrl;I(·C\ 1I,cd In rdrlgcr,l-
li0n and ;lir-C(lnJilinning ;Ipplica lion,

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Assuming that the faclOr is based e ither on expefte nce or actua l experiments.
it ca n provide a method of account ing fo r the incr..-=ascd h..-=at transfe r caused
by su rface a lte rations and fl ow passage disruptions. An exa mple of this
aprr0l1ch is hy Fisher and Rice [30] who used a fa ctor o f 1045 increase in heat
tra nsfer over the plain fin.
The working equation fo r wedge-shaped fin s developed by Beecher and
Fagan [29J was derived from expe riments performed o n ri pple fin s with the
following geome tric parame ters:

Fin patterns per lo ngitudinal tube row (N1,)-2 . \ and 4

Fin patte rn depths (PJ )-OA57 to 3. 175 mm
Fin spacings (WI }- 1.956. 2.388. <lIld 2.794 mm
Fin densities (for a fin thickness of 11.127 mm )- 23fl . 343, 39~, and 4HII
Transve rse lube spacing (P,)-25 .4 a nd 3 1.75 mm
Tuhe diamete r (0)- 7.94, 9.53, a nd 12.7 mm
Number of tube rows (N, )-3

For th e preceding fin geome t l)'. Beecher ,II1U F<lg,ln used coil face veloc i·
tics of 3.0 to 4.6 m/s. which correspond to maximum air velocities betwee n
the fins of 11.9 to n.fl m /s. Nusselt numhers. Nil, and Grae tz numhe rs. Oz, as
a fun ctio n of the previous parame te rs and now conditio ns were use d to
correlate the experimenta l data. This approach IS dillerent from the j-fac tor
approach used to corre la te plain fin s. Bec,lU ~e of the large number of
paramete rs, it was necessary for Beec he r and Fagan to deve lop seve ra l
diffe re nt sets of fairly complicated equations. Th(: reader is referred 10
Beec her a nd Fagan [29J fo r the detail s of the con J itiulls. wh ic h cil n be used
for design calculat io ns if the fin s and now condit io ns arc in the :lpp licahle
range.
Louvered tins can achieve a hig her heat trans fer performance tha n either
plain or W,IVY fins. The trade·ofT. however. is higher pressu re drops :lnd the
potentia l for con taminat ion by foreign matter when the fin s a rc used in diny
environments. Con ta min ation occurs as a result of slits and slots that have
sharp corners where la rge particles of foreign m,Hte r kg .. lint) can ge t
caught. Louvered fin s arc made by CUlling and then oH'setti ng strips from a
plain fin of the type described earlicr. The r e~lIl t ing surfaces differ in the
size . shape. and locat ion of the strip. including the uistance the stri p is lifteu
above the plate and whether all strips arc lifted uniformly. Louvered tins arc
<l lso known as st ri p fins. slot fins. o r offse t strip fin s. Seve r,.1 types of lo uvered
and st rip rins arc shown in Fig. 12.18. Although t he use of multiple te rminol-
ogy can become confusing, Webb [31] s ugge~ts that lifting uniformity distin·
guishes lo uvered fin s from o ffse t strip fins becau ~e in louvered fins only the
lead in g and traili ng edges arc bent.
Heat tra nsfer is c nham:ed as a resul t of thl' boundary laye r be ing dis-
rupted by the presence of relatively short slits and strips. Each time a strip is

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 12.3 EVAPORATOR COILS 669

Fig. 12.1K. Photograph of llluve rcd 'ill~ (alslI referred to as strip fins. slllt fins. and
lllhet strip fins) used in refrigeration and air-CIlndit ioning applications.

encounte red. the bou ndary layer i~ hroken up and then formed aga in. The
overall result is a thinning of the bo undary layer that results in an increase in
Ihe local heat transfer coelticienl. The houndary layer thinning also increases
the friction factor. f, which in turn increases pressure drops as the air flows
through th e coil.
Several studies evaluating the pe rformance of st rip fins have heen re-
purted in the lit erat ure 131 - 36]. For example, Hosada el al. [32J repon 60%
increases in heal transfer coefficicnt~ for louvered fins compa red to wavy fins.
However, only the study by Nakayama and XU [37J reports a predictive
correlat ion thai can he used in heat exchanger design. Th ey developed
correlations fo r j factors and friCli un factors by mudeling local variations in
heat transfe r coefficients and then obtaining average coe ffici ents for the
ent ire fi n surface.
The corre lat ion developed by N,tkayama and Xu in terms of a j factor is

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NEXT
670 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

0 ~~!~
~~~~
0 ~
0 i ~
(
A- A

F.,.
Hg.. 1Z. 19. Geometry o r an e nhanced fin 137[. - _•.6.6.--
8 -8

where

( 12.36)

The strip-fin arrangement, including tube loca t ion~. applicable to this corre-
lat io n is shown in Fig. 12.19. Figure 12.20 shows good agreement between the

005 005
o Expemnent

002
o~"'''''''''n 002
Enhanced III
0.01 001
oro
0,02 0 .005
i N 6
0,01 Enhanced I·A P. 20
0002
0 ,03
002 0005
N 2
0.01 Enhanced I-B P, 25 0002
0.02
predict!Oj 0.005
i am Plate ' N 2
I·P P, 19
) - 0 ,479 0 .002
0.005 x Re 0&44 0.005
o P, - 1 6
'" P, - 2 ,4
0,002 0002
W' 10 ' 10'
R,
Fig. 12.20. Comparison of predicted J factors with ~' ~pt: r imcnta l data [37[.

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preceding correlation and the c::xpe rimenta l data for th ree different strip-fin
surfaces and a pl'lin -fi n surface. Surface I has three strips in each enhanced
zone and two rows of tubes while surface II I has four strips an d six IUhe
rows. Su rface I is fu rther divided into two surfaces with difTerent fin pitches,
namely a fin pitch of 2.5 mm fo r I-A ami 1.9 mm for I-B. Also shown in Fig.
12.20 is the enhancement ca pabili ty of st rip-fin surfaces over pl:lin-fi n sur-
facc::s. For example, the j factor for surf,lcc 111 is 150 % higher than that of iI
plain-fin surface at a Keynolds number of IUOCI.
Other investigators have used numerical techniques to mode l heat transfe r
from louverc::d and strip ti ns. T hcse studies have provided designers with
valuable information regarding Ilow patt erns and flow phenomena [3H. 391.
Howeve r, because of the complie,tlcd nature of hea t tran sfer and flu id flows
in louvc red fm s. addit ional work I!> necessary before numerical models can be
uscd to design louve red-lin heat exchangers.

12.3.5 Wet-Coil Heat Transfer

Where the evaporator coil suria('", temperature is reduced be low the dew-
poi nt temperature of the air, wat eT is conde nsed out of the air. Under these
circumstances the air-side surf,l ee of the coil hecomes welt ed and the
evaporator coil is referred to as ,I we t coil or muist coil. The evaporator coil
now se rvcs the dual functi on of noth cooli ng and dehumidifying the air.
Depending on local alT-side temperature varia tions and on th e enteri ng
humidit y. either part or all of the coil is welted.
Bcca use of the complicaled nature of moist coils, ,I wide range of assump-
tions can be made when dcriving correlations and equat ions for analysis. As
such, the approaches used in the past diffe r from each ot hl.: r considaahly.
Some of these approaches are by Fische r and Rice [JU], Thre lke ld ]40], and
Stoecke r and Jo nes [41]. Rat he r tha n a detailed prese ntation o f equat ions,
which arc complicated and va l) cOIl"iderably depending on assumptions
maue . only 1I gene ral disc ussion (If moisture removal and dehumiditkatiun
will he presented.
T he prese nce of moisture of th e a ir-~ ide surfaces afTects heat transfer in
three ways. t-"irsl, the condensing moisture enhances convective heat transfer
from the air to the fin surfaces. Thi!> enhancement is most likely due to the
mOisture layer creati ng an uneven (Ir rough surface on the smooth fin ~ urfa e e.
Two similar equ:tlions ilvai i;lhle in the literature that account for this heal
transfe r enhancement arc [42] :

(12 .37)

and [43]:
( 12 .38)

Second , the prese nce of a wat e r laye r o n the fi n su rface adds another
thermal resistance to the heat tf,ln sfCT pa th. The the rmal conductivity and

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672 €VAPORATOFtS AND CONO€NSERS

thickness of the water layer ca n be used to approximate this resistance. How

(his resistance gets incorporated into the hea l no .... path va ries from study to
study. For example, one approach by Thrclkch.l 1401 uses the water thermal
conductivity and the film thickness to modify Ihe air·side heat transfer
coe ffi cient. The water fi lm thickness may be diffit'u h to determine. However.
since the thermal resistance due to the wate r lilm is small. errors in the
estimate may have only a minor e ffect on that transfer calculatio n.
Third, beca use heal t ransfer also occurs as a result o f moisture migration
and subsequent condensation on the coil su rface. the water vapur concen tra ·
tion is also a driving potential fo r heat t ra nsfer. As. with othe r phenomena in
moist coi ls, a range of assumptions can be made and, hence , d iffere nt
approaches ca n be used. For exam ple, Threlkeld [401 defines the overa ll heat
transfer coefficie nt in terms of an air enthalpy differe nce rathe r than a
temperature differcnce. The mea n e nthalpy difference is calcula ted from a
log:trit hmic-mcan enthalpy difference, which is a function of a combination of
true air·stream e n thaipies and fictitiou s satura ted air-stream e nthalpies.
It should be noted Ihat if on ly part of the coil i~ wet, then it ca n oe divided
in to two parts. The wet purl ion of the coil can be analyzed by accou nting for
the phcnomenon describcd previou sly, while the dry port ion can be analyzed
oy using conventiona l approaches.

12.3.6 Frosted-Coli Heat Transfer

If the air·side surface temperature of an evaporator coil is be low the fr eezing
poinl of wate r. the n the potential for air-side fro!-> tmg exists. The buildup uf
frost lowcrs the capacity of the evaporator oy adding an eXIra thermal
resistance due to conduction through the frOM layer. Since the air· Ho .....
channel area hctween the fin s is reduce d, th e flow of air th rough the coil is
restricted. In IUrn, the ai r·side convection coefficient is lowered, the pressu re
drop through the coil increases, or both. Coi l frosting is a transient phe-
nome non in that frost hui lds up until a defrosting mechan ism is initiat ed.
Kondepudi and O 'Neall44] have performed a detailed sea rc h and eva lua·
tion of the lite rature dealing with frosting of air coils. Th ey made seve ral
observa tions:

J. The air-side heat tra nsfer coefficien t inert:::'t.,e!) during initial frosting
beca use of increased surface roughness. Howeve r, an increase in the
th e rmal resistance of the frost layer soon off\cts the surface roughness
effect , a nd the overall heat transfer coefficient decreases.
2. The frost buildup is more severe ncar t he fmnt f:lce .
3. A wide r fin sp.u.:ing is better than iI niltrow fin spaci ng for heat t ransfer
performance during frosting . Coils with variable lin spaci ngs. with the
fin spacing increasing downstream, arc nest.
4. The fin clfi ciency increases initially wi th frost growth because of a more
uniform temperature distrihution over the tin . A constant va lue is then
appro:lChed.

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 12 J. EVIIJ>ORATOR COILS 67 3

Because of thl: lack of co rrelatIOns o r even raw dat a in till': npcn In..:r;Itm<:
dealing with the frosting of air coil s, a designer is often forced III u~ simp!..:
geometries, such as cyl inders and plates . One of the few corre lations avai l-
able in the lite rature fo r frost bui ldup is by O'Neal [45J. For Re < 15,900, the
frost growth in millimete rs is

( 12.39)

while for Re > 15.9OCJ it is

( 12.40 )

The preceding correlatio n can be u!>ed by a designer to approximat e the

thickness of the frost laye r as a fun ctio n of time. The added thermal
resistimce due to conduction heilt tra nsfer through the frost laye r. or changes
in air-now rate heca use of channel restrictions, can the n bc calculated.
As me ntioned previously, frostlfl!,t a lso affects the air-side hea t transfer
cocltkicnt because the initial fro st formation increa ses roughening of the
fin-plllle surface . Expe ri me nw l studies have shown that this increase can last
(or seve ra l minutes until othe r factors, such as flow restrictions. cause th e
heat transfer coellici e nt to deerca~c . A study hy O'Nea l [45 J for parallel
plates with frost initiation showe d thilt a corre lat io n similar to the well -known
Dittus - Boelter equation wi th the coefficie nt changed from 0.023 to 0.034
can correlate experimental data . Thc~e results suggest that in the ahsence of
additiun,,1 dilt" ur currcliltion. a pussible approach for iI designer is to
increase a frostl css air-side he,ll transfer coefficient hy it fattor of 1.5, or
50%, to account for surface rou ghe nin!,t during frost initiatiun .

12.3.7 Fin Bonding and Thermal Contact Resistance

In air-cond itio ning and refrigera tion coils, plate fin s arc .,\lached to IUhes hy
expa nding the tube e ither mech a nKa lly or hydraulically into the fin collar. As
a result. a discon tinuity in the region where the plate nns attach to the round
tube surbee introduces., thcrmlll resistance in the heat pa th betwee n the air
and refrigerant. Compared to the uvera ll thermal resistance, the the rmal
cOnlact resiswnce at th is discontinuity ca n range from 5% to 50%_ This wide
range is the result of the differe nt applications (e. g., refrigerator coi ls,
:tir-conditioning coils, elC,) and dilfcrent manufacture rs who :tpply dilfercnt
tolenlllces and use diffe rent Droces,:>c~ for aHaching the plate fm to the ro uml
tubes.
Most heat excha nge r ma nufactu rers apply " rules of thumb" for the ir
p')fli(.ular coil 10 ,Iccounl for \hi~ I.:l.)nl.IC\ rc:;;i:;;\anec . Thi~ c~lima\cd ... alm:: can
he in terms of a percentage of ove rall thermal resistance (e.g., 151'10 ), or in
te rms of a thermal contact resistance o r a thermal contact conductance \e.g. ,
2000 Btu / (hr · ft 1 . OF)!. Because of the proprietary nature of coil design and

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674 EVAPORATO RS AN D CONDEN SERS

manufactu ring, there is no publishcd informat ion o n design rules for various
applications. Howeve r. for cost reasons ho me refrige ration coils ge nerally
have a higher value o f Ihermal conlact res is tilm~e than air coi ls found in
industrial air-conditioning systems.
One of the few general correl atio ns avai lable in the litera ture wh ich do
not require infonnation regarding the manufacturing process was developed
by W<XKi el al. [46J by using a procedure proposed by Eckels (47J and
experimental data from 31 coils. The resulting equa tion in terms of con tact
conductance , hr' which is the reciprocal of therma l WntilCI resista nce. is

,, ~- exp(a + bx j ( 12.41)

whe re a ~ 7.247, b - 3861.1X1. and the va lue of .I is

(12.42)
(, - 1)' OD
'"
The uni ts of " r arc Btu / (hr . fl 2 . oF).
Using the same data han k from 31 coils. Wood CI al. (46J also derived a
more general equa tion that requires knowl edge o f the tube diameter before
and after the expansion proces.... The resulting equa tio n is

d ) "" (I ' fpi) 1.2.'1 ])

" r - exp 6.1192 + 2.889 [ 1 · fpi 00 ( 12.4.1 )
(

where I is in units of inches and the luhe- to-collar in terference. 1. is defi ned

"
( 12.44 )

An indicalOr of the accuracy of ca lcu lating the thermal contaci resistance

by usi ng Eq. (12.43) can be seen in Fig. 12.2 1. In Ih is figure. about 50% of the
data points can be predicted wit hin the ± 20% limits shown . In addition. one
ca n observe in Fig. 12.2 1 that of the 31 coils tested. more than half of the
coils had thermal conductances of less than IIXKI Btu / (hr . ft 2 . oF), signify-
ing higher thermal cont act resistances.
If the equations presented previously are nut USable because ce rtain
para meters are unknown. then on thc basis of th e data ploll ed in Fig. 12.21.
a va lue of 2500 Btu /( hr . ft 2 • OF) represents an average the rmal condue·
tance wh ich ca n be used in calcu lations. It shuukl be noted agai n thai the
preced ing equations and fig ure arc for la rger air-condition ing coi ls. which are

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 12.3 EVAPORATOR CQlLS 675

•g 9000

•L 8000
7000
~~ 6000 o
u_
0
-~
u
5000
o
~.e .oro
0- o
u, 3000 o
\lin o
2000
11
[ ' 000
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 6000 9000
Measured Contact Conductance.
Blu / (hr II ~ ~Fl

Fill. 12.2 1. Compatl'i(ln of predu':1cll a nd mea ~ ure tJ contat·t conduct:,"cc [41"11.

gene rall y l1uih with tigh t c r ~·tlrl t act he twcc n th e fi n and tuhe . at leas t
compared 10 small er. lower pm:eLl (h u u ~e huld) refrige rator coils.

Exa mple 12.1. On' r a ll lIe91 Tra nsfer Cot'ffiC"ienl Calcula tiun for a n Enpora-
IClr C"iI. A c'llrulatinn i~ perlurrned [\1 \tcmon~H:tl e Ihc UM: \If Ihe e4 u:tlion ~
,l11d me thodo logy presented 111 C hapt e r 12 with c mph ,l ~i~ nn Seelion 12.3. M.I11Y
.If lhe equ;llions used in Lhl' e (,unpic ar c alStl :lPplicabic lu S..:ellun 1.!.4.
The tJime n.~ l un' or Ih...: l·Pr! and Ilu iu l't llldi l ion~. hllih rcfr i~e rant ;Hld 'Iir. ar..:
li S follows.
Th..: gco J11..:tr ie.11 p'lrarne ter, ,Ire a~ fllllow~ ;

Tube rnslltc diam e ter iJ.lIUK2fl nI

Tune (lU1S11k lti ,I(lle le r Il.!N)q~2 m
WiJlh of he,lt cxchangl' I
Numbl:T o f T<\W , ,1. :!5 m

Numha of inder~· n(tcnl c ircuit ~ 4

Ho ri zo ntal tuhl: ~paei n g U.1I222 III
Vc rtu: al tuhe ., pal·ing IUll5 III
Numhe r or lune .. ~c rt ic :l l to
alr-Ilow din!ellon 12
Numher o f tuhc .. ,dong
air flow dircc\ illil 4
Fin thlekn e:-., 1.1\1 54 x III • III
Fin plu:h S5 1.1Km
Fin surface arc,, ! I\llal
o Ubide ~ urfacl: ,He;1 il.94K
Free alr- nn .... <lfl',I / (rontal <Ire;! fJ. 54M

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 The fluid conditions are as follows:

Refri ge rant flow rate 19.3 kg/hr (per tu he path)

Refri gerant inlet tcmperature - SOC
Refrigerant inlet quality 0.1
Refri ge rant exit eoodition O"e ~lJperhe<lt
Air velocity 2 m /~
Air inlet temperature 15°C

The overall heat transfer coeffi cient equa tion . (Eq. 12. 1), can be simplified
by assum ing LI fin e fficiency, .p, of IIXI% an d by neglec ti ng the therma l
res istances associated with the tube wall and the inside and outside deposits.
The resu lting equation is

1
U" =
1
A" I I"
+- +
11 , A r",
A",";
""
The <lTea ratios in the preceding equat ion arc calcu lated as follows:

= 1') .2]
I - 0.948

and

( O.cXl952 )
19 .2J\ O.(X1826 - 22 . 16
A"a AI" A"" D,

The in-lube evapo ra tion heat transfe r coe liicient . II I' is c:J lculated from the
equal ion developed by K:mdlikar 17]. (Eq. 12.21). II should be noted that a ny of
scveral other in -tube evaporation equations r)fe.'ented in Ch;lptc r 12 could ;llso
ha vc been used. The properties for R -1J4a at - SoC arc listed in Tahle 12.7.
Several nondimensio nal numbers used in t he Kandl ikar equa tion arc calcu-
lated as follow~:
Boiling num ber:

q 7,4 kW /m 2 (kJ / ( s' kW)]

80- - - -
Gh l /( (100 kg/(m 2 ~)(202.3 kJ jkg)

B" = 3 .64 x 10 "'

C.o nvee tion number:

1 --x ) ''' ( -P, ) " 1 - U.5 .) "' ( 12 .2 'g/m' )".'

Co - ( - (
x p, 0.5 DOR kg/m,)

.. 0.0%6

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NEXT
 Froude numbe r:

11 00 kg/(m' . " I'

... 0.11721

All-liquid Reynolds numtx: r

_C.:.-(I_-_x--,I_D [100 kg / (m 1 . 5) 1(1 - O.S)(O.OOS26 m)

R~I -
301 x 10 - " Pa ' s ( ,kg', m )
s-·m-· Pa

... 1372

Thl' liquid-cnly ennveetin: ht:at transfe r coefficie nt is calculated from Eq.

(12.22) a.~ follows:

... O.023( 1372)"-"3 .QK II4 10.Q981 W /( m . K)] (O JJO~26 m)

.. 153.6 W/ (m ·l . K)

The ev,lpoTlition he;1I transfer coefficient calculated from Eq. ( 12.2 1). whe re
co n s tallt.~
C I thrnu!:h C~ we re presented earlie r a nd Fn '" I.S fm R· 134a, is

... 153.6 W/ (m ! . k)( 1. ]]6)(OJN66) " .~ + (667.2)(3 .64 x 10 ,)07( 1.3)

... 2048 W / (m :' K)

It shuu ld be nOIl':<.1 that the r-.re(eding value in t he cVilporiitinn heilt transfer

coe llicicnt is in agree me nt with the X ... 0.5 value taken from Fig. 12.9. The
o utside heat trans fer coeffic ient, II". ca n be calcula ted from Eq. (12.32) where
the prop.:rties of t he ai r arc t>aM:d nn an avcrage ai r te mperalu re through the
coil. Because this ave rage air tcmpc raLUre requi res an ite rative procedu re which
is part of the heat exc hange design problcm. t he ave rage ai r te mperatu re is
a s~ umed to be equal to Ihe in lei air te mperature for this init iill calcula tion.

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678 EVAPORATOAS AND CONDENSEAS

The j factor from Eq . (1 2.32) is

j~.WA' -
.."
0 .00 14 + 0.2618Reill .• ;, ) (
- 0.IM1l4 + O.2f-o IK
(1.I05~ k8 I m l )( 2 m/s )(O'()0952 m)
( • . )
1"'
[ 17K .6 X 10 Kg ' m/ m' . s

x (19 .23 )

- 0.00 1133

The ou tsidc he:. t transfe r coefficient can be calculated from t he J facto r as

follows:

"
- - Pr ",
pVc p

by rca rra nging

jpVc p
h" - p, !jJ - (0.001133 )( 1.1054 kg/ m 1) (2 m/s )( 1.006S kJ / (kg . K) J

- 540

The fin al va riable required to calcul;lIc the ovel:,11 heat tra ns fer coefficient is
the thermal cont;!ct resi~ t ;,ncc fllr the region "- hc rc the fins arc mechanica lly
bonded to the tube wall.
A va lue of 2500 Btu/ (hr ' ft !· of). wh ich is recomme nded in Section 12.3. is
u~cd . In SI units. t his contact condu!;:lancc i~

h r- 14.1115 W/ (m " K)

The (""c rall he .. t tran ~fe r coe lllcie nt is the n calculated as follows:

u" - -:A',-,--' --A

' .-
--+-+
Ap,h, h" hr Ap"

22 . 16 1 19 .23
~2"190CC7w::'/:"('-m:""'-'K"') + 540 W / (m 2 • K) 14 . 195 W I (m !' K)

_ 71.3 W l (m 2 . K)

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12.4 CONDENSER COILS

12.4.1 Description and Spec ia l Considerations

Conde nser coils usually consist of arrays of coppe r tubes thaI penet rate at
right angles closely stacked aluminum plal es. These plales provide a system
of con tinuous fins for en hancin g air-side hea l transfer. This approach is
simi lar to that used 10 make cVil porator coils that we re described in the
previous section. Variations on Ih i .~ arrangement ca n also be found , such as
tube circuil s consisting o f integral spiny fins on an aluminum hase that is
wrapped around the copper tube . In Ihis arrangement, there arc no thermal
hridges between tubes because the spines in one tube do not connect with
others. For plate-fi n coils. the fin s a rc usually spaced with a density of H to 18
fins per inch 0.2 to 1.4 mOl spaci ng). Typical tube diameters range from 1/ 4
10 3/4 in. 00 (6 to 20 mm). The ,advan tage of smaller-diameter tubes is that
they red uce the refrigera nt charge.
Even though air-cooled cundem..: r coils ca n be cooled by natural conwc-
tion, they arc usually in stalled with fans. Prope ller fans arc usually used if the
condenser is installed ou tdoors while ce ntrifuged fans arc used when ai r is
directed to the conde nser through a duct. Air-flow requirements vary from
6()() to l 2()() dm per ton (I.{() to 16() L/s per kW). Single-unit condense r coils
arc des igned up to severa l hund red tons. Larger-tonnage refrigera tion and
ai r-conditioning systems usc multiple con densers conneCied in para llel.
Coi l ci rcuit s arc arranged so that the superheat ed vapor ente rs the top and
the subcoulcll liquill exi ts ncar the bottom. This approach assists with oil
circulation. Eve n more importantlr. it maintain s a liquid se al at the coi l ex:i t
while using gntvi ty to aid in refrigerant (·ireulation. The a ir-si de arrangement
is such that air 110ws across the tuhes in crossflow. The ove ralltuhe ci rcuiting
is usually arranged so that the refrigerant enters on the down stream of the
air side and exi ts on the upstream of the air side. This approach produces II
type of counterflow arrangement for the air and refrigerant.
The number o f separate tube circuits and the numbe r of paSses for each
circuit arc based on having sufficient flow rale in eac h circuit to obtain
sat isfactory in-tube refrigerant heat transfer while limiting the press ure drop
of the rcfrigcranl. Refriger'lnt-sidl· pressure drops ,Ire dctrim..:ntal beca use
they decrease the lemperalure dilk renee hetween the IWO tluids. An opti-
mum coil arrangement may consist u f mulliple circuits Ihal join downstream
in the low-quality region closcr to the exit. In th is a rrangement , the maximum
number of ci rcu it:- exiSI at the superheatcd inlet. and the min imum number
of circuits exist at the su~oo l ed outlet.

12.4_2 Similarities between Condenser and Evaporator Coils

Seve ral sim ilarit ie!\ exist hetwee n evaporator coi ls and condenser coils used
in refrigeration and air-condilio nin /o! ;Ipplicalions. Th e coils are constructed

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680 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

from similar materials, namely copper tubing and aluminum plates, and
similar techniques a rc used to fasten the plates and tuhes togethe r. Sim ilar
hea t transfer enhanceme nt techniques are used for both the refri gerant
inside the tubes, namely microfi nning, and for Ihe air fl owing through the
plates attached to the outside of the tubes, namely ripple fi ns and louvered
fin s.
Because o f these similarit ies, seve ral sections prese nted during the discus-
sion of evaporator coils arc directly applicahle to condenser coils. Spedfic
sections that are applicable to condenser coi ls are the sections on air-side
heat transfer (Sectio n 12.3.4) and fi n bond in g and thermal cont act resistance
(Section 12.3,7). On the refrige rant side , discu ss io n prese nted earlier on
single-phase flow and oil circulation is also applica ble. Even t hough the sa me
microfi n tubes arc used fo r condensat ion and evaporation, the effect on heat
transfe r of microfinning is completely d ifferent.

12.4.3 In-Tube Refrigerant Condensation Heat Transfer

In -tube condensation heat transfer cocfficien ts must be calculated before one
determines the ove rall heat transfer coeffide nt:--. Seve ral correlations avail-
able in the literature have been ve rifi ed fo r u::,c with refrigeran ts. Some of
these correlations arc described in the following discussion. They arc the
corre lalion by Traviss et :11 . [48]' the correl ation by Cavall ini and Zccchi n
correla tion (49J, and the Shah correlation (SOl. For heat transfe r in the
superheated and subcoolcd regions of the condenser, the si ngle-phase corre-
lations d iscussed earlier during in-tube evaporation arc applicable.
The corre lation by Traviss et aJ. [48J was originally developed as part of an
extensive study of conde nsation o f R-12 and R-22, two refrige rants widely
used today. The corre lation was also verified successfull y by using these same
R-12 and R-22 data. This in-tube condensation equa tion was derived by
applying the momentum and heat transfe r analogy to an annular flow model.
The ve loci ty diSt ribution in the ann ular fil m was described by the von
Karman unive rsal ve locity distribution . Radi al tt.:mperature gradients in the
vapor core were neglected, and a saturation tempe rature was assumed at th e
liquid-vapor int erface. The resulting two-phase hcat transfer coe fficient is

k JPrJ Re?·91-"1
" T 1> =
( 12.45)
DF,

where the liquid Reynolds number is

G(l - x)/l
Rl'J - -- - ' - ( 12.46)

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and Ihe no ndimc nsiona l paramclcr. Fl' is

I 2.85]
"'1 - U. 15 -
[ X"
+~
X"
( 12.47)

Three fun ctio ns arc given for F!. wil h Ihe choice of which funCl ion 10 usc
in Ihe correla lio n be ing dcpcndcnI o n Ihe Reynolds number range. The Ihree
func tio ns arc

(1248)

- 5 P'1 + 5 1n[1 + P,, (O.09636 Ui,:1 .~~.~ - 1.0)1

for 50 < Rf', !> 11 25 (12.4Q)

fo r Rei> 1125 (1 2.50)

whe re Reynolds numbe r is defin ed in Eq. 0 2.46).

Th e preceding corrclaiion ha~ hce n used eXle ns ivc ly in Ihe past However,
Iwo mo rc recenl currclaliuns, dc,c ribcd neXI, arc simpic r 10 impleme nt . and
in addil ioll, Ihey have heen shown to corre late expe rime nl a l data just as we ll
I II).
Cavallini and Zecchi n ]491 deve lo pe d a se mie mpirica l eq ua l io n Iha l is
simple in fo rm and correl ates refrige ran t data Quite well. Da ta for seve ral
refrige rant s. ind ud ing R- ll . R· 12. R-2 1. R-22, R·1 13. and R·1 14, wen: use d
to de rive a nd verify Ihe correla tIon. The basic form of Ihe correlation was
deve lo ped fro m a IhcorClica l analysis si mi lar to Ihat u.s.cd hy Traviss et :I I.
I'"),
Th e wllrking equ a tio n sugge<o;te d hy Cava llini a nd Zccchin is

( 12.5 1)

whe re Ih(.' equ ivale nl Reynolds number. HeC<l' is defined by

J.l , . ( 1'1 )".

<
RI!~<l - R~' (; ; ) -;;: + Rt'l ( 12.52)

The eq u:l tion for R f'/ was pn:scIHl'l1 ea rlier in Eq. ( 12,46). ;lIld R(' v b de fin ed

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similarly as

GxD
Rf! ,. - ( 12.53)

The Cavallini- Zecchin corre lation is very si m ilar in fonn to anyone of

several single-phase turbulent corre la tions (e .g .. the well-known Dillus-
Boeller equa tion). Cavallini a nd Zecchin a lso suggest that thei r equa tion can
be used 10 calcula te the average heat transfer cocflkicnts between th e
condenser inlet and outlet. providing the the rmophysica ! properties and the
temperature differe nce between the wall and flu id do not vary con side rably
along the tuhc.
The Shah [501 corre lation was developed fro m a larger group o f fluids,
including wate r. than the previous corre lations. It was deve loped b)' establish-
ing a connectio n betwee n condensing a nd Sh'l h·.~ ea rl ier corre lations fo r
boiling heat transfe r withou t nuclea te boil ing. The resulting correl ation in
te nns of h i' as dcli ned ea rlie r in Eq. (1 2.22), is

3.H )
"TP = " , ( 1 + z"~'~ ( 12.54)

whe re

Z =
(
1 ~x ) "" p.".~ ( 12.55)

Shah a lso suggested integrat ing these cquation ~ over a le ngth of tubing to
obta in the mean heat transfer coefficien t in the w ndcnsing region:

h TPm = -
1 fL " TI' tiL ( 12.56)
L u

Fo r the case o f a line ar Quality va ria tion over a IfI() % to 0 % range. the
result is

2.IlY
IITI'I>I = 0 .55" 1.~ + p ll h ( 12.57)
,

The result s from this e quation diffe r by on ly 5(',( from the value obtain ed
when a mea n quality 50% is uscd in the loca l hea t transfe r correlatio n. Eq.
(12.54).
The local heat tra nsfer coefficie nts fo r the prt'vlous three corre lations (lrc
compa re d in Fig. 12.22. As wit h the comparisons of in -lUbe evaporation
correlations prese ntcd earlier. an ozone-safe refrigerant. name ly R- D4:t. is
used. Flow rate. te mperature. tu be diameter. and tube le ngth conditions

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 12.. COt'IOENSEA COILS 683

Condensation
Average Heat Transfer CoeffiCient
6 Quality Change 100% to 0%
Temperalure. 40' C
Tube Diameter . 8 .26 mm
Tube LallQlh. 5 m

2 A134a

Legend
- Shah (1981)
...... TraVlss at al. (1972)
---Cavalhnl and Zeechln ( 1974 )

Mass Flux. kg / (m ~ sl

.'ig. 11.22. Local conde nsation heat trOlnskr coefficients for in·tube"ow of R · I)4a.

simi lar 10 a typical condenser wc rc selected for this compari~n. Ovcr m~t
of the qua lity range, the corre lat ions agree with each other to within 20%,
The local heal transfer coefficients decrease as Ihe quality dec reases. which is
Ihe result of the annular film thickness increasing as con de nsation proceeds
from Ihe high-quality inlet of the condenser to the low·qua lity exit.
Ave rage heat transfer coefficie nts, obta ined by using Eq. (12.56) to inte-
grate the local va lue over tube length. arc plotted as a functi o n of mass flux
in Fig. 12.23. All three correlatiuns show good agreement. however twO of
the corre lations agree 10 within 10% of each ot he r. Average coefficient data
from several past expc:rimental ~ tudied have been predicted to withi n ± 20%
by these three correlat ions [13. 14J.
As with evaporation, condell~ation heat tra nsfe r coe fficients calcu lated
from the preceding corre lations ca n be modified to account for th e presence
of lubricants. As before , an eq ua tion is presented in terms of a type of
enha nce ment factor, EF. defi ned as the ratio of heat transfer coefficie nt s for
refrigerant-oi l mixtures to coc flic ie nts fo r pure refrigerant. For condensation
of R-2:2 mixed with SUS o il, the applicable equa tion is [14J:

( 12.58)

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684 EVAf'()RATQRS AND CONDeNSERS

CoodellsalJoo
Local Heal Transfer Coeffioent
Mass Flux . 100 kg / (m ~ s)
Temperature . 4O"C
J Tube DIameter . 8 _26 rnm
Tube Length . 5 m
Heal Flux . 9 7 kW /m ~

2
.- ....

A 134a
Legend
- - Shah ( 1981)
••.•• • Traviss el at (1972)
- - - Cavalllni and Zecctlln (1974)
o ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .
0.0 02 0 .4 0.6 0.6 10
Quality

Fig. 12.23. Ave ra ge conde n$ll.lion heat tra nsfe r cocllidclIIs for in ·tube flow or R- lJ4a.

The subscripts sand s' and the lubricant conrc nlration J.t;,. were deli ned
earlier during the discus.... ion on in · tube cvapora tion. Un like thc eq uatio n for
evaporation, Eq. 02.58) is not a fun ction o f mass flu x. and, in addition . the
in-tube conde nsation hea t tra nsfer coe ffici e nt always decreases with oil
additio n.
A sim ilar correlation for R·22 a nd 300 SUS oil is [141 :
EF• .j . - e .~ ()II'" ( 12.50)
As me ntioned previously Eqs. (l2.5H) and ( 1251J) a rc conven ie nt in tha t
refrigerant prope rties do not have to be modified 10 account for changes due
10 the presence o f lubricant s.

12.4.4 In-Tube Heat Transfer Augmentation

The most popula r method for providing heat transfer enhancement for
in-l ube conde nsation of refrigerants is the micrulin tu be . This type of tube
was described in detail in Section 12.3.3. As wilh evapora tion. in-tube
conde nsa tion heat trans fe r coefficients have been increased by fac tors of 2 to
3 over smooth· lube va lues. Again. pres... ure dmp increases a rc sign ilka ntly
less than heal transfe r increases, unlike other types of in· tu be en ha nce ment.

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 12.... CONDENSER COILS 685

The fo llowing design information fur microfi n tubes is for different microfin
tuhe geometries a nd for different tu be diameters. The effects o n microfin
tubes of lubrica nts mixed wi th refrige rants are also described.
The performance of three ditfere nt 3/8-in . (9.52-mm) microfin tubes are
compared to the performance of 1/ 2-in. (l2.7-mm) tubes in Fig. 12.24115 ,
161. This comparison is for R·22; however. in the abse m.:e of add itional
information. the results ca n be applied to other refrigeran ts. These same six
tubes were described previously in Table 12.1 during th e discussion on
evaporation heat t ransfe r in micrufi n tu bes. One can sec that the enhance-
ment factors for th e larger·diamcter tube are slightly large r than they arc for
the smaller-dia mete r tu be. Specifically, at a mass flux of 300 kg/ (m 2 . s).
which represent s a region whe re data for the two diffe rent diameters overlap.
the enh anceme nt ractor, EF, for the 1/2-in . (l 2.7-mm) tubes range from 1.6
to 1.8, while the smaller 3/8-in. (9.52-mm) tube ranges from 1.5 to 1.7.
Considering the fac t th at the autho rs report experimental uncertainties of
± 14% fo r EF, the effects of both tube diame ter and microfin geomet!)' arc
minor to the point of being neglig ible. If a designer is performing heat
exchange r calcu lations for one of the preceding tube geometries and diame-
ters, then va lues o f EF for given mass fluxes ca n be selected from Fig. 12.24
direct ly. Howeve r, if des ign calculations are required for othe r tube diamc-

22 I I I

2.0

1.8 -

~
w 1.6

14

1.2 Condensation
P - l .S- 1.6 MPa
1---1 2.7.mmtubeS
1,-'- 9.S2-mm tubes
1.0 0l.J.~~'~OOc='-~--'o2~OOc"-~~3~OO
o--'~~'~OOc:!-~--'o500'-='..>J
G. kg / {m 2 . $)

t"ig. 12.24. Condc ns;l tion hea1 1ransfer enhancemen1 fac10rs for three differen1 mi-
cronn tube geomet ries and two different diameters (15, 16).

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ters, such a 3/4- in. or I-in. tubes, or ot he r mierufin tube geometries. then
Fig. 12.24 ca n also be used in the abse ncc of morc appl icable heat transfer
pe rfo rmance data.
As with the evaporation design obtai ned by Schlage r et al. ( 17), data for a
commonly used microfin tube is also prese nted fOf in·tube conde nsa tion. As
described previously. the 9.52-m m O.H in,} 00 lube had 60 fi ns with fin
heights of 0 .2 mm (0.008 in.) and spiral angles of Iif'. The in-tube condensa·
tion resu lls for a mass flux of 300 kg On .2 . s) arc shown in Table 12.4 for
pure R-22 and fo r oi l concent rations of 1.25% . 2.5% and 5%. This table i!>
analogous to Table 12.2 for evaporation. As shown in T able 11.4, there is
some slight decrease in the en hancement factor as oi l is added to the
refri ge rant ; howcve r. this change is mino r. Not so obvious in T able- 12.4 is the
fact that the in-tube condensation heat transfer cucllident decreases as o il is
added to the refri ge rant. For example, decreases in heat transfe r coefficients
ean be as high as 20% at 5% oil conce ntrations. However. oil affects hea t
transfer in both smooth tubes and microfin tubes !>I milariy, and as a result the
enhance ment factor changes only slightly,
A ge ne raliz.ed equation for condensation heal transfer as a fun ction of
geometrica l parameters in a microfin tube would he extremely useful to the
d esigner. Howcve r, as for evaporato rs, no such equation is avai lable in the
lit erature , An attempt was made by Schlager et a1. (14) to corre lat e data for
seve ral di tfere nt microtln tube geometries from seve ral ditfcrent studies.
However, (hey observed that much o f the data avai lable from the lit erature
showed inconsistent trends such th at it was not possible to develop a
generalized equatio n. Instead, they devised a o ne·paramet cr enhancement
factor correla tio n as a fun ction mass flux for their own data laken on a
microfi n tube with R·22. The microfin tube used was described previously in
the discussion on heat transfer of lubricant and refrige rant mix(ures. This
empirical eq uatio n is as fo llows:

EF,
( 12.60)
EF,

TA8lE 12.4 Microfin Tube Co nd~nsalion rerformanc~ I)a ta for Pu~

R·22 and lubricant Mixtures at 300 k& I ( m l • s) 1171

Oil
Concentration,
Para meter % 150 SUS JOOSUS
0 2.10 2.10
Heal Iran.~ fer 1.25 2. ~ S 2.05
enhanceme nt ractor. EF 2.5 2.00 2.00
5.0 2.05 1.95

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 12.5 FLOODED EVAPORATORS 687

To usc this equation a designe r needs the va lue of an e nhancement fac tor.
such as those listed in Tab[e 12.4 or Fig. 12.24, for a t least one mass flow
ratc .

12.5 FLOODED EVAPORATORS

12.5.1 Description and Special Considerations

As mentioned a t the begi nning of the c hapter, Hooded shell-and-tuhe evapo·
rators cool liquids fl owing thro ugh tu bes by transferring heat to the evaporat -
ing refrige rant o n the shell side . The " flooded" terminology refers to the fllct
that the lubeS arc covered with a saturated mixture of liquid and vapor. The
refrigera nt at a low q uality (e.g .. 10% ) e nters the shell side through a
distributor that eve nly distributes th e refrigerant over a[1 tuhes. As boilin g
occurs and the bubbles rise, the qU :llity of the refrigerant increases from
honom to top. Unlike o ther types of boile rs, such as ke ttle reboilers, whieh
rely o n int e rnal recircu lation of liquid:-- 10 achieve convective boiling e nhance-
me nt , flooded evaporators use high mass fl uxes that pass over the tubes only
once.
To preve nt liquid ca rry·over to the compressor, ei ther impingement sepa-
rators, coalescing filters, g ravity dropout. o r a combination of these devices
arc loe.lled at the topmost region of Ihe evaporato r. An exa mple of a g ravity
dropout area consisting of an open ~pace be tween the top tube row a nd the
suction outlet is shown in Fig. 12.25 ,

Vapor Ftow

~
'~

t ·i!:. 12.25. Sche matic of Iypieal fkxxlcd cvap-

Relngelanl In n rawr.

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 Two imporl an t con ... ider:H ions that alfeCl flooded eva porator dc ... ign arc oil
accumulation and re fri gerant level control. Oi l en ters the evaporator whc;: n
small amount s of oil arc mixed wi th the rcfrigerdnt leaving the compressor.
Un li ke th e liquid refrigerant en te ring the evaporator, oi l cannot he evapo-
rated and, in addition, the vapor vt:locity at th e top i~ not high e nough to
obtai n oil carry-over h<lek to the comprc ....<.Ors. A~ a result, oil hu ilds up on the
shell side of the evaporator. Adverse e-ffe ets o f thl ~ buildup are that shell-side
evapora tion heat transfer cuclficient s arc reduccd wh ile th e compressor can
be starved of oil needed for proper lubrication. O il accumula tion in the
evaporator is reduced by pumping oi l-rich litlu id refrigeran t back to the
compres.<.Or through an oil rcturn line.
Level control is needed in the fl oode d evapora tor to ensure that the top
row of tuhes is compl ete ly covered wi t h rdrige r;ln t. This control is achieved
primarily by controlling th e refrigerant inventury in the system or by a
low-side fl oa t va lve. For exam pl e, the ini tial refrige rant charge in the system
can be sized so that during norm al operation the refrige rant leve l in the
evaporator just covers the tu bes. A high -side ([Oilt va lve e;m be used to
control the inventory in th e conde nse r, wh ich indirectly sets the level in the
eva porator, provid ing th e refrigerant inve ntory ill the overall system has bee n
sized properly. The second me thod of control i ~ ;1 low-s ide fl oat vBlve that
sets the evaporator level by controll ing the flow rate into the evaporator. The
usc of a low-side float va lve is mo re ;tccuratc, and it req uires less precise
knowl edge of the overa ll refrigeran t inve ntory.
Convective boi lin g is max imized on th e shell ~ id e by prope r distributor
design and ti ght bundl c construction. For example . the two-phase di stributor
at the bott om o f the shell is im portant not only to llotain an eve n distribution
of refrigerant bu t also to maximize the velocity I)! the incomi ng re frige rant.
The refrigera nt vclocity and. hence, convective hoiling component of heat
transfer IS also increased by using it tight bu ndle l'onstruction with no
opportunity for vapo r bypass, especia lly in the regions between th e tubes and
shell .
Met hod s fo r calcul ating shell -sid..: heat transfer arc prese nted fo r smoot h,
finn ed, and high-perform,mce "'urfaces. H owc~er. heal transfe r coeffici ent
calcu lation methods arc not p resented fo r the liq uid fl owing inside the lUbeS.
The reason is that th e lIu ids and tube configura1 ions used arc common to
many ot hc r applicat ions and , th erefore, heat Ir ;J nsfcr calc ulation methods
have been covc red in other publications. It is :»ultkicnt to state tha t both
smooth tubes and enhanced tubes arc routi nely used. An overview of the
types of en hanced tubes used along with heat tra nsfer results for these lubes
has been prese nted hy Kohl er and St<lrner [51 J.

12.5.2 Shell-Side Refrigerant Heat Transfer

Hea l transfer on the outside of tube s in 11 not.Kkd evapor;lIor is ;J combina-
tion of nuclea te and convective boiling ph enomena. The di fferent tube

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 surfaces available for augmenting heat transfer over equivalent smooth tubes
arc based on improving heat transfer for either of these two mechanisms. For
example, low fin tubes rely on improved convective boiling through increascd
surface area and mixing while nucleate boiling surfaces are modified to
contain an increased number of small cavities.
Of the four types of two-phase heat transfer mechanisms typically found in
refrigeration applications. namely. evaporat ion and condensa tion inside and
outside th e tubes. the calculation of accurate shell·side evaporation heat
transfer coefficien ts is the most difficult for a designer. The reason [s
multifold: the heat tnmsfer mechanism is complicated by the presence o f
conveetivc and nucleate boiling, the presence of the bundle made up of
multiple tubes. and the fact that the refrigeran t quality and temperature
changcs from th e tube row to tube row.
There are several levels of sophistication for calculat ing the evaporation
heat transfer coefficient on the shell side of a ftooded-shell-and -tube evapo-
rator. At one extreme is the usc of pool boiling or natural convection boiling
correlat ions for a single smoot h lube whi le at the other extreme is the use of
evapora tion heat transfer coefficient s that arc applicable to the complete
tube bundle as found in a flooded eva porator for refrigeration applications.
Correlations for the first case. a single tube in pool boiling. arc available but
they have limitations when applied to real heat exchangers because flooded
evapora tors use either finned surfaces or high-performance enhanced sur-
faces and, in add ition, the evaporator is made up of an array of tubes. The
latter, a she ll-side correlation for a full array of tubes, is applicable but is not
avai lable in thai there arc no published (and experimentally verified) eorrela-
lions for she ll -s ide evaporation of it refrigerant in a flooded evaporator.
Howeve r, in the absence of accurate corre la tions for the shel l side, attempts
have been made to derive general corre lations by making va rious simplifying
assumpt ions regarding heat transfer mechan isms and flow regimes. Applica-
bility to a full tube array can thus be obtained; however, accuracy is sac rificed
as a result of the many simpli fy ing assumptions made.
Because of the advantages and disadvantages of each of the previous
extremes, she ll-side heat transfer coefficients for flooded evaporators arc
presented in three categories:

I. Generalized correlations for ~i ngle. plain tubes applicable to pool

boi ling of a wide range of refrigeran ts
2. Correlations developed for two-phase evaporat ion heat transfer that
account for both nucl eate boiling and convective boiling effects but
based on simplifying assumptions
3. Correlations and experimen tal data for both finned surfaces and high-
performance en hanced surfaces usually limited to a few specifk types
of refrigerants

The designer ean usc any of these heat transfer approaches. depending on

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690 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

the trade-offs between accural."Y and applicability that the designer considers
important.
As men tio ned previously, gene ral corre lations ilre based on expe rimental
data fo r a range of refrigerants taken on si ngle tubes with smooth or plain
surfaces. Even so, these equations can be useful to the designer in the
following situations:

I. Pe rfo rming simple, straightforward calculat ions to obtain order-or-mag-

nitude val ues
2. Using nondimensiona l numbe rs a nd fun ctio na l relationships found in
the simplifiell corre lation to sca le experimen ta l data for one refrigerant
to o ther refrigeran ts
J. Calculating hea l transfe r coefficients fo r e nhanced tubes from heat
transfer enhancement factor data whe n the enhancement factor is
based on a reference smooth tube
4. Superimposing pool boiling correla tio ns and forced convection correla-
tion s to obta in two-phase evaporation heat tHlnsfc r coefficie nts that arc
more applicable to actua l flood etl shc ll -antl-tubc evaporators

Of the many corre lations available for pool or natura l convection boiling
from a si ngle tube. only a few are based on a large refrigerant database. One
of these corre lations is by St ephen and Atxiclsa lam [521. Their expe rime ntal
database conta ins more than 15 differe nt refrigeran ts. Incl uded in this base
arc common refrigerants such as R- I I. R-12. R-:':!2. a nd ammonia. Using this
database, they developed two equa tions that differ in th e ir si mplic ity. The
more gene ral of the two equations is

(1 2.61 )

whe re X I' X~ . and XI. a re dimensionless parame lers defined as follow s:

qd
x, k,T..
(12 .62)

(12.03)

( 12.64)

It is imponanl 10 note Ihat th e previous equation is on ly applicable to

refrige ra nts. Ot her fo rms of the equation arc prese nte d for water, hydroca r-
bons, anti cryogen ic fluids .

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NEXT
 An even simpler form of the preceding equation in terms of the heat
transfer coefficie nt in units of W I (m ! . K} is

where the C~ paramete r is ,I

fu nction of th e refrige rant type and the
saturation pressure. Stephan and Abddsalam (52) present a figun:, with
coordi nates of C4 ve rsus pressure in bars. which cont ains curves for each
refrigerant.
Unlike othe r eq ua tions for pool boiling, the previous equat ions arc based
less on a theoretica l fou ndation th an they are on empirica l curve fits of large
amounts of data. Howevc r. as evidenced by the dimensionless numbers XI'
X,. and X~. the se correlations do contain fun ction al relationships that are
common to many ot her eo rrcl ation ~ . Stephan and Abdelsalam also compa red
their correlalion to th e same large database used to de rive it and found a
mean ab!>Olute error of 10.57% . A plot of shell-side evaporation hea t transfer
coe ffi cients for R- 134a obtained fr om the Stcphan-Abdelsalam corre lation is
shown in Fig. 12.26.
One weakness of the Stephan - Ahdelsalam equation might appea r to he
the absence of a pa rameter to account for surface roughness effects o r
fluid -to-surface in teractions. A su rvcy of the database used to derive the
equations shows that most of the :-otudic';, at least fo r the common refriger-
ants, was performed by using cupper tubes with some of the studies bei ng
performed with nicke l and stai nless Sled tubes. Heat transfe r fo r surfaces
with rOllghnesses different than tht.: assu med average of R I • - 1 ~ m can be
corrected on the basis of Stcpha n and Abde lsalam 's suggestion th at the heat

70000
RI34a
60000 Evaporation
Refrigerant Temperature, ere
50000 Tube Oiameter. 12 .7 mm

" """'"
s",
• 30000

'" 20000

'0000

0
20 30
0
"
Fluid-to·Wall Temperature OrtIereoce. K

Fig. 12.26. Shel l-side evaporator heat transfer coc tllcient for R-134i1 based on the
Slephan -Abdclsatam corrclatilln.

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692 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

transfer coefficient , II, is proportional to R7YJ ~ tha t multiplying by this

ractor with R I , in units of ~m one ca n correct for other ro u g hne s~s at least
in the range of

O . l s R p s IO~m ( 12./>0)

Anot her approach for calculating evaporation cocffid ents is presen ted by
Collier [53]. This approac h is based on previous work by Borishanski 154J.
The equal io n is

( 12.67)

where P, - P! Pr and

( 12.611 )

Values of Pr and A· for common refrigerant s havc bee n tabulated by

Wolverine [551: they arc listed in Table 12.5.
Another approach was proposed by Webb el al. [ I], who used a modified
Chen [56] forced convection boili ng model as foll ows:

( 12.69)

The suppression factor, S, which account s for nucleat e boili ng suppression

duc 10 tempe rat ure gradients in the liquid near the surface, can be calculat ed
from II corre lat ion proposed by Be nnett Ci al. [57J:

( 12.70 )

,nd

(1 2.7 1)

TABLE 12.5 Critical p~ssu~s a nd Values or A+ ISSI

Press ure Range. C rilil'~ 1 P re~u re,
Rerrigerant ~I m atm A'

R· II 1- 3 42.':1 O.oRI
R· 12 1- 4 .9 -10.3 U.lJ5ti
R·12 6- 40.5 40.3 l.U I
R·22 0.4 - 2. 15 4K4 0.94 1
R·I13 1- 3 :\3.4 0.41*:

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 12_5 FLOODED EVAPORATORS 693

and

( 12.72)

Webb ct OIl. compared several correlations suggested by several investiga-

IOrs for Ihe F factor in Chen's correlation. Because il produced values for F
that were in the midrange compared to the other correlations, they recom-
mend using a corre lat ion by Bennett and Chen 158]. This equation, which
includes a dependency on the Prundtl number, is

' 1() ·44-~

F = 1" Y2W> [ cPr ( 12.73)

Webb el al. discuss severa l appro;tChes to calculating the frictional multiplier,

fb}.defined as the ratio of the two-phase frictional pressure gradient to the
gradient for the liquid phase flowing alone. An approach thaI appears to be a
halance between simplicity and accuracy is onc by Ishi hara ct al. 159J who
modified Chisholm's [6U] equa tion to obtain

C 1
cP] == I + X + X2 ( 12.74)

where

x' ~ ("f )"(P'('r )[~l h' (12.75)

II /: A

and C = RO, as suggested by Ishihara et al. for tube banks. The exponent 11
is based on the functional relationship between the friction factor <tntl tbe
Reynolds number, f = g(Re - nl. A more detailed corre lation for the fric-
tional multiplier. which accounts for flow regimes, has been developed by
Schrage ct al. [61 1 from data for R-II3.
The usc of Chen's corre lation as suggested by Webb et al. requires
correlations for calculating the nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient, h nb ,
and the forced convection heat transfer cocfficient h r, . Nucleate boiling heat
transfer coefficients have been presented previously for e ithcr plain tubes or
enhanced tubes. The corrclation s for the enhanced tubcs werc prescnted
either in the form of heat transfer enhancement factors, EF. whicb also
requires scmiempirical correlation ~ for plain tubes such as that by Stefan and
Abdclsalam (521 for inlcgral finncd tubes (e.g .. 19 tins/inch) or in thc form of
data plots for high-performance lIuclcate boiling surfaccs (c.g., Turbo-B.
GEWA-T, etc.).
The single-phase convect ion hcoll tnmsfer used in the Chen correia lion
can be approximated by using enha ncement factors that arc referenced to

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694 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

plain tubes. If this information is not avai lable lh ..: t.ksigner can approximate
it by assuming that in addition to the area increa se caused by the addition of
fins, which will be accounted for when the heal flux is calculated, thc fins also
hreak up the flow and increase turbulence. A conservative calculation can be
made hy neglecting the flow turbulence caused hy the fins and then account-
ing for the area increase only.
For high-performance surfaces that rdy on enhancing nucleate boiling, the
forced convection heat transfer cocffkient for a pl ain lUbe can be used. The
reason is that the presence of either microporcs or microcavilies, which
provide increased nucleation sites, do not result in an increased area for the
flowing refrigerant 10 contact the tube.

12.5_3 Shell-Side Heat Transfer Augmentation

Finned- lube surfaces arc used to enhance conVl::ctive boi ling heat transfer.
while high-performance heat transfer surfaces. which are optimized to in-
crease nucleation sites. increase the nucleate boil ing component. Most of the
data for integral fins and enhanced hoiling surfaces arc for refrigeranls used
in laboratory experiments, such as R-I13. Vcry few stud ies have been
reported on commonly used refrigerants. such <1<; H.-I L R-12. and H.-22. In
the ,lbscnce of applicable data information, an alternative approach is to usc
enhancement f,[ctors obtained from exisling dat a and then assume that the
enhancement factor remains unchanged for the refrigerant of interest. For
example,

( 12.701

can be rearrangcd to calculate the enhanced-tubL' heat transfer coclticient as

fo llows:

"cnh a""c<k R .12) = EF 1( . J 1.1" ,c f.·,l· n<·c(R .221 ( 12.77)

whe re. the "enhanced" subscript can refer to either a finned lube or a
high-pe rformance enhanced surface. The '·refer!.!ncc" subscript can refer 10
either a plain tube or. if <t high-performancc enhanced lUbe is being invcsti-
gated. to an equivalent-diameter finncd surfacc .
The usc of Ihe integra l finned tubc.~ shown in Fig. 12.27 is quitc common
in refrigeration and air-conditioning industries. Their sizes vary from manu-
fact urer to manufacturer. For example. one manufacturer, Wolverine Tube
Company, makes intcgral finned tubes with fin densities of 16 10 40 fins per
inch that are approximately 1/16 in. high. Arca increases over the smooth
cuhc due to the presence of the fins vary from fa ctors of 2.2 to 6.7. The fins
arc manufactured in a screw-type pattern by an extrusion process. Since most
tubes uscd in refrigcration and air-condition applications (with the exception

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 125 FLooOEO eVAPORATORS 695

Fig. 12.27. Photograph llf linnc<.l ·tu l>l: 'Ulfacc ror c\'aptlratinn ;,nu (Ond( IIUlion
kourtc!>), of Wolvcrine Tunc 1 11~· .).
appli(iLti()n~

of ammonia whic h re quires the usc uf a luminum or stee l) arc made o f

copper. the fin efficiencies lIpproach ](KI%.
Even though low· finn e d (ubc:-, an.: commonly used in re fri ge rat ion a nd
air-condit ioning lIpplicatio ns. very li ttl e d esign information is ava ilable . One
of the few !'.tudie!'. I!'. published fo r H- 12 o n finn ed tuhes. 19 fin s per inc h. and
on plain tubes by Ka tz c t .. 1. [621. F igure 12. 28 sho ws <t pl u t of he at flux ve rsu!>
wall superheat for the two tu hcs. From data on this plol. one can find he at
transfer coe ffi cie nt s by using Ncwt{)n ':-, law of coolin g. For dal :l plol s suc h 3!'.
Fig. 12.28 it is o ften more mea nin gful to de /Inc c nham:emenl fa l;tors un the
basis of ratio of the wall su perhe at for the p lain !'. urrace to the wall supe rhe al
fo r the enhanced surface . For ex'Llnpic. th e fi nned lUbe in Fig. 12.28 h"s an
enhanceme nt fa cto r o f US at a heal flux o f SO,OU() W 1m!. It should be noted
Ih31 the are a that Ka tz e l a!. useJ in F ig. 12.28 was based o n the o tll side
projected area, namely rrD" L , whac 0 " is the fi n o utside dia me h: r. The
enhanceme nt faclor based o n the aelu,, ! outside area is 1. 25.
High -pe rformance boiling .,urfacC\ have su perior performance over low-fi n
surfaces. Howcvc r, because additiun:.1 manufact uring processes are required

.0'

.,
E

•
h

'0'
'0 .0 '
.H .~

Fill:_ 12.28. Hea l transfer dat a for 740 filh per meIe r- low-tin lube for R- llltl21.

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696 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

to make them, they are more expensive. These performance trade-offs and
tube cost makes the designer's calculations and analyses-to determine
whether high-performance tubes should be used-that much more impor-
tant. The high-performance tubes have one thing in common-they have all
been designed to increase nucleate boiling by creating numerous nucleation
sites on the tube surface.
High-performance boiling surfaces have superior performance over finned
surfaces. However, they cost more because of additional manufacturing
proccsses required. Design calculations arc important for determining
whether the economics for any givcn situation justify the installation of
high-performance tubes.
High-performance boiling surfaces for refrigeration applications are avail-
able under commercial names sucb as High Flux (Union Carbide), Ther-
moexcel-E (Hitachi), GEWA-T, GEWA-TX, GEWA-TXY (Wieland), and
Turho-B (Wolverine). These tubes are shown in Figs. 12.29a through g, in
the order listed. The performance of some of thcse tubes is sueh that it has
been possible to achieve boiling at wall superheab below loe (JJ,rF). Two
variations on the GEWA-T arc also available from Wieland . They arc the
GEWA-TX tube, whieh differs from the GEWA-T in that it has grooved

(a) low Fin Tube (b) High Flux {e) Thermoexcel·E

(9) Turbo·B

Fig. 12.29. Example of convective and nucleate boiling ~u rfaces used in refrigeration
and air·conditioning applications.

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 TABLE 12.6 Sample Enhancement Factor for High-Performance Boiling Surfaces

Enhancement Factors
1
Tube Type Reference Refrigerant 4 kWjm 10 kWjm 2 20 kWjm 2

High Flux Tube Marto and Lepere {63] 113 8 6.5 6

O'Neill et a1. {M] II 16.5 17.5
Chyu (65] 113 9
Thermoexeel-E Hitachi [66] 113 7 6
Nakayama el al. (67] II II 13
Kuwahara [68] 11 10 9
Marto and Lepere [63J 113 8 7 5
GEWA-T Marto and Lepere [63) 113 2 2.5 2.5
Ayub and Berg!es [69] 113 2.5 2 2

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698 EVAPORATORS AND CONDEN SERS

chann els. and t he G EWA-TX Y tube, which has the fin modified to a Y
shape. T here arc no experimental data avail itbk in the ope n literature fo r
these two tubes with refrigerants as the test fl uitl.
Four high- performance boil ing su rfaces have been presented. Sa mple
rC-.-;u its from past st udies have also bee n presented for va rious refrigera nt s.
To aid the designer, a eompil alton of enhancement fac tors ta ken from these
plots is presented in Tab le 12.6 for three heat fluxes, name ly, 4. 10, and 20
kW j m !. These val ues represe nt a typica l heat flux for shell-side evaporat ion
in refrigerat ion applicat ions. 10 kW/ m", and then extreme high and low
va lues.
Th e enhancemen t factors shown are limited to these refrigerants for which
expe rime nt al data arc available. If enh ancement fac to rs for other refrigerants
arc needed, the designer can ei ther usc an en hancemen t facto r for a
refrigera nt listed or apply some corrections for trends that mi ght exist. For
exa mple. one can sec in Table 12.b that enhal1l.:c men t fac tors for R- l l are
higher than en hancement factors for R- ll) for the sa me tube. A sim ilar
dilem ma exists when e nhance ment factors aTe available for some refrigerant
saturation temperatures but not others for whkh a tlcsign calculation is being
pe rfo rmed. 11 is also important 10 note that the enhancement factors shown
in Table 12.0 arc based on the r:ltios of the wall superheat temperature for
the plain tube divided by the wall superheat for the high-performance boil ing
surface.

12.6 SHELL-AND-TUBE DIRECT EXPANSION EVAPORATORS

12.6.1 Description and Special Considerations

The second type of liquid coole r, is the dirn ·t (or dry) expa nsion (DX)
evapora tor shown in Fig . 12.30. Th is type o f liqu id wuler is also a shell-and-

Fluid In Flu.d Out

c:
elrlgerant
DlstnbutOf
Suction
Outlet

Refrigerant
uquld
Inlet

Fig. 12JO. Schcmiltic of shcll-and-Iuhc dircl.:t upamion cvaporator.

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 12 Eo SHELL·AN D-ruSE EVAPORATORS lOX) 699

lube heat exchanger. Howeve r. unli kl.: the llooded evapora tor where refriger-
ant flows on the shell side, the rdnge ralll evaporates on the inside of tubes
in OX ev;tpurators.
The direct e.xpa nsion e\'aporat(lI ha)' ),i,;veral advanl<tgcs over the fhxxlcd
evaporator type of liquid eooicr. Fir\t. the OX evaporator "ssu res that oi l is
re turned to the compressor. which i, importa nt where substant ial compressor
lubricating oil is present. Second. a s uperhcated vapor can be obtained at the
exit while in the case of the ftooJed evaporator only sa turated vapor is
ubtained.
She ll-;tnd -tuhe DX ev;tporawrs. commonly referred to as direct expansion
coolers. are USClI with positive displ,lCement compressors such <IS reciprocat·
ing. screw. or scroll compressors. [n addition. these heat excha nge rs arc
usually designed fur horil.Untal evapo ration. The refrigerant e nters the heat
exchange r through an in[e t port. a Ji),t ribu lnr hx:ated in side the head. and
then goes intl,,\ the tllbc~. The dC'lgn of the distributor is important for
ensuri ng tha i refrigerant i)' eve nly ),upplied to each lube. Uneven distribution
ca n easi ly occur heeause the refrigera nt e nt ering the evapor,ltor head from
the expa nsion va lve i)' a mIxture ()f v.lpor a nd liquid that can be easily
stra tified in a n oversized head or an unproper1y designed flow distributor.
The undesir;thle consequence of ;til lwer~ uppl y to some tuhes is that liquid
ex its the tube rilther than a prope rl}' !,u per hea teu vapo r. Because the evapo·
rator exi t is cllll trolled to it fix ed ~ urer h e at condition , the liquid is then
evaporate d hy mixin ~ with cx!,;esslq;[y ),uperhcilted refrigera nt that exits
unde rsupp[i ed tubes. Th e ne t conseqlle nee of th is ma[distribution of refriger-
ant is that th e in -tuhe heat tra nsfer coe llieients for some tubes. especially
those with low !lllw r;Jl es a nd high ),upe rheats. arc tou low.
Becau~e low temperature di ffer e nces result in low the rmal expansion
forces. econllmica l. fixed -tulle heat designs ca n be used. Direct expansion
eva po rat ors ean he des igned in either a si ngle-phase arntnge me nt. multi -
phase arr;t11gCllIcnts. or;1 U-bend <lTfangenw nl.
Ucc,lUse of the increasing specific volume of th e refri gera nt as it pro-
gresses through the hea t cxehangeL th e numher of tu be~ ca n c hange pcr pass
in multip.1SS applications. A poh:nti al problem wi th multipass arran gements
is that it may he diflkult to ohta in eve n refrigcra nt distribution after the first
pass. Lik cw i ~e. a pote nti;11 problem with smgle-pass arrrange mcnts is tha t it
m.1Y be ditlku[t In evaporate full y th l' refri gera nt unle),s e ithe r long tubes or
e nhanced tuhes arc used,

12.6.2 In-Tube and Sheil-Side Heat Transfer

Because the in-tuhe Ilm\.' Ilf refriger.JllI i)' the sa me as that described in tbe
evaporator coil section. the rl'ildcr I' refe rred to Section 12,3.2 for design
he;1I transf..:r information. In-tube enhancemen t is used to improve the heat
transfer pcrfMmance of the ev'lpor ~l ting refrige rant inside the tubes. The
mOst popula r type of in·tube e nh'LflCC lllent IS the microfin tube which was
tlesnibetl earlier III Scclltlll 12.3.3. The ~ hc1[ s ide is singic-phase liq uid across

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700 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

a tube ba nk; th is type of flow has been desc rihed exte nsively in t he heat
tra nsfe r lite rature.

12.7 SHELL-AND-TUBE CONDENSERS

12.7.1 Description and Special Considerations

The shel l-a nd· tube condense r with supe rhea ted refrige ra nt va po r e nte ring
a nd subcoolcd liq uid·refrigerant ex iting is the most commo n type o f wat e r·
cooled conde nser. The advantage of a shcll-and-tube conde nse r is that a
la rge condensi ng surface area ca n be insta lk d in a snwll space. a t least
compa red to othe r heat exchange r types. Shel l-anti-tube con tie nsers arc
constructed so tha t refrigeran t conde nses on the she ll side o r the o utside of
tubes while cooli ng W'tter is pumped thro ugh till' in)'iti c of th e tubes as shown
in Fig. 12.3 1. Th ey a rc no rma lly mounteti in the ho r izonta l position to
fac ilita te conde nsa te dra in<tgc from the tube !-ourface. Water flow on the
inside instead of un the o utside of tubes a llow... the designer to achieve high
wa te r ve locities th a t a rc necessa ry for good wal e r-side heat tra nsfer. These
wa te r velocities a lways a rc main tain ed above I Ill / !-o (3 fps) a nd arc normally
in the ran ge u f 3 to 4 m /s ( 10 tu J3 fps). The lksirl· to obtain high water
ve locities a l!>O de te rm ines the number of tube passes designed into a con-
de nser. For example. in o rder to maintain hIgh wate r velocit ies in a con-
de nser, the nu mbe r of tu bes in each pass must be increased as t he number of
tu be passes is decreased. The on ly real li mita t ion to wale r fl ow velociti es arc
pressure drop considerat ions. It shou ld a lso be note d t ha t the wa te r·side
pressure dro p decreases as the number of passe ~ a rc red uced.
Copper tubes arc usually used in she ll-and · tube conde nser.; with siO!:cs
ra nging from 5jH to 1 in. 0 0 , with 3/4 in . O D be ing the most popula r.
Ammo nia requires ea rOon stee l tube... , In additilln. the d iame te rs are gener-
ally larger t ha n those described prev io usly. Int eg ral fin s spaced 19 to 40 fms
per inch (1.33 to O.M mm spacing) with fi n he ights of 0 .035 to 0'{)6 1 in. {(J.9 10
1.5 mOl ) a rc routi nely used fo r she ll ·side c nh anl'cmen t. As will he d iscussed

Inlet
RelIef"

0"""
Inlet
-v-"-71[~C=:J
~, _-l

DraIn Drain
Outlet

Fia. 12.3 1. Schematic of shcll ·and· tube condense r,

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 121 SHELL-ANO·TUBE CONDENSERS 701

laleT, high performance condcnsin g ~ urfa cc s arc also avai lahle. Equilatcr;11
triangular pitches are normally u ~c d for ins talling tubes. Tube dearanccs
vary: however. a Iypical spacing is about 3/16 in. (4.7 mm).
Shell-and·tube condensers arc designe d so that the inlet and ou tlet con-
nections arc located far e nough .tpart to allow the ente ring superheated
vapor 10 be exposed to thc maximum tube surface area. Baffling located
between the inlet a nd outle t can abu aid the distribution of refrigerant vapor.
Of special importance for prope r distribution of the vapor is a clearance
space between the top row of tubes a nd the shell. In addition to ensuring that
refrigerant vapor reaches all of the heat transfer surfaces. the internal
construction should also be su..:: h that excessive pressure drops arc avoided.
These pressure drops redw,;e th e :-.a turation tempe rature of the refrigerant
which in turn reduces th e temperature difference durin g heat transfer.
As the refrigerant vapor is condcn s!!d on the o utside of the tuhes, it drips
down to lower tubes and collects at Ihe bottom of the condense r. The bottom
of thc condenser can be designed sn that tube rows arc loca ted either above
or below the condensate liquid level localed at the bottom. More refrigerant
subcooling can be achieved if the liquid level is above the bottom tube rows.
In .'>Orne cases the condenser bott o m is designed to act as a r!!ceiver, a
reservoi r for storing refrige rant. Rcgardks.... of which approach is u ~cd. it
liquid seal should always be maintained over the ou tlet nozzle.
The shell-and-tube condenser is basically arranged in a counte rflow :H-
rangcmellt in that the cooling water firs t passes through the lowe r rows o f
tubes while the upper lube rows correspond 10 laler lube passes.
The tubes in water-cooled condensers arc installeli in it fixe d tube sheet
arrangemen t. Stra ig ht tubes are usually used. However. U tubes with a single
tube shee t arc also manufactured.
Noncondcnsable gases- eithe r ai r or water vapor-a rc a problem in
condensers in that they r3i!>C the ope rating pressure of the condense r, whi ch
in turn increases the required compre~sor power. These gases also blanket
the condensing surfaces. decreasin g the condensation heat tTanskT codl\-
cicnt. which in tum deerca!>cs tnl' heat \ranskr rate for a given driving
temperature dilfcTcncc. Nonconde n~able gases should be c\iminated Ihrough
a purge line and/ o r systcm. A desig ner can account for purge gas e ffects on
a des ign calculation by trea ting them as either an added thermal resistance or
a fouli ng fact o r o n the refrigerant sidc. Noncondcnsablc gases e nt !!r a
refrige rant system during the re fri gaan t charging process. o r they aTe pre-
sent as a dissolved gas 11\ the lubricati ng oil that is mixed with th e refrige ra nt
in the compressor. For refrige rant s that operate be low atmospheric prc!>~ urc.
air can leak into the system from Ihe surroundings.

12.7.2 Shell-Side Refrigerant Condensation Heat Transfer

As with shell·side evaporation, shell · ... ide condensation ca n he divided up into
several different groups of correlatIo ns depe nding o n tube type . Specifically.

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702 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

the types of tubes used in condensation arc SllHlOth (or plain), finned, and
high-performancc cn hanee.:d tubes.
Su rface tension is the uominant force (unlr!l lhng (onuensate.: thickness
and causing condensate holdup nn th e hOllom III the.: tubes. Heat tran sfer 10
the tube wall from the surrou ndin g vapor is, in !Urn, invc.:rseJy proport ional to
Ihis condensate thickness. Beca use thc surface k nsion of refrigenmts is low,
fin s have bee n u ~d successfull y for she ll -side condensation applications.
Finned tuhes for refrige ration applie'lIiom. arc Illallu f'j etured with typi C<11 tin
densities of 62U to 1560 fins per meter wi th h ( l~ hts of 0.70 to 15.24 mm. If
the surface tension i .~ too high, the w nd e.:nsate collects betwee n th e lins so
that th e effective.: <!rca for hea t transfer from the vapor to the tube wall is
reduced.
This ph enomenon is known as comlensate fl uod ing. Tuhc manu f,teturers,
recognizing the import ance of surface tension, ha\'e designed special high-
perfor mance tuhcs with surface profil es that pn)duce thin conde nsate til ms
through improved conde nsate drainage.
Shell -side condensa tion heat tran sfe r coellieie nt correlations arc pre-
sen ted for smooth tuhes, finned luhcs, ami high-pe rforma nce enhanced
tubes. The smooth-tube equations lire gc neralizl'd in that their development
and ve rifica tion arc based o n experimental dat a for several refrigeran ts. In
addition, hecau~c of the case of modeling heat transfe r an d Iluid lIow for a
simple tunc gcometry, smoot h-tube corre latiuns an: more fundamentally
based while more cnmplica ted geometries require empirical curve lits of data.
Th e corre h"ions fur finne d tubes Me exte.: n s i on ~ uf smUOtlHubc co rrelations
to accounl for tins, Few correl ations exist for high-performance tubes: Tllther.
th e limited expe riment:!1 data ava ilable have hee n prese nted in the form of
pe rformance c urvc ~ .
Seve ral correlalit)!ls arc available in the lit e rat ure for predicting smooth-
tuhe condensat ion heat transfer cocflkicn t:.. E>,'C I1 though Ihese corrcl:!tions
have been Vl"rificd with exper imen tal data for refrige ran ts. there is consider-
abl e d isagree me nt between them.
The Nusselt [70j equat ion has becn :.hown III predict conden:-.al ion heat
tran ~fcr coefficient s for smuoth tu bes. For exam ple. Williams and Sauer (7 1J
predicted experiment .. ! data for R-l l hy 11'\1 1111. th is equation. Nussclt's
equation for an average hea t tr.tn sfcr cucllicien l IS

( 12.7S)

This equ ation is based on several assumption:-. th at mayor may not be

violated in :I particul'IT design situat ion. Some .1f these assu mptions arc that
gravity is the on ly force acting on the liquid fi lm (vapor shear is negl ected),
the condensate fi lm is lami nar. the surroundi ng \",lpor is sat urated. ;tnd.
finall y. the liquid fil m is al a constant temperatu re. Since superheated vapor

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 12,7 SHELL·AND·TUBE CONDENSERS 703

enters a condenser, onc ca n implement a correlation for this by modifying

the heat of vaporization to account for vapor superheat as follows:
( 12.79)

An example of condensation heat transfer coefflcic nts calculated from Eq.

[12.78) is shown in Fig. 12.32.
Nusselt"s equation is for a single tube and therefore it docs not consider
the effects on heat transfer of condensate drippi ng from row to row . To
aocount for row effects. seve ra1 investigators have suggested modifications.
One such mod ification is by Nusselt [70} and Short and Brown [72\. and it ClIO
be used to calculate the condensation heat transfer coefficient on the Nth
row:

112.KII)

where II I.",w is calculated from the Nussclt equation. It should be noted that
Eq. (]2.80) is for hea t exchangers with more than 10 rows and. in addition, it
still docs not account for vapor shca r.
A correction factor for vapor shear has been developed by Webb [73J at
least for the first row of tubes as fo llows:
II - h i ",..... I.J2F- II ,f15 112.8 1)
where F is a function of velocity as follows:

Prh'lI
F ~ ( 12.X2)
C"Frt:.T

5000
RI34a
Condensation
'000 Refrigerant Temperature . 4O"C
Tube DIameter . 12.7 mm

'"
.s",
JOOO

~
2000
i

"00
0
40
0 10 20
Fluid·to-Wall Temperature DIt!&fence. K '"
Fig. 12.32. Shell·side conde nsation heat transfe r coefficient for R·1 34a based on
Nusselt correlation.

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704 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

Beyond the fi rst row of tubes, the vapor velocity decreases because of
condensate formation. Therefore. for the ove rall heat exchanger. the ques-
tion a rises of whethe r heat exchange r design calculat ions in refrige ratio n and
air-condi tio ning applica tions will be in e rro r if vapor shea r is neglected
a ltogether. Webb [73] contends from calculations and experimental data that
the velocities a rc insufficient to affect the conde nsate film thic kness. but they
may in fact affect the condensate flow pattern fr o m tuhe to tube. The latter
phenomenon could there fo re result in an increased heat transfer coeffi cient.
An equation for an ave rage heat transfe r eoeflieien l fo r a tube bundle of
N tubes has been suggested for Short and Brown [72]. We bb [73]. and Kern
[74J as follows:
-, , N - I /I> ( 12.83)
IN = II _II ....·

It should he noted that origi nally Nusselt suggested a coe ffi c ie nt of 1/4
instead of 1/ 6. However. this resulte d in seve re pe nalties when th e number
of tube rows was greater th a n 10, which is commo n. It is a lso suggested thaI if
vapor shea r effeels are importan t. une may want to decrea se the 1/6
coe ffi cien t eve n furth er. In fact. if the preceding coe fficien t is decreased to its
limit of 0 th e n one concludes that th e heat transfer decrease due to
condensate bui ldup on lowe r rows i ~ offset by poten tial heat transfe r in-
creases due to excessive liquid motion a nd fi lm hreakup as it drips from tube
to tube. In this case. the val ue of th e ave rage heat transfe r coefficient for a
tube bundle can be approximated by the va lue fo r a single tube.

12.7.3 Sheil-Side Heat Transfer Augmentation

As me ntioned previou sly finn ed tubes a rc com mo n in refrige r at ion and
air-conditioning app licatiuns because of t he low surf.. ce tension of most
common refrigerants. The o ne exceptio n is ammon ia whe n plain tubes arc
use d because of the po ten tia l for flooding caused by the high surface te nsio n
of ammon ia condensation. Heat transfe r from horizontal low fin tubes was
corre lated from experi mental dat a by Bea tty and Katz [75]. They also de rived
an equation simi lar to Nussclt in te rms of fin efficiencie s; howeve r. it was
more com plicated . Since fin effkiencies for integral fins made from copper
a rc close to 100%. similar results fo r finn ed tuhes can be obtained by using
Nu ssc lt 's equatio n a nd the following equa tio n for the overall o utside a rea
including fins and t he exposed tuhe surface:

( 12.84)

High-performance e nhanced surfaces have hcen developed to produce

thin condensate fi lms and to fa cilitate drainage of the con de nsate from the
tube. Two examples of this type of tube a rc the Turbo-C tube manufactured

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 1:2 8 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN WITH ALTERNATIVE REfRIGERANTS 705

(a) Thermoellcel-C
(Similar 10 Turbo-C)

"' ilt_ 12.J_\. Examples of high-pcrfonnancc condensing

~urf; ' LL- ' usnl in refrigeration and air-amd lt HlIIing ap-
(b) GEWA· TXV plil" lt l!'!".

by Wolverine Tube Company and Thcrmoexccl-C manufactured by H itachi.

A~ shown in Fig. 12.33 these tuhes USc fin s in a ~pinc a rrangemen t, whic h
provide!'> i1 pa th fo r cumh: nsatc u rainagc_ A nother tube is the GEWA-TXV,
wh ich has steep-a nglo.:. V-shaped tins as shown in Fig. 12.33 to help in
maintaining a thin refrigerant film.

12.8 HEAT EXCHANGER DES IGN WITH

ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANTS

As of [his wri li ng, nearly all h \lu~e h o ld rcfrigeralors and automot ive air
conditioners usc R-l::! a~ [he workin g fl uid . In ;.ddi lion, many industr ial
refrigerat ion systcms us..: R-12. \\ hilo.: ma ny largc chiller systems usc R-i l and
R- 12 as the working flu id. Howl'ver. R- II and R-12 ;Ire chlorofluorocarbons
(c;lllcd C FCs) and aTl' t'icing phased uul bccauSl' their leakage intu the
atmosphere destroys til..: t)zone lay..: r ~urrounding the eaTlh_ These refrige r-
ants arc stabk and have lo n ~ lives ~ u c h that they migrate 10 the upper
atmosphere wh e re chlorine atmn~ are released which then catalyze the
destruction nf ozone. Over th..: next decade seve re reductions in R- I I a nd
R- 12 usc will be manda ted by gtlvernmen ts th roughout the world . It is
expcct..:d Ihal nOn-CFC refrigerant;.. formed hy replacing chlorine atoms with
hydrogen alums to form;11I HFC'. wi ll repl,tee R-II ilnd R-12 on a largc sca le _
It is expected that HFC-134a "nil repi:tce CFC- 11 and HrC-I 2J will replace
ere-11. at least in the imm(: diatc futu re (note that the " R" a nd the
dc;.ignalion uf the rcfriger;tn t. 'IlKh as HrC and C FC, can be used inter-
changeably). The se lection of th es..: refrigera nt s as re placements is based on

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 TABLE 12.7 Comparison of R·134a and R·12 Properties al a Typical Evaporation Temperature of -SoC [76]

Differc nee, EtTcelof

Property R·134a R·ll % Heat Transfer

Liquid density. ks/m 1 1308 1417 -7.7 i slightly

Vapor density, kg/m" 11.2 15.4 -20.8 L slightly
Enthalpy of vaporization. kJ /kg 202.3 153.9 + 31.<! i modera.tely
S<lturation pressure, M Pa 0.243 0.261 -6,9 <=0
Liquid viscosity. J.LPa . S 301 234 +6.0 L sl ightly
Vapor viscosity. J.L Pa . S 12.2 11.3 + 7.9 1. slightly
Vapor therm~l conductivity. mW /mK 11.77 8.01 .,. 46,,) i slightly
Liquiothernlai conouctlvity. mW ImK WU 80.S T 21.4 t strongly
Liquid specific heal, kJ 1(l;.g , K) 1.297 0.922 t·40.6 i moderately
Vapor specific hea!. kJ I(kg , K) O.~6!l 0629 38.0 i slightly
Liquid Prandtl number 3.98 3.24 +22.6 t slightly
Vapor Prandtl number 0.99 0.89 + [1.2 i slightly

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 TABLE 12.8 Comparison of R·13411 and R-l2 Properties at a Typical Condensation Temperature of 40·C [761
Difference, Effect 011
Property R·134a R-12 % Heat Transfer

Liquid density , kg / m' I J47 1253 - 8.5 T slightly

Vilpor density , kg j m \ 500 55 .0 -9.1 ! ~ li8hlly
Enth:llpy of vaporization, kJ /kg J63.1 128.6 +26.8 r moderate
Sal ural ion pressure, MPa 1.0)7 0.9607 +5.9 ::0
Liquid vl~COSilY. J.LPa . S 163.4 195 -16.2 1 slighlly
Vapor viscosity, J.L Pa . S 14.31 13.78 +3.8 ~ slightly
Vapor thermal conductivjty. rnWjmK 15.56 t 1.0 +41.5 i .~(i8htly
LiqUid thermal eonductivlly, rnW jlllK 74.6 63 .8 + 16.9 i strong
Liquid specific heal. kJ (kg' K) 1.514 1.01 +49 .9 1 slightly
Vapor specific heal. kJ (kg ' K) 1.130 0 .7857 +43.8 i slightly
Liqu id Prandtl number 3.32 3.09 +7.4 'I slightly
Vapor Prllndtl number 1.04 1.03 +0.9 i sliglllly
-- - - -

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~ I

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Ihe faci thai thei r Ihermodynamie properties aro: sim ilar to thc refrigeranls
Ih at they arc re placi ng.
To d~te o nl y I{· I J4a heal transfer coclfic i cnt ~ have hee n measured. and
these measurcmcrUS have on ly been pe rformed fo r evaporation and conden·
loa tion ocl:urring IOloide tubes. There a rc no reporls of shcll·side e"apora tion
and condensa tion of e ilh e r R·I J4a or R·I2:\. A Ct lmp:( ri!'on of Ihc properlies
for R· 12 and ill> rcplaceOl('ll t R· 134a arc shown in Tilblcs 12.7 and 12.8 for
typica l t:vapora tio n a nd conde nsa tion temperatures. rc~pcclivcly /761. If a
designe r is performi ng heal excha nger e;llcula ti on~ for the purposcs of
comp'lri ng the Iwu rcfrigcrant:. al the tempcral un.:lo shown. propcrticlo can be
take n and used directly from thesc tah1c,. Th e~e !:Ihles a lso provide quallta·
live inform;r tio n whc n the dCloigner (:oll)oider' lksign c hilnges to implemen t
alternat ive refrigerants. Fnr examp1c , (mc ca n ()h,crvc that th e liquid thermal
conductivit y, en tha lpy of val>oriz:tlion, and liqUId \!)Ceific heat arc all signifi·
ea ntly higher for H.· 134a mmpa red to K· 12, and then..' fo re allthrcc of Ihese
properties con trih ut e 10 higher hea t Iran)ofcr ('tM.: llicie nl:o..
As men tioned pre\'iouloly, ilHu hc heat Ir,IIl, (er nx:fficicllt:. have been
measured for 1{ · 1]4a during ('onde n!o.a t ion and eva poration of R-134a 1771_
T hese eocllicie nls were meas ured fOI a ;\.67-m -lt)l1g smooth whc with <In
inne r diame te r of 800 mOl . Averotge C\ilpor,lIion hcot l Irillllo(c r coclliricnb fUT
,I
a lmost full ·qUill ity range arc shown in ~ig . 1]:34 for temrcT3ture:o. of 5, HI.
and IS°C. For si milar ll1a ~.., nlt.~ c' Ihe hcal Ilotll)ol el cucflicicnts fur R-134,t <Ht:
:thou t :\1)'/,> 10 40% higher than valut's fur K · I ~ Part uf this increased hcat
tra nsfer eoeltkielll is due tn the fact that to Ilhlain Similar exi t qU:llitics fo r

., Temperature. S C
Temperature. 10 C
Temperature.1S 'C

Mass Flux. kg I{ rn ' 5)

Fill. 12_34. Mt:'lsurcd evapl..lWI inn heal l riln~fcr «('CUil (..-nh f" r H Fe· \J4tl ~ln J CFC· 12
al Ihrc(' lempcr'llur..:s [1 21.

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N''''
 12 a HEAT EXCHANGER LlESIGN WITH ~LTERNATIVE REfRIGERAN TS 709

the same tube length. it was ne t:t:s~ ary to increase the heat flux for R·134a .
The reason for this increase is that the en thalpy of vaporization is higher by
R·1J4a. For example, ,tl 200 kg /' m ~' ~) and ItrC temperature, the heat flux
is 12.1 kW/m 2 for H-J34a and 9. 1 kW / m2. The increased heat flux probably
accounts for about a IW'/() incrca~ c in the heat transfe r coefficient for R-134a.
A compiHisun of R-134a an<.l R·12 at temperatures of 30. 40, and 5trC
during a condensa tion is shown I II Fig. 12.35. The in· tube condensation heat
transfer codficients arc about ~5'/~ 1035% highe r for R·134a. Thc differ-
ences in he<ll nux for the Iwo rd rigcrants docs nol have the same effeet for
condensation as it docs for evarow tion.
When designing heat exch:mgl..'I"s (or altanatlYc refrigeranls, une musl
consider differences in enthalpic..; of vaporization of the alternative refriger-
ants compa red to the rcfr i ge rant~ Ihat they arc replacing. For example, for a
typical evaporation temperature of - SoC, the entiwipy of vaporization of
R·1 34a is about 31 % higher th ,l!l fo r R·12. As II result, an evaporator us ing
R·134a would require 31 % le~ ~ mass now ral e of refrigeran t to obtain the
same heat ea paeiw The oecrca ~e in mas..<; flow rate for R- 134a will resu lt in a
decrease in the in-tuhe heat tr ;t ll~fe r coefficicni if the tube diame ter stays the
same. However, one should note that even when this decrease in mass !low
rate compared to R-12 is taken in lo accou nt , the he31transfer eoclticients for
R-1 34a arc still about 5"4 to 1.'i'1 hIgher compared to R· n. For condensa·
tion, a similar situation can occu r. and for these temperature conditions the
heat transfer coefficients for I{·U4a arc about 10% to 20% higher Ihan
values for R-J2 cyen wh!.:n thl..' Ilow rate is reduced.

3
,/
__ -~:.::-_...o
2 -----..() -----""""-
- ''Oli5- - - - -_-_,,_---,;;;;=------4
=..: .A.- - - - - I Legend
HFC·I34a
CfC· 12
'J Temperalure . 30"'C
• Temperature.40"C
Temperature . SO"C
"
°o~"-~-"~,~oo~--~"-~~-"-"-"~~"--"-"~~~"-~;;(
300 '00 500
Mass Flu • . kg / (m ~ s)

FiR, IZJ5, Mc:tsurcd condcnsatilln he "I transfe r codticicnts for HFC·l.14a and
CFC·ll al th ree letllp\.. raturc~ [1 21 .

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 710 EVAPORA TOfl S AND CONDENSERS

NOMENCLATURE

A area , m1
h width , mm
Bo boil ing number, dimensionless, q /(Ct ,. ~ )
Co convectio n number, dimension less, (( I - .d / x )o.K(p.l'lpf )o.~
d diame te r, mm
D tube diameter, indentation diame ter, mm
EF enhancement factor, dimensionless
f fr iction factor, dimensio nless
fpi fin s per inch , I/ rnm
F l , Fl nondimensional parameters
F, fluid-d ependen t parameter. dimensio nless
h Froude number, dimensionless, G 2 / (/) ; gD )
G mass flux , kg/(m 2 • s)
G, Graetz number. dimensionless, ReP,U !-f
h heat transfer coefficient. W l {m 2 . K )
e nthalpy, J / kg
j j fac tor. dimension less. Sf P, l / J
k the rma l conductivity. W / mK
I tube-to-collar interference, mm
L tube length, m
m molecular weight. kg / mol: mass flow m tc, kg /s
N number of tube rows. dime nsion less
N,. fin patte rns pe r lo ngit ud inal row. dime nsionless
N" Nusselt number. d ime nsion less, IIL / K
OD outside diameter, mm
p fin pi tch. rnm
I' pressure. kPa
1', li n pattern depths. mm
1', Prand tl number. tlimensionlcss
Q he at transfe r. J
q heat flux. W / m ~
R resistance . m 2 . K/ W
He Reynolds number. dimensionless. pVI. / Jl or pVD / /J.
Rp ro ughness. J.Lm
s fin spacing. fin height. mm
5 suppre ss ion factor. tube spaci ng. mm
Sf Stanton number. dimensiunle ss. Ntt l Nd',
I time. tin thickness. wall thickness. mm
T te mperature,OC
V vcJorit y. m/s
I~ . oil concentration
w" humidity ratio for saturat ed air at O"c. dimens io nless
w" humidity ratio for e ntering air, dim elN unlc!>s

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 Wf fin spacings, mm
x quality, frost height , mm
X" Martinelli paramet t,:r" dimen sion less, (x i i - x)(I"' (PfI Pq ) 1I5
x (J.I.,/J.l. x )
Z paramete r in Shah's correlatio n, dimensionless

Greek Symbols
{3 spiral angle, G
'¥ parameter in th e Shah correlation
{j fin he ight , mm
o~ gap dislitnCe be tween ftns. mm
or fin thickness. mm
E fin pattern deplh para mc lcr~ . dimensiunless
Y lead a ng le , '"
J.I. vist,:osity, (N . s)/ m 2
dJ fin e fficiency
dJ, ralio of the enhanced Mc a 10 Iota] fin area. dime ns ionless
I tb one phase
P l!..; nsity, kg/m J
(T surface tension. N j m

Subscripts
u based o n arithmetic me an te mpe rature diffe rence, air
av average
bs stratified boiling
c contact conduc tance
cb convective boi lin g
conv convect ive boiling regiu n
d diameter : depth: dep()~it
dry dry
(' expanded
eq equivalent
f liquid; fin ; frosl: fluid
g vapur
" hydraulic; hol e
inside
'0 m
I liquid ; longitudinal ; all ·l iquid
L loca l
LMTD log mea n tempe ratu re d ifference
m mean
N number
ob nucleate boi ling

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712 EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS

nucl nucleate region

0 ou tside
oul oul
p plate; perimeter; pipe
p pattern or wavy
pool pool boiling
, reduced; rows; refrigerant: root
lef reference
,I smooth tube; solid wa ll ; sa tur :~t cd
,rc sa turated forced convect ion
"b sa turated nucl eate boiling
I tube; transverse; tip
TP two phase
vapor; va lley
"w wall
weI wei

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ASME IITD·44. Denver, Colo .. pp. II-Hoi. ASM r. r-;ew York .
3. 1·l uang. K .. and Pa te, M. B. (l9~) A model fur .Hf·((lnLlilinning condcnser~ ;lIld
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alion Machinery. Purdue University, July H~ - 21. pp 26() - 27(1
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5. Sha h, M. M. (197(») A new correlation for he al tran~fe r during hoiling flow
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II. Schlager. L. M.. Pate. M. 8" (Inti BCTJ(ics. A. E. (I'll'll ) Evaporation ilnd conden·
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Tra!lJ. 94(1) 14<:1-100.

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 REFERENCES 713

12. Eckels. S. J. and Pa te. M. B. (]lrJ(I) An eXIX! riment a l eompari!>tm of eV<lporat ion
<lnd condensat ion heattr<lnsfer codlicicnts for I-lFC·!]4a <lnd C FC-12. 1111.1. of
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13. Schlager, L. M.. Pa te. M. 13.. and l3e rglcs, A. E. (l9M9) A comparison of 150 a nd
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14. Schlager, L. M .• Pate. M. ,1..
a nd Bcrgles, A. E. (]990) Pe rformance predict ions
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Hawai i. pp. 525-535.

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714 EVAPORATOAS AND CONDENSERS

28. Johnson. B. M., Kreid. D. K.. and Ha m;en, S. G . ( 191l3) A method of compa ring
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ing, June 27- July J. Nashville, Ten n.

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~5 . O·Neal. D. L (1i)/:i2) The l' rfect of frost formation on th e performancc of a

pMaliel plale ho.:al exchango.:r . Ph .D. lhe~i~, Purdue Uni\'crsity.
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47. E(.: kcl~, 1', W. (( l)x~) Cont"cl o.; onduct;lnce of me(hanical expanded pla te finned
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4/i. Tr avi~s. D . 1' .• Ro h.'>C now. W. M .• and Uaron , A. B. (It,l72) Forced cIlnve!;t;on
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ASHRAE Trun:.. 7'J 157-165 .
49. Cavallini. A .. and Zccchin. R . ( (')74) A dimensionless correl:ltion for hea l transfer
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b..: r J - 7, PI'. ](It} - J 13.
SO. Shah, M , M , (J')7\)) t\ gc neral !;urrchtlion for he ,ll InHl.~fcr durin~ film condensa·
t ion inside pipes. 1m . 1. HI'11i MU.I'.I TrtllI.l/er 22 547-550.
51. Ko hler. J. A .. :md Sl;Lrner, K. E. (I')X'l) H igh perfllrmance he (ll -Iran,(c r surfaces.
In "lulU/Ix-Jok vf Applied Til, ·mwl lJl'.,i,!I1. E. C GUYl'r (cd.) McG raw- H ili . Ne l'o
Ymk.
52. Stephan . K .. and Ahdd';II;lI tl M . (19!)U) Hcat transfer c(lrr clation~ fo r na tural
convcetion boiling. 1m . 1. lIt'ur M it.\) TriJIHf,'r 2J 7J- H.7 .
53. Coll ier, J. G. (191']) In IIrli/ /-.\ dulIlJ.;a nJ('rma/·lI),tiroll/tc /-'UlU/iIllJ('lll11!s alld
Dl!si}!lI. S. Kaka<;, r\. E. Bcrgk ~. ;lod F. Ma yi ngc r (cds. ). I'kmisphcrc Washington.
D.C
54. Borishanski. V , M , (1')(,9 ) Cnrrl'1;lIi\ln of the etr~'ct of press ure 00 the ( rili cal hem
flux a nd heat tr<insfcr r ale~ u,rnll the th eory lIf th e rmodynamic ~im ilaritY . I'roll -
I('I)IS nl lkol Trallsfer ullIl If.l"rdldin ill Two· ,'I1(l,{{' M('tiia. pp. 10 - .n. Perg' lmoll.
55. Wolverine T ube. Inc .. Engin<:efl nll Da ta Boo k. Decatu r. A la .
50. Chen. J. C. (1%3) A cor relatHln fllr hoiling he;ll lra n ~fcr ttl saturat~'d lhmh in
convccti\'c fl ow. ASME Pa pcr n.1· HT ·34. p rese nted al Sixth National He;lt Tr'los·
fer Confe re nce . Bo~ ton .
57. He nne l\. O . L . D av is. M. W . a nd I krLlle r. B. L (lIJXlll The su pprcsslIlIl IIf
S:lIurlLled nucleal e boiling hy lorced convective nnw. A/eirE SPill'. Sa. 16(11)1))
9 1- 103 .
.'is. Be nnetl . D. L., ,lml C hen. J. ( 111)XlJ) Forced clHlve(lr vc hoi llng in VCrll(;lltuhe.'
for s;1!ufate d purc component ' :lnd hio;u) mixtufl'S. AfOrE 1. 260) ~54 -·H.,1.
5t}. hh ih'lra. K .. '';dcn. J W .. am i I':lhure k. J . (11,11'0) Critic;!1 rt,:VICv. nf (ur rc1atinrl.,
for predicting two·phasc fl oll p re~$ure d rop acr(l~, tuhe han ks, 1-1,'1/1 TramJer
EliI'. j( J) 23-32.
60. Chisholm. D. 11 1)67) A thcnre liral hil,is f(lr the Lodh:lTI- Mar tinell i correlation
for two-phase flow. 1m. 1. Hna /IIass Trilllslt'r 10 J 7<17- 17711.
(-,1. Schrage, D. S .• H ~u. J. T.. ~n d J~n'eT1. M. K. (1IJX7J VI11d fractions and two·phas<:
multipliers in a horizontaltuhr hu odlc. /fCOf Tmm!I'r - I'//I ,.huf!ih . AIChr:.· Symp .
Sa . 83( 2.<;7) I -X.
02. Kal 7., D . I.. M ye r~, J. E .. Youn g. F I L. anti Jj,llckJi;m , G . (l'iSS ) Boiling oulside
tinned tull('s. I'Nrolt'um R,1illt'f 34(2) 113-116,

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716 EVAPORATORS AND CONOE N SERS

oJ. MarIO. P. J. , and Lepere. V. J. (]91l1) Pool boil ing heal transfer from en hanced
~ urfaces til dielectric Ouids. In Adl"llllcc.I'in Enhllllced Helll Trllm[er . HTD- IR. PI'.
l,l3 - 1I12. ASME. Nl,:w York.
64. O·Nelli. P S., Guttzm(lnn. C. G .. and Terbot. 1. \'11. (]972) Novel heat exchanger
inl,:n::a~l,:s casl,:auc cyck e1lieicncy for natural ga~ hquifacture. Adc. ill CT)'ogt'fIIf
Ell/-:. 17 420- 4J7.
65. Chyu. M. C. (]979) Boiling heat transfer from a ~truet ured surface. M.S. thesis,
low<l State UniVl,rsity. Ame~. Iowa.
bO. lIit (lchi C<lbk, Ltd . (1'178) lIigh l1ux ooi lin& ;1Ilt! (.;ont!(.;nsation hl,:,lt tr<ln~fcr
tubc - hit,lchi thermocxcl (Catalog). Tokyo. Japan .
07. N,lkaY;lma, W .o Daikoku. T.. Kawahara. 1-1 .• anti N;lkajima. T. (I9SR) Dynamic
model of en hanced boiling heat transfer on p()fOU~ surfaces. II . Analytic model-
ing. 1. Neal Trllll.l/l'f 1024.'i 1- 4.'ifl.
68. Kuwllhara. 1-1 .• Nakayama. W.• and Daikoku. T. (1'177 ) Boiling heat transfer from
a su rfllcc with numerous tiny pores linked by small tunncls running oelow the
~ud;lCes. /-Jlh Spnp. 011 UN/{ Trulu[t'r. Japan. Papt;r B104.

6e). A}'ub, Z. H .• and Bergks, A. E. (]987) Pool boiling from GEWA surfaces in water
and R· 113. Warmc -/mel Slojfuiwrlruglmg 11 2("19-211.}.
70. Nussdl, w . (l1J1h) Die Ohcrllachcn- Kondesa til,n des Wasserdampth. Zt';(sh. R.
V('r. Del/tsch . III}.! .• PI'. 60. 541. and 56'1.
71. Willi urnS, P. E.. and Sauer, H. J. (19H]) CundC n ~,IlI\)n of refrigcrant- oil rnix'urc ~
lln horizllnt'lllUbes. ASffRAE TrailS. 87(]) 52-09
72. Short. B. E .. and Br')wn. H. E. (1951) Condensa!II'n of vapor in vertical banks or
horilonlall uhcs. l'mc. GellerallJiscll.\·siIJ/l OIl HI'al TralLl/cr. III!itilljl~ M~dJUlJical
EIIKilU'l'f.I . pp. 27 - JI

73. Webb. R. L. (191-14) Shell-side condensation in rdr igerant condense rs. ASHRAf
Tram . No. AT-K4 _01. PI'. 5 - 25.
74. Kern. D. Q. (1950) ProrC'l"s /-/eCl/ Tram/er . McGr:.w- Hili. New York.
75. Be<llly, K. 0. , and K<lIT., D. I .. (11J4X) Condensation nfvapo r~ on lIutsidc of finn ed
tuhes. ehelll. Ellg. Progr('ss 44( I) 55- 70.
76. Eckels. S. 1.. and Palc. M. B. (199(J) A compari.,ul1 of R-134;,\ a nd R -12 In-tube
Heal Transfer Cocnkienl. B,lscd on Existing Corn: lati()n~ . .4SHRAF: Trall.Ul(·lw'Lf
9fi( I ).

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M
CIC
W Chapter 13
M
Z
W

"o
Z Evaporators and
Reboilers in the

.."
M
Process and
Chemical Industries
CIC P. B. Whalley
ol-
e
CIC
oc.
I
M
CIC

-..o
W
~

Sadik Kakac
CONTENTS
CONTENTSJ
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 13 Contents
13. Evaporators and Reboilers in the Process and Chemical Industries
P. B. Whalley

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Relevance of Upflow and Downflow in Vertical Units
13.3 Evaporator Types
13.3.1 Horizontal Shell-Side Evaporator
13.3.2 Horizontal Falling-Film Evaporator
13.3.3 Horizontal Tube-Side Evaporator
13.3.4 Short-Tube Vertical Evaporator
13.3.5 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporator
13.3.6 Climbing-Film Evaporator
13.3.7 Vertical Falling-Film Evaporator
13.3.8 Agitated Thin Film Evaporator
13.3.9 Plate-Type Evaporator
13.3.10 Submerged-Combustion Evaporator
13.4 Reboiler Types
13.4.1 Internal Reboiler
13.4.2 Kettle Reboiler
13.4.3 Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler
13.4.4 Horizontal Thermosyphon Reboiler
13.5 Energy Efficiency in Evaporation
13.5.1 Introduction
13.5.2 Multiple-Effect Evaporators
13.5.3 Vapor Recompression in Evaporation
13.5.4 Multistage Flash Evaporator
13.6 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Problems
13.6.1 Initial Sizing of the Unit
13.6.2 Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Pressure Drop
13.6.3 Calculation of Natural-Circulation Units
13.6.4 Heat Transfer Rates
13.6.5 Heat Transfer on the Heating Side
13.6.6 Fouling
13.6.7 Boiling inside Tubes
13.6.8 Boiling outside Tubes
13.6.9 Falling-Film Evaporation
13.6.10 Agitated-Film Evaporation
13.6.11 Mixture Effects
13.6.12 Enhanced Surfaces
13.7 Possible Problems in the Operation of Evaporators and Reboilers
13.7.1 Introduction
13.7.2 Corrosion and Erosion
13.7.3 Maldistribution

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 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Chapter 13 (Contents Contd….)

13.7.4 Fouling
13.7.5 Flow Instability
13.7.6 Tube Vibration
13.7.7 Flooding
13.8 Design Example
13.8.1 Further Refinements in the Design
Nomenclature
References

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 CHAPTER 13

EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

IN THE PROCESS AND CHEMICAL
INDUSTRIES

P. 8 . WHALLEY
Depanmen! 01 Engineering Science
University of Oxlord
Oxford OX1 3PJ. United Kingdom

13.1 INTROOUCTION

Thi s chapter describes the mai n fC::lIurcs of the dilfcrcnt classes of tV;.pOTa-
tor (Section n.~) ::tnd rchoik , (Sl!ctinn 1.1...1) used in the prott:.:. ,1 0(1
chemical indust ries. The mai n :.Jpplica lions of the va rious types an: brkt1y
discus.se d. Energy effi ciency in c\ .qltlration is brie ny reviewed in Section 13.5,
a nd the possible e ne rgy-saving arrangements of multiple-clfect l'v;lpmallon,
vapor recompression. and muh ist.lgc flash evaporation arc introd uced hric lly.
The main prohlcm:- in the hea l tran~fl'r and prc s.~ urc drop in evaporator:- and
rcboilcrs ilTC reviewed in Sec tion 13.6. Finally, Section 13.7 loob at )'omc of
the prohlc ms encountered durin g their operlllion,
Evaporation is it vc ry CUmmllll ind u:-'lrial pn)Cc)'s: the so[vell\ in it solution
is vapori zed to give a eonccntr;(\ed solution . This concentra ted stream may
be a product or a wa),te st n:::am If. a ... is ve ry often the (,<I)'e, the solve nt is
watcr then thc steam ca n bl' n.:jlTtl'l1 or, more lTunornit'ally, the heat in the
steam can be fe used a ,~ de),c rihed in Sel,tion 1.15, Howeve r, if the solve nt is
nut water it IS almost always \',lluilbk llntl is therefofe rceovcn.:d for re u...c.
The particular geometry of th e r...:hoi lcr can V;(ry widely: the various types a rc
dcscribcJ in Section 13, 3,
Reboile rs arc used to vaporiLe the liquid at the hollom o f a di..,t illation
column to provide the vapor fl ow up the column . The heat is re moved in the

i/uil(n, E( ('!'Qrl/ /urJ IIml COIIIII'IIJ('r)' , I:'J,h:oJ h) S~,J( k K ,t ~ ~~

ISBN l).47\ ·t>2170·t> . ' 1<)<1\ John Wi k, ct:.-. s..Hl', l oc ,

717

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718 EVAPORATOAS ANO AEBOILERS

condenser at the lup of Ihe column. hut uf UllH''': tho..: ho..:;l\ IS ro..:muved at <I
lower temperature than the input tcrnrcratun.: In th e rehoiler. A~ will he
seen in Section 1:\.4. there i... e()n ~i d l'r:l hl c (wo..:d,lp in applicati on ami Iypo..:
between evaporators and reho ile rs.
Before looking al Ihe difl"cre nt types of eVapor,lIlHs and re hoilers, il i~
useful to collsiuer the va ri ou ~ dass ili(.;;ltions intI) v. hieh th(.; diffe rellt unil~ l'iln
be piliced. First. the unit s ca n he divided in to th(Y.-,e where the L'vaporuti ng
slream a nd the heating stream arc ke pt apart h» a tuhe or pl a te wa ll , and
those whe re the slreilms ;Ire de libc ra tdy allowed to mix . The fonncr l'ategnry
is much more commonly encountered. T he lall er ca tegory arc d irect-contact
units and arc known as "subme rged-comhusti nn evaporators" (SCl' Section
13.3.ItJ). In these units there is no heat tran sf..:r ~lIrfacc. This is especially
usefu l when evaporating high ly corrosive or highl} fllu lin g ~o luti on.~. Hash
eV;lpora tors (sec Sections 13.JJ and 1J5.4) ill 'll ru.;..:d nl) hcating ..,urfaCl'.
relyin g on the reduction in syste m pressure fro m one reg ion of the evapora -
tor to another to produce the required evapoliltlllll
The unit s in which the evaponlling stream :Illd th..: hcating slream arl'
se parat ed may he divided into two main typt!s: ~h dl - and-tuh..: unit s and plat ..:
unit". The ~ h e ll-and- t uhc designs el)lhi"t of a hl Tg..: !"'Y lindrical ~ht!1I inside
which is ,I bundle uf tubes . Thc pl;tte evaporat,)T us..:, it plate instead of a
tuhe to divide the heating and evaporating stre:tm~.
In a she ll·and- tubc unit, Ihe she ll may he h(l Tl wnlal nr vertical. anu the
fluid to be evaporated may hc introDuced in to the shell (a "sh('II-siue"
evapora tor) o r into the tuhes (a " tuhc- .~ide" eV;lpmatmJ.
In it plitle unit the individu;11 pl<ltt.:~ have nlf rllga tll)!l~ or rih~ hi improve
th e hea t transfer rat e. Th e plates a rc mounted tuge th er and held in a fra mt!
wit h gaske ts scpilril ti ng anu ~eit l i n g the pial": ' T hi ~ itrrall g.:: nll:n l allow,
alternate hea li ng and eval")oraling strea ms in Ihl' ~ p;t(" e hetwee n successive
plat es. In other plate -type design!'. of cvaporatllr,. Ilal aluminum plate!'. arc
separated by corrllg;t\ed melal sheel s which ;K'" ;J' tin~. The ,andwich uf
plates a nd fi ns is brazed together to form an lIlteg ral unit. Such units arc
often u!'.ed in c ryogenic ;Ippli":ations.
In ;tll types of rebuilcr~ and cVHporators. tu g~'1 a J,!U(I(.1 h":iLt Iriln~kr ral e. it
is most adva ntageous 10 sec that Ihe liquid I\) hL' ..:vap,.)f'lIed flows ovcr the
hcat cd surface with as large a velocity as pu~ sibk . Thi ~ fl uw or circu liltion nf
liquid in the unit milY he ca useu hy th..: tlo.:n ,ity dif kr(' nces nctwe..:n the
evaporating mixture of liquid and vapor, and the liquid rcturning aft er
vapor- liqu iJ separation. The:,c units arc known a . . "natur,ll-circulation"
unit s. Alt crnatively_ Ihe flow can he pnl\'idetl b} .t pump: th ese ar..: "forcl!d-
circulation" units. In SQml.": cil~es tH.lth prOl'~'~~e~ m;IY contribut e Iv lht·
cireuliltion : these a rc " assisted-circul;lIion " unit , . If the liquid bei ng ev;tpo-
rllted is vc ry viscous, nont.: of these circulation nlL'thod . . Ill ;ty hc !'. utlicicnt. In
this case direct agita tion itl the heitl tritn ~fcr ,urfitt"o.;" Illll ~ t hI.; pnwiJ.::d:
<':\'ilporators with this feature include ~ti rred or .Iglta ted evaporator'. How-
evc r. more commo nly th e liqu id is mechanic.tlly :-.pread ontl ) Ihe healed

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 132 RELEVANCE Of UPFlOW AND DOWNfLOW IN VERTICAL UNITS 719

r-----------~-----------,
CViIPOIatoo"s -I ,
,
IOIerl\al

e,,,.
~
,
S1Jbme<ged
,......."""""
v~""

---
Comt"'''~ I
."""".... "' ....
eonslfUC11On
(Plate-Fio
I
HotIZQl'ltai

""','
I I
AO'tlted F~m Tube SocIe

Honzonlal
FailI ng
Long . Tube FIlm
VertlCll'

C~mblng
F,lm

Falhng
Film

fiR. 13.1. Gl' nc ral (1,l s~ ilica l iCl n of cY(lporalOr t yf)C~ .

surface as a thin him: this c:l n hl' don e hy a rotating assemhly of mechanica l
wipers or .~cr;lpers. This L1nit i ... the agitated thin film cV:I I)Oratllr and is
descri bed furth e r in Sectio n I J . :"I .~ .
The main categories of evapo rators and re hoilers arc !-oum mari zed 111
Fig. 13. 1. FUrlhe r detai ls abou t th e types o f unit can he found in 11 - 5].

13.2 RELEVANCE OF UPFLOW AND DOWNFLOW IN VERTICAL UNITS

An importan t design and opera Ting consideratio n in a ll ve rtical evapora to rs

o r reboile rs is whe ther the liquid fct.:d e nt e rs at the bollom o r the top of th e
unit. If the solution tlnws upwllrJ .... the hoi ling poinT of The liqu id fall s as it
Ho ws thro ug h the lin it IlCCiIU ~C l)f The dec reasing h ydro~ t atic pre~~ ure . If the
liquid e nt e rs well below it s boiling point. th ere is no boi lin g a t the hase of the
unit. Risi ng through the unit. thl' temperat ure of the liquid increa ses as it is
heat e d. ;lIld at th e same time the huiling puint is fa ll ing. Once boili ng begin s.
the te mperature the n fall ~ cor re~r()ndi n g In the fa ll in pressure. because the
liquid is sat urat ed . EV:lporation i:-; occurring therefore OoTh hecil usc of

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 uQuld and
Vapor

T,be
I
••
,,•
0

Condensing
Steam
~ "
•
(Heating Side) ,

",
~ Process·Side
Heating,Slde
Temperature

Temperature

~
aQ
~ e;,.

Condensate
F,tm
..• •
,00
'
BoItrng
!
, Beglns-.......

Temperature

Flow
(Process Side)

"-ig. 13.2. Upllllw in an cvaporawr: typical tc mpcratu ft: profile in the boiling liquio.l.

Hashing of the liquid eJue 10 the f;.11 in pressure amJ heca use of the heat
tra nsfer. Hence the temperature di fference between the evapora ti ng llu ieJ
ami the heating process stream passes through a minimum at the stan o f
boili ng (sec Fig. 1.1.2). The conseque nce of this i~ thai it larger steam pressure
and a large r hea t tra nsfer area are requ ired than if the evaporating fluid were
flowing down through the unit as shown in Fig. 1.1 .3. Thus if there is a choice,
downf1ow units arc prdcrahlc to those where there is an upllow.

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 13.3 EVAPORATOR TYPES 721

,,~

(Process Side)

II
Saturation
Temperature / ' "
Reached
CooOens,ng
Stearn
(Heaung SIde)
To'"

Process·Side
Temperature

Heatlng,Slde
Temperature
EvaporatIng
F,lm

Condensate
Film - ---I II

Temperature
Liquid and
v.po<

Fig. 13.3. Downflow in an evaporator: typic:!! temperature profile in the boiling

1i(juid .

13.3 EVAPORATOR TYPES

In some parts of the world loday, common sa il is recovered from seawater by

direct solar evaporation of seawat e r in shallow ponds. A variant of this is to
heal thc liquid in a pan over a tiro.: . Howeve r. the simplest form of industrial
evaporator is shown in Fi~. l3A. i.l i", a i>i.m\lk $,lcaffi-ncatcd c\j'&.~Hl.tm
(sometimes called a "slil1"). In industrial evaporators the heating medium is
very common\'f Pf()cCSS steam (-.1':> in Fig. \3.4), bu\ ~ome\ime~ ho\ oil or
special healing liquid is used.

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 722 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

Vapo r

Demisler
( Add itional Vapor - Liquid Separation
EqUIpment May also Be Used)

o
" "
o - - - Feed Liquor
o " o

"
_J~~- St"m
_ _ Steam and Condensate
o 0
Heating it
- " - ,----------'
•

Concentrated Liquor

Fig. 13.4. Typica l pot·type evaporator.

The most common types of eva porators are described in the followin g
sections, together with some indication s of the ir uses or th eir advantages and
disadvantages. First, the shell -and-tube units are described, starling with the
shell-side units (Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.2), followed by the tube-side units
(Sections 13.3.3 to 13.3.8). Then plate units art:: described (Section 13.3.9),
and finally direct-contact units (the submerged-combustion evaporator. see
Section 13.3.10).

13.3.1 Horizontal Shell-Side Evaporator

The horizontal shell -side evapora{Qr and the kelllc reboi ler (see Section
13.4.2) arc identica l in construction. The horizontal shell-side evaporator is
illustrated in detail in Fig. 13.5. The heating flu id (usually steam) is supplied
to the inside of the tubes in the bundle, and the liq uid to be evaporated is on

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 Vapor 001

I
Sleam In

~--- - -- ------ - - -~ I l
I

~~
(/;
I I I I
-
,'
~ -
""\ \ ~

-- ~
w~" \ ruMS su~es '--
I T
I
Satftesl
j F ee<I LJqvo. In
Sleam and
Concenlraled Condensate Oul
uQuor OUI

thl' otlt:-.itk (If tin: tu l'll':., Thl"l' unit:-. ,Ire llftel1 u'ed <1:-. hoiler feed -wa ter
m<lke-up l'Vap() ra1tlr ~. hut arc (ltlll,' rwise no t muc h used " ... I.'vapor;l1ur ... , Low
eTltrainmen t of liquid drops in[<1 [he va por is a primary rcquin':: ll1ellt fnr t he, ...
evapufi\[Dr:-., and thc horizont al uni t provide:. a I;trge v.tj:}M - liq uid :,ul'f,tee
area for ~e para ti ()n in rdation It} th e she ll d iame te r, Fur econo mic n:aso n.'"
the she ll diame ter mmt he kept .1' , mall as po:-.sihlc hce:l u:-.e the ... e e v;tpm a ttll'
'unit ~ uftcn ope r,lI e ,II high P[C "ll fl' ~ hoth on the luhe :.i de a nd th e , hel l :-.id e.
The advantages of horizont al , hl' lI -side eVll pnrator~ arc :

I. A ... cX ll lainc d prev iuu ~ l y thl'Y g i\c;1 re lat ivcly largc va pnl' - liqui d ."'cpa r;l-
tion area .
1 Thcy hilVC;1 vcry low lll'adr()(.!111 rClluircnll.:lIl and C,t1l t hl1:-' hI.: tilll.:d illlu
conlincd spaecs.
J. T hey arc rd atively cheap 10 con:.t nKL thou g.h thc t"U~t incrca:-.e~ fairly
rapidl y with the ... hc ll -... idc p IC:"lI rc :I' [hl' :-.hd l i:-. relatively large. The
I,trge ... hcll i ~ Ilel'c!>!>ary [\1 pruvlLk the :-.pal"e for t he di:-..:: ngagCnlCnl of
the hllu id and the varor,

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N'XT
724 EVAPORATORS AND AEBOILEAS

4. They provide good heat transfe r performance IlCcausc the re is ,1 strong

circu lation indun:d wi thin the shell a nd th roug h the tube bundle . This
aspect is discussed further in Section 1.1.4. 2 nn kc ttle reboilers.
5. As evaporators they ca n be used wi th h,mJ wa ters; it has been fo und
that the scale formed on the tubes can be removed by drain ing the shell
and rapidly filling the hot tuhe bundle wit h cold water to create a
thermal shock to crack uff the ),Calc.

In gene ral. however. in spite of the comment a hout hard-water scale. these
uni ts arc nOi best :-.uilCd to the evaporilt ion of fuu ling liquids. It if, common
for the most fouling stream to be placed inside th e tuhes as th is surface can
be mechan ica lly cleaned . Also they arc not suita hle for foami ng liquids.

13.3.2 Horizontal Failing-Film Evaporator

Falli ng-film evaporators arc usua lly vertical unit s. whe re the liquid fa lls down
inside of the tubes. However, horizontal fallin g·lilm evaporators h;lVe ;II ~
heen suggested [6J (see Fig. 13.6). He re the liquiLi 10 he evaporated i~ sprayed
on the ou tsiLie of a horizonta l tube bundle. The heating fluid tlows in siLic the
tubes. The liqu id outside the tubes forms a thm Hi m Howing :!fOund the
tubes. When it reaches the bottom il d rips off. eit her a-'1o drops or possibly <is a

Feed l iquor In
Sleam In

j lIq u.d
Sprayed onlO
j
Distributor \
r Tube Bundle
\ I 1
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
- -1' ---0,: ,~

1 I sup~ "-Hom:ontal
Tubes
j Plale
j
Steam and Concentrated
Condensale Out ltqlJOr Out

Fig_ 13.6. Huri.mntal falllng. rilm n<l pt>ratllr.

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!>hec t o f liquid. onto the tube:» below. The flow il> very much li ke the
tradition:,1 view of cond~nsati()n in a horizontal IUhc bundle: indeed the main
t1ifTere m:e is that th e fl uw r;ate uf liqu id falls going down through the bundl e
instead of risin g.
One particular adv,t nl age of thc,e unit s ove r conventional film evaporators
is that the proble m of distributing the liquid is much simpler. In a ve rtical
unit, ideally the same amount of liq uid is fed [ 0 each tuhe a nd distributed
uniformly around the periphery \ If each tube . In the ho rizont al unit. the
distribution com be done as a spray onto the top fa ce of the bundle . Like
vcrtica l falling-film cvapor:lIors, horizontal units givc high heat transfe r
codlicients because the liquid is III the form of a very thin film .

13.3.3 Horizontal Tube-Side Evaporator

This lyPI! of evaporatur is illustra ted in Fig. 13.7; it is also some times called
the submerged-Iubc forced -circula tion eva porator. It consists of a horizontal
shcll -and- tuhe heat ellc hanger with steam or other healing fluid on the shell

Heated LJquor to
Flush Tank (wMre
Pressure ts Released and
Vapor Formed)
Stearn In

SUPpo\lates
j !
"- , I
'"i I I

(I 1
1
I
1
1

1
1
I
1
1

1
I I I I I
'i
TUbeS/ J
j 1
Stea m and Uquor ( Pumped
Condensate Qut In by a Pump .
under Pressure to
Prevent Bo.llng)
Fig. IJ.7. l-I uri.lOlll;,1 tuhc-sidc cvaporator.

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726 EVAPORATORS ANO REBOILERS

side. The liquid feed flows on the tube side, il is ht.:ated but bulk boiling does
not occur because the pres.<;ure is high. It should he: not ed that the: preve ntio n
of boiling inevitably mea ns th at the heat tra nsfer is relatively poor. though
possibly some subcooled boil ing may occu r if the te mperature is only a few
degrees below the boiling poi nt. The heated solu ti lm flows through a thronl e
va lve and into a separator. As the li(,Ju iu flows inlu the se parator, some of its
flashes to form vapor. The liquid from the separator is recircu lated via a
pump to the evajX)ralor. A pump is inevitably necessary beca use of Ihe large
pressure [ass across the thro tt le valve. These I.'\·aporators a rc suitable for
crystallization of, for example. commo n salt, and sim ilar duties. Th ey arc
suitable for such applications because the fact tha t hoiling is preven ted in the
heat exchanger prevents crysta llization or large -scale fouling occurring on the
heat transfe r surfaces.

13,3_4 Short·Tube Vertical Evaporator

This type of unit is illustrated in Fig. 13.8. It was one of the first types of
evaporator 10 he deve lo ped . it is also ca ll ed the " ca[andria" cvapora lOr. II
consists of a Tcl at iv>..:!y squal vnt ical cylinder. an d it has hOTlwnlitl tuhe
shee ts that go righ t across the shell. The tubL's a rc relatively large in
d ia me ter, in the ra nge 25 to 75 mm. but relatively ~h(lTI (only 1.5 to 2 m long).
T he tubes arc expand ed into tube sheets. The largt.: r tubt.: diameters ,ITt.: used
for crysta ll izing evapora to rs. The evaporatin g liquid /lI 1s Ihe lower part of the
vessel and come:. part way up the tubes. The tuhes arc heated from the
o utside_ usually by conde nsing steam. The liqU id hoils in the tuhes. As
the liquid boi ls it is carried upward hy the stea m. the liqu id is the n returned
to the lowe r part of the evaporato r through a large cen tra l hole (or " we ll " ).
This large hole typically has roughly the same cross-section:.1 area as thaI
avai lable for flow in all the tubes. This means. III practice, thaI the central
hole has ,I diameter which is about ha lf the diamete r of the tube sheet.
A lt e rnatively, downcomers around the outside of the bundle can be used.
The magnitude of the liquid velocit y up the tubn h;:l~ an effect o n the heat
transfe r performance : th e grea ter the ....e1oci ty, the higher the boiling heat
transfe r coeflicients. The liquid vc\oci ty is infl uenced by the level of liquid
within the whole unit. The optimum ope rilting Ind wu ld be calculated by
the me thods outlined in Sect io n 11.6, hut more ofte n the rough rule is used
that the liq uid leve l (as indicilt cd by a sigh t glil ss) l>hou ld be between one-half
and two-thirds the way up the ca la ndria. If th e kve l is too high. then the
satu ra tion temperature will be increased by the h~·drosta t ie pressure effet'l.
This will reduce Ih e hea t transfe r and the ci rcula t ion rate. If the leve[ is too
low_ then there may he incomplet e welli ng of th e upper part of the tuhc
surfaces.
If these units arc used as crystalli zing evapora tors_ the n it is importan t to
keep the circulation rate high. Assisted circu lation is used by putting a la rge
impe lle r in the ce ntra l dowm.:umcr. Such it Unll is shown in Fig. 13.lJ.
Crystallization is not wan ted in the tubes. and so the liq uid level is increased.

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 13.3 EVAPORATOR TYPES 727

Vapor Out
(to Separators)

DIsengagement
Spoce

Oowncome.

Tubes

Sight Glass with

liqUid level \
- Steam In

Steam and

Concentrated
--- - '='
- ~r-=+=- - - - -_ - Condensate Out

LJquor Out ----

liqUId
-- - - - - -- - - - - C,rculatlon

Feed liquor I n _ ~==:::;-~ ~~::::_- __ --

as sht)wn in Fig. 1.1.9. The pumpi ng un it. if u!'ocd to iucre'lse [he liquid fluw
ratc. should be insta lled .It the hottum of the downcome r In mi nimize Ihe risk
of cavitation.
The adva nt ages of short-tllhc ve rtica l evaporators a rc:

L They give good heal Ir,lIlsfe r pe rformance p;m icularly at large tempera-
ture ditfe rclll:cs_ This i:- bce;Ju sc large tempe rature differences lead 10
high liquid velocit ies through the tubcs.

BACK
BACK CONTENTS
CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
 Vapor Out
(10 Separalors)

Oisengagemenl
Space
Downcomer

liQuid CirculatIOn

Tubes

- Sleamln
:c
-
1_--::::- 1~- 'r----l

Feed liQuor In _
1----".;

MoIor Orive to Propellor

to Assist Circulation

FiK· 13.9. Shon·tube vert ica l cv,lporalOr u ~~' d as a crystallizer.

728

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 13.3 EVAPORATOR TYPES 729

') T hey arc relat ively che ap to con st ruct an d can he h uil t as large unit s.
.1. They a Te sU; lahlc fOJ' crystall ;li ng liqu ids. if a:-.sistell c iTl; ul atio n i... u ~..: d .
as in F ig. 1.1.9.
4. T hey require low headroom .
5. T hey often have large-diame ter tunes and the refore the inside surface.
in particular. is relative ly ca:-.y III clean mec ha nically. T hey are thu s
suitahlc for rou [ing [iqu;d ....

13.3.5 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporator

T h(: lung-tuh!.: vntical cVi' rorator i~ l1[ u" tratcd in Fi g. LUO, It is vcry :-. imil ar
to thc vertical the rmosyp ho n rc hoi ler ht.!e Section 1.'.4. :n. The ma in dine r-
..:nee i~ tha i th e \'e rtical thermO~YjJll! !1l rt.!huilc r i:-.. a ... il:-. name im plie,,", a
na tura l-circulation device. T he long -Iuhe ve rtica l eva porator is often e quippe d
wi th a pump in th e rcell [inc i l .' s htl .... n in Fig. 1).Hl. The uni t eOlls;sh or it

Concen.ra.ed wquor
and vapor
- [ 1o SeparatOl , wqu ld
Is oI1en Reclrculated(
r - r- r- r-
vapor BI11110
OlS1nbule S1eam
around Per iphery
otShell
------ -- - Steamln

I--- -
- ~
ubes ____

~ -
r- - -
""\
r- --- BaH le

----
-~
I--- - -
,
$learn and
CooOensa.e Qu. - I
'------

- Feed Liquor In
(110m Pum p)

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730 EVAPORATORS AND REBOll ERS

ve rt ical shc11-a nd -tube heat exchanger. The tu hcs arc usually s maller in
dillmeter, longe r_ a nd fewe r in numbe r th an in (he short-t ube ve rsion (sec
Section 13..1.4 ). He re t he IUhc le ngth may be up to (j m. Boi ling takes pl ace
inside the tubes, which arc usually healcu by stcam conuensin g on t he shell
side. The vapor - liquid separator may be integral. but is mo re usu<l lly ca rried
ou l in a d iffe rent vessel as shown in Fig. 13. 10. From tho: Sepa Tilt or th e liquiu
p ha ~c recirculates to the evapura tur.

13.3.6 Climbing-Fil m Evaporator

A sli ght va ria nt on the long-lUhe evaporator described in Section 13.3.5 is the
so-called " climbi ng-fi lm evaporator. " He re the fluw in to the tu bes is rel<l-
tively low anu so a large fract ion of the now is vaporized fairly quickly. Th is
has the result of producing a high va(X>r veloc it y which ell uses the "a nnu lar"
vapor- liq uiu nuw pli llern to be formed. Here most of the liquid Rows as a
th in film on the w:.JlI s of the tube, and the vapor ilows up the center of the
tube. T he :ldva nt age of the a nnu lar flow paHern i... that the liquid film is very
th in anu so high he<lt transfer coe fficient s arc obtai ncd . A dimbin ~-li l m
evapora tor can be used. in some appl ica tions, as a once-th rough device. Here
t he required conce nt rat ion is reached in one pa . . _~ t hrough th e evapor,lIo r,
ami su nu reci rculation of the ked liquid is requ ired.
T he change in the ~at u r at io n te mperature dU<.: to the hydrostatic pressure
effect ca n ma ke this evaporator type diffic ult to analyze. If it is operati ng in a
natura l-circul ation mode (as in a thermosyphon re hoi le d without a pu mp,
then calculation of the th roughpu l is pa rticul arly di fli cult (sec Section D.h.3).
The advantages of climbi ng-fil m evaporators .trl' ;

1. They give exce llent hea t transfe r performan<.' c.

2, T hey arc ge nera lly inexpensive to manufacture .
3. T hey take up littl e ROOT space, bu t high he .. droom is needed .
4, The liquid hold-up and the liquid re~i d en(c ti me arc low. These units
arc therefore useful fo r evapora ting h c at ·~c m,i ti vc liquids. o r where :1
low inven tory of liquid is requ ired fu r sllfet y reasons.

13.3,7 Vertical Falling-Film Evaporator

This Iype of unit is illu sl ntted in Fig. 13.11: it i~ not use d as a rcboiler. A~
explai ned in Sectio n 13.2.\. a downflow eva]X}ralOr is desirable beca use it
docs no t su lfe r from prob lcms hrought ahout by the hydrosta tic head clkct in
upft ow cvaporators. The fee d liqu id is arranged to fall a~ i l th in fi lm down the
inside of the t ubes. Th e heat ing flui d (condensing steam or hot liq uid) is on
Ihe shel l ~i d e of the exc hanger. Because the fi lm is vcry thin. the hea t transfe r
coefficient fo r th e evaporatin g film can be very high. T he vapor ll.~ lI a ll y flow. .

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 Siois CuI in Tube Top
LJq~d
level
Vapor Out

I
Top Tube Sheet Top Tube
PIal.

liqUid level

Steam In _

Sallies

Bam",

Steam and
Tubes
Condeosale Out

Bonom Tube Sheet

Tube Ends Cut Obliquely 10 AId
liquid Runoff

j
Concentrated LJquor Qui

Fi /ll. 13. 11 . Ve rtic:.l f<llling.lilm CV,l po Tii tO r.

731

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downwards co-currently with the liquid and the varor- liquid separa tor is
arranged at the base of the unit.
If it is required to evaporate the liquid below its normal boiling point and
vacuum operation is undesirable oceause the liquid \.\>ould he oxidized by any
leakage of air in lo the system, then the evaporation may be carrie<.l out in a
stream of inert gas. For co-current downflnw the inert gas would en ter at the
top of the heat exchanger and be taken off the bonom. In this type of unit
there may be an advantage in having coun te rcurrent opcTitlion as this gives a
better concentration driving force for the mass tr an ~ fcr. This mea ns having
the inert gas and evaporated vapor fl ow upwards against the liquid Howing
downwards. One danger of such an arrangement i ~ that Ihe flooding limit
may be exceeded and the liquid film may no longer be able to flow down-
wards against the upllow of gas (sec Section 13.7.7 o n flooding).
The main problem wi th falling -fil m evaporators is Ihat it is very important
to have a good distribution of the liquid feed bOlh uniformly 10 every tube
and also around the circumference of each tuhe. If th is is not achieyed then
some o f the tubes wi ll not be well ed oyer their en tire length. A weir
arrangement ca n work reasonilbly well provided th at th e top tube shcet i ~
accu rate ly flal and level: thi s arrangement is. howeve r, sensi tive to hydro-
st:lt ie pressure gradients across large tube sheet s, Distrihutors wilh orifices
arc often prefer,lble to weirs in that they give a be ller feed distribution:
however, the orifices ca n become blocked if the feed liquid is dirty. This
problem is discussed further in Seclion n.7.3. bUI it ~ hould be noted thai the
<.Iislribution problem is not so severe in horizontal falling-film evaporators
(sec Section LU.2).
Both the vertical falling-fi lm evaporator an<.l the climbing-film evaporator
produce very Sood heat transfer performance. Howeve r, the falling film unit
has the inherent advantage that it is a t1ownflow device. The falling -m m
evaporator is, however, slightly larger than the climt"ling-film unit for a given
evapora tion dut ~' , and therefore morc expensive 10 manufacture. The ex-
pense is increased even more because o f the deliotc nature of the liquid
distributors required. Falling-fi lm evaporators arc. however, probably the
type of evaporator able to operator most ~uccessfull y at the lowest va lues of
temperature difference between the hot and cold side ... of Ihe heal excha nger.

13,3.8 Agitated Thin Film Evaporator

This type of unit is illustrated in Fig. 13. 12. The falllllg.filrn evaporator uses
gravi ty 10 produce a thin liquid film . the climbing-til m evaporator uses shea r
slress produced by the vapor How, and in this evaporator the thin film is
produced mechanically; this is done by an inlegral rotnr equi pped with blades
that spread out the liquid into a thin film [71. Th in films arc of cou rse
desirable because they lead to hi gh heat transfer etlc ttieients. Such evapora-

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 Motor Drive
for Aotor

Top Bearing

_ Vapor Out

\-----l
Feed lIQUOIln _
~-L

Sleam ln _
f---{
Feed Flows down Small
Gap between AotOl and
Wall

Heating Jackel Aotor

Steam and
Condensate Out

Bottom Beanng
(Support Not Shown)

Concentrated LIQuor Out

.' il.(. 13. 12. LUW{\ . I ~pc altil :ltcd thin film cv'lpnr'ltm.

733

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734 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

tors arc used when the product is:

I. heat sensitive, for example. food products heca use the residence time
on the heated su rface is very low. typically in the range 6 to 40 s. In
addition. the residence time distribution is ve ry narrow so that there is
only a small probability of a heat-sensitive product be ing damaged.
2. known to h,we a tendency to foam or to fou l the heat transfer surface.
3. highly viscous. as the mcchanical action proDuces the thin film .

As well as producing high heat transfer coefficients under difficult circum-

stances. these evaporators are able to operate at high evaporation ratios (see
Section 13.6.10).
Typical operating parameters for agitated thin Ii 1m evaporators have been
given by Salden [7]. They can operate up to 3 bin and 400°C with tluids of
viscosi ty up to 1O~ (N . s)/m 2 • The size of the unit can be up to a heat
transfer area of 40 m 2 , a volumetric flow of 35 /11 1/hr, and an evaporation
rate of 12.00() kg/hr.

13.3.9 Plate-Type Evaporator

This type of unit is illustrated in an exploded view in Fig. 13. 13 [Ho 9J. Plate
heat cxchangers can often be used as an alt c rnative to shell-and-tube
exchangers. They arc very commonly used in heat transfer to single-phase
liquids but their usc with boiling and condensin g !lows is less well known.
Normal evaporators usually involve condensation of the heating stcam. as
well as partial vaporization of the feed liquid. T here arc two approaches to
using a plate heat exchanger as an evaporator.
The first is to usc the heat exchanger as a conventional single-phase heat
exchanger by preventing the feed liquid from evapora ting by increasing the
pressure. When the pressure is released after the hcolt exchanger, the vapor
is formed by flashing.
The second approach is to accept that ehange~ nf phasc will take place in
the plate heat exchanger and to mOllify the exchanger atwHJingly. Inev it ably,
a large change of volume occurs, so in the evaporation. for example. provi-
sion must be made for the large extra volume of vapor produced. Hence a
novel arrangemcnt and design of plates is needed (sec Fig. 13.13). The plates
arc relatively widely spaced to allow sufficient nuw area for the two-phasc
mixtures. The plates arc grouped in sections of four plates. Referring to Fig.
13.13 and considering the plates from the left:

Plate I is a eonden~ in g-s t cam plate. Stc;lm <:ondcnscs on this plat e and
heats the plates on each side. This plate ha~ downwards !low, and the
condcnsate is removed at the bottom of the plat e.

BACK
BACK CONTENTS
CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
 2 3 •
Stea m ----------r_------~--------r_------~--------r_--------

E E
•E •In• •In•
•
~
~
E
~ ~
E
,
~

•i?c i?
•
~
c
~
i? c• ! - Plates
• • •
Vapor
u
c
0 '" 8
~ ~ u
c
0

" "
! Condensate
Feed uquor
Separator

j
Concentrated LoqUOf

folK. 13. 13. A I'V pbtc-and·framc evaporator.

Pl a te :2 is an evaporat ion plale. The feed liquid e nte rs at th e hotlom. and

th e liquid i~ partially evaporated as it rises. The plate is hea led hy the
two adjacent condensi ng-steam plates. The liquid lind the vapor Clrc
transfe rred to pia Ie 4.
Plat e J is a nothe r co nd c n s in g·~t c am plate. Agai n the steam condenses in
uownwarus flow, and the condensate is rcmO\'cli at the txltlom of the
plate .
Plate 4 is another evaporation [lillie that receives the liquit! and va por
from plale 2. The liquid flows downw;Ir!J ~ o n Ih is pl ate. further evapora -
tion tak ing place as it falls. I"h..: remai ning liquid and the vapor an::
re move d throug h the large re ctangu la r rxm ,II the oouom of the plate
and flow into the se paration vessc l. Again this platc is heated by the
two surrounding steam plat c~ .
Plate 5 is the fi rst plat e of anothcr group of four.

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736 E\lAPORAT04'IS AND AEBOllEAS

The advant ages u f th ese platc-ty~ c~·a puratur~ ;trc :

I. Thc)' can he uscd with vel)' he at se nsit ive p roducts as the resid e nce
time is short In additinn. th e liqu id hold-u p o n th e plat es is low .
.., They do no t req uire much he adroom. typically :1 m.
J. They give high heat tr;insfcr rat c~. Oncc agai n this is;l conseque nce of
Ihe lillU id bei ng in the furm ()f a (hin film
4. T hey ea n hc arranged in vel)' Ilexihlc gf(lUps. For example. plate
evaporators ca n he ;trran gcd as rnultipk -ell"cet eV<l poralors. Anolher
cunseque nCl: of thi s nex ibility is that a numhe r of uni ts C;1I1 easi ly be
arranged tll handle large liow rat es.

The second main cla s!> of evaporator indica ted 111 Fig. ]]. 1 consists o f those
uti lizing dircct -enntaet hcat tran~fer. Thl:: prinwry example nf a direct-contact
evapora tor is the suhemergetl-cumbustion evaporator.

13.3.10 Submerged-Combustion Evaporator

This type of unit is iliustr;l\ed in Figure lJ. 14. Su h llll' r ~ed combu!>t ion j), the
combust ion of hydrocarlxHl fud so that ei th er the etlmhustinn itsel f takes
place under IU.lujd, or thc ho t cumhu)'llIln pmdud ~;I !>n arc rclea ),cd unJer
the surface of thc liquid. In cilher case thc e n er g~' released by the combu!>-
tion proce s~ is transferred hy direct contaCt wi th the liquid . Su bmc rged -col1l-
hustion syste ms lire unusua lly e lticie nl in that th e milximum possihlc e n ~ rgy
is transfe rre d to the liquid.
Al> inJic<lleJ previously the hurncr itself C;Ul h ~· :.uhrne rgc d in Ihe liljuid :
however, thi ~ is rcl;lIivc ly unusual. II has the alh antage, howeve r, that the
hurner is "cry efticien tly cooled hy the surroundmg li(IU id. This may mean
tha t rcfnlCtor), mate ria l or specia l steel is not ne ..·,k J fo r the hu rner.
T he exha ust gas 10 Ihe stack from an y type t)f ~u hmerg e d-co mhu slion un it
will he unusuall~' cool and wet. This of euur:.e i)' , I nCl.:essalY consequclll.:e of
the e1ticiency of thl' combustion process. It J ill'!> mean. however, Ih;1I the
s l ~lc k g;ls will he unu ~ uall y eturosiw, and this fa cl IC:ld:. to a tende ncy In usc
ve ry cle,1I1 fuc b ;1\ thiS type o f cV;lporatur.
In the suhme rged exha u ~ 1 system shown in Fig. 1.114. the exhau!>t ga)' i.,
reka$cd ;nt o the annulus be tween the downcolTlel and a d rilft tube . Thi s h a~
the ctTect of prod uc; ng a strong c ircula tion of th e liquiJ in the tan k and so
gives good mixing hetwcen th e hoi exhaust gas an d Ihe liquid .
Submerged -('umbustio n eV;lllo rato rs have foun d IWO main u!>e ~. They arc
use(] 10 rcvaporize liqu iticd gases. T hi ~ IS done In a suhme rged-comhustion
unit in two stages. Fir... \. the co mhu~tioll produ ct gase~ arc uscJ to he at water
;n ;1 lank. Thl' n th e hot Willer in I)w tank is used 10 vaporize the 1i1luiJ Ihal
tlaws th roug h coil ed luhes immcrseJ in th e liqU id. Tlli s ca n be done sa fel y
whcn the direct vapm;t;tlion of the liq ui tie d g;I)' ~: ~ might be hazarJou~ 1111).

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 ,,,," I I
(Gas or 011) A"

Au to Burner- --I
Burnef _

VapoI' and Exhal./SI

Gases WhIch Have Su1l'l8'
Not Conoensec:l Out

0 - '''''''
uQuor In

~o
• .'
0 o °0 00
o • 0
LIquid 0
Level 0 ••
0

0
!. \ 0

0
0
•
•
0

Draft Tube
•
• "J.
to Promote
0 0
• Circulation

• •
• • •
•
0 0
• 0

0 • 0

Concentral eCl I.Jquor Out

737

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738 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

Submerged-combustion evaporators arc also cOlllfllunly used in the concen-

tration of corrosive chemicals such as s ulfuri c ilc id , phosphoric acid, or
various forms of chemica l waste.
The main adva nt ages of th ese sunmerged-comhustion units come from the
abse nce of any fix ed heat transfer s urface. SO tho.:re can be no corrosion or
fuuling. They can also handle viscous liquids. vcry corrosive liquids. and
liquids with dis!;QIo.' ed solids. The disadvanlage. a~ mentioned before. is the
contaminat ion o f the liq uid by the combustion products.

13.4 REBOILER TYPES

Here the main types of rebo iler arc briefly descTihcd . They arc the internal
reboilcr (Section 13.4.1), the kettle rcboiler (Section 13.4 .2), the ve rtica l
thermosyphon rehoilcr (Sec tion 13.4.2), and thc horizon tal thermosyphon
reboilcr (Section 13.4.4). Some of these types ar(' very si milar to evapora tor
types alrClldy considered.

13.4,' Internal Reboller

The simplest type of rehoilc r. the internal rehoilcr. is shown in Fig. I."U 5. It
is simply a tube bu ndle placed in Ihc base ('[' [he distillation column.
Although the idea is very attractive in principle bec,lUse there is no separate
relx)ilcr at all ,iI1d the disti llation colum n would on ly have to be modified
slightly. it is rarely practicable. This is because it IS ofte n not poss ible to fit
enough heat transfe r area into the bundle to reach the required vapor iZ<lIinn
rate.

13,4.2 Kettle Reboiler

The kettle reboiler is ill ustrated in Fi g. 13.16. It I' ~i mil<IT 10 the ho rizontal
shell-side evaporator (sec Section 13.3. 1. Fig. 13.5). The heating ilu id, usually
condensing steam flows inside~ the tuhcs which arc commonl y U tuhes. The
tube bundle occupies on ly the lower part of tht, t'nla rged K-type shell , and
the upper part of the shell provides space for the va por and the liquid to
dise ngage. The liqu id level is fixed by it weir. ilnJ the lew l is such that the
top of the tube bund le is on ly just suhm erged. T he liquid usually ente rs the
rcboiler by gravity feed, controlled by a vil lve if neceSSill)'. and the overflow
from the weir is the bottom product from the distillation column. If necessary
a pump can be installed in the pipe between th e disti llation column and the
re boiler. The return pipe to th e distillation column contains. if the
vapor-liquid se paration is clficient. only vapor. The thcrmosyphon rebu ilers
described in Sect ions 13.4.3 and 13.4.4 hath return a vapor - liquid mixture to
the column. For informa tion on the vapor - liquiJ ~ epilra tion, sec Smi th [I].

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 -.= Ol slIltatiOn Tray

jH-- UO"~
! Vapor
L,""d
Downcomer

:o..- ~ o --.:

"--t-
! V,po,
wQuld Surtace
Bubble
Cap

- "
J

Intemal
_ U . o • ::, ,, - - - - - . -• • - . :=--. ".:
Reboiler

_ _<> __ -_
_ 0-:'.
__ :- 0 -
_ 0_ _ _ _ _

_ Total Volume ApprOXimately - -

- . 5- 10 Mmutes --
_ _

I
Hold-Up

I
Bottoms

"'ig. 13.15. Inl l: 1I1<11 rd "",lo.: r in <I dbt ilialiol1 ('olumn .

The liquid from Ih e distillation colu mn forms a large pool surrounding the
'ubes; thus the inve ntory of liquid in Ihi ~ Iype of rcOOiler is large. This can be
a disadv.mlagc in wmc circ ums\ano.:~. The \iq,uid, hOWCVCI, is ct:nainl'j nol
sl;lgnant . neithe r is the boiling pure " pool " hoiling. Thc vaporization of part
of Ihc liquid in th e bundle cau sc ~ ;t sir ong upftow through the bundle
hccausc of \hc ocnsity din eTence ~. This strong upRow increases the heat
transfer coe ffi cients 10 well ;IOOve lin.' pu re "pool" boiling values. However,

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 Kenle Reboller
Single-Phase Vapclf

- Heahng Fluid

j
Weir
-- Tube Bundle

---
--1
--
-.

I
I
Bonoms Product

Fig. 13.16. Kctl ic rcboi1cr showing connect ions tu thc distillation column.

Ihe inflow of liqu id is hinde red by the f,lirly dosely packed tuhes in the
bundlc. so al high heat fl uxes. and therefore v<lpor ization rales. insullicicn t
liqu id may he able to e nter the bund le. For th is reason. in a large bund le. the
maximum pe rm issible heat Ilux mi ght he rather I()w.
Ke ttle re boilers have the advan tages that they arc re la tivciy easy It) design.
and that there is a reason:lhk ilmount of design IIlrormiltion avai labk. There
arc few control proble ms or stabili ty pruhlems. T he disadvantages arc Ihal
they a re not economical for high-press ure operatilln. the liquid inventory is
high. and they arc not sui table for fO<l ming liquids. Th ey a re also not suita bl e
for loulin g liquids as it is not easy to dean the ou tside of the lube bun dle.

13.4.3 Vertical Thermosyphon Reboller

Thi s reboiler type is illustr;lIed in Fig. I J.17. It is Vl.· ry si milar to the long- lu be
eva porator and the cl imbing-film evaporator (sec Sections 13.3.5 a nd 13.3.6
;lnd Fig. ]J.IO). The liquid he in g evapora ted is nn the tube s ide, and the
heating flu id is on the shell side. The now of the p roccs~ li quid i ~ llPwa rds:
this is :t disadva ntage. but nol ofte n a serious one . Th is is beca use. in contrast
to evaporators, the re i:> usually more than suflici c n\ te mpera ture differe nce
available 10 dwarf any effect of the hytlroslalil· head on Ihe saluration
temperatu re of the liquid. The liquid residence ti me i ~ low :I S most of the

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 Distillation Column

.-.
f! 1"'4 F'l P
J-__T_wo__nP~~l'I~__~~=R='bo=='="='=r
lJquid Surlace
- III
w
_. , I - 4 •
.i: ' ' .=,!. _ _ _ ' ''__ He<ll'ng I-
FI" ,d In - C:J-l I...J

:'-r---~ ---- -, .
~ --
~~
I~
j
Bottoms
-
-

-
t"il(. 13.17. Ve rti ca l thL' rmusyphon n;h!lii..:r l<. hnwin g cnrln ct;lillllS 10 th.; di ~ lillalion
co lumn .

luhe le ngth I!> occupi ed by a now with a thin film of liquid o n the walls d the
luhe ;and with the vapor flowin g III the center of the lube. Heal transfe r
codlicicnls arc th erefore high . The return pipe to the distill ;lt ion column
ca rries both liljuiJ ami vapor, anu ~cp.. ration o f Ihe liquid and the v;,por
occurs in the space above the liq uid pool al the bouom of the distillation
column .
Th e flow through th e rcbuilc r is <.k tc TllIincd by the naturakirculatiun flow
which is controlled by the de nsi!), di t[c rc nccs and the hei ght of the liquid in
tho: hottom of the distillation colu mn . Th e surface of the liquid is commonly
at the top tube plat e level. Vacuum conditions usually mea n that the liquid
level has to be lowered tn give sati ~fac lOry operation .

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7 42 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

Th~ advanwgcs (If th L: \'L: rti ~al thL:rmosypho ll r ~hoiler arc the low rcsi-
d~ nce timl' uf the prol'l'!'-!'- liquid. the low ]iq llld inwn tnry. thc high heat
transfer coetticie nls. and the [ow 1100T area reqlllrl..'d . Vatic;1 1 Ihl'rmosyphon
rchoilc rs a re us ually the !'- mall csl and c hea pe!'-t for a ~iv c n dut y. Th~y can also
be use d for fouling liqu id s a:-. Ihe in~ide of th l" tuhes is relativel y e asy to
clean. Th~ disadvantages ar~ that the y rl'qu irl' ;1 high hl'adroom (this ca n
me,tO that 11ll' d istillation (·olumn has tll he rai wd up to aceomn1l)da(e the
re builer he low it). and there can be stah ili ty prob le ms. T he design proee~~.
hecause of the Ihl'rmosypholl action. is not l' a:-.~. Howl'wr. th e rl' i:-. ~o me
design informatIon avai lahle [5 ].

13.4.4 Horizontal Thermosyphon Reboiler

Th is type of r~ hoi 1c r unit i.\ illustrat ed in Fig. I.' .I K Thi s cnnsists of a
hor ilOlllal she ll -a nd-tube cxch;lIlgcr wilh a sing.ll- . la rg..~. horizon tal hatik
The process nuid nows on th ~ shel l-sidL: along thL: knglh of th e tuhe h unu le
fro m its r ui nl of e ntry midway a lon g the shell II) the e nds. The l1uid then
!Urns through IHUo a mI 110ws hack to Ihe midpu llIl of thl' sill'll ,[long thL:
uppe r pa rI of the shl'll. Boilin g takes p lace OVl' !" m o~ t of th is flow p'lIh. The

Distillation Column

VoP'" \ jlr---------:-:-~____
):4 III - liqUid Vapor Mixtur e
liquid ' W

Heatll1g FlUid

HOrizontal BailIe 1
I
Tube Support Plale '.. Ep::p
~
·~r--

j
""
- -
;~=
c
Rebo ller (G Type Shein ~ ~ f
>
"

~~':_O-C=_C_=_~~==C_~~_~_-_-C:-u-q-"-'Id~,r~
17
Botloms
Product Tu1b e Bundle

Fig. tJ. llt 1I IITiz()nl;tllhcrmn~~'phlln Tchni1cr shllwing C' l1IneC[IO IiS In Ihe di~lill<1tillll
column.

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 13.. REBOIL.eR TYPES 743

HOflzontal
Baffle
Outlel Nozzle

Inlet Nozzle

G·Type Shell ( Tube Support Position

Is Labeled Al

HorIzontal HorlZOOtal
BaM, Baffl,

Inlet Nozzle ---.J

H.Type Shell (Tube Support POSltl ~ns Are Labeled A . B , and C )

FiR. 13.19. Horizon tal thermosyphon H.'boi ler: G-Iypc and H-IYPC shells.

heating fluid (usually condensing steam) flows inside the tubes usually in two
passes. The steam enters along the upper pass and leaves along the lower
pass. allowing the condensate to drain nat urally out of the bundle. The fl ow
of the process fluid through the reboiler I ~ again governed by a thermosyphon
action, although a pump could be insta lled in the inlet pipe if necessary.
Because the process fluid flow is controlled by density diffe rences, calcu lat ion
of the flow ra te throu gh the reboiler is d ifficult . If the thermosyphon reboi lcr
requires a high heat transfe r area, il may he conve nie nt to have two liquid
inle ts and two mixture outlets (a n J-/ ~ hcll), rather than a single inlet and
outiet (a G shell>, see Fig. 13. 19.
These units give high heat transfe r coeffici ents, normally need no pump.
and need relatively low head room. They do not therefore suffer from the

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744 EVAPORATORS AND AEBOILEAS

disadva ntages of the vertica l thermusyphon reboi ler that the distillation
column may have to be lifted and the satura tion temperatu re changes li ttle
along the Row path. There are, however. no expe rimental result~ pub li shed
on horizontal Ihermosyphon reboilers and nu tt·\tcd design information.

13.5 ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN EVAPORATION

13.5.1 Introduction
In the design of evaporators, care must be tako.!l1 if :tn economical use of
ene rgy is to be achieved. In reboiler design there is comparatively little scope
for improvement o n th e simple use of steam flH the process heating. In the
overall des ign of the distillation column. it may be possible to usc the heat
released in the conde nser for othe r purposes in the plant. However. in an
evaporator. because the designer has some freedom about the pressure. and
therefore the temperature. at which the evaporation takes place. various
energy.saving arrangements arc possible. Thi ~ aspect is particularly impor·
tant when evaporat in g water as the la tent heat of water is unusua lly large.
Note Ihat in a reboiler the designer docs not have this freedom to alter the
tempe rature and pressure as the reboiler operating pressl" ! and tempera·
ture arc fixed by external constraints.
Here three common ly used variants on the !>I mple evaporation process arc
considered. Multiple·cffect evaporation (Section 13.5.2 ) uses the vapor pro·
duced in one eViJpora tor to be the hcatin ~ medium for an evaporator
ope rati ng al lowe r pressure and th erefore temperature. Vapor recompression
(Seclion 13.5.3) uses the vapor produced in th e e\',lporalion 10 be the heating
medium in that evapora tor after its lemperature has be en increased by
mechan ical co mpre~s i on. Multistage Rash evaporat ion is a process where
evaporation occurs in a se ries of fla sh ing stages thilt ot(: ur at successively
lower pressures and tempera tures. The vapor re leased during th e fla shing is
used to reheat the liquid back up to ncar its original temperature so that it
ca n be used as a recycle stream to which the Iced is added.

13.5.2 Multiple-Effect Evaporators

As ind icated previously in multipl e-effect evaporat ion. the basic ide,l is tu
make use of the s team generated in one eV;lporator to act as the heatin g
medium in a second evaporator , and so on . Of course, it is obvious that the
second evaporator must be at a lower pressure than the first so that the
satu ration temperature of the solvent is reduced. Because over the working
pressure range of a multiple·etTect system the latent heat of vaporization
varies compa rative ly little. the steam usage can be reduced by a factor thaI is
almost equal to th e number of "'e ffects" in se ries. T he word "effect"· in this
context simply means an evaporation stage .

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 13_5 ENE RGY EFFICIENCY IN EVAPORATlQN 745

2 3 Steam to
Condenser

P,

Steam In - ---f"TTTTrri
Feed Liquor _ _ _~:""~7'-- ',_~~CW~'--
_ _ __ Concentrated
L
liquor

Throttle Va lves

c Condensate Outlet

Fig. 13.20. Muhiplc-dfcct CVap{ll a llll': f"rward feed :Jrnmgcmcnl.

Thrcc feed arrangements can he u:-.cJ in multiple-clke! evaporation. sec

Figs. run, 13.21, and 13.22:

I. FOTlllllrd feed (scc Fig. 13.20). !-le n: (he ~o lutiun being con(l.;ntralcd anu
the steam !low in the same direct io n between effects. This arrangement
is used when the feed liquid is hn( ur when pumping the li(luid bc(wl'cll
effects wou ld be inconvenient or difficult. Here the pressure in the
liquid is reduced between effect, hy throttle valves.

2 3 Steam to
Condenser

P, P,

Steam In - ---fTTTTrri

Concentrated ___ _ _- '

/L-,C;;l:---"'::~"<--Z:~-"':~/'----- Feed Liquor
liquor
Pumps

P, :> P? ;, P,
c Condensate Outlet

Fig. 13.21. Multiple·effecl cvap.:lT<l1or: hackward feed arrangcmcnI.

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 746 EVAPORAT OAS AND RE80ILERS

2 3
Stearn to
Condensel

P, P, P,

Steam ---hm"TTl1

Concentlated
lIQuor
Feed UQuOf _ _- '_ _ _ _ _ _ _-"'_ _ _ _ _ _- 'T

P, )0 P2 > P J
c COildensate Outlet

t'ijt. u.n. Multiple·clrcet evaporator: p'Lral h.: 1 kcu ;.lrr:u1IIl'mcnt.

2. /J(I('kWll rd /('('(/ h:ee Fig. 13.21). He re Ihe , olu linn be in g concentrated

a n<.l the stea m !low in opposih: <.Iirectilln:-. betwee n clTec\),. This iH-
rangc me nt is used whe n the reed liqui<.l i ~ rda tively coot or when there
is ,I :,ignificant roiling point elevatiun <.lu ri ng the pruccs~. Pumps arc
necessary 10 fllisc thc pres.<iurc o f the liqui<.l hc twccn clfcets.
3. P(/rtlllcI /i.'('d (see Fig. 1."\.22). Here the fn '''' :,ulu tion is fed directl), in
parallel to cach evaroratnr. Thc feed s to the la te r clrccts dmp signifi -
ca nt ly in pressure 'I cro~ throttle v;ll ve~ If the feed is hot. somc
fla shing may occur whe n the prcssure is rc<.luced. !':tra llcl feed is uscd
whcn Ihc conccntration in e:lch e ffect is til he the S<lIne or when it i~
desired to conce ntr;lt e different w lulions in thc d iffe re nt elfeels.

Sm ith [ I] ide ntifies a numhcr o f importrllll point s that need careful

;Itt en tiun if multipl e-effect ev:tpuration is 10 produce s:t tisfa ctory results:

I. Nonconde nsibk: gases may be present due to gas cuming out of solution
as the evapc:wllinn proceeds or due tn In·lea liage of air to elTeels
working at below a tmosphe ric preSsure. SUdl gas means th at there is no
longe r the expected simple relationship hl't wl'en the pressure and Ihe
~a turation tem pe ra ture of the liquid.

2. The ked must be heated tu as ncar ils init JaI saturatiun te mpe rature a ~
pos.-.ihle. If this is not done. then some of the he;Hin g in the multiple-
effect syste m will he req uired me rely to do th is heating.
3. The vapor must be efficiently separated from the va por. If this is not
done the n the liquid droplet carry-ove r will occur , and. as the liquid i:-.

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 135 ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN EVAPORATION 747

cerl;li nly not pu re solvc nl, Stal l' ma~' he formed on the heat ing surface
of the next cll"el·!.

In ;1 multiple·elfect eVOlporator. the ,Klual reduction in e ne rgy input. R.

and the numhcr nf slages, II. arc almOSI equal. R is defined as the ene rgy
input required pe r kilogram of prod ut t in a single·stage evaporator divided
oy the ene rgy input required per J..ilogram of product in the mullistage
cvalll-mllOT. It is also known as Ihe performance ratio as it dcfincs the ene rgy
advantage 10 he gained hy lIsin g ;1 11Il1 llisl;lge process. What then limits the
number of stages si nce it appea rs Ih,lt this should he as large as possihle?
The im[l(lrt:tn t variahle is the minilll ulll tClllperature difference between the
evapor,lt ing ami the condensing liquiJs. In a short-tube vertica l evaporator. a
minimum lI,: mpcTaturc difference of ;Ihout we in each effect is needed . In
addition , in large lInil s the elleets of hydrost,lIlc head increasing the hoiling
poin l can he relevant. In practice, Ihe numher of slages. II , and the pafor-
manee ralio. R . a rc limited to ahoul 6. An improve ment ca n be made if an
r..:vaporator Gtpablc of opr..: rating al a hlwer val ue of temperature ditference is
useJ . A falling . film evaror;lIor, in wh ich there is also no hydrost;lIic head
elkct. can mean Ihal /I and U be inn l.'ased to 10 or even 12.
For ~l m e applic;l\ion ... 'ilthough " nlllltipk-dTect evaporator gives a very
useful e nergy saving, a nlultistage tlash evaporator ca n he hetter hecause
Ihl;re is no relation betwel;ll the nu mher of slages. fl. and the energy saving,
U. and the numher of staJ,!l: .~ can he "'l.'ry large .

13.5.3 Vapor Recompression in Evaporation

l nst ea(j of ll.~ing the vapor release d ill thl.' evaporation in a different evapof(I'
lOr. vapor recompression provide~; it way of using it in the same dfcet; one
Ilossih1c arran ge ment is shown in Fig. 1.3.23. Steam produced in the evapora-
lor is compressell either hy ;\ comprr..:swr. <IS shown in Fig. 13.23, ur by a
ste<lm injector. The compression incrl.' ases the temperature of the steam and.
more import an lly. it s saturation telll po.: rature. Thlls the condensi ng steam is
now hot r..:llOligh to evaporate thl; liquid in th e evctporator. It is important to
rC<l lizc that the system show n in Fig. 1:\. 2J uscs mechanical energy in the
compressor In e nable the stea m III be re used. As mechanical energy is
ge nerally expensive compared to therma l ene rgy, vapor recompression tends
to he used when mechanical ene rgy i ~ fur some reason available or unusually
(,: he'lp. Possibk soun:l'S of c heap rnl.'l· hanica l energy arc hydropower a nd
pflx:ess plant s. where a turhine can he w:;ed to let the stect m down to thc
desirr..:d prr..:ssure from the si tr..: main pressure to the req uired pressure ror a
particular process. A disadvantage is Ihat fnr an industrial scale process. thc
compressor required turns OU I to he it very large and expensive machine.
Clearly. vapor recompre ssion can be applied 10 many evaporator types.
though it will he most useful when C!lmparativcly little encrgy has to be put
into the ste;lm in the compressor . It will thus tend 10 be used wilh evapora-

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748 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILEAS

Sleam

Pump

Make-up
Steam {il - - - - - - - - - - - - - '
Necessarvl
., Feed _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~::_LLLL"'_:/'---- Condensate
llquor

Concentrated
Liquor

FiR. 13.23. Vapor recompression evaporation.

tors that can operate with small vallle~ of the temperature difference hctwccil
the heating streams and the evaporating liquiu . for example. a falling-1ilm
cvapora!or 111, Ill.

13.5.4 Multistage Flash Evaporator

Multistage flash cvaporators arc used extensiIJdy for the desalination of
scawatcr. Therc is no heat transfer surface for the evaporation and he nce no
fouling problem. The evaporation takes place a~ a flashing process as thc
prcssurc in it hot liquid is reduced . Thc high la te nt heat of vaporization of
water (2256 kJ jkg at I bad is partially compcn"ated by the high specific hell(
of liquid water [4.2 kJj(kg· K) at ilfOund the nnrmal boiling pointl . Thus. tu
evaroratc I kg of wat e r to form steam . the tem pe rature of 10 kg of water or
aqueous solution must fall by 54°C (c .g.. rrom II? to JWC).
The following numerical example is taken fl"!lm Silver 1121. Hgure 13.24
([12J, modified) shows a four-stage tl<lsh proce,, ~ that has been arranged to
reduce the necessary heat input by a factor \) 1 ahout 3 (down to approxi-
mately 753 kJ jkg of product) compared with th e singk-stage flash process or
with a simple single·stage evapurator. The systCnl is of course a steady-flow
one; but instead of considering thc flow rate" and the power inputs and
outputs, we will look at a reference mass of flui d and consider heat transfers.
The reference flow s arc 10 kg of brine flowing :t rlHmd a circuit and a feed of
2 kg of seawater at 15°C. The outputs from the process arc I kg of distilled

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 135 ENERGY EFACIENCY IN EVAPORATION 749

I kg Pure Waler
:WC

1 2 J ,
74· C 2O"C
Heat -L 10 kg
Inpul
753 kJ
"- 785"C 65"0 SI S"C J8'C

- -- - . - - - - -- -- -.
.. . -. o .g
T -- ---- J8' C
1

92'C Bkg
Concentraled Bnne , I 334' C
1 kg . 38"C (- Heal

,,'"
(Seawater)
Ellchanger

2kg. 1SC
l-
Final .l T - 7S 5 74 ~ 4 . SC
Inillat.lr .. 38 - 20 .. ' S"C Cooling Water
Log·Mean Temperature DIfference - 9 rc (Heal Rejected - 561 kJ

ri g. 13.24. Multl ~ t :lttc na ~ h c.:va poration : t(l ur·~lage d esign ror ,I specified energy
crlll~U mpl i{lfI .

water al 3X"C and 1 kg o f concentrah:o hrin..: at 3S~C. Again we IClke a lOp

te mpera ture of 92°C but now si n..:e thc heat input i~ only 75:1 kJ . a
tcmlXrature ri ~..: of o nly 1I:!OC can he produced in ]I) kg uf ;U.IUCOUS soJutilln .
He nce the IcmlXra lure ca n TlSC o nly from 74 to 92 C. The ste am produe..:J inQ

the !lashing must therefore be used 1,1 heat up the solution. in the fOllr
sta ges, to 74°C. At the enJ of the fla shing the aqueuus solut ion is mmprcsseJ
bac k to I ha r and cooled, he re to 20"(", This situation is exactly the sa me nil
mailer how many stages there arc: hg . Ll.25 «(1 2J. mod ified) showS a
nine-stage proccsl>. With four stages th c high..:st le mpe ratu re al which vapor
is :tvailahlc is 7S.5°C, the terminal tempe ralure differences arc 4_5 and lWe
givin g a logarithmic-mean lemperatun: dilren:nce of 9.1"'C. With nine ~tage~
the hi ghesl t..:mpCTitture at whic h vapor is ;wai lable is H6~ C. the terminal
te mperature differe n ce~ arc 12 and I ~° C. givin g a logarithmic- me"n temper,l-
ture Jilfc rem.:c of 14.WC. Thus. bccaul>e 01 this highe r logarithmic-mean
te mpera ture diffe re nce. the nine-stage proce ....~ requires only 65"f of the heat
trans fer are;1 of th e fo ur-stage proce". a~~uming that the he,lt tra nskr
eodfkie lHs arc the sClme . Thi s improvement has heen brought about merely
hy installing fi ve extra pltrtitinn wa lls.
Fro m this CXillllple it ca rl be see n th ;11 the number of effel' ts Joes not. o n
its own, have any inllucncc on the economy of the process. For thc four stage

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 750 EVA.PORATORS A.ND REBOILERS

1 kg P eWaler
"'
3."(;
I , 3 , 5 6 7
• 9
74"C 2O"'C

Heat ...L 10 kg - .- ~-
. - --
Input

753 kJ
" ...e SO"C 74"C 6SoC 62"0 we so c 44"C 36"C

- .. . - - .. -
T --
. -.
-_. . - -- - - . ---
--- - - -- -
- 3S"C
10 kg

92' C • kg
Concenlraled Bllne.
1 kg . 38' C
I ( 334"C
Heal
,,," Exchanger
(Seawaler) I-
2 kg .15C
t-

Cooling Wat er
(Heal Rejected 561 kJ)

Fig. 13.25. Multist age fla~ h "~J P\lra li(ln nin" - ~I<!~~' d,,~i~ l1 f.lr a spccilied energy
Cllnsumrl inn.

;tnd thc nim:-stagc process. the S,I111e hea t inpu t (75.1 kJ / kg of pruduct) wa:-,
rcquireu. A reduc tion in the hea t input wi!1 mea n that the te mperature
dilk rcnce ;lvi.i li,ble for the heat Ir;tn ~fcr wtll rapiuly t.kcro.;a ... e. For the
four-stage design the te mpe rature dilfe re nce bCl:omes () when the heat input
is 564 kJ. The corresponding figure for the nin.;.:-slage process i~ 25 1 Id , It is
simple to show that these minimum heat 11 1put values per kilugram o f
product arc IlII ,/II _ whe re t1" , is th o.: latc nt ho.::t t of vaporization. J / kg. and
f1 is the number of stages. Hea t input s apprllac hin g the se minimum va lu..:s
wou ld h<lve vcry low v<l lues ()r the loga rithmic-mea n lempe r<lture uiffcre nce,
and the rdo(e very large surface areas woul J he necessary for the heat
transfer.
The main variahles in these multi stage fl ash ,,:vi,poralUrs were the reduc-
tion in ene rgy input required (here J ). the numb.:: r of sta ges (he re 4 or 9), an d
the ratios of the produt't tlow to the reein:ulati ng now (herc I kg/IO kg) anJ
the reject brine 1I0w to the recireu l;lI ing !low (h e re again I kg/ III kg). There
is no si mple way o f deciding suitable v;llues of Ih e~e V'Hi'l hl es. the d e~ig n
process is " trial -and-error one. A goou desi gn wi ll hilvt.: ,\ la rge red uct ion in
ene rgy input. not 100 many stages. and a la rge loga rithm ic te mperatu re
diffe rence !>O th:!t the heal transfe r area rcquired is small.
In contr;.st to multistage fla sh evaporat ion. In mul tiple-effect cVilporation
Ihe numbe r or stages and the actual reduction in ene rgy input arc directly

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 136 HEAT TRAN SFER AND PRESSURE DROP PROBLEMS 75 1

Te[ltt ed and are, in fact. a[mm,t o..:q ual. [n multistage lIash evaporat ion ,
howeve r, the numl:lcr of st:lge~ ca ll he grea ter than the reduction in energy
input in order to reduce the heat lrilllsfcr a rea. In practice, it is found that a
multist age fla sh evarorator wi ll alw:IYs ro..:quire morc he at transfer area than
the equivalent multiple·dfect eV<tt)OI·ator. [n addition, the pumping duty in
the multistage Hash process is large r hecause the whuk of the recycle stream
has to he pumped around the ci rcui t and raised in pressure. In the mu[tiple-
effect evaporator, there is no recycle st re am and the volumes of liquid arc
much lower.
Howeve r, in spite of these disadva ntages. the multistage !lash evaporator
docs have some definit e advanta gc ~ whieh mean that it is often the preferred
typc of unit for the dnalination 01 ~o..: aw;lIcr :

l. The multistage flash evapor;ltlH i~ ",impler and cheaper hi cnn~truct

than a mult iph;-ctkct evapor;lIor for the same heat dut)'.
") In a multistage nash evapor;IIOT the tem perat ure drops hetwel!n each
stagl! can be wry smal l; fi~ ure~ of under rc have been lIuoted [I::!J.
This can mean that a very l a r~e number of stagcs ca n be used, possihly
up to 40. Rcductions of e m:r!!,y in put of about a f:lctnT of 10 compared
with a smglc-st<Jge !lashing process ur with <l )oim pk evaporatu r 1..';111 he
achieved. As has been seen 111 Section 13.5.2. this Gin he achieved in
multipk-effeet evaporation h ~ lI.'"ing fa lling- fi lm evaIX1ra tors which can
operate. when equipped wit h enhanced heat transfe r surfaces. at very
low valucs of tcm perature d iffe rences. Mo re commonl y. mullirk -ell"cc t
o..:vaporators re ach a n:duCII( IIl In tlll.·rgy input uf ahout O.

It i~ imporlant in the design o f a mlllti~ta ge flash evaporatur to ;tlluw

sllllicicnt residence timc in each st age for thl! fla shing to occur, and ror ilK'
liquid and the vapor to a lta in thermodynamic equilihrium. Eqllilibratltlll will
proceed much more lIuidd), if a la r ~c amount of surfac..: area e;1I1 he ere;lIed
at wh ich thl! l1ashing ca n lakc pi al''': . This means that {he mllrc chaotic thl.'
now with spl;l~hin g and nubble fu rm'tlion. {he mor..: quickly wi ll t:ljui[ihriulll
be reached. Howeve r. this is at '~ ,Hia nce with another practical re quirement
- to avoid any liquid reaching th c heat transfer surface in the upper part of
the nash ch .. mbers. This is beGIU~ t: the liquid is brine. and the dissolved sa lt
will fou l the he at transfer surface . Cncful design of the Ilashing Ch;tnlhe rs,
with the installatiu n of wiT": mesh ~c parators [ I I. an; Iherdore nl.'l't:ssary.

13.6 HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP PROBLEMS

13.6.1 Initial Sizing of the Unit

Of course, eve n bcfurl! ;Iny initi,,1 ' lz ing of .. unit ca n be performeJ, the fi rst
design step is the se lection of th..: I ~'pe of evaporator or rcboi [er appropriate

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for the duty required. Some comments have bccn madc earlier with regard to
panicu lar types of equipment, and further advice is provided in 11 -5].
Reviewing the expe rience of opera tors with simi lar requirements and suc-
cessful designs can also be very helpful. Howcver. it must be said that for a
give n duty. ditferent designers. however experil' nced, will oft en select differ-
ent types. Often th ere is no single "correc," an~we r.
Once the type of evapora tor or reboiler has bee n decided upon, it is
necessary to arrive at a preliminary "design" giving rough esti mates of the
dimension:-; of the unit. This rough desig n can then be refined in the light of
detailed calculat ions of the pressure drop and he,ll transfer characteristics.
An initial esti mate of the surface area (A. m ~ ) required ca n be est imated
from the norm al he;lt exchanger equat ion:

( 13.1)

where Q is the lotal heat or dUl y W; U is the o\'crall heatlra nsfer coefficien t.
WI{m ~ . K); '1~"nd is the condensi ng steam temperature, K: and T~"' r is the
evaporat ing liqu id temperature, K.
The major difficulty in Eq. (13.1) is estima ting the v;1l ue of U. the overa ll
heat tran sfe r coefficie nt. Values arc give n for some circumsta nces I I. 2. 3.
;"lIId 5]. In particular. Smith [ I) suggests that:

I. For an aqu eous sol ulion in a fo r ce d-n ~lw evapora tor. U ranges from
2000 W /(m 1 . K) for clean fluid s. down to 70U W /( m 1 . K) for fai rl y
dirty Huids.
2. A va lue of U o f 2lXXl W /( m Z . K) may be assumed for a clean aqueous
solution in a falling tilm . Injection of ;tn inerl gas to perform the
evaporation at a lower tempera ture wi ll give a higher hea t transfer
coe ffici en t because of th e increase d vapor shear on the liquid fi lm.
J. For an aqueous solution in a nat ural-circula tion evaporator. il may he
assumed for a first approximation 1ha1 U range:;; from 1000 W I (m ! . K)
for clCiIn fluid s 10 500 W / (m ! . K) (or fairly d irty Huids. Natural
circulation gives lower heat transfe r coeliicic nts than fo rced flow be·
Cause the fl ow velocities are ge nerally kru.er.

Values of the ove rall heat transfer coefficient for the vaporiz,lIion o f organic
liquids arc usua lly lowe r, by up to a fac tor of 2lsee Whall ey and Hewitt [5]).
Typical liquid veloci ties in evaporators arc in the ra nge 0.05 10 (j. 1 m/s.
The diame te r and length o f the tubes arc largdy dete rmined by the choice of
evapor:ltor o r reboile r type. AI Ihis slage typical va lu es for the Iype chosen
should be assumed and so the number of tubes can he ca1cu l:tled from the
approxima te va lue o f the surface area. The ui arnc ter and length may have to

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 136 HEAT TRANSfER AND PRESSURE DROP PROBLEMS 753

be chan~etllatcr in tht; tlesign. tlt;p..: ntlllll; 011 the ou tt;ome of mure accurate
calculations.
The problems encounte red in th e dcwiled simulation of an evaporator o r
rcboikr G in be divided into two m:lI n ciltt;gorit;s:

I. pf('.\".~·llr(' drOfl proh/£'flls. Tht.: flow ca n be single-phase liquid or a

mixture of vapor and liqui d. Thc single·phase problem is rei<lIively
simp le and is not discussed he re. The vapor- liqu id two- phase pressure
drop problc m is much more mmpJieatcd (sec Scetion 13.6.2). If the
unit is it natural-circulat ion unit. then the flow rate will have to be
calcula ted ; this prohlem is d iscussed in Section 13.6.3 . Eve n in a
forced-flow unit , th e pressur..: drop is important because it will partly
de termine the size and type \ 11 pump required.
2. HI'ClI Imll:'/!:r J'ru/Jl('m.~· . The problem here is to calcu late the ·. . arious
parts of the total heat tra ll~fcr coeltieient (sec Section 13.5 .4 and
following scetions ).

There arc no simple rulcs availahl .: for refining the design in te rms of the
actual heat transfer eoellieien! or th..: actual press ure drop that will resull.
What can be said is that each ca'>c has to be treated sl'paratcly and the
calcu lution performed as (In integral c,l lcul ation for the heat transfer coe ffi -
cient anti the pressure gr<ltlicnt a~ Ihe conditions c hange through the evapo-
ralor. The methods referred to in tht! rest of Seclion 13.6 will ind icate the
met hods Ihut ca n be used, but no all c mpi has been mude here tn show the
e nt ire calculation. Indeed such a complch.' eu lculalion will be ditfercnt In
importanl re spect s for Iht! various t \' PC~ or evaporutors und reboilers.

13,6.2 Two-Phase Vapor - Liqu id Pressure Drop

Calcu lation of the pressure drop a nd the two-phase pressure drop is neces-
sary to s izc the pump in :t forc ed-Ilow unit and to calculate thc flow in a
Tlillural -eircula tion unit (sec Sectiun J:'\.6.:H.
It is most conve nie nt in unulyzing the two- phase pre s.~ ure gradie nt to start
with a simple .m,tlysis of single-pha:o.e flow (see Fig. 13.26). Application of the
normal mome ntum equation to an l'!c mcnt of le ngth S! of this pipe gives

tip 1T"d~ ":7 (J ~

- -
liz
fj;;: -
4
- 1" nz rrd - ,
~- fj= (l g sin 0 - ( 13.2)

where - (tlp j dz) is the tOl al pres:o.u re gradie nt , Nj m"; i} z is the clement
length. Ill ; d is the tube diameter, Ill; fJ is the fluid density. kg/m.!; T is the
wall sheitr stress, N / m 1 : g is the acce leration due to gravity, m / s l ; II is the
veloeity of the fl ow, m/s; and () is thl': angle of inclinution to the horizontal as
shown in Fig. 1:.126.

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754 EVAPOFIATORS AND REBOILERS

"

"·ijt. 13.26. Si n glc - f1h a~c tlu ..... : cumrul v"lumc for the m"nll:nlullI equ:J lIlm.

This equ al ion C;1I1 he easil y rcarran ged into :1 Ill ll c h more simpl e form :

If"
d,
4,
d
+ 1'1: sin 0 ,
(' ~ -d:.d [ ~ 1 ( 13.3)
T",al F, ... ,,, ..... j (;'~~" .• ",\f1 ~ 1 A ,~c k •. I,,,,n.,1
Jlf C''''''~ I"~""'" I"C ""' C "',.,,"',.
~r ~ ,h"n1 ~rad"' nl ~ •.,oJ"·n' ~ •.,J,cnl

where G is the flu id ma!<os flux. k g /{m ~ . ~ ) ; th i~ I' the rnil S~ 11uw r;l tc uivideu
by the tube c ross-~c l i\lna l arca and is givcn hy ( ; - IJl I.
From Eq . (13 .3) il cOIn he :.cc n thai Ihe wlal prc:.surc grad ic lII divide:.
naturally into Ihree compon en ls: the friclional part caused by the walt shear
sl res.",. - (d,' / dzl f : the gravi tational part caused by thc we ight of the tluid.
- (clp / iI: ), ;: ant! the accelerational pa rt G IlI SCU hy the cha ngc uf velocity of
the fluit!. - (lip i d;: 1 1,
The si mplest W:ly of tre;lI ing a two-phOlse flo ..... is to assu me thOlI it behavc).
as a single-p hase fl ow with some mea n fluid prupe rties somewhere between
the gas properties and the liquid properties. The rc1evOInt prope rties 3rc the
density, which a ppears d irtell), in Eq . (13.3), and the viscusity, which hel ps to
dete rm ine the wall shear st ress. This is the "homoge neous model" of
two-phase fl ow: the phases are assumed implicJlly to he havc as a homoge-
neous mixt ure and thus h'lve equal velocit ic!o. Appropriate va lues fo r the
mea n properties are discussed by Collier (131 and Whalley (141. Reasonable

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 13.6 HEAT TRAN SFER AND PRESSURE DROP PROBLEMS 755

equat ion s arc as follows:

for the homogen eous density, ('I •. kg/m'~:

x I - x
+ (13.4)
p" p,

where PII is the vapor density. kg/m ' ; PI is the liquid density, kg/m\ and x
is the quality, that is, the fraction of the mass flow rate thai is vapor.
for the homogeneous viscosity IJ- " . (N . s)/m 2 :

x I - x
+ (13.5)

"" ",
where IJ-/: is the vapor viscosity. (N . s)/m 2 ; cmd ~LI is the liquid viscosity.
(N . s)/m'.
The homogeneous model gives good results at high pressures (where the
phase densities arc not too different) or at high velocities (where the phases
really do have about the same veloci ty). AI more moderate conditions.
however. this model gives rather poor resu lts, and the separated model.
which recognizes that the phases flow at different velocities, must he used. If
once again, the momentum equatiun is applied to the flow in Fig. 13.27,

Fig. 13.27. Separatcd two-phase now : ~'o ntrol volume for the momcntum equation.

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756 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

where now the phases arc shown sepa rate ly. thl: result is

<ip
+ [ ( rp~ +(1 U)PI] g sin 8
<I, <I
TUlal \-ric u "n:ol {;,. " . ,. n" .n al
I" ~"'''~ I' r<· " " r~ 1' 1<' '' Uf ~
g,adlen l g, a d"' n l ~r .,, "~m

+ II ., I ' 1 ( 13.6)
(l - o )Pr
"en· k r.II,,, n;,1
I' r.:~ ,,,,c,

~ r~,.lo c·n l

[ _<II: ] ~ [_<I~ ]
(J~ d~,.
+ [_ <I~]
d_ (.
+ [_ <Id_I:] A
( 13.7)

He re the va riahles have the same meani ng .1 :>0 hcfure . a nd a is t he void

fract io n, Ilwt is, Ihe fm el ion of Ihc flow c russ - ~lT t i o nill arca that is occupied
by the vapor.
If Eq . 0.1 .6) is 10 he uscd to ca lculate th e aCl ualtotal pressure grad ie nt in
a twO-ph'lsc fl o w. the n we mu st have met h ud ~ of calculating the fri ctio nal
pressure gradien t and the voi d fraclio n. A ve ry large number of co rrela tions
h,lve hee n proposed fo r th ese Quanti t ies [1.1. 1-1 ]. A numhcr of wo rke rs have
ca rried (lut syste m<l tic com p<lrisons hetwee n tl1l'sC various corre lat iun !. <lnd
da w ba nks conta ining la rge n u m ber~ of c.xpe r imcnt a l void fractio n <I nti
pressure d rup measure me nt s.
The fr ic tiona l pressure gradie nt ca n he wrilh:n as

- [dP]
dz f' - -
[ddzP]I,,(/Ii,.. ( l UI

whe re cb;" is the two-phase fric tiona l l11 ult ipIH.:r :md - [llp / dz ]'<1 i!. the
frictiuna l pressure gradient is t hc tota l mass !low ra te ( liquid plu s VllPUr) we re
fl owing in single-phase flow and had the pro pe rt ies of Ihe liq ui d.
Values o f .j, ~ , must be obtaine d from corre la tion s hee [1 3. 14]). Probably
the most accura te ca lcu la tio n me thod is th aI of Frie de l [ 15J. It is quite
compl icated algebraically. but is straigh tfo rw;lTd in lIpplieation. It docs not
pe rform very well for visco us liqu ids whe re Ihe ra tio of the liqu id viscosity to
the vapor viscosity exceeds 100J. Th e Friede l (:I.)rrcl atiun fo r frictionll l pres-
sure g radie nt in gas- liquid fl ow is given in del a il in Chapte r ItJ. Alternatives
lire th e graphical correlatio n of BaroC7.), [ 16], v. hich is a pplicable to a ny fl uid,
a nd the T horn [17J correlat io n, whic h works \-\oc ll fo r stea m - water syste ms
whe re the pressure exceeds 17 bar. It shou ld a lways be noted tha t eve n the
best correla tio ns produce results with a root mean sq uare e rro r of a round
35%.

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 13_6 HEAT TRA NSFER AND PRESSURE DROP PROBLEMS 757

It can be seen from Eq. (13.6) t hat to calcu late the accelcrational and
gravitational terms, it is necessary 10 be ahle to ca lculate the void fraction a.
Once again a large number of correlations have been proposed for the void
fraction. The corre lation is often expressed in terms of the slip velocity ratio.
5, which is defined as the mean ve locity of the vapor phase divided by the
mea n velocity of the liquid phase. T he sli p ratio is related to the void fraction
by the equation:

1 _. x
1 + 5---
[ X PI
p'l ( 13 .9)

Systcmatic comparisons have abu been carried out between the various
void fra<.:tion corre lations and dale han ks containing large numhers of experi·
mental measurcments of either void fractio!}, or equivalent ly. mean lluid
density. One of the simplest correla tions which is reasonab ly accurate is tha t
of Chisholm [ IR]:

In order to obtain better accu racy, it i~ nl.:cessary to have considerably more

com plicated methods. Th e hest corrd atinn which is applicahle to all fluids is
generally termed the ClSE corre latio n [19]. The elSE correlation is shown in
detail in Table 13.1. A more accura te correlation which is only applicable 10
steam-water systems is that of Bryct. : [20]. The root mea n square error in the
calculation of mean fluid densi ty fmm thcsc correlat ions is typically around
25 % .
In practice, it is usual for the t hamohydraulic conditions within the
evaporator or reboiler to be incorpo rated into a computt:r-baseu model; this
enables the more complicated and accu rate separated flow model of two·
phase flow to be conven iently used .

13,6,3 Calculation of Natural-Circulation Units

The calcu latio!} of the flow rate ill a natural-circu lation evapora{()r or a
thermosyphon rchoil er is an iterativ. . process. The procedu re is to assume a
value for the circulation rate and th en to calculate the pressure loss around
the whole circulation loop. It must b ~· remembered that the pressure loss will
be negative in some regions; thaI IS. tht:: prt::ssure rises in the flow direction.
The circulat ion flow rate must then he adjus(t::d until the total pressure loss is
O. More detai ls arc given hy Whalle y and Hewitt [5) who also give analytic
expressions for the flow rate in a vt::rtical thermosyphon rehoiler and for the
in ternal circulation inside the shell and the hundle of a kcttle reboilcr. These
t::xpressions are based on a bomogeneolls two-p/lase now theory wh ich.

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758 EVAPORATORS AND REBQILERS

TABLE 13.1 CISE: Cornlatio n for Void Fraction in Cas-Liquid Flow

T he correlali<lO of Pre moli el al. (ll,l7(1). usuall y known as the e l SE corre lation is a
correlatio n in [Crm ~ or the slip ratio. 5. The void frac tion. a . is then g iven hy

,. (5 _'_X ~I', )
x
The slip ratio is [hen given hy

where

x)

EI .. 1.578Rc

£~ .. O.027J lVeRe ~ "~" ("' ) ,,,.

",
G(I

",
and

We ..

whe re x is the qualit~: P t is the gus dl·nsjt~. kg/Ill ': 1'1 is the liquid densi ty. kg / m ': Ii
i~ the [ube diame h:r, m: IJ., is the 1i4Uiu v i scosil~ N ~/m~: G is the [ot<ll Cli4uiu + g a~)
mass nUl. kg/ (m : ' s): and iT is the su rface tension. N/m.

although ce rt ain ly nOt th e mOSt acCurate, h ;l~ the advantage that analytical
expressions can be obtilin ed. Th ese analytlc<l1 c'iprcssions arc s hown in
Tables 13.2 (ve rticlil th ermosyphon rehoiler ) and IJ.J (kelllc rcboile r bundl e>.
One important check Ih;1I must always h l ' nwJe in a natural-circulation
evaporator o r rcboiler is to sec if the duwll v.ard veloc it ies al any point arc
suffi cie ntly low to allow a ny vilpor bubble!< hi rise out of the downftowing

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TABLE 13.2 Approximatf Mt'lhod for Calcula linlt the now R.ate
in a Na tunrol-t:lrcuhllion Vt'rtica l Thermus)"phon Ml!boiltr

vo""
1~_~~
UqUid
. ( -- r
f---i--
'T
Level 1 L.quld L 4 (II - F~urated BOIling
i-- Length

I "- ____I 3:t '"' ' ' '".,,,.'' ' '

'---- :/
,--------,I'--
"'r ~ __r,'_
I'I~ / ,

(". ",)
X" . x .. - --
'"
S" - C",T•• ,KH , !J. h , (", - I'~",)

II , 1 - f', /-I , I
, ~-cL_-,F,'_~X~"c._I"_(,'~+r'_··_·)_-_~L~-~I ~'~X~"~
Fr - - -;
N,
- + 2/-
L[I t ),' ,(1 -"',)]
-' - - - 1
N.
X , .....: (1 ... \')
2 D :! ":!' "

whe re G i ~ the mllSS flux t hrough lhl' lut>c~. kg/ (m l . s): x" I ~ t he qm,lit)' :It the tuhe
exit ; f is the Fanning fr ict ion f:lell1r fur fl.} ..... in the tube \>; "', i~ the numlx:r of velocity
hc;uJs (bllloCd tin t he ma ~~ nu~ in"llic th ~· t uht:,,) Illst in tht: mlt:: t pirx:",ork : ;lIld N~ i~
the numbe r o f velocity heads (ba~d 011 the m as~ n ux in~id e t he luhcs) 1000t in t he
outle t pip.:work .

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760 EVAPOAATQR$ AND REBOILERS

TABLE IJJ Appro:llimate Method for Calculatinll the Recirculation Flow Rate
in the Bundle or a Kell ~ Reboiler

G'

x" - .f " (/ '- P~ )

I',

4f'} - rrD~
IJ,
'IT/)"

A, - 0 .(11'11 "r - 0.267

n,
,
, "
• 1( A , BI )2/ 2
(2 - ",)

where IJ H ilo the hunt.llc diameter. m: .T " i~ [he qu all[Y , I[ [he top of the bundle: D .. i~
[he tube outside di .. metcr, m:}J., is the liquid vl.';co~ l [y.IN s)/m 2 : and I', i~ the tulle
pitc h. m.
Note tha t the:\.(! cquati!)ns an.: v<llid only for !'.quaT": ,l11d rotated square tube la)'out ~ .

liquid and not be "carried-unde r" with the liqu iJ ami so reduce the effective
head which is driving the natural-circulation tl(lW . If the downward ...clocitic:--
are high. then il is extremely difficult to prcve nt carry-under of vapor. Such a
check is also rclevant in a fon:ed-f1ow unit , but it easier to obta in subMantial
carry-under in a natural-circulation unit as the flow rates arc not initia lly
known .

13.6_4 Heat Transfer Rates

If in form ation is available about thc flow ill C\'c ry poinl . thcn il i~ po:--sihh: to
makc more realistic calcu lations of the overa ll hea t transfe r coefli,'ien!. In a

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natural-circula tion unit. such as a thcrmosyphon reboiler, the va lue of the
hea t transfer coefficie nts will of course alfect the vapor production rate and
so in turn alIect the driving head for the circulation. This mean s Ihal in a
natural-circulatio n evaporator or re boiler, Ihe it eration loop for the How rat e
(sce Sectio n 13.6.3) must include the hea l transfe r calcu lations.
The overa ll heat transfe r remtance , the reciprocal of the overall hea t
transfer coefficient , U. is the sum of the five the rmal resistances th rough
which the heat must pass:

I. The heati ng fl uid. usually condensi ng steam

2. The fouli ng laye r deposited by the heating Huid
3. The material of the tube w;l1l
4. The fouli ng laye r deposited by the evaporating Huid and
5. The eva porating fluid

Each of th ese heat transfer re!>i:-.l ances is the reciprocal of the ind ividual film
hea t transfer coeffici e nt s, h . correl·ted to refe r to the same surf'lce area,
eithe r in side or ou tside the lube. In the case of th e tube wa ll material. at
least for a thin -wa lled tube_ the 1hermal resistance is the tube wall thickness
divided by the thermal conductiV1!Y of the material of the tube wull .
Often in evapo rato r calcu lations, a knowledge of singlc-phase heat trans-
fer coeffi cients is needed. Th e~l' arc re levant not only in the single-phase
regions of the How, but also in the two-phase regions. Th is is because th e
two-phase hea t tr ansfe r coefficie nts are often calculated by means of some
ki nd of equivalen t single-phase flow and a multiplica tion fa ctm to take
account of the extra heat transfe r in the two-ph ase region. Si ngle-phase heat
tra nsfer coe ffici ents can be calcul<Lted by rderence tu C hapter 3.
Evaporating-side heat transfe r coe fficients (see Sections 13.6.7 to 13.6.10)
depend on:

I. Whether eva poration is occ urring o n the shell side or the whc side of
the bundle
2. The configuratio n of the tube bundle. for e.'(ample, whether it is
ho rizontal or ve rtica l
3. Whether the evaporation i ~ occurri ng in a climbing film or in a falling
film
4. The flow flIt e and the quali ty uf the flow

13_6,5 Heat Transfer on the Heating Side

Most eva~rato rs and reboi lers u~c condensing steam as the heat ing medium.
The stem condensation may occur on the she ll side or the tube side, and the
steam flow may be horizontal or ve rtical [I]. If the How is ve rtical, it is
inva riably downwards so tha t the condc nsate easily drai ns out o f the system.

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As with all conde nsation system s. it is ve ry Important to see that the
conde nse r is ve nted regularly to preve nt the huil d up of ineondensa hl e gas in
the condense r. Incondensable gas in conde nse r' IS the most common reason
why the condensation heat transfer coeffi cients ar\! less than expected. Smith
III suggests that a hea l tra nsfer coeffi cien t of W.U()O W / (m " . K) can safely
be used for gene ral purposes for th e condens<lt io n of steam. Much more
detailed conside ration of conde nsing heat tra nsfer coe lliclent s is given in
Chapter 10. Info rmilt ion relevant to shell-sid!.! hea t transfer coellicients is
also given in Chapter 5.

13.6.6 Fouling
As always in hea t transfe r. the fo uling res istance is one of the most difficu lt
proble ms. Previous experience in similar equi pment a nd similar fluids is
probably the best and safest guide.
T EMA (211 suggest that for condensi ng steam laken directly from a steam
main , a fnulin g eacme ien t of IO,(M)() W /(111 : . K) should be uscd . In
multiple-effect evaporators the fouling coefficien ts <Ire usually lower; ;1 figure
of JUnO W /( m ~ . K) is suggested.
Fou lin g o n th e hoiling side is more variabl e ,ll1d more uncertain. and it is
one of the most difficult quantities to establi sh . Again previous experie nce
with similar types of evaporators a nd reboilers and simil ar liqu ids is without ..
doubt the best guilk. In the abse nce of othe r informat ion, it ma y be
necessary to underta ke test work on a tuhe pi lot .~calc unit to estahlis h the
prope nsity of a pa rticu lar sol ution to foullhe pMtirular heat tran sfe r su rface.
Sm it h [IJ recom mends a fo uling coefficient or 10111) W/ (m !' K) for heavy
scaling deposits and iO.OOO W / (m ~ . K) for "light ~a l e. Morc detailed
consi de ra tion of fouling heat transfer coelficienh i ~ give n in C hapler 4. where
the T E MA 111J values for the fouling heat t ran~rcr cocl licie nt arc also give n.
These va lues shou lJ he treated with considerahle ca utio n and used only to
indica te the magnitude of the fouling hea t transk r coe tlicient that may occur.
In genera l, it is probably be~t not to overdesigll the evaporator by a llowing
for heavy fouling. In a natural -ci rculation unit. tim. milY result in inaJequate
ci rculat ion when the evaporator is. clean. The inadequa te ci rculation may
then itself he the cause of rapid fo uling. Palen [22J reco mmends the usc of
realistic (rather than conserva tive) J esign fouling coefficie nts. Two further
measures arc advocated in a n atte mpt to sec that f()uling docs no t occur vcry
rapidly: designs with high exit qu a lities shou ld he avoided. and designs shou ld
a lways aim for the hest possible flow di st rihution .

13_6.7 Boiling inside Tubes

As the liquid e nt e rs a lube and hea t IS adJed. vapor l~ graJually formed a nd
the flow passes through a seriC's of now patterns (sec Fig. 13.28 fo r vertical
upwards now ). Ohviously, the mecha nisms of heat transfer and the facto rs

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 1
, ,
0
0
0
, 0
0
0
0

,, ' 0
LJqu,d Drops'----t1 0 0
o 0 0
o 0 0

- Churn Flow

---Plug/ Slug Flow

Sa,ura,eCIi
Boohng
- Bubbly Flow

•o
-
o
Subcooled o
Boiling o

Flow
(SubCOOled
I
LIQuid)

Fi ~ 1J .18. Flow patl~"lh 11\ \'0.:,114;<11 Upl141W in a [ul:tc.

763

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influencing the heat transfe r will change greatly over the le ngth of the tuhe.
At the bottom of the tube whe re there is no thin lilm of liquid , the boi ling
tends to nucleate boiling. Here there is buhhle nucleat ion at the walls of the
tuhe at " nucleation si tes" or imperfections in th e tube wall su rface. In this
region the heat transfer wcllicient is a st rung fum:tion of the heat flu ..... In the
upper reg ion of the tuhe. there is a thin film , and convective boi ling tends to
occur. Here Ihe heal is conducted through the liquid fi lm and the liquid
evaporates .11 the vapo r- liqu id interface . There is no nucleation o r bubble
forma tion , and the heat transfer coefficient is no\\ almost inde pcndent of the
heat flux. Ideally, of course, differe nt calculation methods would be used in
these two regions and possihly in each fl ow pattern. However. it is usual to
usc one method for the en tire region of the boi li ng Row.
The most well · known corre lation is Ihat of Chen (23]. which is described in
deta il by Collier [ 13] and Whalley (14]. It also h a~ the advan tage that it has
been widely tested. The method assumes that nudeate and convective boi ling
ocru r to some degree over the entire length of the eva porator. However, the
form of the correlation is ~ uch that the nucl eate boiling part tends to
domina Ie in the lower parts of the tube whe re the quality is low, and the
convective part dominates when the quality is high.
The form of the C he n correlat ion is complicated: prubably more com pli·
cated than is actu ally necessary. The nucleate boiling met hod used wilh in the
correl,ltion i~ p.mi.:ularly complicalcd and tediuus to usc. In addi lian, the
assumption that there is a very gradua l shift from nucleate boil ing at low
Qua lity to cunvective boiling at high quality is prohably also QVe r·c[aborale. It
is li kely that just as sat isfactory results cou ld b..: obtai ned as assuming an
abrupt change in the boiling mcehanism. However, the Chen correlation has
been tested in many circu msta nces and been found to work reasonably well
overall, though some of the individual data points can show large errors.
Bec,\U~e uf this exte nsive background of teslin g, 1\ i ~ recommended that thc
Chen correlation be used for the calculation of boili ng heat transfer coem·
cients inside lubcs . The details of the Chen corre lation arc shown in
Table 13.4.
For boiling wit hi n horizontal tuhes an alternative graphica l correl ation by
Shah 124] takes into account the sHa tilka tion of the liquid and vapor that
occurs In horizontal now. Chapte r 12 gives more de tails of the Shah correia·
tion. as well as some other alte rnative correlation~.
These correlations. which produce heat transk r coefficien ts with typ ical
accuracies of about 3011h. remain valid only in the region where the wa ll is
fu lly welted by the liquid . If the tube is long enough there wi ll come a point
where the liquid film is evapora ted away. and the tube wall hecomes dry.
Heat transfer to vapor is vcry much less efficie nt than heal transfer to a
boi ling liquid. and so the heat transfer coefficient drops ve ry dramatically.
This phenomenon is " dry·nu"· or "cri tical heal flux'" and is explained in
detail in ( 13) and (14). Esti mation of the quality at wh ich th i~ occurs is
com plicated. Fair [25J gives a simple method. which works reasonably well for

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 TABLE 13.4 Chen Correlation ror Boiling Heat Transrer

h = hr-II + hi_I
hr-n - Slt l .,,-

Note that C"I is Ihe liquid spee ilie he al. J/(kg' K); k, is the liqu id thermal
conductivily. W /(m . K); t:. T,", = T_. - 1:,, ; and ~J"", is Ihe difference in saluration
pressure corresponding to t:.T,.". tJ.p,,. is ~ hown on the vapor pressure curve.
Vapor
p Pressure

_L __
P. , -r---
'P~
I ~T..
,,
--<-I ..--.1T...
t-t""""- T•• ,

F
5 0.5

o~~~ __~~~~ 6
10 ' 10' 10
10 '0' Re TP
' IX

NU J - O.023R(".~' ~ Prr"4

hid
NIII = - -
k,
(;(1 - 1 )'/
RCI - - -- - -
e,
IJ.IC"I
Prl - k
,
x- ( ~)""i"')"'(":c
x . , PI IJ."
)'"
Re lP = Re ,F ' ~'

765
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CONTENTS NEXT
NEXT
766 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILE RS

tubes of lengt h 4 to 5 m and at low pressures. bu t there is considc r••blc doubt

about the physica l basis o r the correla tion. Other c:.lcul ation methods arc
also ava ilable. wh ich arc certain ly !>cHer t e~ted bu t which arc far mo re
complicated to use. For steam-wate r there is the correlation of Bowrin g 12fll.
and ro r fluids there is a ge ne ral correlation of Kallo and O hne (271. Details
of both these methods arc give n by Wh alley (14\. The root mea n SQ uare e rror
in the calculated critica l hea t fl ux of the ~' I mg method is abou t 7%. and
for t he Kallo and O hne me thod typicCi I e rror~ arc about 20% .

13.6.8 Boiling outside Tubes

Available methods for the predict ion of boili nlt heat transrer coeffi cient s o n
the outside of tube bundles arc not in ge neral 'cry sa t i~fac t ory . One conser-
vative approach is to assume th at the ooi li ng i~ nucleate pool boi ling. so that
the heat transfe r coc tlicicnt can be calcu lated hy ,m appropriate correla tion.
such as that as of Cooper [2t:1). T his procedure neglect." entirely any co ntribu -
tion of convective effects of the tota l boi lin g he at t r an~fe l coe fficient.
Howeve r. boili ng in large tube hund tes is not very similar to pool boi ling
on an isola ted tube. wire, or plate. The prodm' tion \)f vapor in the bundle
produces a large naturlll -ein;ulation fl ow of liq Uid up through the bundle (sec
Fig. 13.29), then t he liquid recirculates to the bottom of the bundle. The

Topol
WeIr

( \
\ 000000 0 )
"-... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . - /
oo~oooo~o
oo

~
o 00 0 0 0 0) /
Uqu<d
o 000 0 '//
Clrcotallon
000
Panern

Tube Bundle Shell

"'ijt. 13.1:9. liqUId cuculallon in a kctt k rd)()llcr bundle.

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 13_6 HEAT TRAN SF ER AND PRESSURE DROP PROBLEMS 767

nucleate boiling at the tube surface i., enhanccd by thc convective effects of
the flow through the bundle . These circulation patterns and the calculation
of the circulation strength arc reviewed in detail by Whalley and Hewi tl [5 ).
Even if the flow rate across or along the tu be bund le is known. there slill
rcmain s the problem of calculating the total boiling heat transfer coefficie nt.
One approach that has been tried i ~ II) use an in-t ube correlation for boiling.
The modification s that have to be maLie arc:

I. The "cquival cnt diamete r'" is used in place of any actual, physical
dimension. Thc cquivalent diamcter is fo ur times the wClled pcrimetc r
of the fl ow divided by the cross- sectiona l area avai lable for the flow .
2. The mass flux in the equivalen t tube is assumed to be the same as thc
mass flux in the bundlc.

For large tube bundles the overa ll maximum heat flu x may have to be
reduced considerably from that pos~ ible with boiling on the o utside of a
single tube bundle, bccausc of the restriction on the acccss of the liquid feed
to the innermost parts o f th e bundle . Palcn [22] has give n in ~mc detail the
various me thods for estimating heat transfe r coefficients and maximum heat
fluxes . Indeed the maximum hea t fl ux is one of the greatest unknowns for
boiling on th e outside bundles of horizontal tubes. Palen and Small (29) give
a calculation method that gives va lu c~ fo r the critical hea t flux which arc very
much lower than for a single tuhe. For large bundles this can he an extreme
effect , and the calculated critica l hCill flu x ran only be a few percenl of the
single tube value. This is almost ce rt ai nl y very pessim istic.

13.6.9 Falllng·Fllm Evaporation

Heat transfer coefficients for evapoTlHi ng liquid films fallin g illside or outside
vertical lubes are ge nera lly highe r than in the correspondin g climbin g-film
situation. This is because. panicularly when the vapor flows co-currently wi th
the falling film, the fattin g 111m is thi nne r than the climbing film for the same
fi lm mass flow rate. Reviews on heat transfer in falling-film evaporation have
been given by Ganic 130] and by Siurrmtn [6. II !.
In a convect ive hoiling region where the film is very thin. experimental
values of the heat transfe r roefficient tend to be somewhat lower than the
val ues predicted from lamina r or turbu lent flow theory. It can be noted that
the theoretical equations, not surprisingly, are very similar to those for
conde nsation on a ve rtical surface. Nucleate hoi li ng docs not usually occur in
a fallin g film: however, whe n it docs occur the film fl ow rale and film
thickness arc no longer important pa rame ters in determining the heat trans·
fer coefficient. and the heal transfe r rates a rc si milar to o rdinary submerged
nucleate boil ing.
The major practical difficulty in the design and indeed the operation of
fa lling- film eva porators is ensuring an eve n distribution of the liquid film ,

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768 EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

both between lubes and arou nd Ihc circumfe re nce of each tube. The distri-
bu tion will det erm ine when the liquid fil m breaks down. as all film s will do
whe n the fl ow ra te is sufficient ly low . The film spon taneously breaks into
rivulet s tha t we t o nly a small portion of the tube surface. The minimum film
Row rat e depends o n the physical properties of the li quid II ], but for water
the film fl ow rate per unit peri phery of tu be wa ll at which film breakdown
occurs. r. kg / (m . s). appea rs to be related also to the heat flux . Heating a
(aili ng film appea rs to destablize Ihe film now. If a significant fraction of the
feed is to be evapora te d. the n to keep sa fe ly abo... e the minimum film fl ow
rate it will probably be necessary to ha ...e a suhst'lntia l recycle stre am. In this
way only a small portion of th e falling fi lm can be e ... apora te d. but sti ll t he
output can be very conce ntra ted. The disadvan tage of this is tha i the whole
of the recycle stream and th e falling film arc very conce ntrated a nd th us
possibly viscous o r liable to crystallization.
Falling fi lms wi th evaporation across bun JIc~ of ho rizontal tuhcs have
been examined by Sideman [6, Ill. Good heat transfer performance wa s
obtained, and the flow distribu tion problem is not !;() severe.

13.6.10 Agitated-Film Evaporation

In a n agi tated-fi lm evaporator the liquid film th icknesses is dete rm ined by the
flow rate and viscosity of Ihe liqu id. Typical film thickness arc I mm for a
fair ly low viscosity liquid to 15 mm at a v i sco~II Y o f III (N . s)/ m 1 • Very high
viscosit y lillu ids do not flow readily under tht: action uf g ravity, ,lI1d so they
have he mo ...ed thro ugh the evaporator by a n app ropriate design of rOlor and
wiper. GeneTil1 correlat ion s fo r the heat transk r tocflicicn t arc no t avai lable ,
hUI it is found that thc heat transfer coefficien t increase with now rat e, rotor
speed, ami heat flux, and decreases with v i sco~ity, surfatc tension . •lIld ro to r
to gap wall 171. Some of these trends arc sim ply a reflection of tht: fa ( 1 the
th inner fi lms give hi ghe r hea t tra nsfe r coe ffic icn ts.
Burrows and Beve rid ge [311 hilve tested ilglta ted-fil m evaporators wit h a
range of mate ria ls. They fo und that product ("(lIlce ntralions up to Y{)% cou ld
be o btained with increases in conce ntration through the evaporator up to a
factor of 25. Typical va lu es of th e overa ll heat transfer coefficicnt varied
widely-from 2YO to 22tMI W /( 01 2 • K). It i~ not easy to sec any delinite
Ire nds in the datil fur heat transfe r wef1icient ~ .

13,6.11 Mixture Effects

In an evaporator there will a lways he a hoiling-Iloint c1c....lliun effect because
of the prese nce of the solutc in the solvent. Of (:uurse. the maxi mum value of
this elevation will be expecte d to occur whe rl." the solute conce ntration is
highest. As a sa fe ty margin it is a good ilk a to add this tempe ratu re
diffe re nce to tha t required for the boiling process itse lf. In many c ircum-
stances the solute does not alter very much the val ue of the heat transfer

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coefficien t 10 the. solve nt after th e hoiling-point elevation e ffect has been
taken into account. For e.t(ample. c.t(pcriments by Chun and Seban (32] on
fa lling-film evapora tion of water and 14% brine showed that the evaporation
rates with the brine were about 10% less than with water at the same fl ow
rate and with the sa me temperature difference from the wall to the liquid. A
10% change with this fairly strong sol ut ion is nol detectable with the rather
poor level of accuracy expected from most correlations for boiling heat
transfer.
In rcboilers it is usua lly a mixture of hydrocarbons that is being boiled .
Typically. all the components of thl! mixture undergo some vaporization.
though of course some of them are more easily vaporized than others. In a
two-component mixture undergoing nucleate boiling. the growing bubble
tends to he riche r in the lighter component. This relat ive excess (compared to
the bulk mixture) of light component must have come frum the liquid
immediately surrounding the bubhle . This layer is then relatively rich in
heavy component . and its saturation temperature will be greater than the
bulk liquid . Thus the effective wall superhea t (the wall temperature minus
the saturation tempe rature) is less th an would be expected for the bulk fluid.
Nucleate boiling heal transfer coctlicients depend strongly o n the wall
superheat - typically to the power 3 or 3.33. Thus for a mixture. the nucleate
boiling heat transfer coefficients arc less (h;m expected. Calcu lat ion methods
include those of Stephan and Korner (331 and Stephan and Preusser (34).
Shock [35) gives a full review.
The positio n in convect ive boiling IS nol so clear. Mixtures do give lowe r
boili ng heat transfcr coefficients. hut the reduction see ms not 10 he so
market.l as in nucleate boiling .

13.6.12 Enhanced Surfaces

Enh anced surfaces arc specially ~ha pcd surfaces that gL\lc highe r
evapora ting-side or condensi ng-silk hea t transfcr coefficients than arc ob-
tained with flat surfaces. They have heen used exte nsive ly in evaporalOrs.
especia lly those used for desalin3tion . It is probably true to say that without
the use of en hanced hea t transfer surfaces. there wou ld be no chance that in
the foreseeable future seawater desali nation would be economical. Produc-
tion of eve n more effective surfaces is probably the key to the large-scale.
adoption of the desalination process. Berglcs [3f1, 37j has reviewed the
various techniques of heat transfer enhancemen t and the application of thl!se
special surfaces to industria l equipment.
Enhanced heat transfer surfaces have been used in horizonta l evaporators
(38J. vcrtical evaporators (39J. and most part icula rly in falling-film evapora tors
(401. It is for falling-film evaporators tha t the most impressivc heat transfer
improvements have becn reported: the USI! of internally fluted tubes can
increase the evapora ting-side heat transfe r coefficient 10 times. "Roped"'
lubes arc tubes where bot h the internal and external surfaces arc modified in

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no EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS

a spiral pattern. They ca n increase both the condensing-side coefficient and

the evaporating-side cocfficientl411. They the refore have a particularly large
effect on the O\Iera ll heat transfer coefficient.
In multistage flash evaporators, enh anced surfaces are often used in the
condenser. .. Roped" tubes increase the condensing coefficie nt on the outside
of the tube and also the single-phase heat transfer coefficient on the inside of
the tube: area reductions up to 30% arc possible . Of course, there is a price
to pay for the increase in performance: the tube-side pressure drop is
increased and these special tubes are more expensive than plain tubes [421.
Because there are no satisfactory design correlations avai lable, these
special s urfaces needed to be tested under realiStic conditions usi ng the
actual proposed fluids . The mechanism for the large increases in heat
transfer coefficien ts observed is a combination of 3 number of factors. First,
of cou rse, the shape of the surface corruga tions inc reases the area available
for heat transfe r. Then the su rface corrugations increase the turbulence of
the fluid flowing over the surface, thus promoting heat transfer. Both these
effects apply to single- and two· phase flow s. The remaining factor applies
only to two-phase now; that is, the surface shape produces areas where the
liquid film is very thin , thus giving high heat transfe r coefficients. This lalter
effect is the most significant. This is why th e enhancement effect is so
dramatic in fa ll ing-film flow wi th steam condensing on the other side of the
tube wall .
T hese detailed effects arc very depcndent on the exact surface geometry:
designing surfaces that arc effect ive over a range of conditions and that can
easi ly be manufactured (and are therefore not prohibitively expensive) is by
no means simple.

13.7 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS IN THE OPERATION OF EVAPORATORS

AND REBOILERS

13.7.1 Introduction
The operational problems encounterccl in evapora tors and rcboilers arc nol
very different from those encountered in most types of heat exchangers. The
problem considered here arc: corrosion and erosion (Sect ion 13.7.2), maldis-
tribution <Seclion 13.7.3). fouling (Section 13.7.4). flow instabili ty (Section
13.7.5). lube vibration (Section 13.7.6), and flooding (Seclion 13.7.7>.
Like other heat exchange rs, evaporato rs and reboilers can be damaged or
suffer impaired performance because of maloperat ion . Smith [11 outlines the
detailed tests and routine measurements that should be carried out. Like all
heat exchangers, these un its should be equipped with a reasonable amount of
instrumentation both for control and to establish performance as a func tion
of time . Operators should be encou raged to keep careful logs to detect any
change in operating characteristics. From these records. for example. the

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13.7 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS IN THE OPERATI ON OF EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS 771

progress of fouling ca n be watc hed. so that rationa l decisions a hout the

frequency of stripping down the t;\> <1pora tor and c\e~lning ca n be made.
Regrcllably, many evapora tors and n:bui lcrs a rc not cl.Iuippcd with sufficie nt
instrumentation to allow the ca use of poor performance to he asce rtained.

13.7.2 Corrosion and Erosion

Whe n a solutiun contai ning ag g res~i" e salt s is bei ng conce ntrated , currOSlon
shou ld always be expected . 11 is mo.. t likely to occur hetween the tuhe wa ll
and the fouling laye r. In thi~ region ... al l~ can co ncentrate loca lly to the exten!
that the eleva tion of the boiling poin t rmllc hes the local tube wall tempera-
tu re. The tubes in an evaporator <l Te not normally expected to last the
life time of the evaporator. and so the tube bundle ur the individual tubes
shou ld be designed fo r easy re pl acem c nl.
In the usual case where the evapor:llor o r reboi1er is heated by condensing
steam, some steps shou ld be take n tn preve nt the high-velocity steam hitting
the tubes near the steam inle t noull- Thi ~ can be done III one of two way...
An impi ngeme nt battle ca n be instalkd opposite the inlet nozzle to protect
the tube.,> (sec :tl so Chapter II). Alternatively, the steam can be introduccd
into the uni t in an annu lar .. pace ilrou nd the shdl: this is a "vapor belt·' (sec
Fig. 13.3m
Corrosion probl ems in evaporat or.. a nd rehoilers arc reviewed hy
Dunmure (431.

13,7,3 Maldistributlon
Maldist ributiun is on ly a problem wit h vertical fallin g-film cvaporiltors: he nce
it is 1I very se rious problem . It is necessary to sec that the top tube plate is
fl at :lI1d horizontal. T he aim is to have the liquid level on the tu be plate as
uniform as possible . To achieve this, the liquid p<x>l has to be shielded from
the disturbance effects of (he liquid ente ri ng the evaporator. To get a lilm
that wi ll not break up prematurely, it is also necessary to obtain good fl ow
dist ribution around the circumferencc of each tubc. This can he dune by
means of an insert fitt ed into the top of each tube 10 spread the IiIm au !.
Alt e rnativci)', seve ral wei rs -.:;1Il be cui around the circumfe re nce uf the tu be
(see Fig. 13.30). The tubes in a vertit.:a l laJlin g- lil m evaporator also need to be
vertical to within a fraction of a tu he diame ter betwee n top and hollom .
Great ca re in stalling the evaporator is lime ..... astet! if th e top tuhe plat e is not
fl a t o r if the tubes ilre not straight!

13.7.4 Fouling
Fouling has been referred to o n a numner of occasions. in the initial select ion
of a suit abl e equi pment type and al the design stage (sec Section I].n.n)
where a fo uling coe ffi cien t has to be ;l .... umcd. It is very likely thai fou li ng will

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 Seronda'Y
(Trough)
DIStrIbutors

o 0, __,-
o 0
o 0
uqUld 1n _

o 0
000 Pllmary
o 0 (Pope)
Olstnoul Of

la) Trough OISln ootOl

Cm:\llar
W~,

LIQUId ,,, -

M ..
ImPIngement Plate Bundle

(0 ) Sunple Olst nlJutor

Fig. 13.30. Alte rn il livc .ypcs of distribution for a ~cfll~<l1 falling ,film C\'ilpor'lInr.

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13.7 POSSIBLE PROBLE MS IN TH E OPERATION OF EVAPORATORS AND REBOILERS 773

occur and plant measurements may ind icate that the perfo rmance of the
evaporator or reboiler is unsatis fa clUry. This may be because, to re ach the
desi red performance, excessively high steam te mperatures a re becom ing
necessary, a situation that wi ll on ly aggravate the fo uling. A proper choice of
equipment type for the specified duty togethe r wit h the adoption of design
features like plate units o r large·di;lmete r tubes (50 to 60 mm ) for easy
cleaning can he lp. It may be n eees~ary to have sta ndby un its available which
can be piped in while the unit is mechanically o r che mica lly clea ned.
For further details on fouling sec Chapter 4.

13.7.5 Flow Instability

Fluid flow instabilities arc a commo n prohl em in boiling systems. particularly
in nat ural-ci rculatio n units. A number of different types of instabilities ca n
occur fo r a numbe r of reasons. G ene ral reviews of the very complicated
subject of flow instabilities have been provided by KakalS a nd Veziroglu [44],
and more rece ntly by Lahey a nd Pwuwski (45].
A dynamic (or de nsity-wave) instahi lity is caused by a pressure drop
feedba ck mechanism and can be stabi lized by increasing the proportio n o f
the total pressure drop that is ca u ~c d by single-phase friction. The spec ial
releva nce of the single- ph ase fric tio na l pressure drop is th at it is in phase
with the velocity fluc tuatio ns. wh e rcas there can be a phase diffe re nce wit h
the varor- liquid region pressure drop. If the single-phase pressure drop is
g reater than the two-phase pressure drop, the flow is usua lly stable. This is
most easily achieved by in se rting a throttle or How restriction at the e ntrance
to the boi ling sect ion. Conve rsely. e xtra pressu re drop at the e nd of the
boiling se ction will destabilize the flow. The instability can take the form of a
gross instab ilit y of the e nt ire fl ow or a n instability betwee n vaious tuhcs,
The o ther importan t type of instabili ty is "bumping" o r "geyse ring." This
occurs if the te mpera ture differe nce and the refore the heat flu x is too low. A I
low va lues of th e tempe ra ture differe nce, the te mperature of the tube wall
and the surrounding Huid is no t hot enough to cause nuclea tion of bubbles a t
the wa ll. The resu lt of th is is tha t the hulk liquid becomes ~ u rcrhe:lIed, a nd
eve ntually when a vapor bubble d oc~ form it grows very rapidly. This rapid ,
a lmost explos ive growth. results in a la rge change in the local pressure which
can sto p or eve n reve rse the fl ow. A large amount of liquid is expe lled from
the syste m Quickly, and refi lling wi th liquid from the feed th e n takes place.
He nce evaporators should a lways be designed to e xceed a minimum heal Hux
(see [ 13]):

( 13.1 1)

whe re q;';m is the minimum hea t flux , W 1 m 2 ; u is the surfa ce tension. N/ m;

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77 4 evAPORATORS ANO AEBOILERS

T... c is the salUration te mperature in absolute degrees, K: h , IS the heal

transfer cocffkie nl to the !\ingle-phasc liquid flow. W I( m! . K): k, i!\ the
thermal conduct ivity of the liquid, W /( m' K I; t·. is the vapor specific
vol ume, m}/kg (t / dcnsi ty); and v, i!\ the liquid specific volume. m l / kg
( l / density).

13.7.6 Tube Vibra tion

In heat exchange rs. the mo tion of the fluid past the tubes can excite the tubes
into severe vibration. This vibration can sometimes hc so !\eve rc that the
noise gene rated is pai nful and damaging. and <llso the vibration Cil n physi·
cally damage the tubes. The subject of flow-indul.:cd vibration is reviewed by
Saunders [46}. He gives e:IJeu latio n me thods th a t can be used to check if
vibratio n is likely to be a proble m.
Evapora ton; and reboile rs arc no t normally pro ne to fluid ·excited tube
vibration . Howeve r. the o ne a rea where care is needed in the design is close
to the heating steam inJet. The stea m velocities C;i n he large in this region .
Th e tube natural fre quency decreases rapid ly wi th increasi ng span length. so
care sho uld be t.. ken so th at there a rc no lon g unsu pported tube lengths in
this regio n. Provision of a n impinge men t haffle or a v,lpor belt (sec Section
13.7.2) wi ll a lso improve the situ a tion.

13.7.7 Flooding
In cou nte rcu rre nt fa lling· film evapo rato rs fl oodi ng ca n occur. When the
upwa rd gas flow rate is too large . the liquid can no lo nger travel downwards
in the fi lm . I-l00ding is the start o f this phe nome no n a nd is thus a limit of
countercurren t fl ow. Corre la tio ns for flooding in tubes and in other geome-
tries have been derived by many worke rs; brief d etai l ~ of the avai lable
methods are given by Sm ith [I}. Wha lley {14], and McQui lla n a nd Whalley
[471. A longer review is given by Bankoff and Lee [481.

13.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE

It is required to design in o ut line a sho rt -tube vertical evaporator (see

Section 13.3.4) to evapora te 0.5 kg/ s of water from .. dilu te aqueous solution
which is at a pressure of I bar. The evaporator lubes arc 10 he 2 m long, 50
mm inside diameter, and 55 mm o utside diamet e r. The tube me tal thermal
conductivity is 50 W / (m . K).

SoIuJiOtl:
I. As the solution is dilute and aqueous. the liqu id ca n be assumed to h<l ve
the properties of pure water at I bar. In pdrticular. the I<ltent heat of
\'aporiZ3 tion will ~ 2256 x Wl kJ j kg. and so. ;1~su mcn8 Ihe feed liquid to the

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 13.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE 775

evaporato r is satu nHed, t he heat luad fo r this evaporator will be given l1y

Heat load - evaporation ,,,te x lale nl heat - 0 .5 x 2256 x 10 ·'

- 1.I3x Hl ~W - I.IJ MW

2. If t he heat is supplied by cunJcnsi ng steam at II000e (pressu re. 1.45 ba r;

la tent heat, 222~ x 10' kJ j kg). Ihe n the steam now n eee~sary is give n by

Stea m flow - heal load

lalcnl heal - l. i3x IO~

2229 x 10'

- 0.5C17 k g/~

3. It is a reasonable assu mpllon for t he mome nt tha t the evapora ting liquid
te mperatu re is constant al lOire ,1I)d Ihe conde nsi ng v<l por te mpt: r,llure is
consta nt ,It II OOe. The logarit hmic-mea n te mpera tu re d ifference i ~ the refore
10 K.
4. Turning now In the hea t t ransfe r Cllellicie nl, the tuhc is f,lirly thin walled
and so the curvat ure of thc tutw w,, 11 will be neglected. The diffe re nce in area
between the Ins ide and outside uf the tube will a l ~) be neglected . ReilMmable
estim,ltes of Ihe v,lrinus heat tr ,l n~fe r coefficie nts arc the n as fnll ows:

Condensing heat t ransfer coe fl kll: nt _ 10,0(1) W / (m 1 . K)

O utside fouling heat tra nsfe r coe fli cic nt - 1O,()()() W j (m ~ . K)
Tuhe met ,ll he,lt tr,m,fer t oellicicnt - lulle thie kness/melillthe rmal conducti v-
ity - 50/ 0.0025 - 20,000 W / (m! . K)
In ~ i (k fo ul ing heal transfe r codlll:ic nl - 1lIC1<l W I (m : . K)
Evaporating heat transfe r cocfli(lenl - .sooo wI(m ~ . K)

The ove rall heal transfe r coellicio..: nl . U. is the n give n l1 y

1 1 1
U 1\).(100
+ 111,000 • 20 ,()()()
+
1000
+
WOO

l.J75 x l!) '

Hence U - 730 W l( m 1 . K ). Nme here how the ove r~1I hea t transfe r coe ffi cie nt
i.~ do mi mllcd oy the individua l heiJ l tra nsfe r cocflirie nt which is hy far the
lowest- the inside fo uling coeffiCIe nt.
5. The req uired tll tal hea t Ir;H1sfcr ,iTCll Clln now be ca lcula ted from

heat load
Tot ,, 1 area - -;-;;-c-,----c--'---= ,----,
(U x log· me;ln tempe ra ture differe nce)

1 . 12~ " Ill"

--:::;:--,--;,,- _ I SSm 1
7311 1< 10

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 fi. The area provided by each tube is

Area per lUbe - 1T X inside d iame ter x length

- 1T x 0.05 x 2 - 0.3\ 4 m!

Note here t he ," ~ ide are .. is calculated bccau ~c the dominant heat transfer
coefficient is an inside heat tran sfer coe fficient.

Vapor Out
(to Separators) Flow .. 0 5 k.g / s

___1-_ Disengagement
Space
Oowl"lCOmer

500 Tubes
(I D SOmm.
OD . 55mm)
Pressure - 1 45 bar

Sight
Glass with .......
UQuid Level "' 't--- - Steam In
(Flow ;. 0 .507 k.g / s)

Steam and
Concentrated Condensate Qut
LIQ\JOf Out -
Plessure .. lObar

LlQuid
Circulation
'""
Uqvol ln - t - r:::::::::,.,
,
I !. . 1.Izm.
L---+ 2. t7 m-t----..j

Fia. JJJ I. Short·lube \·crtical evaporator : design Cltampic.

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 138 DESIGN EXAMPlE 777

7. The required number of tu hc ~ l~ no ....

IOIIII ,lrC"
Numhcr IIf tutle' -
:nc" per lube

I.SS
- 4YJ
().JI4

A rea!il.mahle number of tuPes IS th..:rcfor..: 500.

8. The eross-!i.Cction:!1 flow lm::ll III these SOO tubes i~

500 ~: TT X (inside diameter)!

Flow area - - - -
4

Thc downcomer arc,l b ee Scelilln !J3.4) should be C<IUIII In the Ililal luhe
Crt).~s-sccti() nal area. Hence the dOWnCl)lllc.r di,llllelcr sh.)uld he I. I:! Ill .
4. Ir tht' tubes arc on a square pilCh with a pitch to out ~idc dlllmctcT ratio of
1.:0. Ihen each lube lake~ up an ;IH-a of tube shee t of ( I .J3 x IJ.O.'i.'i)! - :'\.4 x
10 \ m ~. The lOla I tunc sheet ar":l1 fo r 500 tubes i~ thus "ppf(l_im"lc\~
5.4 x 10 ':x 50U - 2.7 m!. Allowing for Ihe cen lral downcomeT. th..- nCCCl>~ary
oU(~idc diameter (If the c;l l.mdri" I~ 2.17 m. The tuhc' will n"l [l;ld.; I;lm"c -
nienlly into an annula r space, and :'>\, the outer diameter will cert:!inl)' h:!\'c to
he l>Omt,:whal Iilrgcr than thi!>.
The main dimensions of the (tlmpicted ini tial deSIg n 1m ' ~ h()wn in
Fig. LUI.

13.8.1 Further Refinements in the Design

The greatesl unccrlainty in Ihe calculation , as of len in heat eltchange r desig n,
is the magnitude of the fouling coe1licients. A.~ the problem Mamb. at the
presen t. the etforl involved in producing more accurate conde nsing and
evaporating heat transfer coefficients "uuld be wasted.
The tube she ct cou ld be laid out accurately so that the outer d ia meter of
the ca land ria could be morc accurately found.
The natura l circulation through th ~ tUOCl> and the downoomer could he
estimated by:t simple adaptation of the infurmiltion in Table 13.2. Once the
c ircu1itlion is known. the pressure in the liqUid at the bottom of the lubes can
be calcula ted. This will he g reate r th:ln I har and the corresronding ~"lt ura ·
tion temperature will be greater th,lIl IWe. Th is effect will reduce the
logarithmir-mcan temperature difference heluw the previously assumed va lue
of 10 K .

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778 EVAPORATORS AN D REBOILERS

NOMENCLATURE

A heat tra nsfer area , m l

d lUbe diamete r, m
[dp l dz I. aceclc rational or momenlum pressure gradient, N/ m 3
[dp / dz l~­ frictional pressure gradie nl , N/ m 3
[dp l d,]," fric tional pressure gradient if the tow l mass flow rate (liquid and
vapor) were fl owing in single-ph ase now and had the properties
of the liquid, N / m ~
[dpl dz Ie gravitational or static head pressure gradient , N/ m 1
[dpl dz l tota l single-phase or two-ph ase pressure gradient. N/ mJ
G mass Hux (mass How ratc/ fl ow cross-sectional area), kg/ (m 2 • s}
g accelera tion due to gravity, rn /s 2
h heat transfer coeffici ent , W / (m 2 • K)
10 , single-phase liquid heat transfe r <.:oc tlicicnt, W/ (m 2 . K)
k, liquid t hennal conduct ivity, W / (m . K)
n numbe r of effects in a mu ltistage process
Q total heat duty, W
q:';m min imum heat flux to avoid geysc ring. W / m2
R reduction factor in ene rgy inpu t
T« ,nll condensing-steam saturation temperat ure, K
T.. vlI l> evaporating-fluid saturat ion te mper.l1 ure, K
T..~I saturation temperature (absolute degrees), K
U overa ll heat transfer coe ffi cie nl, W /l m ~ . K)
U veloci ty of fl ow, m/s
", vapor specific volume , m/ kg 3
",
x
liquid specific volume, m/ kg.l
qua lity (mass fraction of the two-phase flow which is vapor)

Greek Symbols
a void fract ion
r liq uid film flow rate per unit periphery. kg/(m . s)
/l ll , late nt heat of va porization, J / kg
H tempera ture diffe rence betwee n the healing flu id a nd the evapo-
rating fluid , K
length of mome ntum equation cont wl volume. m
anglc of incl ination of the fl ow to the horizontal ((:/ posi tive fo r
upHow)
vapor viscosity. (N . s)/ m z
homogeneous mixture viscosi ty, (N . ~ ) / m 2
liquid viscosity, (N . s)j m 2
vapor density, kg/ m J
homoge neous mixtu re density, kg/ m'
liquid de nsity, kg/ m·1

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<T surface te nsion. N j m
T wall shear stres..c;, N/ m!
.1. 2
'PI" two-phase pressure drup multiplier

REFERENCES
I. Smith. R. A (1 986) VU{Jon5t:rs -S,'It'Clion. Design and OperulIOII. Longman Scien-
tific and Tc<:hnical j Wilcy. New Yo rk.
2. MinIon. P. E. (1986) Handbook of Evaporation TechnoloJ(y. Noyes Publications,
Park Ridge. N. J.
J. Be ll, K J (11173) Thcrm'll design nf heal transfer equipmcnl. In Perry 'of C/lt'lnical
EnRilJeers HOlldbook. R. H. Perry and C. H. Chilton (cds.), 5th cd .. Section 10. pp.
[11-22- 10-47. McGraw- Hili, New York.
4. Standiford. F. C. (I97) Evaporators. In Perry's Chemical £1/gim:ers Ho"dbook,
R. H. Pe rry a nd C. H. Chilton (cd:,,;. ), 5th cd., Seclion II , pp. 11-27- \1 -.17.
McGraw-l lill, New York.
5. Whalky, P. Il , and Hewitt, G . F. (1986) RcboiJcrs. In Mu/tiphase Sci!,ltcl' (ll/d
Tecllflology. G. F. Hewitt. J. M. Dclhayc. and N. Zuber. (cds.). Vol. 2. PI'.
275 -331. Hemisphere, Washington. D.C.
0, Sideman, S. (198 1) Film evaporation and condensation in desa lina tion. In Heal
Exchangers Themwl H}'dratllic Frlm/amell/alr and Design, S. Kaka r;. A. E. Ocrglcs.
and F. Ma yinger (cds.). pp. ]57 -375. Hemisphere, Washingto n. D.C.
7. Sa ldcn. D. M. (] 987) Agitated thin film evaporators. The Chemica/ Enginccr
SlI1,pfemenl September. 17- 19.
K Gray. R. M. (]984) Thc design and usc of plale hea t exchangers in roiling and
condensing applieation~. Firsl Nallunal U. K . Confcrena 1m Heal Transfer (JnSl.
C!rem , En/(. Symp. Sa . 86) 2 6l:\4 -094.
9. Usher. J. D. (197m Eva lu ating plate heat exchangers. Cht mical EflKilZr:erinf( 7Z
90- 94.
Ill. Edwards, R. M , ( 1967) Efficient new heal exch,lIlger sui ted to LNG va porisation .
n,l' Oil (md Gas lOllnzul October. 96- 99.
II. Sideman. S. (198 I) Some aspec ts of thin Him cvaporatooo and condem'l:oo in water
desalination. In Heal Exchallf(4'rS Thumal Hy,lralllic Flmdamemals anti DrsiXfI. S.
Kaka ~. A. E. Bcrglcs, and F. Ma yrnger (cds.). pp. 68 1-703. Hcmj ~phcre. Wash-
II1gl0n, D.C.
12. Silver, R. S. (]968) The physics ()f desalinat ion by multi-slage flash distillat ion,
lmmw/ uf B.N.E.S. 7 30-42.
13. Collie r. 1. G. (I981l Con n:Clil '(, HodiflR (Jnd Condensation 2nd cd. McG raw-Hill ,
New York.
14 . Whalley. P. B. (IIJX7) n oiling, Cfll ulmsalio" and Gus-Liqllid Flow. Oxford Uni·
versity Press. Oxford.
15. Friedel. L. (1979) Improved friction pressure drop corre lations for horizontal and
vertical two·phase now. EurvPNIII Two·"hasr Flow GrOllp Meeting. ispr<l, Italy
(calculation method q uoted in full by Whalley [14]).

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780 EVAPORATORS AND REBOllERS

16. Baroczy, C. J. (1966) A syste matic correlation for I"'",-phasc pressure drop. Chem.
Eng. Prug. S)"mp . &r., 62(M) 2:12-249.
17. Thorn. J. R. S. (1964) Prediction of pressure drop during forced circulation boiling
ofwilte r. 1m. J. H eat Mass Trallsft'T, 7 709-724.
18. Chisholm. D. (i97:\) Void fraction during two-pha ~c flow . J . Ml'ch. £lIg. Sci ., 15
235-236.
19. Premoli, A., Francesco, D., and Prina , A. (1970 1 An empirical correlation for
evaluating two-phase mixture dcnsity under adiabatic conditions. Ellfopt"an Two-
Pha~ Flow Group Meeting , Milan (calculation mel hod quoled in full be Whalley
[14]).
20. Bryce. W. M. (1977) A new flow dependent slip correlation which gives hyperbolic
steam-water mixture equations. A.E.E.W.-~I099 .
21. TEMA (197R) Standards of thl! Tubular F.xchallger MallllfllClllrer.f A.\·.wx·iatiOIl f1th
cd. TEMA, New York.
22. Palen. J. W. (1983) Shell and tube reboHen;. In Ht'm ExchanJ.:(f Design Handbook,
Section 3.6. H emisphere. Washington. D.C.
23. Chen. J. C. (1966) A correlation for boiling heal transfer to saturated fluids in
convective flow. Ind. Ellg. Chern. I)mc . lk.~. (Jer ·. 5(3) 322-333.
24. Shah. M. (1976) A new correlation for heat tran~f c r during boiling flow through
pipes. ASIIRAE Trans. 82(2) 66-86.
25. Fair. J. R. (]%O) What you need to design Ihermosyphon rcboilcn;. l't'fro/t.'lIm
Refillu 39(2) 105.
26. Bowring, R. W. (1972) A simplc but accurate round tube uniform heat flux dryout
correlation over the pressure range 0.7 In 17 MN / m:. A.E.E.W.-R789.
27. Kallo, Y., and Ohne. H. (1984) An improved vc/"~i()n of the generalised mrrcla-
tion of crit ical heat flux for convective boi ling in unifurmly heated vertical tu bes.
1m . J. Heal MaSl Transfer 27 1641 - 1648.
28. Cooper. M. G. (1984) Saturation nucleale pool boiling- a simplc correlation.
First Natiunal U.K. Heat Traflsfer COfljerf!llct' (l1I.\'/' Clrem. Eng . S}"mp . Ser. lit» z
71;5-793.
29. Palen, J. W., and Small. W. M. (]964) A new way 10 design kettle .lnd inlcrnal
reboilers. Hydrocarboll Processing 43 199- 208.
30. Ganic, E. N. 0981l On the heal Iransfcr and nuid now in falling film she ll and
tube evaporators. In Heal Exchangers Thermlll Hydraulic Flmdamt'IIlIIls Utili
Of/siJ.:n. edilt.'d by S. Kaka!i. A. E. Bergles. and F. \tayinger (cds.>. pp. 7U.'i - 7 19.
Hemisphere Washington. D.C.
3 1. Burrows. M. J .. and Beveridge. G. S. G. (] 979) T he centrifugally agitatcd wiped
film evaporator. Thr Oremirlll Engineer. 343 229 -2.12.
32. Chun. K. R .. and Sebull, R. A. (1972) Performance prediction of falling film
evaporators. J. Heal Trallsftr 94432- 436.
33. Stephan. K., and Korner, M. (]969) C Llculation of heal tr'ln~fcr in eV'Lp4..1nLting
binary mixtures. Olt'm. lng. Tech . 41 4f)q-417.
34. Stephan. K., and Preusser, P. (1978) Heat transfer in nalUra l convection boiling of
polynary mi.1ttures. SUlh IllfemalionaIHearTruns[r.r Confl.rellCt.. Toromo, Vol. I.
pp.187- 192.

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 REFERENCES 781

35. Shock, R. A. W. (19HZ) Multle"mponent boiling. [n Mljlliphast' Science and

7cc/llw/o!,'}, G. F. Hewitt, J. M. Dclhllye, a nd N. Zuber (cds.), Vol. I. pp. U:l 1- 386.
Hemisphere. Washington. D.C.
36. Bcrglcs, A. E. (l9!)3) Augmenlillllll1 (If boiling and eVllpor.Hinn. In Heal Ex·
challger DesiRn Handbook . Sectio n 2.7.9. Hemisphere, Washington, D.C.
:H. Bcrglcs. A. E. (l9HI) Augmentat ion of two.phase heat transfer amI [ndustrial
applie'ltions of hellt tr;lnsfer 'lUgmc nlation. [n Two-Plum' Flow IIml /feat Transfer
in th r Power and Proct'ss Ifldldlrln·. Ch<lplers 12 and 21. McGraw·Hili / Hemi·
sphere. New York.
31( Oliles. t-I . S. (11182) 111(" the rmal performance of horizontal f.tlling film evaporator
tubes with enhanced heat tran5fci ~ urfaces. A.E.E.W.· R93Z.
39. Salone, 1-1 ., Funahashi. S., and inll ue. S. (1977) F..Jlpcricl1ce on VTE distillolliol1
plants in Japan. Desalin(lliol! 22 1f>9- 179.
4(). Thoma.~, D. G., and Young, G. (1970) Thin film evaporation c nh,lI1ccment by
finned surfaccs. /rId . EliI-:. Chem . " roc. Des. Del". 9 3 17-323.
41. Johnson. B. M .. Jansen, G., and Otwzarski, P. C. (1971) Enhanced cvaporating
film heat tr,lOsfer from corrugated ~urraces. A.S.M.E. pa per 71-HT-33.
42. Newson. L H. (19761 Enhanced hea t transfer condcnser tubing for advanced
multi -stage na~h distillation·plant~ . I'rrx·. 51h 1111 . Symp . OIl f'rl!.~h Waler fmm Ihe
Seo 2 107- 11 5.
H. Dunmo re. O . J . (11)86) Ma terials of construction for vaporisers. In
VarKJri.ft'rS - Sdt't:lion, Desigll 01111 Operalilm. R. A. Smith (cd.), Chapler 12.
Longman Scientific a nd Technic,,1 Wile y, New York.
44. K aka~, S .. and Veziroglu. T. N. 1 19~3l Two·phase flow instabilities in boiling
l'ystc ms: summary and rcview. In .-lill·aners in Two-Phase Flowalld HI'III TrlllZsfer.
s. Kaka~ and M. Ishii (eds.l. Vol. :!. pp. 577-b67 Kluwc r. Dordrecht.
45. (" Ihey, R. T., .IOU Pooowski. M. 1_ (iI}K9) On the analysis of va rious instahilities
in two·phase flows. In MJllllphm,· Snt"'ICt' alld T«hllology. G. F. Hewitt. J. M.
Dclha~·c. <lnd N. Zuber (eus. ). V"t. 4, pp. UB-370. Hcmisphere, Washington.
D.C.
46. S'lunders. E. A. D. (l9,sg) Heal 1:"Ir/Ul III-:t'rs: 5el«,iol/. Desigll ul/d COllstru,·/ioll .
Longman Scientific and Technical I{;lflow, U. K.
47. MeOuittan. K. W., and Whalle~. 1'. B. (1985) A comparison be twee n flooding
correlations and expcrime nt,,1 flood ing data. Chem. EliI-:. SCI . 40 14 25-14 ~O .
41( Bank!l!f. S. G .. and Lec . S. C. (19K;;) A critit:il l review of the Ilooding lit crilture. In
MrlllipJlllse 5cif.'1/cr (1/Ii1 Tedmolox.l". G. F. Hewitt. 1. M. Delhayc. and N. Zuber
(cd:..). Vol. I. PI'. 95 - 195. He misphere. Washington, D.C

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MI
a::
w
MI
Z
w
A Appendix
Z and
S
.. Tables

MI
a:: P. E. Liley
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CONTENTS I
CONTENTS
 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Appendix & Table Contents
Appendix A. Thermophysical Properties
P. E. Liley

Nomenclature
List of Sources of Tables
References
Table A1. Thermophysical Properties of 113 Fluids at 1 bar, 300 K
Table A2. Thermophysical Properties of Liquid and Saturated-Vapor Air
Table A3. Thermophysical Properties of Gaseous Air at Atmospheric
Pressure
Table A4. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ammonia (R717)
Table A5. Thermophysical Properties of Ammonia (R717) at 1-bar
Pressure
Table A6. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Normal Butane (R600)
Table A7. Thermophysical Properties of Normal Butane (R600) at
Atmospheric Pressure
Table A8. Thermophysical Properties of Solid, Saturated-Liquid and
Saturated-Vapor Carbon Dioxide
Table A9. Thermophysical Properties of Gaseous Carbon Dioxide at 1-bar
Pressure
Table A10. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ethane (R170)
Table A11. Thermophysical Properties of Ethane at Atmospheric Pressure
Table A12. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ethylene (R1150)
Table A13. Thermophysical Properties of Ethylene (R1150) at Atmospheric
Pressure
Table A14. Thermophysical Properties of n-Hydrogen (R702) at
Atmospheric Pressure
Table A15. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Methane (R50)
Table A16. Thermophysical Properties of Methane (R50) at Atmospheric
Pressure
Table A17. Thermophysical Properties of Nitrogen (R728) at Atmospheric
Pressure
Table A18. Thermophysical Properties of Oxygen (R732) at Atmospheric
Pressure
Table A19. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Normal Propane (R290)
Table A20. Thermophysical Properties of Propane (R290) at Atmospheric
Pressure
Table A21. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Refrigerant 12
Table A22. Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerant 12 at 1-bar Pressure
Table A23. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Refrigerant 22
Table A24. Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerant 22 at Atmospheric
Pressure
Table A25. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated R134a
Table A26. Properties of Refrigerant 134a at Atmospheric Pressure

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 Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers
Contents
Table A27. Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ice-Water-Steam
Table A28. Thermophysical Properties of Steam at 1-bar Pressure
Table A29. Thermophysical Properties of Water-Steam at High Pressures
Table A30. Thermal Expansion Coefficient α of Water
Table A31. Isothermal Compressibility Coefficient βT of Water
Table A32. Thermophysical Properties of Unused Engine Oil
Table A33. Conversion Factors

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 APPENDIX A

THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES

P. E. LILEY
School 01 MechanICal Engineering and
Center lor InlormatiOn and NumeriCal Data
Analysis and Synthesis (CINDAS)
Purdue University
WeslLalayene. Indiana 47907

NOMENCLATURE

b normal hoiling point

c cri tica l point
1'/' specific heat at con:->tant prcs:-u rc. kJ I (kg . K)
c, specific hea l at constant volume. kJ j (kg . K)
c"r specific heat at constant pressu re of the saturated liquid , kJ / (kg . K)
cp~ specific heat al constant pressu re of the saturated vapor, kJ j (kg' K)
Ii specific en tha lpy, kJ /( kg' K)
Ii I specifk e nthalpy of the sa tur;t!cd liquid , kJ I(kg . K)
h~ specific enthal py of the saturated vapor, kJ/(kg' K)
k the rmal conduc tivi ty, W / (m . K)
kf the rmal conduct ivi ty of the s;llu ratcd liquid. W / (m . K)
k II the rmal conductivity of the sill uratcd vapor, W /(m . K)
M molecular weight. kgj k mol
P pressure, bar
Pf sat uratio n vapor pressure. liqu id. ba r
PK sat urat ion vapor pressure. ga ~. bar
Pr Prandtl number. C"iJ. / k
Prf Prandtl number of the saturated liquid, (cpJ.! )f/ k f
PrK Pra ndtl number of the saturated vapor. (c" IJ.)~jk ~
s spec ific e ntropy. kJ / (kg ' K)
sf specific e ntropy of the sat urat ed liqu id. kJ / (kg' K)
sl< specific entropy of the saturated vapor. kJ /(kg' K)
{ triple point
T temperature. " C. K
Tb normal boiling point te mperature. "c. K
783

CONTENTS NEXT
 784 usr OF SOURCES Of TABLE S IN APPENOIX MATERIAL

T. normal m e lt ing point tempera ture. 0 C. K

/' specific volume, m '/kg
/ ', specific volume of the S;J1Ura l ctl liquid, m '/ ~&
,., specilic volume o f the :.at ura tcd vapor, m ' / k~
r, ve loci ty o f sound. m / s
z compressibi lit y (actor

Greek Symbols
a the rmal cxpiln),jun coc llicicn l
# lsotht! rmal comprcs~ ibir i t y coc flk il.: nt
y r ;I'io)lf principal !'>pcci lic he at , c,.Ic,
II viscosih'. POl .....
Po, viMlO"Lly of the l>illuralcJ li4uid. Pa ' )'
p-( viltCosity uf the sa turated va llOr. I>,. . S
tr, "" ffa ce Ic nl>ion . N / m
'p (lcnl>i l r. k ~/ m '

LIST OF SOURCES OF TABLES IN APPENDI X MATERIAL

Tah!c Soun:c

Al Tahlc22.4 . K ;lk :H~I I J

t\ 2 Tahlc 225. Kakll!\ III
I\~ T ,lhh: 22'(>' K:l k:l\ II J
A~ T ahir n..s. Kak:u;; r II
AI} Tahle 22.'1. K:l k:u; r I J
1\14 T :lh1c 22. 12. K,LkJ,[1 1
A IS T ahleS!. 14. Kut.d :!1
A 1.'1 T :lhll: 22. 11';' K .. I.: ,l\i ! l !
A21 T ahk' 22.21. Kal.:,u.;ll !
A22 Tahle 22.22. Kabli II I
A:!1 T abk 22.2Q. Kal.:ar.;; II I
A2M T;,hle 22.:\u. K;,k:u; II I
AlII T"hk 2Z ..l l . K ;, ~ar,;;11 1
A)() Tablc 22 .•12. Ka l.:a" II I
A:\I Tahle 22 ..U. K al.: l' ~ II I
A:\2 T"hk 22.J.l. K"k ar,;; II I
AJJ I nslJc fmrn cove r. K.,lal\ III

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REFERENCES
J. Liley, P. E. ( 1',1/:17) Thcrmuphysical properties. In Handbook of Sing/('·"/!(l.w emr-
n!'cli/ '" Heal Troruftr. S. Ka ka~ , R. K. Shah, and W. Aung (Cds,), Chapter 22.
Wiley. New York.
2. Liley, P. E. (1986) Thcrmophysical properties of fluid s. In Mt('h(Jllica/ ElIgim!rrs
Handbook . M. Ku tz (cd.). Chapler 52. Wi!!:y. New York.

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TABLE Al Thermophysica l Properties or I J3 fluid.~ at I bar. 300 K·

N.~ Formula
M T•.
K
T~.
K baf
I'•. ".
ka / m '
Acc ' a ldehyde: C: II .O 44.05) 149.7 29).7 2.94
ACI" ' ic K id C, U.O l fiO./Y-iJ J<,II.I 41.U225 IH4t,
Act;lone C , li ~O 5/:tOl:lO 178-5 )29.3 11.0)11( 7112.5
Acc ' ylcne C ; II ! 26.038 17'9.0 1i\9.1 "'.M I 0541K
Air IR 729) m;, 11l.... "'.0 m I 110 14
Ammonia (R717) NU , 17 UJI I<,IS 4 !.W.7 IUll 14
Amlinc C~ 11 1 N 9). IZQ 266.11 457.5 U.OOO72
Ar gon (R7 40) M j9.~ IH.M 1{7.'i
~n1:ene (" ~ II ~ 711.114
Bruminc
Bu.adient . 1.3 .
".
('.11.
159.tll
:\4JJI\H
""
265.4
,., 1
J .'iJ.J
jJU
2hH 7
U. I1lI2
0.110 '"
MI'J.I

But:!ne. LW· C . ... ", 511 124 113.7 ::6 U .l.b%

Butane. n·
Iluwno l
C. II '1l
('. 11 " ,0
511.124
74 124
'" ,
III.' 9
~72 .t.
.l~ . M
2.511 1
n.ul Ot-H KCI4 .\
ButylC' ll c C.I-I .. 56,lOH ::66.<,1
Carbon dio~ldc
Carbon disulfide
CO;
CS :
44.010
70. 01
'"
216,0
1111.1
I<"IV
.",'01.4
67. 10
1~"1
U 7.14

C ,ronn tetra chloride ('(1, 15.1 112 2511 .' .14Q.tI 15111LI'
Carlxm teHutluoridc l'F, !!II.l1I15 1W.5 14 5 . ~
Chlorine CI: 70.91:111 172.2 !.lII.II R.
C hlnrin e rrifluoride
Chlorine pcnta tl uolldc
CIF,
CIF,
<,!2 44'1
130.4411
''''
I7tU
, ~S4,<,I

~60 . 1
I.,
' .0
I,X!II
1.711K
Chlorururm Cllel , 119 377 2(19.7 .'-14 .'1 0,217 1 1 .~ ,1U
Creo;nl. " , C, !-I .O IIIIU~ :\I1J.x 4h4 .1
CrC KlI. m· C , II ~ O IOtt04
Crcsol. p . C , II ~ O 10K. I.'"
Cyclohut a ne C. II ~ SO. 1U4 H12..I 185.7 I.'
C)'CloheJ<ane (",.1 1' 1 tI.I ISh 27'9."; \5).'1 77 ~ I
C)'Cklpcntaoe C. II ", 70 1.111 I N .' .112 j
()clopropanc C,I-I " 42.11111 1455 2-W.J 6.
Deunc C ", II !: 14U71\ 24301 4.I7.J (Ullin n 4I
Deuterium 0, 4.!l2M I II 7 2.17
D,phet1yl C,: /-I ,,, 154.2IM) 342.-1 ')27.6
Et hanc (~I 711) C: II " 30.070 11<,1.'1 184.t. 0I3.54t Ll l n
Et han,,1 C1 11 ,,0 4".r1ll<) 15<,1 .11 .151 .5 IlJ7
Ethyl Ke .ale (", 11 .0 1 Kl\. Hili 1INA .150 J 0. 13111 1I<,I2. J
Ethyl brumlde C : 1-I , I1, lOIl.Q7 1535 .111,5 14~1
Ethyl chlo ridc (R 1601 (" l l·! , ('1 h·UI') 1J4,<) 2X5.t I.'"
Elhyl elOcr
Ethyl Iluo nde (R 16 1)
C. H,,,U
Cl l/ ,F
74. ]23
411.0nO
1')t11)
UO,!)
)07.1!
1Jo. 1 ,., 7()5.o

Elhyl fo rma. e C, II ~O : 74.IIXO 1'1.' H .' ~74

Et h)lcne ( ': 1-1 . 211.lJ54 lfl4.0 16\15 O~IJ.'i
Eth>'lenc oxid~ C! II ,O 44 . 11.~4 10tl.o 2Klo 1.112
Fluorine F, ." .'N? 5.'.~ H~ , I 1 . ~ 44 2
GI~TI:"'I 12~ , 3
Hel ium II, 4.0U) 4,3 O. l b25
HClltan", C l ll , ~ IIMI.21 lX Z , ~ ." I,t. IHI07t') .... 711.0
H eu",~ (:~ I'I .. 1!6 1711 InX 34 1.Q ij ,\H1614 h52 j
Hydnzi ne N: II . J2.1I45 nn 3M.7
Uydrnf;cn , n ·
"1 .2 tll(, IJ.U ~1I.4 f) ,Ollll!I

78.

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 (Col!til1l1f~d)

..
TABLE AI

c, .. c. . , ,
k. p, if . f,.
kJ j (kg' KI kJ j( kg K) 111 - < I' d Wj(m' K) N/m mj,

1.49
2.!)t,tl 1I.I.~ 0.1035 14. 1 1130
2. !J 3.Il:-< ().I59.~ 4.11 (l.O229 ( IhO
1.7(1:"12 1.3HU 1.234 U.W.W O.1J220 O.W4 :"142
IJJ05 0.711{ I ABO O.I!!·] 0.0261 0.7 11 ."\47.3
2.10 I.h) I.B fl.W.? 0.246 0.S7fl 4.\4
2.iI7'1 34.7 rUB 4 1.7 loIS
0.522 II.3U l.on7 O.22i 1 0.0 177 0.671) 322.6
L7) 5.!'oX 0.1444 7.414 n.U27lJ 1275
O. ll2 OJI4 1
1.475 (J.(JH 7h O.O IHI 0.7 14
11.117/,(1 O.lI l ti4 O.H I4
1.73 1 ].569 un) 0.075 7 O.OlhO O.H I I 0.0116 211
2.39 24.9 0.152 39.2 IU124] 12 1)
1J.u1xo
IU:45 0.657 1.21!!! 0.150 O.lIlhO 0.763 26<1.6
1.0 16 U.lhl 1143
IUild7 lUll U.102h 7.42 rJ.02h I 'JI K
O.1U7 1 1l.hO'!5 I. I5t) U.174H U.U 1711 0.71'1
0.4721! O.U7 1 OJI()II!>'l 0.72'1 2 16
IUN'! 11.142 1 I),QUI! 0.7 16
U.745 (I.143 J 0.(11 46 O.BO
O.<175 5 ..1'1 U.1 17 'iHK
1(1.2 0.15) %.11
11 2 0,14':1 174
126 11.144
1.2!;\! U.OIlIZ 0,(1 I41l 0.707
I.S65 IUi9 O.Il] 1J.2 0.11242 1230
I.SJ .'-'17 (J,ln 5.41,
1..\) 1 03111'!1) 0.11 163 0.727
2.213
0.126 1l.141
1.5Kf>
1.769 1.4S2 1. 192 0.1194 O.02l!S 0.7OS 314
2.450 W.4h 0.lh7 15.4 IU1222 IU7
1,\)47 4.37 0.143 5.'15 IUl234 1120
0.1*:0 3.63 0.101 3. ](.., 905
0.91] «I. lom IU II 26 0.774
2.21 2.25 O. I)() ).I{,1 %1(
1.243 11.(1954 0.11 16] 0.727
0.1'9
15h1l 1.262 1.237 0.104 0.U2U3 0.7<1h 332
lJ196 n.()H7'! O.HUU 0.742
II.S27 11,(-,(17 1.362 11.227 0.1127'1 O./,B 2<19
2.3!:! 7.'122 O.21111 6730 It.051l7 IS75
5. 193 3. 115 l.on7 0. 1976 O.IOS 0.1>01( 1020
2.2.~2 .u, 0.1242 0.96 1).0197 11 2(J
2.210 2.87 0.123 5.30 O.0J77 1l3(J

14.27 10. 111 1.41)5 0.01!94 0.IH2 0.701 1350

787

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TABLE AI (Cominued)
M Tm • Th • P, . ,..
Name Formula K K bar kg/ m'

Hydrogen. p ' H: 2.U](,

Ilydmgen bmmide IIB r 11/)'112 IKtd 20('A 25.5
H ydrogen ch lor ide II CI 36.461 I (~)'() It·au 4H.7
Hydrogen Hu()rid~ IlF 20.00(, IflLS ~n7 U
Ilyumgcn iodide III 127.9 1 222.4 ~37.8 H.5
lIydrogen peroxide H,Ol 0.0031 1449
Hydrogen su lhde Ii , S 34.076 I fl7.5 ~ 13.U 20.'J
Kryplon K, H3.H)) 11 6.0 1 2 1.~ 3.3659
Merc ury II, 200.59 234 ..~ (,., 11.1
M e th an~ C II . 16.(}4) o,lI1.7 111 .5 (U,44J
Methanol CII , O J2 .042 175.5 1)7.7 O. IX6() 7H4.'J
Methyl aCela le C., HhO, 74.Ui\() 175 UH.3
M~lhyl brom ide C lI ,Br 94.93'J 179.5 27h.7 2.]8
( R40 BI)
Melh yl ~hl()ride ( R4()J CHl."l SO.4t17 17SA ';4'1.4 (,.189
Mcl hyl H uorid~ (R4J) C II ,F 34.0.13 131.3 19-1.7 1
. 9.5
Methy l fnrmat e (Rhll) C 211 ,0, hl}052 In.4 10-1.7
Melh ylene chlorid~
(RJO) C I-I ,CI ! 84.912 17h.5 31 2.9
Nenn(R720) N, 20.179 24.5 .;7.3 (UIO'J I
Ne"pcn1"n~ C, H ," 72.15 1 25h.6 ~H2.7
Nilric oxide NO ]O./)O/l 12 1.4
Nitrogen ( R72H) N, 2X.H 13 h.t! 77.3
Nitrogen peroxide NO , 46.()(1t> 263 2<,1·-1.5
Nitmus oxide (R744a) N, O 44.0 1., In IS4.7 57.5
Nonanc C~U!it 12x.25n O.OOM 7 12 ..'
Octane C" II 'H 114.210 216.4 3<,1,<1.9 (l.02U7 704.2
OKYgen 0, 3 1.<I9Q 54.4 '~UI

Pcnt"n~ . i)·I)· C ~ IlI ': ni SI 113.7 .lOU

ren lan ~. fl · C , III , 72. 151 143.7 .1()<'. 2
Propad iene
Propane
C, H .
C ., II ~
40.n!'>2
44.1.11,17
130.9
H6.0
2JX.S
2) 1. 1 "
'}.'N73
rropanol C, ll xO 60.11')1> 147.0 .17I1A
Propyle ne C, H 42.1»!( H7') 215.S 12. 1111
Refrigerant II CFCI" , 137.37 Itl2.2 ~%.<,I I 134 1
Rcfrignant 12 CF 2Cl z 1~0.1.j1 115.4 243.4 0.8491 131 I
Refrigerant 12BI IOS.37 113.7 21lY.2
Refri gera nt 12H2
<T! BrCl
CF2 Br~ 21)'}.~2 13 1.0 2'15.'} "
I'
Re fri ge rant IJ CF,CI 104.46 92.1 19 1.7 37.05
Refrige rant U BI CFIAT 1411.9 1 105.4 2 15.4 16.'114
Refr ige rant 21 OIFCl : 102.9 1 13tl.Z 2H2. 1
Refri ge rant 22 C HF 2CI Ho.4tl9 11 .1.2 1.12.4 10.% 11 94
Refri gera nt 23 C HF , 7U.H14 IIH.O 1'11.2
Refrigerant 32 C H ,F1 52.1123 22 1.5
Refrigerant L 13 C, F., (J.l 1117.3/1 2311.2 .110.H 11.4817 1557
Refrigera nt 114 C 1 F4 CI , 17u.n 179.2 270.7 2.27SH
Refr igerant 115 C,FsCI 154.47 n4.0
Refri gera nt 116 C,F~ 1311.02
Refri ge rant 142b C 1 Fz ll ,CI I OU.50 142.4 20.,.9 .U1!25
Rcfrigcrant 152a C l F~ H ~ tm.OS I ISh 24S 6.3132

788

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 ' ..
kJ j tk • . K)
". ,
•••
I'., . s
,. '" o. ;"
U j l k, . K) W/ (m · K) N j "l ml'
'"
14JW
U.W)
11172 1.31'4 tWill ·' U.176 0."" UIO
lU llXI' O.cxm 0.693 210
0.1"'5 0 . 141>1 11.0170 O.72K .1 10
\.4511 O. l l~1 O.uUJO 0.702
o !I'm 0.1)0,,24 0 ....
112211

'" H.4~l ).47 '"

1.0(1 '"
n. t:'4 0 .01461 0.... 300
II.N\! 11, 14'1 1./0/" 0 2<;'. 0.""" n"7!!
().I )tI 15..1 1450
1.2.'5
25211
1.7 11 1. 34~ 11 11 1
~ l~
1),0)44
f) 2011
0.733
n.711 011221
45"
11197
J.!'if! 0.1555 4.g9 I l l!'
11.44'} O. U I'> 1l,0000l 0.734 YO,
0.80/\ {J . II LIV' 11.012 1I.n2
1.1 Oil 0 , 1Lnl 11.OIM9 O.7f1fl
J~ f,
4 .U~
U "'" J _~1
tllJ/QI
OJ I 1
1.031l
1.77
O'JIX,
ll.blH !.M7
fI.U7 2/.
(1 . 1<1 1'"
0,04\13
11 01""
U.0257
IlM'l
111\.'111
1) 74~
'"
IJI-IU 0.743 ].40> O, IKI ' O.02/'J1) Il.1 I S .l52

O.1I7Q tl.IJ 'A I O.Olflb O: NII ~75

2.22 n5 1 O. I N II.! 1l.l121 1105
1.2. '
0.<1211 0.0011 lJ9J
, ,"
O . :I)7 ~
UWI
0.11207
",
0.714
U 1)210 11/,-,
.1,1 2
2.!M 2.1l' 11 141, J 17 Il ()L ~.l 'I7to
241 2 :J o IS: J !'i.'i 1U5l1
1.473 O.mw l OJ) I 7tl n.1JJ
l .hllJ '..11,12 l.l.l'i O,UI( .!(, Il.UIK44 11 7h2 2411
2,44(, 1\1, 17 U. DI( .14.0 (J,1)2.\2 11'/5
l ..'i~b U~h 1. 1 ~ 0 .111( 1 O.Olbll 11797
(J.5H U. 5( ~ I.l b\ O . II N~ Il.lXI'N Ilxl4 J.W
(111(11 I) 542 1.1 II n . I.!!,{1 It.tkl',l1 11.711 1
0 .460 0.-'95 1.1 65 0 . 1.\:-;1 0.0071'1 11.1'11
U.3h7 IUltI 1.1 NI {l. 1 \40
0 "" 11 5hZ 1.l4h 0 . 144\1 IWI22 11.71>(,
O,4h1' I)Am 1.14.\ O . I S;~ 0.0IJ9<l lI.74S
n.594 Il5U4 1. 17\1 11. 11 ~ IUkl1l9 11.71ill
(1 ,047 U.544 1.l'M:1 o I ~'-N 11 411111 11.7(,'
0 .132 IInll 1.1>,111 (). 141"1 ,~ 1I.014K 11.7.\1>

(I .~II 6." ·' o.mn 11.52

0 .7 15 O.MlI 1.011) O. II Q U.()I05 11.775
0."" Ilt' .\ 5 I .nlll 11. 1:1('1 II.mI9 11.745
0.762
0"'" 1.OY2 O. 14!o.\ I).OI~()
0 .01 J1
1I.74U

1.0N 0 . 111 \7 II.UUK n.nl

n.Ot.19

78'

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N.'"
TABLE AI (Cominued)

M ~n' Th , Px , p. Cp ' Cr > Y iL· k. Pr (I, t'S1

Name Formula K K bar kg/m' kJ /(kg . K) kJ /(kg . K) 1O- 4 Pa's W/(m' K) N/m mls
----------------------~ .... -----
Refrigerant 216 C,F"CI, 220.93 :lOS
Refrigerant 245 4888 0.82) 0.778 L056 0.1187 0.0127 0.765
Refrigerant C31!! C 4 F, 200 OJ 1 232.7 267.2 3.325
RefrigeraM 500 mix 99.303 \14.3 2397 8.0R! 0.0117 0.769
Refrigeranl502 mIX 111.63 237 12.186
Refrigerant 503 mlX 8721>7 1!i4
Refrigerant 504 mtx 79.240 216
Refrigerant 505 mix 10343 243.6
Refrigerant 506 mix 9369 260.7
Silane 32.12 S6.8 16L~
J.338 0.1184 M221 0.718
SiH.
Sulfur dioxide SO, 64.059 19U 26H.4 4.168 0.623 0.129 00096 6.837
Sulfur hexafluoride SF~ 146.05 222.4 209.4 0.&67 0.1654 0.0141 0.784
Toluene C7 H, 92.141 17H.2 J::O.s 0.04 Hi 859 1.69 5.54 0.133 7.04 00275 1285
Water H10 lROIS 273.2 373.2 0.0353 4.179 8.9 0.609 5.69 0.0717 1501
Xenon Xe 13136 Iii 1.5 165.0 5.291 0.160 0.097 L655 0.232 0.0056 0.663
"A bl~nk entry means 110 inform.lion is avail3ble: a <lash mea"' not applicable at JOO K. BACK
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TAHLE Al Tht'nnoph y... iul I'rnperties of Liquid and Satur.Ilt'd ,Vll por Air "

,,. ',. ',.

T. 1', . I·~.
',.
m ' / k): m ' / k~
"r' h, .
kJ / I:~
" I " I
K
.,
ha r

IHlf>tI
bar

tl.O!:" O.(MllOllI tl .1I7~ 2

kJ / k):

- H7 .1. . ~.t J II
1I"' t;

:!.IIIl~
" ( k t;
"
" .'l.t ~
H. t ~'I 11.1171. U.IMI) OI1o'1 ! 410W - 4Jn .7 - 2.N.U !1172 " .057
" U .\4(1 II I\JJ .l.U ,/ . 2 \.1.-1

.,"'"
II.lMI I (I'I~ t II~I.~ ! .X'll ~ Khl
1I.tt.~1I 41.·124 O.UOII!I 0 .-1<.1510 _ .1.10 " - 2~ U 1." ;'\11 ;'\ 7(.11
1174 II Joe!7 0.11011 ." '1 02,,77 - .IB. ~ - 2~tdl ]II.'" 5 ..\«,7

.," I.\J;'\~

.H~)
) .HJ
2.-1.1!,1
U.lIIIlIJoe2
0 .11012111
U. I571l
O.(IQK I
.l 1;'i.f'
- .lOll ..' -
22~
~IK .'1
2 ., 1.\4
.' 2-'7
.'i.tSS
5 ..' S7

"
,,~
.I.h27
b.ti7'l
Jill!!
SoB
IUM 11 2.:'i7
41.1101 .111.1
!I.!)("'~
U.(I-I.lO
- .1'11, !
- .V\f> ..1
-
- nl
!lh . ~
I ,....
.' .\J I " 2711
;'i HN
1115 9.317
12,h21'>
Joe 1111 tl.U(lI .l~~ n.n.'fl9 - J7~A 1 1 ~ ." "0< .:'i . I H
I III 1I.2K41 IIJMII4 1Joe II n~;:1l - .'t.~ ~ - 211 'J ll,~ I s n.n
- 3SIA J 7<,/,
'"
12"
16.~7
JI..:'i1W
15.242
20. 1311
1I.IM"" 'I7
I)JM)lflIl!
1l.UI S\J
1I.nl1 ;'i - 137 ...
21·) .l
- 217.7 .\ 1tfI.:'i
4'IW
4.K7.1
125 27 ..11 21'> . 111 IIJM)1 7.~7 II.lMIIII - .' 12.2 - 21.t..l J .\JII:'i .t 77.'
'JU .l.l .2~ .U27 U.lMI21Ih\J tU!O:'i.l - .\() I I ~ 17 .... .I 1441 .th\!
131.:" .l1l.HII ]7.JI> n.OO1.W.l O.tlO.! I - lSl) ..1 - ;::"(1.(, .I Nt .I ~ t7

(rUff/mllf'l/)
790

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 C ~ .f- .. ~ 0-

.,.
,,. ' ..
T. "I " I
10 • I'a . ,
•••Pa , wI wI
K (kit · K' (k8 . K' III~ (m ' K) (m . K) /" 1 ".
60 3.25 O.ISO 0.005
0.171 0.000
"'0 2."
2.21 0.47 0.163 0000 2.~ Ilf>'l
0. 154
"
'0
1.79
1.82
I 1.1
1.17
1.89
1M
0.51
(1.55 0.145
0.007
000>\
2.35
2.2.1
0.73
1117

"
~,
I. H5
1.1111
2.0n
1.21
1.2"
1.47
U2
0.60
O.M
0. 137
0.128
0.""
0.009
UOO'I
2.17
2.14
~. 1 5
0.111
0.114
0.117
"
'00
10~
2. 11
2.24
1.31
1.37
I At!
l.10
1.10
1.02
0.70
0.75
n.K()
0. 119
0.110
11.102
0.010
0.0 11
2.21
2.29
0.9 1
(I.fill
110 2.41 1.64 0.95 0.'" 0.(9) 0.0 12 2.41 1.01"1
'15 2.65 1.91 0.87 0.93 fI.01l4 0.014 2.M 1.13
0.75 om" o.~) 15 2.7ti
'"'
m
3.'"
4.12
2AO
3.53 0.62
1.112
1.17 0.067 O.lllll 2.ID
1.33
I.b5

~ Si nCC'
air is ~ mul l icomponenl miAIUU\ Ihe de" Hn d bubble poinh vary wilh composition and
there is no unique crilical poin,.

791

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1,\H Lt. iU 'l'hernlO physica l l'roper1ies or r.aseous ,\i r a l ,\lmospheri(" Press ure -
r, ,',
". '. "". ". ,. ".
K m '/ k~ ~J / kg kJ / (k,, · "0 kJ /(~i: ' KI Ilf ' I',, · S W / (m K)

IIMI 11 1711 ,1 - !t).l . ~ :'I. 7~5 1.11." 1 1.414 NII.it U. 7I ".! N~1 2 U. lY~
IHI tum" - 1'14 .1 5 ."~4 1.1124 1.4!t1 ,:U.!U (1. 77 11.11 111 2 iI. 7M
l:!tl tUJI'.7 - 11I~ . '1 :"i'14.\ I.U2U 1.417 ~ 1!U 11.1(.1 IIUl II n 77S
1311 tUM] - 171 7 h .1I24 lUll> 1. 41 ~ ~ n ." 11.'11 IUIl2l1 11. 71\1
14t1 n . I'M" - I h ,l h o<ffl 1.1114 1.41 .1 ~.I". J 11.'17 CtJ I1~ II 71>'2
1:'>4 1 u42.1.1 - 1:'1.'1 ,4 .... JI'.', 1.1111 LJUt ':44." U ll IUf l Y~ 11 7~~
](~I 0451'1 14J J (. 2,, ", 1.1111' 1.411 7 ':HI 1.1"1 IInl4 7 i. 74"
1"111 1I . 4)(1~ - Ll.U IdW. I ,IIU'J I. JI'" ~ ,.LI 1.1 5 IUI1~ II 74.'
1)(11 U.... (~)I - 12.1..1 (0..1:'1 .\ 1.1 0'1 I.JI 'l ~(,X.7 1.21 lI,m,.,.. 11 7.19
1\111 1I.5nh I i.\ I h41111 LlNIX 1.41.' ~ 7h ! I.n IIUl N 11 7.\1>
!tMI (I,SI>M - IUJJI (, .45'11 I.()( III t..l'IX 111\ .\ I .,l.' 11 , 1I1~ .1 11,1\4
21n 115 '14'1 - '12.'1 t • .~(1112 I INn U'N ':911 J 1..19 lUll'll (1 7 .1 2
22(1
2 ." 1
11."2 .'2
(I ," S I ~
·· 112.11
-7~. 1I
. .,
/0
~~ "'I
.~ ,,..,x
IHIh
I.()(N.
1.3""
IAIMI
~Y7 ..'
~I.I , II
IA4
I.~(t
ifill""
11.112117
(1.7.\( 1
lI.nl!
240 11 ,1>7'1'1 •• 1>2.7 h "4 2~ 11Kl ~ IAIKI ; 1IJ.5 1.55 n,1I21~ n,n..
25(1 II 711~2 - 52.7 Id,lI.l h I ,U I .~ IAINI \)711 I.NI umn lI . n.~
2(lIl (I,7.ltol, - 42.(. (,,7 2.111 J.lW I .~ IAIM. Ic.'.-, l.h5 II 1l2:\11 (( 72.\
270 1I.7(,.j'J .n .1> (. J,lIN II~'" I <lIMI ;::'1 J 1.711 1f,1I!,17 (I,n:
2ltll 1I,7'J,U - H.:"i " ,7'17 4 1,/ KI.I 1.4( MI n~.5 L75 11112 4 5 II 721
2~1 11.1.21" - 12.5 h .II.121> 1 .IX 1:'\ IAIM I \J \.J 1.1<1) 1f , 1I~~2 U . 7~1I

." MI 11.114<,1<) ·· 2A 1>.11/>1>7 LlK I ~ IAI. I l J 7.2 I.X5 If Il!W n .71"

,1 111 lun~2 'l, h,II'''17 LI~'~ 1.4(.1 l~1.''' 1.'10 IfIl::'h5 11.7 1"
.1211 11'1111>5 11.7 h,'1.\ I" 1.1 KIh .ISS:'> 1.'14 II,U272 n .' I'J
.' ~I 1l.'1.H II 27.7 1•.'JI.2:'1 1,U1fo
I ." '"
."J" .\loJ .O ,W (i,1l27'1 (1,7 1"
,\4(1 Il '/f.n .n .1I h'1'12" U K' 7 .1'1'1 \I .... :'I 2.1'" 1I1f:!X ~ 1171 ' ,

.1511 II VOl I" 4 7.'1 7 n2 1 .~ I.I~III .,",x .l7J .X 2.1111 II.U::''I::' 11.7 1'1
.\(~I I.nl'l'l ~7 ,'1 7.11.' ;02 LI~~I -"IX :l..'U Ut 2.12 CJ.lI2'IS 11.7 1'I
.nll 1.1).1112 /01111 7117711 I tllII .l'I ~ ~5 . ! 2.17 n.II."1-I 11. 71 ' 1
.1)(1, 1. 11 7h~ 7tU 711 "'11 1111 1 ,1'1 7 .1'11 1..' 2.1 1 1111.11 I i/7 1'1
."'11 I 111-1') JQI , ~ 7 1.11 1 1.1I1! t..,'H. 1'15.-' 2 2~ lunl7 (171"
4I~1 l.l12 ' /itA 7 . 1~1 1.111" I..l'I ~ JlMJ3 11.11 12.1 (I 71'/
4111 11>15 111115 11/11 1 1111 :'1 I..\'I ~ 411:'1.1 " 11.1."" II 71'1
41\1 111'111 11 11.7 7.211t>2 lilito l.,lOu JI~J . '1 U.IIJ.l" 11.71'1
4."" I ] 111 1 1211.11 7. 2;\111 I 11111 L l'j ; 414.1> lW.142 11 7111
4411 I 241>5 1.l'l.U 72:'1.1:'\ I Ill .... 1..''' 2 41<1.] (1.11.\411 11,7111

4SC I 1.27411 14'1.2 7 , nl>.~ 1.1I!1 1..1 "1 J l.1 ." 2 ..'it) 'W.l.~~ 1I,7IX
4(lIl ."I.U IS'I.4 7.2'11\'" I.lIn 1..1<)011 4 2X \ 2.3.1 IUllI. 1 11.1111
47(( 1.J.1 I 5 Ih'l 7 7.l!t I'J 11124 I..IX " 4.1].11 2.57 1I,If.lh7 11.7 111
41«1 1..l .~'I~ 17"." 7 ..14!~ 1.1I2to .1~" J.17 ,J 2.M (1,11.17.' n.71~
4'JlI 1.]11112 1~1 2 7 .V•.l' 11I2!' .1X ~ 441.11 2.105 (111.17'1 n .1I11

SHU 1.416S 21 MI.5 7..11145 I.U.' O J4<'>.1 2,1>'1 Il. n.lll~ II 7 11!
520 IAn 22 1. 1 7.4 24<1 1.0.l4 454.h 2,71> Il.II.NII 1I. 7 1X
5411 1.5.111 241 .11 7,410411 IO.IX -lQ2.'1 ':.11.1 IUI-IIII 11 ,7 111
560 1.5Mt1 2"2 .... ' .5UIK 1,1142 471.0 2 ... 1 1I,!14 22 11.7111
5S1) 1.1>5.' 211] .5 7,:'\111:'1 Ll 14 7 .ny.o 2,'111 IUlJ .U II 7 \ .~

MMI 1,14MI .1114 .5 7,57411 I ,U5 1 4X6 ..~ IU).l41> 11 ,7 111

"21J l.75h .125.1> 7.1>I)!\(> 11151> J'IJA ""
.1.11 () .1 )4 .~11 11. 7111
.ux
(,.jO
IlIlO
I.IILl
) ,1I71l
]411.7
;\M./)
7,6422
7,,,"'4<1
l , tll~1

111M
"'''
',0'1 J .U~
II.U47il
I).UJS2
1I ,71X
1l. 717
MU 1.'126 ]11'1. .1 7.7ut.7 U I7l. :'Ilh .~ .1..12 II. IIJ'J ~ il. 7I7

792

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NfXT
TABLE A3 (Crmtlllued)

T. '. , ". ,
K ld /( kg K) W ' Pa W /(m ' K l

411111 771711 I 07~ 1 .• 1>4 52.H, .l.JH n .Il's01 11.717

'"?>, '"''
,., 2.04l) 4 .12.1 7.71:J1'.2 I(~O 1..,1> 2 ~ .\()" .1,45 JI\l51'1 117)1,

,.,
,.,
Lt~)t,

2.I.U
45.\.'1
4757
7.7'1711
7112(,11
1.<)114
IOH'i
1.3100
I .I.'il!
5.17.5
.~ 44]
.1.~ I
.1.~7
lLOS.'1
11.1lS-4
IJ. J Ir.
(). 7 H.

... 2 l lil
2.2M
.N7.5
5 1'1.4
7.1155 1
7.11112<,1
liN"
1,11'1'1
.l.sl>
.1~4
.~~

~57.h
I ,Il .1.M
J.711
nnssto

U.lJ5hS
II 7 1h
11111>

..."
1I:!11 2_12.1 54U 7.'I WI I W.I .I~! 5"'-'. 1 .1.7/. lLiJ5XO IU I 5
2 111/) ~6.1 " 7.'1](,7 IO~ .,~() H O Ii .1112 (I .ll'i'/! ()7 1 ~

"",
~, 1.4J6
2.4'1.1
SIIS, II
I~)KI
7.96211 11 2 1.341!
1.346
S11>.8 .'-l1li UJIf>O.l u115
7.'II!K~ 3!U. 1 .1 . ~ 4 tI.ll/il.'i

2.~50 to.'!).! H.IIIJ6

'"
121 1..'144 ~".1 HIll nUh27
0.1 15
(I 11 'i
m
,''''.... 2b()()
2.M.1
2,72()
1>52 'I
"7.'i ..~
II.U]II.1
11.11625 12'1
1 .~42
1. .\41
~<,IS.4
('OI.S
4. lJ~
4. 11
nJIt>]'I
JUI/iSU
nnM ]
() 715
11.71 4
() 7 14
~,
M'x, I 11 .111104 1 ~1 I ..\.\'-1 6" 1 ..~ .."
!776 nOli 11 . 111'111 1.17 1. .1.\11 hlJ 4 4.2.1 n . 11t>7 .~ (171"
"'"
IOU) (I(1IlII4 (1 7 14
I!I~U
21"\.11
2,'175
741 "
~W)II
H.I .1211
1I . 1~ 7
'"
I ~I
1..1.11>
I .\.1.'
iiI")
I> .n l:S IIU ?II (171"
111MI .1. 111'> IISII.S H.242J 1511 1. .1.\11 I..l-!\.U 11.117.111 !I 7 15
II.'iU ],2<;11 'HI'.I> 11 .2',13'1 I. I /~'i 1..127 /"; 1 ,I! JI.«171>4 (17 15
I 2I MI .lAOO '175.0 H..14]7 I 171 1•.124 lin" 111171!'! U 7L'i

12511 .154 1
3,MJ
Hl.IJ .1I
1\1'13.0
11 . .1'117 ,., I . J~!
1..11~
-, n . I~14

11.111'1 .1'}
(1.7 I /'0
11.7 1(,
1.1.m
1]';0 .1IC~ II S2.3
11.4.\111
H. 411.'1I "'"
1'1] 1..11 7
701....
71 4 ." n (1M. (I i 17
141~) ] 'IN'> 1l11.2 11.521>5 I .11 5 7!to<,l 113l/1li7 II 71 7
14. .. ' 4,101l 1272 ..1 11.51>'16 1..11.\ 7]'1 .2 n.11'I11 11.71 7
151M) 4,24'1 lH2.7 1I.f>l1% I 2111 J .111 75 1 .\ IHI'I14 i I .~

I ~SO n31'1~11
4 .WI
4SH
I.\'I.U
1454.2
11.64'1 3
lI.f>XII(l
U15
1.2:!11
1. -'11'1
1..111/1
71>.1 1
nHI UII'II!I '"
IIlIM'
4,"74 u IIU4 '"
11>511
171~. 4 .1! 16
IS1S . .1
IS76.7
lI.nSh
H.7h2:
1.225
1.2:'1
1..1111>
I .ln~
7"" 5

"''', 1l. 1JI:7 '"

7 1i

17';0 4 '1511 1".'IK2 11.7<17<.1 I 2]1 I 10. ". I> III 1l . 1 1I~ 1I

n 11l 7~ '"
I~WI

IIISH
S,IIW
5. 241
l71kHI
17"2.0
lun27
H.1IM7
1.131
I.NI
J .102
L.lUl
1!2I1 2
11.11 I
I> 21
I> .11 1J . 11 ~'4 '"
'"
,."
l~<;() ,_ .
~.:1oX3
5.524
11124,1 II.IIWII
lI'nn
1.245
1.241! ,
1..1IMJ
,."
K41. 'I
1151 I>
oA.1
0."
Il. I I II,
II I I ~~ '"
m
",," ,.'""
"'"
1'I41!.<,I 11.%.\11 1.2.<;: I. 2'111 !Ill] . I
!Ins
'.M 11. 115'1
Il.lllI!J
lJ .7 17
11 .7 17
"''''
211M.
2150
~ <J.I'I
1'1 .11'11
211 11.6
21174 .4
11.'1 ..1
II.'!I'<J.II!
<,I ,n2.~ I

'-1.0547
1.255
1.2SI!
1.2(»1
1.:!'I7
1,2<,11>
1!'I5
l1li.\,11
H<,I4.11
1>.7"
,~

I>.'1~
II , I !IX J
II. J22 1!
II 7 17
11 .7 17
1200 b .2]2 22004 \UIIIJ7 1.26.' 1.JY.l 'XJ.I .U 7, H.~ II. I 2"!I II 71 x
~:'."' I h 174 12to.I" <,1 . 112 1 1 2to.'i 1.2'1.1 '114 .0 7, l.~ 11. 121>11 u i lX

..
2.1("' OSlo::. DEn <,I . l]W 1.2bM 1.2'1.\ 'I2.1.iI 7,1.'i 11. 127'1 (I. 7 1X
6 .M7 2)~1. .~ <,I . lhn 1270 1.2'-11 9.1'1.5 7 ..H n 12'11! O.71'i
"'" ,'"
241.1 24541) <,1 . 1'1-411 un 1.1'-11 9·0.2 7A~ 11. '-' 17 0 7 1'1
, ""
24;<;(1 25177 <,1 .:20] 1,275 1.2'11 '-152.7 7..>4 !I. I .'.'h (lUll

~ M' 25I1U U17 L2~1 %2.2 7.1>4

MT hcsc: pfopcrtie:~ are: base:d on cons tanl ilascuu, ~<l mp(lsi (ion . The reader i~ re minded Ih~J. aJ
th e: hia he: r l e mpua lur c:~. lh c: pn: ,,-,ure (~n ~tfcct the composition and the Jhermodyn;, mic
prOpC"nic:s.

T93

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N''''
 TABLE A4 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ammonia (R717)

T. P. ' ,. ',. "f'

II!: . St . jr~ cJII ' C 'I ~' JJ l' IJ. ,.. kI' J.: ( . P"
K bar m "/ kg m' / ks kJ j kg kJ / kg kJ / (kg ' K) Id j (kg K) U / {kg K) kJ / (kg ' K) W-' Pa s 10-' Pa ' s W j <m ' K) W j (m ' K)

1'155" 0 .0608 0.()()J.127 15.648 -IJlO I 380.1 4203 II. H27 4.7.1 4 .25 0715 2.81
200 0.0l!65 0001372 11.237 - 10888 JllH,5 4 .311 11.6YI;I 4 .f>] .t 07 0709 2.65
210 O. I77S O.OOI39~ 5.729 - 11)44,1 406 ,7 4,529 II 43ll 4 .31;1 2.03 ).(-.9 0 .685 1.36
220 O. ~ .;H I 0.00 1417 .1. 1.15 - JO()(),6 424 , I 4 ,731 11 .207 4 . )5 2.08 3)4 0661 2.20
DO 06044 0.(0)442 I.R22 -95704407 4.92.~ 11.002 438 2 15 3.02 0 .638 2.07
240 1,('226 0.00 1~61l 1.115 -912,9 456,2 5.113 10.817 4,43 2.24 27) 0005 0615 o 018l! 1.97 1.01
250 I 64% 0.0014'J5 0.712 -ll1>S2 471U.. 5.294 10.650 448 234 2,45 0.089 1i.592 001% 1.86 '-06
260 2.5529 0001524 OAn - ~2~ 1 4HS 5.471 IOA9!) 454 :U7 2,20 (l.09J 0.569 0.0205 1.76 1.12
;170 J.llIOO 0.001551 0,324 - 777,-' 4<,15,6 5.64J 10.358 4.60 2,61 1.97 0099 0546 0.0219 1.66 1.18
2XO S.S(l77 0,001589 (1.228 - 7.10,9 ~06,0 5,HII 10.228 4 ,M 277 1.76 0 . 104 0 .523 0 .0235 157 1. 2.1

290 7.741 O.O()11l26 0165 -1>S18 ';]47 5.975 10108 4.73 2,<11> 1,5M 0.10<) 0 .500 0 .0255 1.49 1.27
300 1061 0001666 0.121 - 6360 521,5 61.15 9 ,994 4.112 :1.18 141 o 114 0477 00279 1,42 1.31
310 14.24 0.001710 0.091 -S1l72 526,1 62'!) '! .&l5 4.91 ) ,43 1.26 o 119 0454 00308 136 1.)5
no 18. 72 0.00171\0 0.069 - 5.l7 5 52H2 644M 9779 5.02 :3 7~ I lJ o 124 0 ,4Jl 0 .0333 1..12 1.39
130 24.20 0.()(11815 DOs) -41167 ~275 h r-.()~ 91>7, ' . 17 ~ I~ I 02 11 , 129 04011 0 ,0374 1.29 1.43
)4[) 30.79 0001!n8 OOJI[) - 4JJ,J 5233 I> 755 '.1571 5.37 454 0,92 0 , 114 0.3K5 11,0417 1.28 1.47
351) 311.64 0.001952 0,031<; - 31i0,0 S 15 I 6.'/U~ ,!,J65 5.64 5 14 0 ,83 0 , 139 0 ,361 0 ,0472 1.30 1.52
360 47.90 o ()()2039 0,02J'I - .\2J.! 50l.H 7,()(.. J '!,~5~ 1>.04 597 1175 0 . 144 0337 Om:\6 ! 34 160
370 58.74 0.002148 00194 - 262,6 481.9 7.222 9.235 " .68 720 0.69 0.151 0,313 00608 147 1.79
~ 7135 OJ)(J229 I 00149 - 1'l6.5 452 . 7 7.191 Y 100 7 . ~0 9.30 061 0.160 (),286 0,()690 1,66 2. 16

390 85.98 0.002499 0.011) - 1209 411H . 1 757!! 8.9J5 10.3 13.I!5 0,50 0,)72 0,254 0,0780 2,0) 3 .05
"00 103.0 0.002882 00077 - 23 5 329.0 7.M IJ 8 , ~94 21.0 32.09 039 0.19 0,1011 5.64
405.4' 113.0 O'(JOJ255 (H»I3 142.7 142.7 tS.211> 1l,216

CONTENTS
"Triple poin!.
BACK I>Critical point.

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X
IJ.J
CONTENTS I Z
NEXT
 TABLEA5 Thermophysical Properties of Ammonia (R717) at I-bar Pressnre

T,
K
I ',
rn.1 /kg
h,
kJ / kg
s,
Id / (kg' K)
CfI '
kJ / (kg' K)
Z '.P
m/ s
A,
W/ (m ' K)
/.J..
10- 6 Pa . S
Pr

239P 1.138 455.5 10.825 2.233 0.9729 388 0.0188 8.5 1.0LO
240 1.140 456.5 10.829 2.232 0,9731 389 0.018S 3.5 1,009
260 1.246 500.7 11 .006 2.193 0.9816 404 0.0205 9. 1 0.973
280 1.349 544 .4 11.168 2.173 0.9868 420 0.0225 9.7 0,937
300 1.450 587.8 11.3) 7 2. 169 0.9900 435 0.0246 10.3 0.908
320 i.550 631.2 11.458 2,179 0.9921 450 0,0267 11.0 0896
340 1.650 675.0 11 .590 2.198 0.9940 464 0.0290 11.7 0.886
360 1.749 719,2 J 1.717 2.224 0.9949 477 0.03J4 12.4 0,878
380 1.847 764,0 11 .838 2.255 0.9957 491 0.0341 13.2 0.874
400 1.946 809.4 11.954 2.289 0.9964 503 0.0365 13,9 0,871
420 2.044 855 .5 12.067 2.325 0.9970 516 0.0388 14.5 0.869
440 2.143 902.4 12.176 2.362 0.9975 528 0.0418 15.4 0.868
460 2.241 950.0 12.282 2.400 0.9979 540 0.0446 16. 1 0.867
480 2.339 998.4 12.384 2,438 0.9981 552 0.0475 16.9 0.866
500 2.437 1047.6 12.485 2,476 0.0983 563 0.0504 17.6 0.865
"Normal boiling point.

CONTENTS
(I)

~I ~~I ~~
BAC~

NEXT
BACK
CONTENTs ,

NEXT
 TABLE A6 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Normal Butane (R600)

1. /' . I ...,. h,. 11.,;:- ~t· }o(" ("p(. cJ'.~' J1.f. J-ll.:' k J. A<l' 1>, f p, ~
K b~, nl'jkg kJ I kg kJ I kg kJ /(kg 'K) kJ I( kg , K) kJ /( kg . K) kJ /i kg , K) ! 0 -" p" 's to -, P. ., w I( m ' K) W j(m ' K)

I~J.9" 6,7, - 6' n.IXIIJ60 :X.AJO - .1!\KH 13~.2 2 ..102 5'1i\ll I X75 10') EHO O,D,167 O,20~ O.W) 211.55 0.947
140 1,7 - 5 ()()(J 1.1A0 I I 6.1~ -,7<)0 12.],2 2..171 ~,H77 1.046 ,127 1')00 OOJ7H 0202 lI,ooJ6 IlL,O 0.n6
150 g,7. - 5 UIWlllS7 2.4 7(1 - ~51} 2 125.5 2 ,SOl> 5,72~ 2.001 1~9 I],HO o 0-l(~1 0.191 0.0051 IJ~6 0909
I f>O .1,5. - 4 U,O() 1405 1>45 - .1.W,,\ 1.15,4 2.~~'I 5..,02 2.111 I Li<J() 10,0(1 O,042~ 0.IH2 00056 1 i.'Il 0.&!9
170 l.2, -.1 IJ,[)() 1424 207 - 319,1 14/,() 2.7t>l 5 5112 2.1K)'! L22U ~ JII 1I(~4 () 173 0.0062 ') 75 037J

1!!(1 0.O(lH7 0,00 14~J 7~ ..1 - ~<)'1.() 1.'i~.2 2.~75 5 ,Ill 201, 1.251J 6SO 0.0-167 0.165 (UJ()67 )(.17 OS60
Ir,.o 0.001(5, 0,00 I~~,\ .'1 7 -27H<') 171.7 2 <)X5 5 1~il 2.U22 I 2~2 5 71 O()J~') o 150 0.0073 729 111150
200 0.(J195 U.OOI4/!4 14.7 - 25:;,1\ IX~ (, J USI! 5.JO-I 2.0.1'1 UI6 ~,IP Oml! 11.152 OJJiII$I) 1\,5.\ (I,K4J
210 0.0-405 0.001505 7.J - 2-'7 ~ 1'17 7 1 I<iO S.261 2.063 I JS2 ~,20 005~5 (I 141> II(I()~(I S <),1 IJX1H
220 0.0781 0.OO152H ·HI -217,,1 21()~ 3,2~6 5,232 21)<Jj 1.1()1 ~,67 0,(55)( (! 141 (UI()9J 5 45 (I~,14

2 10 11.1410 (I,OOI~51 DOli - 1'11\, I 224,5 .1,37') ~,20~ 2,12H I 432 .1.2~ (1)5~2 11.131, O.IIIUI 5117 0101
240 O,2~ O,()()1575 I ~OJ - 174,6 2.\lU 3 ~ 7() 5 1()2 " 166 1.47(, 2K7 OOWA 11.131 O.OIO~ ~. 7'i 0,H~9
250 0,391$ 0,001601 I\,RY4 --1527252" .151>() 5 11(0 :> 207 IS~J 257 00(,)1 11.1 27 0,()117 447 O.H27
260 ().60~ OO()162H 0.592 - i 304 266.3 .1647 5.17'\ 2,252 1574 () ()('57 () 122 0.0125 4,26 01:\2<;
270 0.9155 0(101651> 0,40<, - J07,(' 2Xll4 .1 73.' 5.170 2,.l()() 1021> O,(~3 0, II,~ 0.013; ~.07 U,HN

272.1 1.()()()lJ 0,001(6) ()J74 - ]()~ ..1 ]X3, 7 1 7)2 5,170 2 112 IMI ),rw (I (lCH4 o )17 001.17 ~OJ OX2~.
2n.6 1.0133 O.OOI6M 036~ - 101 6 21>4 2 2 J56 5 170 2.,11 { I.M.1 ~IIJ (J.()(\'X) U 11 i' (]J) 137 J 01 11.1,11
280 13297 0,0011>86 0.286 -8J.J 194,7 lH II! 5 172 usn 1681'> I S'J 007 ](I II,IIJ 0,0145 .1 Q(J U.R2'J
21)0 1,8765 OOOl71M 0.207 - 60,5 309 () '.9(1) ),175 lAin L7.jj\ I 72 00731\ (1,1 I() () (I 155 .1 76 OX\!
-'1~1 2,5816 1100175.1 0.151 - 36.2 ~~3.\ 1 (I~.' 5 182 2460 Llll,l I 57 11.07(07 0101> O()I/i6 .l.h3 (I~.17

110 ~ ...\ 7: (j,OOliYII I} I 155 - i I ~ 3,75 .j 1'~J 5 1H'J 2 'ill! J ~~.j 1~ \ (l117'!7 ~ J 102 O()17~ ,'\.~! 1I,~~4

.120 4,575 O,(JOI~31 1I.0~~j 14.3 351,7 ~, 145 S,l')Q 2 5~(J I 41\1 I 10 1I1I~29 O.O')ll (I ()19(j .1 J(l 1I,~5J

3.10 5 <)20 (l.OO 187.'i II()(,~~ -if) 6 )05.1, ~ 22~ S.lO') 265A ".047 1.11' II PHI).' 11.11'./5 0.0:'114 J,10 lI.two
340 7537 0.0{]1925 (I(J5~(j 676 )79" 4 )II~ 5.222 2.1·1~ III,~ 1l0~"'9 O,()91 o (I~ I!; 3.23 1J.~2
3~0 ')~w 0-001<')80 1I1)J27 954 In,1\ J ..1/W 5.234 2,X25 2.250 (I,9K (] 0937 0,1)88 O,023J ~.15 O.gO I
'\60 II 72 0.00204.' 01),40 124 II 01(153 ~ 41>1 5.241> 2 '>.10 2.379 (I,Il~ IJ.I~)H 0,OB4 0.0251 ),07 0 ~JO
370 14,J5 0.002116 11,0273 1537 J II 5 ~ 544 5.256 .1.057 2.5JH O,XO 11,1111 O,(~I 0,0269 .1.02 0.'172
3M J7 39 0,(I022()ol 00218 1841i 42S7 4,1\25 ),2M 3.222 2741> (171 O,l(l,~ 0.1177 (102M') 297 I (126
)90 20.~1) 0.002.110 0.UI7~ 217 I J.'!!S 4 705 5 273 .1.J56 .1.045 062 0114 o07J () 0.112 290 I In
400 24 ')0 0002J51 lUll 3~ 251 5 4459 4 7'1 I 5.277 J,~J 1 1,542 [1,55 0,122 0,070 (I.n~4.1 3.02 1,11;0

~ 10 2949 1),00265 0.11106 5.271 46Q

2lN 5 4.1'>2
44() 2 4.!>~1
046 (I 11.1 O~S () o~n 3.17 I S4 o
420 34,S] 0,{10305 U ()075 -'.242 JJ5, 7
iU5 'J('(j
~4 1.6 -l,I}H<J
(U~ 11.153 0,075 ()(iII2 4.0~ 2.37
425,2' 37,96 0:1043'1 395.-1 3054 ~, 127
II.(W1445.127 20.55 OY47

CONTENTS
BACK ------------------------------------------------ -------------------------- ~ I- .----------------------------.------------------
"Triple Z

NEXT
P(lIlit.
BACK

~I
11.1
C_ONTENTS hThc nOla I ion 6.7, - 6 Signifies 6,7 X 10 -".
'Crilical OOllil,
!Zo
NEXT '
u
 TABLEA7 Thermophysical Properties of Normal Butane (R600) at Atmospheric Pressure

T, /", h, s, cp ' Z [" ii, IL, Pr

K m'/kg kJ(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) m/s W/(m' K) IO- 4 Pa's

272.6 n 0.369 284.2 5.170 1.643 0,9594 200.1 0.0137 6.90 0.827
280 0.380 296.7 5.214 1.673 0,9613 203.1 O.OJ42 7.07 0.822
300 0.411 330.5 5.332 1.755 0.9705 211.2 0.0164 7.55 0.802
320 0.441 366.1 5.447 1.820 0,9765 2J8.7 0.OJ86 8.03 0.784
340 0.471 40).3 5.560 1.903 0.9809 225.7 0.0208 8.51 0.776
360 0.500 442.2 5.671 1.985 0.9843 232.5 0.0232 9,00 0.768
380 0.529 482,8 5.781 2.071 0.9868 239.0 0.0258 9.48 0.760
400 0.558 525,1 5.889 2,}56 0.9888 245.3 0.0284 9,96 0.753
420 0.587 568.9 5.996 2.238 0.9903 251.3 0.0312 10.4 0.747
440 0.616 614.5 6.102 2.321 0.9919 257.2 0.0340 10.9 0.744
460 0.645 661.8 6.207 2.402 0,9928 263.0 0.0369 11.4 0,742
480 0.673 710.5 6.31 I 2.481 0.9938 268.6 0.0399 IJ.9 0.740
500 0.702 760.9 6.414 2.558 0.9949 274.0 0.0430 12.3 0.738
PNormal boiling point.

CONTENTS
NEXT
BACK

NEXT
 -.,j
CD TABLE AS Thermophysical Properties of Solid, Saturatl'd-LiQuid, and Saturated-Vapor Carbon Oioxide
CD

Thermal
Specific Volume, Specific E.nthalpy, Specific Enlropy, SpeCltic He,,1 ',. Conducti'''!)'. V,~cos!lY
Ab,,,lute
m'/kg kJ/kg kJ II kg· K) kJj(kg' K} W/{m' K) IO-'P,,'& Pr~ndtl Number
Temp Pressu rc
T. p. Con- Con· Con · Con·
K bar densed " Vapor dcn;ed d
Vapor <.lensed" \lapo, dcn;cd" Vapor lIquId V"~r l,quld Vi/ por liqUId Vapor

100 1.544 0.00064.1 0.2362 IM.S fJ.JI.3 1.1120 4,439

205 2.277 0.000649 0.1622 171.5 7Ji1.O 1.652 4,379
210 ).280 o.()O(}IiS 4 0.1135 17H2 7311.9 I.Mil 4319
215 H5S O.00()659 00l!O4 1~5.0 731.3 1.721 4.2(,4
216,6 5.180 0.000661 0,071H 11>7.2 731.5 1.7)1') ~, 250

216.6 5 IgO 0000848 0,017S .1&Ll 7.115 2656 4.250 1 7117 II 'ISH I> 1~2 (JOII 2 10 0116 I (JI> O,9h
220 5,Q<,r(, 0.0011851 {l.(1624 .192.6 7)3,1 2,<\.114 4,232 1.7111 119115 D.17R (j,OI2 1.&0 OilS 193 0.97
225 7.357 0.000871 0.OS15 401,1> 735,) 2.72~ 4 2(1-1 ) 820 I lJ;.' D.171 (0)2 1.75 0,120 187 0'));
230 tl.Q15 O.O!mM 0,([..121> 411.1 7.\6,7 276.' 4 178 I X7'1 I 116 0.1(,.1 O.oJ~ 16-1 0122 184 0,99
235 1075 0000901 00357 4205 7n l) v~n2 ~ 152 1906 1.)0 0.!60 001.\ 154 0.125 J 81 1.01

240 12.ij~ o 000') I}; lunoo 4J(12 7_~9 2~2 J. 128 19.1.1 I IS U.156 0,014 I ~5 0.12~ 1.80 1.02
245 15.1<) OJliXJ9]() 0.O2.~.1 4JO.1 7J~ 4 ~K1l2 4 103 1959 I 20 0.141\ 0015 I 3"- 0.131 1.80 1.04
::!SO 17.N'" O.llilO'IS5 O.tl214 450,3 73'1,6 2.92,1 4,07<J 1.992 1.211 11.140 0,011> 1,2M 0,134 J.82 1.06
255 2(1~~ (l,000977 O,(WC2 ~60,ij 7:1<1.4 2,,964 J,056 2,O~ij 1.34 0.134 11.1117 j 21 0, !37 1.84 101(
260 2d, It) (100111110 ItO I'" 471 il 7~ 7 <'(~I~ ~ 012 2.125 1 4:\ 0128 O,QI,,> I 14 o 140 liN I 12

21>5 nKt,I 0001(12(, 001<2 4~2.H 7.17,4 <,o·n ~ 007 2.2.n I "4 0.122 ().O I'> I,()~ () 144 1.9~ 1.17
270 n01 O,()(11056 001l.l 41)4,4 735,6 3,01;9 3,'11>1 2,4}O 166 D.II'" 0,[120 I ,O~ 0.150 212 1,2.1
275 ,1r>.5() (1,0010<;1 !I.009? 506.5 7.12,)( .1.1.12 3,954 2.1",14 1.1\1 0111'} 0.022 0% 0.157 2.32 1.\2
21(() J ].(,0 0001);\0 IU~IS2 519.2 729.1 .1 17(, ~ 925 21lR7 HIll n.llIl 11.024 0'11 0167 2.57 1A4
285 ~7.IO 0.(101176 \).0070 SJ27 7235 3.220 )ijC)1 3.20.1 2.JO 0095 0021> OMI> 0.171:\ 2.9il 1.)6

290 5) I" O(m 24 I IUKl5K 5476 7169 .1271 3854 J.n4 UO 0.088 0(3) 0.7'! 0.191 3.35 1.68
295 5<).8.1 0(0132) (I,()()4 7 562,1) 7011,3 ~,JI7 3,803 4,61\ 0.081 0,()42 0.71 0,207 4.1 III
300 67.10 00014 iO O.OOJ7 5KS 4 6902 )393 ~,742 0.074 0.065 Db(} 0126
31)4.2~ 7.11(1 o IXl2145 00021 6366 6366 .1 S5!! 3558] ]

CONTENTS
Z 1-1

NEXT
BACK I "Aoovt \hf solid line, the condensed phase is s[)lid: below the line, il i~ liq\\i ~ BACK 11.1 X
CONTENTS I hCrilical point. «
CO
l-
Z
Ll!
ZI
0
u
NEXT
 Table A9 Thermophysical Properties or Gaseous Carbon Dioxide al I·bar Pressure

T, /-'. h. s, c". k ).I.. Pr

K m'/kg kJ/kg kJ /(kg - K) kJ/(kg' K) W/(m ' K) IO-~ Pa . S

300 0.5639 809,3 4.860 0.852 O.O~66 0.\5\ 0.778

350 0.6595 85),1 4.996 (),898 0.0204 0.\75 0.770
400 0.7543 899.1 5.118 0,941 0.0243 0. \98 0.767
450 0.8494 947.1 5.231 0,980 0.0283 0.220 0.762
500 0.9439 997.0 5.337 1.014 0,0325 0.242 0.755
550 1.039 1049 5.435 1,046 0.0364 0.261 0,750
600 1,133 1\02 5.527 1.075 0.0407 0.281 0.742
650 1228 1156 5.615 1.102 0.0445 0.299 0.742
700 1.332 \212 5.697 1.126 0.0481 0.317 0.742
750 \.417 1269 5.775 \.148 0.05\7 0.334 0.742
800 I.SI2 1327 5.850 l.I68 0.0551 0.350 0.742
850 ) .60() 1386 5.922 \.187 0.0585 0.366 0.742
900 1.701 1445 5.990 I.:!OS 0.0618 0.381 0742
950 1.795 )506 6.055 J.220 0.0650 0.396 0.743
1000 1.889 \567 6,120 \.234 0.0682 0.410 0.743

Uil

CONTENTS
I-
z

NEXT
BACK I-

~I
BACK]

~I
LI.I
:"!! I-
CONTEIITS Z
0
u
NEXT
 ~
o AIO Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Ethane <R170)
'( . p. t' " hr. iI, . .< /. J". ("1 ' C,,,..
(.J.f. JI.<. AI ' A". rr, Pr,
K bar m' i kg U j kg ld jk ~ kJ/lkg K) kJ/lkg' K) kJ j (kg ' K) kJ / lkg ' K) Hr' Pa' ~ 10-' PH " W/(m ' K) W / lm ' K)

90.3" 1 13 L - 5' O.(l()IS:W 21945 - 494 .1:1 In s 2552 9 145 2. 24'1 1.170 )2.60 0,0315 0.254 O.OOJ.l 11.15 1.084
100 1,110. - 4 0 .0(11559 2490 - 4n.6 1I4 ,lj 2785 8,633 2.305 LlS9 1l.02 O.OJ.l2 0.248 0.0040 7 45 I 024
110 7,467, - J O.OOI5&> 4I)S .(I -449.6 )24 ,7 ) ,IW)5 lU ll 1.31/1 1.207 5.68 00.376 CI.NI 0.0045 5 46 1.000
120 },)45 - .1 0 .00161.. 9.1.5 - 421>.J ) 36 ,5 320!! 7.H9/:! 2 .320 1 22 7 4 . ~6 0040.1 0.232 0.0051 4.36 096 2
no 001291 0001644 27.7 -~ 03 . 1 141:1,7 3..l92 7.1139 2.323 t .248 3.52 0.0431 0.222 0.0058 3.68 0934
laO 0.03!!31 0 .OOI~75 W .OJO - 379.8 160.'1 ),-'1>5 7.429 2.J3U 1.272 2.95 00460 0 .212 0.0064 :1.24 0.914
150 0 ()9672 0 ,1lO1707 4 .BI) - 3S6 ,5 173,2 3,n!! 7 ,256 2342 1.299 2.52 0,0490 0,202 0.0071 292 0.896
160 0.2146 0 ,001742 2.026 - J 32.9 I tlS.3 H78 7. 117 2..1511 lJJ I 2.20 0.0520 0,192 0.0078 2,70 0.886
170 0.4290 (looI77!! I tlt'>lI - 309.3 197.2 4.021 7.000 2.3111 ),)69 1.93 00551 0 ,182 0.00II6 252 0,878
I!!O I) 7874 0 .00 ItO 1:1 0.609 - 2115. 'I 2~ '} 4 157 1>.9().I 2.JII 1.4 14 1.7) 0 .0580 0. 172 0.01»1 2.40 0.872
)K4) I 0000 o ()()11! ~ S o Jt!S5 - 275.ll 2138 4.217 6.867 2426 1436 1.67 0 .05'l) 0. 167 0009ll 2.38 0.865
IS4 .5 1.01 ~J 0 .0018:\1. 0 ,JM21> - 214.4 21.) I 4220 t-..St'>4 Z ,41f 1.4311 163 0,0594 0)67 00098 2.37 0.B66
190 1.J..I7 0.OOJ1I59 U.J7lJl; - 2~ 1.1 220.1 J.290 6.1:121 2.448 I JI'Xl 15.1 00610 0,162 0.0103 2.) I 0,86'1
200 2. 174 0.001905 0. B76 - 236.4 2.10.9 4.416 6 .751 2.495 15JI 137 0064!) 0 . 152 0.011 ] 2.25 0,875
210 .' -.\4(1 o IlOJ955 0 ,1589 - 211.1 NO.9 4,539 6.691 2.552 1,607 1.22 0,0670 0.143 0.0122 2.18 0.883
22C) 4 'n1 0.0(21)11 [J , IIOO - IllS. I 250.1 4.65(, 6 .6.15 2,622 1,698 1.09 0 .0701 0. 134 0 ,01)3 2, I ~ 0.895
230 7 00<1 0.002073 o 07K 2 - 158.3 ~58:1 4776 (, 5l!5 2.710 I.~!o 1),9l! 11 ,07 ,1 5 0121> 0 .0146 2 II (I ,QII
240 9,67 0 .0021'11 U,056!, - \30,6 265, 2 4,892 0 .5.1/\ 2.t\22 I <,),>\ (l8~ 0(1771 0 11 7 n .ols~ 2 11 IJ Q46
250 1.1.01 0 ,002226 0,0420 - 101 ,Il 2707 5.00-' (,4')S 2.967 2 I-'H on () tiS 13 0. 109 0.0174 2, 12 II 999
260 17, 12 0002J2 3 0031.' -710 274 ,2 5. 121 6.452 3. 164 2,)<')7 069 0 , 0l!~2 o lUI 0.0191 2, J6 ) 002
210 22 . 10 (I.1lO244J O,ODS - 3R.] 275 ,0 5 ,241 11,402 3.447 2,7'11 0,60 OO'ln 0.093 0.021'2 22~ UI
280 28.06 0.002603 0 ,0175 - 2 ,1) 272,0 53 1'>4 6 .)45 .H I/< .1479 052 0100 0084 0.0242 243 1.44
290 35. 15 0 .0028:>4 O.ons 37.3 262.5 5,500 6.275 4.909 SlUM 044 0112 0.076 0.031 2,112 1.85
300 4.1.55 0.003275 0.00I!6 8l\A 2.'l72 S 66.1 6. 159 9.322 12,61 0.34 0 . 134 0 .079 0.056 ),95 ).02
305Y 48.71 0, 004~3B 0,0048 1653 1M J S(~l0 5.910

CONTENTS
"Triple poin!.
I

NEXT
BACK b The notation 1,131 . - 5 signifies 1.131 x JO - 5. BACK
CONTENTS "Critical pOint ,
 TABLE All Thermophysical Properties of Ethane lit Atmospheric Pressure

r, /. h. S cP I Z r, . A. }J. p,
K m' j ks kJjkg kJ j(kg ' K) kl j (kg . K) m js W j (m' K) IO- ~ Pa . S

184.6" 0.483 2\4 .1 6.864 1.439 0.9583 247.3 0.0098 5.94 0.872
200 0.5 31 236.8 6.984 1.458 0.9736 257.8 0.0110 6.42 0.850
220 0.589 266.4 7.123 1.500 0.9804 270.3 0.0127 7.04 0.83\
240 0.645 296.9 7.256 1. 554 0.9851 281.8 0.0146 7.66 0.815
260 0.701 328 .6 7383 1. 61 8 0.9884 292.5 0.0167 8.28 0.804
280 0.757 361.l\ 7.506 1. 6&9 0.9907 302.6 O.OIS9 8. 89 0795
300 0.8\2 396.1 7.626 1.765 0.9925 312.2 0.0213 9.48 0.788
320 0.868 432.3 7.742 1.845 0.9941 321.4 0.0238 10. 1 0.782
340 0.923 469.9 7.855 1.928 0.9952 330.2 0.0265 10.7 0.776
360 0.978 509.5 7.968 2.012 0.9960 338.8 0.0293 1l.2 0.770
380 J.033 550.4 8.08\ 2.097 0.9966 347.1 0.0323 11.8 0.765
400 1.088 593.3 8.19\ 2.183 0.9971 355.2 0.0354 12.3 0.760
420 1.143 637.8 8.297 2.268 0.9975 363.1 0.0386 12.9 0.756
440 1.198 684.1 8.407 2.352 0.9979 370.8 0.0418 13.4 0.752
460 1.253 732.0 8.513 2.435 0.9982 378.4 0.0452 13.9 0.748
480 IJ08 781.5 8.617 2.517 0.9985 385.8 0.0487 14.4 0.744
500 1.363 832.4 8.723 2.597 0.9988 393.0 0,0522 14.9 0.741

" Nor mal boiling point.

(ijJ

CONTENTS
~
BACK ~ II.!
Z I-

NEXT
(!io
BACK X
CONTEIltrS I ::e
CO
I-
Z
UJ
Z
0
v
_NEXTJ
 Q)
0
I\)

TABLE AI2 Thermophyskol Properties of Salunlled Ethylene (RI150)

7. P. ',. I'!:. , II,. "r:' t(. J.l " ( JII' eJ'" I
Il [. Il,.. Al · A ~. 1"/' P"
K b~r m\jkg m\/kg kJ / k[! kJ / k~ 1d j (k~ K) kJ / (kg' K) U/(X!: K) kJ/(kg' K) 1O' J Pa . , 10-' Pa ~ W/(m ' KI W / (m ' K)

HM" 00012 0001527 255 V5,7 H039 3 OIlS t! 476 2.197 pp

110 OJ)().H 0,001545 I)(, 2511,() HII () .1 .13') .~ 2.1H 2 4fUl IfUl 56.' 0163 n3
120 0,0131( (l,OOIS76 25,S 27.D ~n7 ,1,,'\W 7,',12 1 25.'\<J 192 4,2fl 0 ,2.51) 4 '\ ~
130 0,0445 0,00 I 6()9 8,63 .1011.4 104 J ) ,560 7,61J7 2465 1.1'19 , .lX 0 ,2,10 ) .5 .1
140 0.1191 0.001644 .146 3247 845H .1 740 74f12 ~ 405 1.212 ~.Ti 01.11 2.<.N

150
II)()
0,275
0.56.\
0,001681
O.OOlnl
I ,59!!
OH2.10
34R~
172 4
IS.~" 'J
8(,7 ~
.'-'>(15
405H
7,1~ .1
7, 152
2 ,.'77
1,.17(,
1.2."'2
I 2nD
2.' .'
2.(JO
0210
n II)~
1.M
240
169,1 1.000 0.001760 o~84<) .1'14 I N7~ , 7 J 1'10 7 ().l~ 2)" .1 I 295 1.76 ru)t)(1 01117 0 , (I()~5 ns U '-II
169.4 LOU 0001761 on')o W4.7 X7(, ,() .\ 1'1\ ~ OJ() 2 1'),1 1.2 % 1.75 0.060 0187 o OO~5 2,24 (1')2
170 1,053 (),()OI763 04625 3% ..1 ~77.11 Ul)2 7,OJ I 2,)'15 1,211') 1.7.1 (l ,onl 0181> 1l()(ll!6 : .24 O , I)~

180 1.821 () ()()I(!IO 0.271>4 4205 t4'16 ,'/ ~, 1.W I> 9.11 2 ~2l! 1..151 1.5J II 064 0175 U,(~)<}u 2. 12 (1 ,%
1<)0 V}57 0 ,1)()1l\61 (lli/l 445 .0 ~Q~ , 1 ~ -171 11 ."-41 2.J.7~ I ~t7 1..\5 Il.(lfli (JIM 0,00% 2,()J n ,1)1(

200 4.559 OOO\9IR 0 , 1\77 470.2 'l()27 4599 11.761 ] ,5) I 1.501 J.20 (1.070 Q I.) .' 0 ,0105 r 99 1011
210 6.72l.\ O.OOII)l!1 o Olll 0 4% .0 'l()1I') J 722 6N19 ~ , Illl~ 1610 '-07 (un} 0 . 144 (1.0116 I ()J 1 (12
221l 9 ~71 O . I~)~USJ () 057.' 52 ~ _ ? "'-I 7 ~ \(.j-l " ;..12 ~ 71 (I I 71 I 11 9 .~S n 1\7" 4) 114 o Ol l l( I ", 1,(14

230 L\.201 0.002 1.)9 OJ)J I J 5SIJ.S 916. 1 ~')64 (>557 ~ )(51 1941 OJlJI< o OIl 2 0.125 0 .(1142 193 1.12
240 11.7.'\4 0.()()224I 00302 57<) 7 '1174 StlM f> 4'12 \1155 2 220 O.74~ (>.091 (1115 00157 1.1)" 1.2<,1
250 2~,- 923 0.001369 00222 I) 11.1 '151.1 S.207 fl .':1t 1.J72 ~ (,60 0 ,65.1 0.102 o W6 o.ol~lI 2,08 1,5 1
260 30036 O.OOZ54U (1.01113 ~5.4 90;1,2 5,3)5 6 ..\.16 .I 94(, 3 47',1 0.559 0 ,116 01197 O,OI9<j 2 .27 2.0 ,1
270 :1~ . 12o 0()()2804 0 ,0115 685 ..\ B9J ,) 5 4711 6.248 L1'I7 S , S~6 0460 0.132 0091 002)9 273 ) U'I

280 47 II~O 0.003430 0.0072 742.~ HUll 5(, 74 (LiI72 1~ 1,1 2507 0.151 O,JD
21l~ . ~·SO JOI OO().1669 0.00·17 79S.~ 795 J SiS5'1 S . ~5Y

' Tnple point. -

CONTENTS
(I)
I-
BACK bCnrlcal point.

~
Z

NEXT
BACK LI.I
I-
X
I- L.LJ
CONTENTS i Z Z
0
u
N EXT
 TA8LE All Th~rmophys kal ProlKr1i~5 or t:thylenc (RIISO ) a t Atmospheric Prt'SSUN'
r. ,. h. '. '-... Z ;',. ••
• m' / ~' U / k. U / lkl 1(,1 U / '~I Kl m/ s W / im K)

,.,
1/'1'1.4 (I,.H'IU
o.~ 12.1
1!1n'l
INO 7
H Io4II
1. 11'1
1 ;:<If,
I !II'I
0.'llb71
0 9 7]1)
Z52
2M
IUll""7
1101412
b.UJ

'''' '''"
!I .I!OI.
21.W) 11.~73t> <11(1,5 7 2 ~5 1:W Olj>l/Jf) 275 OJH I) JJI2 O.!<O'>
nu U.I'>.\41 \141 7 1.lJIIJ I 127 U _~5 21111 O,UI25 7.b7 0 .812
240 C'~1 'Im.7 7.4'17 I 11'0'1 (I.'1Ni'l 3(1U (1,11141 11.34 U.1I1O
1~ ) !l 7~ \1\ QQ75 7 ".1'1 1 4211 f/<,lQll .\ ll O.tllNl 9.02 11.1102
~III) W2t>_~

JOO
<1.1'11 .1.1
UlSnb IQSi,7
71 11'>
7. 11211
1 41\1
1.~4 .1
OW.\ll
U IIY44
.\21
).11
UOII'II
'Ul206
''''
1lI.311
0 .791
,.'"
121) 0 .'1111 101«. \ 7 '122 1 hill (I IN'" ,\4(1 n nz.u 11 .115 0.J67
.1,,,
"" n ...... )1
II).!''''''
1121.2

I1.H . ~
1!.Illl
11. 1111
I f>/III
1 7 .~1
U,'M2
(I'NN!
.14(,0
.l51!
UU259
(I():!AA
II 71
12.]5
0.7~

0.751

'"'
."
,,.
I 111117
I Ifl 71'>
11'11.2
1ZlXA
1'1,2111
11..1 I!
1 1122
I 11'1.1
(I,QQ75
(I,"'n'l
.lIlt>
374
(I(~1n

ClU,I4J
I ~ 'II!
0 .00
n .74 7
U.74.1
12262 12M.'1 1I.4I1tJ 1'16.1 (I .WIII JH.l U.()]77 14. 21
,., I !X~J l.'\(It>.'I HAl}<) ! 11'1 fI ,'IQ!oIS .1'111 n(~lJ
,,'"
U.740
n7W
"'11
,.,
'"' 1..\441
I .ulll
1.\47'~
1.'1\94
11.(~)2
II.hXIl
.!
! 11..1
0 .""""'0
n.9'N4.ur.o;
3'17 U.04.l7
oo ""'"
1~ ..ll'I
1.~ . 9~
U.7311
n.737
'I~I 1"'''':4 14\104 11,775 ~ :n owe;;:, 412 ()<;on 11><;1
/I J '"

TABLE AI4 Th t rmophysical Pro~rtit's ur n·Hydrol!;en (R70Z) at Atmospheric Pl"t's S U~

T. I. h. , 'r z ,.,. ,
K m ' / ~g I.J / .., kJ / (I.II · K) kJ /( kg K) m /~ W /( m ' K )

!SO H), III.1 3.517 nJ .~1i I ,non

JO"J 12.211i 4.227 7Ujl'l '"''
1.j ..~ 1 I,UOU
1.2(1'1
I .J 1Q
0.162
0.1117
OJm
(WR9
0.6&5
0.6115
350 14.25] .j <94~ 72.N 14043 I.non lA B 0.210 (UJ99 0.6!l5
400 1 6.UI~ 5.66\1 74,72 14AI! 1.\1011 ]..'020 o.no 0.109 0.""
450 HUN (1..193 7.j ,.j.l 14.~1I LOOU J.61 I O..!..-.o 11.1111 0 ......
500 211)59 7.!H1 17% 14 .5 I LUln I.n~H (1.26~ (Un 0....
."50 22 ..W 7.1'144 79.34 14.,i.1 1.000 1.780 0.ZK7 0.135 0.<>84
600 24.411 /1.571 liO.flU 10." 1.000 1.1I5Q 0..'05 n. 143 U.Ni4
li50 2fl.47 \1.2'1<1 !lL76 IUJ 1.000 1,9.l4 UJ2.1 11. 151 0.684
71MI ZKSU IU.U2\1 !l2.R5 IUlii I.{))O 2.(X)6 0.340 0. 159 0.""

803

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T ABLE A' S T hermodyna mk Properlies IIr Salurllit'd Melhll ne (RSOl
- -- -- -
r.
K
I'.
h,"
1'/ .
m' / t~
".
kJ / k~

~I . I>.'C (1117 Z.ZI~. - J" .' .'H!'> 2Ih .-I 75'1 'I 4 . ~ .11 111255 J211H 1.~7f>

'12 (I,LW 2.226-' J .-IW 2211./, 7/,2.-1 4.27" 1I1,IM J,2'1~ I~(,.I

W. 0 :1' 2250 .. .1 22en 2.H .2 7/,'1 \ 4-11 " 1I1,IX)6 ,112h 1.~2 .1

If_'
ll).l
tlJ~5
n..'>l5
1.Z7K - J
~ .."I(J7.- J
"N
U12()
2-1h ..l
2!>'I.1'>
17!'>'1
7.'(-1 (j
4 . ~'\"
-1.1011 "
'1,111>2
",7-'1
J,-,I><J
.1.41.~
1-I1iI1
14.17
IIII! O.JH 2.J,\7 - J 07'2 21.1 2 N!() ~ . XI ~ '} .fll ! .1.-1.~H I.W.I
112 1.(I·t~ 2..'h<,l, _ US'I, !X7.n Nn 4 'I~-I ",$04 1.497 l.1.~(

lit. 14JI 2.4(1). - J !I.4tH JlII.I KlI-I 1 5.!N~~ '1.t(15 -'.5.l~ I .l ll!(
IlU 1.'11'1 2.4 .' S .1 (I. 'Oh 1I~ . .1 1«11,'( ~.I~ ' '1..1 '-' -'5111 12('(,
12~ 252.1 2.47~ _ .1 (J 2\K J~7 IIlh ." 5,.11,.'\ '1,2211 .\~~, 121-1
12H .1 .25)( 251~, - .1 0 . 1117 .1-1-1 ..1 11211, ~AI' I 'J . I~ .Ib.'i-l 111<1
Ll2 -1.1-12 2.~~1I J 0 . 1~II 1.W . ( ,'(:1, s ~.5 1J 'Ion ~.1I1/1 IUK
lJh 5. 1'11 2.1"1.' .- J !I. I!1 .114.2 11)10 ~(>-I ~ '1.1 ~ll .I 772 111'1.\
1.tIi
144
!,>,422
1,)(5.1
2.(,52, - .1
2.7(14 , - .1
(I.l~}!u

(1,111':011
.111'U
4115 .2
KIJ I(
I(-'x,()
5.1-' 1
5,)(:i ~
11 .·...-'1
K.IIM
.1.'(-1'1
'<I.W
","
I-»! '1.5U2 2.7h1. - .1 (1.0(,70 421..1 114(),o j,\II,." 11.'7'111 4 .044
(52 11..1)(7 2.SN .1 (J,II~~I' -1-'1.1 S4~.2 /),1172 lu.q 4. lf>.I
I Sf, 1.1 52h 2.SQ3 _ .1 1I,(l4h7 -1.\ 4 ,7 1-:4-'.2 h,1 7 ~ ~,1"'7 -I 1111
(1')11 l ~ <1)'1 2.'171 _ .1 1I .(I.N2 ~nl 114.1.0 h,~11 .1 ~.f~11 -I -I7IJ
164 1)(,1041 .1.(15'1. - .1 11.(1 .1;:(, -I'~1.1 J;~I.(' 6,.1'~ ) HS'J -I ( ,)(~

1M 2i/'oJJ ,1. INI 0112711 ~11I! . \1 KW.O /),~' I : ~.4h2 , '>M

112 2.\ U:l.I .1.2111 _.1 1I .1I!.14 ~2~." KI4.t> (>.f~~ ' 11 ..1113 5 W()
nt. 2!OM .' .-I2S . - .1 U.(JI'Jh ~4'1.7 K11.'1 6.120 H':\UI 60,/1
JIIlI 31M,1 .1.hl'! I 01llh1 512.'1 1111'1 h,1I4 \ ~.211\ 1.n.~
IIW .\7 -IJ~ .1.1l ..... 1 _.1 1I.lInl 511'1.7 KlI! </ I> "Kl I ~. 1I114 'I ~ 'I

ll!ll -12.-111 4..'lfI1 .- .I !!.(IIOJ 6,14 .n 7.'112

1'I(I~h 45QX11 1'>.2.1.' _ 1 II1Mlh2 7n.. 4 7 . ~lh

"The not alion;! 21~ . - .~ ~ign.lie~ 2,?1~ XIII'.

TARLE AI6 Thermophys ical Properties or Melha ne IR50) a l Almos phe rk P ressure
T, '. /
'. ,.
K III \/ k~ kJ /l kg Kl '" I , W / (m K) Ifl " Pa

III h" 1I,50!) 22.U '1.\111 2.m.S 1I. <Ito7~ :' I ~ II 1111'1 Ul(lh
11U IJ~% 242.5 '1.(,(oK 2. 114 11.\17 III ~~: ~ 0.1)12'1 ~ .7H (I.m.
14() (),70-' 2115.~ <J-'J'IS 2.UI O.')HI-I .11)7 .~ lI.lHS2 5.~5 (J.HI'
IIiII 11,1;(1/1 .'11,'1 IIU7'1 1.111 II '1~7x 1:" ~ 1111175 1>,,12 u 11>.1
1110 II <112 .1711.1 111.~2X 2. IU5 II.WIII . I~II 7 IIII::tH 7.1 )7 (J.74.1

.!OO LIllI> 412,2 111.752 2 II~' 1I'1'1.1n 11,11225 7.X I U. 74()

220 I Illi 4 54 " lII<~~Z 2. 110 11.'1<152 ' '''' II 1I()2H )(5.1 (1,7)'1
14t1 1.:2,\ 4\1(>,'1 1I.I.l'l 1.IJJ 1I . 'I'Xo~ 41).1 '.I 1),02h7 '1,24 1I,7~
260 I . ~:?il S.WS 11.:1117 2. 1\'1 0.')'172 4 ." 11 II IIII."~) <) ,11:> 11.7.\...
Zl!O
_100
I -IN

1.5n
~H.1..l

h27 .7
"~ 2 1'1.1 11,'1'1711

1I.'l<J1I-I
·11:> 7
-I~ ". 7
1I,ln15

11,11.141
1111> II,H7

(I .7.~>
11 ."1" 2.2.'" 11.2
320 l .h-'5 (.n.1l 11.1f>K 2 2X.~ n.'!")s'} 41>.1 () 1I,II-'il'l II', (I,7'M,
'>40 I n7 71'1,,' 11 .<oII1f> 2 .\~I 11'1<)</1 4 1~ 1 1I,IIl')H I~,~ 11,7.'\0
.W'I 1.11-111 71oto .7 12.l).l .' 24()1 lJ.'I'N .I 4 ~' ~ 1111-1211 1.11 1I,7~,
.>liO 1.<1-1 .' KI~ . ~ 12. 174 24()() U.'J')I}4 -1'144 11.045'.1 1.1,1 (1.7.\1>

8..

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TABLEAI6

..
(( 'O/llllll/, -d)

T.
K 10 • p"

l.!MS IWIS.Z 12.•1114 ! • IJ IJ'~H, ~ I(I -" (1 114<)1 I~ ..' U.7.17

'"' II ,,.,.)7

.
420 2. 147 111/"1.3 12.4~j 2 ....... ~2 1 4 1I11~~4 14 .1' 11.737
~,
2.250 %9 ..1 IU~ ~,., 1J II <NIIX 5.11 y n.II ~ 5<1 IS 4 11.7.17
2 ..152 lu.n IU I~'I 4
'"', l.4SS
IiIlJ5
1U7<I.U n . 7'l1
214 ' 1
2..-CI
lJ.'IY'N
I.IIlXMI
542.2
55 2.2 11.1)(,2'1
1-".'1
11>.5
O.7 :\~

(I. 7.1'I
12.\11)',1 lI.n')
'''' 2. S.S/! 1 1."lIi~ 1.IMKI2 .~h2 .u II . I)(",~ 17.11

- Normal boiling pninl.

TABLE "1 7 Thermophysical ProJ)t'rties of Nitrogen (R728l at Almospherir: Pressure

T.
" ". ,. •I'a . ,
• m' l k!! U / kl: U / lk,, · KI III ~ W j (m ' KI

77 .4" 1l.2 11>4 71'0.7 :; 411_1 I HI 1). 1I~~5 on ~.U ()lMJ7 ~ 1I.'1Ll
1l.2252 .~ 4410 1).%10 on ~. 2 (1IXJ77 (J.1\ 11
'" IIlI.U
)II I. ~ S (, ..... 1
1 1'1()
IOl
I(~I
"
IU" 7 1 1·..,7 lI'1IUII 01 ..<111 1),7~

12(1 U..1 4 7~ 12.1 . 1 S.1QI4 I (I", 11.'11110 222 lI.n (J ill 17 lI. n 7

.'",
14(1 1).\1'127 9 ..1 (1111.'1(, 1).72.1
1l.41l71 144 .2 l>().Ih 1(I~O
''''
'"' " ....
lJ. 5 25 ~
1.....~ .2
1116. 1
I> IXh
6 ..\0'1
1 114 7
1,( 1.1$
1I,'l'J5 2
U.',..Jofo7
25 7
27.1
Ill ....
11 .11
Ull1 54
011 171
11 ,72 1
11. 720
1l5114~ 2117.11 hAl<1 1),\1'177 1!.<I () (l11I~ 11, 7 1')
1 \ 1-1 \
"'"
2U>

""
'"'
"'"
.'\(111
0(>4 .14
0.7(2)
071'011
01' 19'1
1l."7lIh
!nll
2411.7
~foI.'.~
~.U
111 1
.."'"
I> ~ I<I

I> 1><11
,., 1711
'~ l
1 11-1 \
1, (1.1 2

I I I-I !
I '~ I I
)(1-1 1
,,- IIWIW
(),'I'1'I(1

II 'N<I7
II '-I<NII
.\02
31 6
14,1)
15 .0

11>,11
17,11
17,')
ullll1.1
1I_1)2ll1

O.l)2.1!
ulI:~7
1I,!l2W
1I ,7 1X
11. 7 17

11, 7 17
11 ,71 1>
II 71"
.HII U.'I.17 I .1.12 .11 h.'~~1 1 '>12 11.'l'1'-l'i 111.1\ 11.1127.1 11, 7 17
U.'I'IW I ,IOXI 1'1,7 IUl211 ....

."'"""
.1-"1." 1'0 '1 72 1 11-1 1 11,71 7

..
"",
4211
44n
11lS4t.
1.11.14
1. 17 1'!
1 2.111~
I , ~!\ <ll
.17 1 7
.1'14.'"
411.-"
4~ld
4 _~L\
7 1111
7 IJXI\
7 141
7 1'1.1
7 24!
I I .... '
I I~ l ..
I lo.I ~

I 11-17
I n~ ~
!.lMKIl
I (MMI!
I IM~1 2

IIUI2
I 1~~ 1 .1
20,S
21A
22.2
2,' II
1_11\
() ulW
OJ 1_'11
O.U.'2 J
O.!)l'h
II II_'J ]
(1717
lun
(U I1
()717
(1,7 17

~" 1.J-l-I! I 4711 . .1 7_1111\ 1, 1l~ I I IMMI.' 2J .5 O.l l·5<1 11.7 111
1411M I llq 25 ..1 ()71H
"'" 49'1 ,.1 7 '-' 1
7 __'71. I 11< 1>
1,IKKI4 0.1 1.171
11,1 111
"" 1.41'05 4 -"11l4 I ,IKKI-I It..11 (UI.lX.l
/~II I 1.75H 10210.') 7 _.~ 7 11 I ,I r: ~ I IM~J 2'1 . ~ O~JU Ij.n2
71X I 21152 7,l~, h 7_1'1' I I~).'i I lUI 1:1\ 1).1).1'.11> (). nto

." 2 .144 li4h.I> ,~

,., I I~MI .1$ '1 005~1 O.1.'11l

."
liMN I
1.h.16
2_'1 .• 1
'IhU.1I
107_~ , 7
11.111'1
11_141
I IJh
I 11>7
1(")
I (Mil
."'-,
41 I>
O,IJI)(JI>
(I,MII
07.1J
0. 7.17
I ~ IM I 4_.1% INIll.5 X .... _.0 I ~H I 1"11
2000 5_1\h2 2.lI.1S K'N\ I ~,~ ~ 1.IJ111
~~~~--~~-- -------~----------

"Normal ""iling pom1.

80S

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 Table AI8 Thermophysical Propert.ies of Oxygen (R732) at Atmospheric Pressure

T, 0, h. s, c", Z k. }J.. Pr
K mJjkg kJjkg kJj(kg ' K) kJ/(kg' K) W j(nl . K) 10 -. Pa . S

250 0.6402 226.9 6.247 0.915 0.9987 0.0226 0.179 0.725

300 0.7688 272.7 6.414 0.920 0.9994 0.0266 0.207 0.7\6
350 0.9790 318.9 6.557 0.929 0.9996 0.0305 0.234 0.713
400 1.025 365 .7 6.682 0.942 0.9998 0.0343 0.258 0.710
450 1.154 413.1 6.973 0.956 1.0000 0.0380 0.2RI 0.708
500 1.282 461.3 6.895 0.972 1.0000 0.0416 0.]03 0.707
550 [.410 510.3 6.988 0.988 1.0001 0.0451 0.324 0.708
600 1.539 560.1 7.075 1.003 I.O(102 0.0487 0.344 0.708
650 1.667 610.6 7.156 1.018 1.0002 0.U521 0.363 0.709
700 1.795 661.9 7.232 1.031 1.0002 0.0554 0.381 0.710

CONTENTS
BAO<

NEXT
BACK
CONTENTSJ

NEXT
 Tablf A19 Thennophysical Properties of Saturated Normal Propane (R290)
T. p.
'I.'" 11,.. ,,~. Sf' .I ,l(l {I'}' (')1." }J.J. 1.11\' A r· AA" P'r PTJl
K b" m'jkg kJjkg kJ j kg kJj(kg ' K) ld j (kS K) kJ / (kg K) kJ/(kg' K) 10-' Pa' ~ 10--' p~. S Wj<m· K) Wjlm K)

!!5 5" ).(1. .. ~. l).(I(J 1J61 ') ,7· ... 7 -495.9 9S3n 1.879 ~.46J 1.903 0!!S4 111.0 0.026 0.212 00026 99 .6 OJ!9il
90 I , - 1\ 1).01) tin I. 12 - 7 - 4!!7.3 17SK4 1.'177 ~.ISO 1.915 0.902 is I 0.028 CUll 0 .0028 68.2 0.815<)
We) .1.2. - 7 1).O(l1.W I 5.KS. + 5 - 4N5.0 SJO.2 2. 11)0 1.062 I 9:12 n.940 .17.7 0.03) 0.207 i).OO)3 .\5.2 0871
110 .' .~ - (, l)OOI~11 5.~3. - ~ - 44lU, 149.!! D65 7.261 1944 0976 22.5 0.0-'3 0.203 0 .0037 21.6 0.566
120 1. 1 - 5 0.0014.\2 7.\5 .. ) -429.0 1m J 2.535 6.944 1.955 I (1111 IS 0 0.036 0.19<1 U.()()42 14. 1 0.3S6
130 OODOI!! 000145.1 1420 -40<)511IJ 2.(1)4 " .6S7 1.'0166 1042 Hum om~ 0 .194 0.0\.14 7 10.9 O.8.4J
140 000077 0.001475 375 - 3tN.tI 120.11 H39 6.4S) I ~80 1073 sn 0041 0188 OJ1()52 8.71 01:137
150 (1.00277 O.OOI4n 100 - J(,9.9 !3U 2.977 <diS I ~96 I 105 6 .5f> 0 .04.1 0 .182 0 .0057 7. 19 0.829
1()(1 IUlO!l5 U.no 15 20 .\5.6 - 349.7 1-12.5 3.107 6 . 18 2 2.1114 I .U7 5.\6 o ()4S 0176 0.0063 6. 13 0.841
170 O . n~2(j 0.001545 I~./I - 329.5 Inti 3.229 "un 2(1.1 5 1.1"2 4 .48 O().l.'! U.169 0.006~ S.W 01:120
180 0.OS05 0 .001570 6.61).1 -309.1 165.4 3.347 5. '1~2 2MO 1.2OY 3.81 0.051 0 .16-' OJ)()7S 4.82 0811
190 o 1051 Il.(JOI SW, :1.384 -mu 177.1 J.45!> 5907 2.0~ I . :~Q 321) O.uS) U. 156 0OO8Z 4.40 0815
2()O o 20n (1001"24 1 H515 -2(,71 IS!!9 ., .567 :; 846 2.120 I 294 :! .1l7 O.IlS6 0. 149 0 .OOS9 4.08 0 .817
210 iI ..\5'1l 11.0111 "5J I "g ~1 - 2.5 tI 200 ') ' .671 S 7% 2157 1 142 25 3 005~ 0143 0 .0096 382 0.820
220 O.()Il·\ ·1 0. 0' 11<'>)<-1 11 (,(, K" -2~.1 . n 212 .') 1 77 1 <, 1 5~ 2 lY~ I .N .5 1 24 1111112 IJl.lfl I).01(W 1.1\ 2 ()~ 2S

2.10 0 .%61 (( .!lIII" i I' 4 .\~5 .- 1111 7 12. 'J .1.:;71 5 724\ 12.12 I 4.5 2 2011 (10M n.1~O (I.OIP J.J5 11828
nOR I nOllo IUIOI7I~ !I 411<<.1 - 2UO.O 225.ti :\.IPM '> 724 2.24'" 1-"57 I ~x 0 .06.~ o 1 ~() 00113 ~.43 0 .833
2311 I (1J.l~ lI(JII17~1 (l41.W - IW.-' ~26 . 1 3.1i.~O 5721 2.247 1.:5') 1 97 O.06.i 11.129 0.1)114 .1.42 U.828
240 1.411) 0 . nOI7S~ II 2<J I I -17'1(l 2367 -' 961> S.6QQ 2.1'l' I.SIS 1 7Y 0.0ti7 U 124 0 .0122 .1.31 0836
250 2.179 0.UOI7"() o 201~ - 1~5 . 7 NII.5 ~ . f)()1 S.67l! 2. H'i 1.5lj~ 1.61) 0.070 0.118 0.0132 ) 19 0.845

2NI ~. 1117 0.0 0 I!! II o 1~4K - IJI J:I 260.1 4 154 5.6(12 2 . 41~ 1.6S'l I.H 0.074 11.112 0 . 014~ 3 10 O.R5)
270 J . ~O(, (1.O01){7~ 1ll(1CliI -107.2 271.4 4.247 5.64'1 2 . 4~5 1.743 I .lU 0.017 0.107 00154 ).02 0 . ~70
2811 S.lil'! 11.0111',1211 0 .0")1 -)(1 8 2~2.6 4 , 3.\H S.f>JO 2.565 1.8:1 7 1.17 (WIlO 0.1112 110166 2.94 0.890
290 7 t.1)~ ()OI!I'iSI II.IIbI~1 - 5.~.1 l'l.1.0 J .129 5.6.11 2.1>5 .' 1 .9J~ 1.06 0.084 0.097 0.r))~0 2.'ll 0.908
3(XJ " . 97~ II . U!)204~ !) .().It.1 - 2H.(, 10.1.0 J.517 5 . 62~ 2.767 2U7() 0.'15 (I.oi\R ().(I92 IJ.OI95 2!!6 0.916

}IO 12 71 U .OD211~ 00.'5 ] - 0.5 .'ll.U Hi)l! , 017 2.)l9/\ 2.225 (l .l!S Il.093 0.U87 0.0211 283 0.976
320 1598 O.oo12UO (J027'.! 2~.9 1}O.2 4.1>99 ) .610 J .061 2 ~24 07" IJ.Il'iH O.UR.l n.m11 2.~2 1.025
3:.0 I'H2 (11102302 0.1)21'-: ''>.9 J2h.~ ·1.7'12 5.0'>1)1 3 . 2~ 271) O.6B 0.104 0.07/\ 0.026 2.84 1.10
3<10 2JJI 000243 I U.()169 'll.Y J31.J 4 ...,.'57 5.:iKX .UO '1 1:1 0.59 11111 O()74 0029 2.&i I.2U
350 29 .54 o 1)()2f10!! OIlL'1l 121l. Q .1.12.0 4.%9 5569 " .20 394 051 0.1"1 n.llil 0.ln5 29<J I 3 7

360 35.64 0 . OO289~ 0.00'15 170. 7 .1~5.2 5.102 5.531 5.'1(1 6.26 04 2 0137 0.1)13 OOJ~ J . )~ I.n
:W).9' J24S 0.()()4535 i)()(J45 259 r. 251) (, ~ J,~ 533l!

~l lfi ~ CONTENTS
"Triple point.

NEXT
BACK
CONTENTS , hThe no(allon J .~. - 9 SIgnifies 3.0 x IO- .
u
0( ~ LI.I
'(TlIica I POI n I. CO Z Z
. 0
NEXT I V
 Table AlO Thermophysical Properties of Propane (R290) al Atmospheric Pressure

T, t;, h, 5. Cp' Z t'J! A, ).I., Pr

K m)/kg kl/kg kl/kg' K kJ/kg' K m/s W/(m' K) 10-6Pa's

23 1.1 a 0.413 226.1 5.721 1.459 0.9626 218.3 0.0114 6.47 0.828
240 0.432 239.2 5.778 1.484 0.9664 222.7 0.0121 6.70 0.822
260 0.471 269.6 5.898 1.549 0.9745 232.2 0.0139 7,23 0.805
280 0.511 301.1 6.016 1.623 0.9803 241.0 0.0159 7.76 0.792
300 0.549 334.5 6.132 1.704 0,9843 249.3 0.OL80 8.29 0.786
320 0.588 369.4 6.243 1.789 0.9873 257.2 0.0202 8.82 0.781
340 0.626 406.1 6.354 1.876 0,1)891 264.8 0.0226 9.35 0.775
360 0.664 444.5 6.465 1.963 0,9912 272.2 0.0252 9.88 0.770
380 0.702 484.6 6.574 2.051 0,9925 279..1 0.0278 IDA 0.766
400 0.740 526.6 6.681 2.138 0,9937 286,2 0.0306 10.9 0.762
420 0,778 570. J 6.787 2.224 0,9948 292,9 0.0334 lU 0.759
440 0.815 6[5.4 6.891 2.30S 0,9954 299.5 0.0363 11.9 0.757
460 0.853 662.4 6.996 2.392 0,9960 305,C) 0.0393 12.4 0.755
480 0.891 7[1.1 7.100 2.474 0,9965 312.2 0.()424 12.9 0.753
500 0,928 761.3 7.202 2.553 0,9970 318.3 0.0455 13.4 0.752

"Normal boiling poin!.

~I ~I CONTENTS
BACK,

NEXT
BACK
CONTENTS

NEXT
 TABLE All Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Refrigel'1lnt 12

P, T, ufl l:K ' Jr f' h~I SJ' SK'

bar K 10- 4 m1 j kg m1 j kg kljkg kJjkg kJ j (kg ' K) kJj(kg' K)

0.10 200,1 6.217 ).305 334,8 518, \ 3.724 4.640

0. 15 206,3 6.282 0.936 340.) 521.0 3.750 4.627
0.20 2111 6.332 0.716 344.1 523.2 3.769 4.6J8
0.25 214.9 6.374 0.582 347.4 525.0 3.785 4.611
0.30 2\8.2 6.41 I 0.491 350,2 526.5 3.798 4.606
0.4 223.5 6.437 0,376 354.9 529.l 3.819 4,598
0.5 227.9 6.525 0.306 358.8 531.2 3.836 4,592
0.6 231.7 6,570 0.254 362.1 532.9 3.850 4,588
0.8 237.9 6.648 0.198 367,6 535.8 3.874 4581
l.0 243.0 6.7l9 0.160 372 1 538.2 3.893 4.576
1.5 253.0 6,859 0.\10 381.2 542.9 3.929 4568
2,0 260.6 6.970 0.0840 388.2 546.4 3.956 4.563
2.5 266.9 7.067 0.0681 394.0 549.2 3.978 4560
3.0 272.3 7.183 0.0573 399.1 551.6 3.997 4.557
4.0 281.3 7.307 0.0435 4D7.6 555 ,6 4.027 4.553
5.0 288.8 7.444 0.0351 414.8 558.8 4.052 4.551
6.0 295.2 7.571 0.0294 421.1 561.5 4.073 4.549
8.0 306.0 7.804 0.0221 431 .8 565.7 4.108 4546
10 314.9 8.022 0.0)76 440.8 569.0 4.137 4.544
15 332.6 8.548 0.0114 459.3 574.5 4.193 4.539
20 346.3 9.096 0.0082 474 ,8 577.5 4.237 4.534
25 357.5 9.715 0.0062 488.7 578.5 4.275 4.527
30 367.2 10.47 0.0048 ~~~.O 577.6 4.311 4.SJ7

CONTENTS
BACK I 35 375.7 11.49 0.0036 ~.1.9 574. 1 4.347 4.502
~ :L>;:
NEXT
BACK
40 383.3 13.45 0.0025 564.1 4.389 4.471
CONTEtgS , ~ ~r U.I
C) 41.2" 385.0 17.92 O.(}()[ IS a:l ~'\\Z 548.3 4.429 4.429
NEXT'CI . - -- - ()
'I"
 TABLE All (Colllinucd)
0:1
P, (P.!' (~ " J.Lf· J.L w• kf kK• P'r P'R CT.
0
bar kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) 10 -. Pa . S 10 - ~ Pa . S W/(m' K) W/(m' K) N/m

0.10 0.855 6,16 0,105 0.0050 5.01

0.15 0.861 5.61 0.10] 0.0053 4.69
0.20 0.865 5.28 0.101 0.0055 4.52
0.25 0.868 4.99 0.099 0.0056 4.38
0.30 0.872 4.79 0.D98 0.0057 4.26
0,4 0.876 4.48 0.097 0.0060 4.05 0.0189
0.5 0.8&0 0.545 4.25 1.00 0.095 0.0062 3.94 0.89 0,0182
0,6 0.884 0.552 4.08 1.02 0.094 0.0063 3.84 0.88 0.0176
0,8 0.889 0.564 3.81 1.04 0.09\ 0.0066 3.72 0.88 0.0167
1,0 0.894 0.574 3.59 1.06 0.089 0.0069 3.61 0.88 0.0159
1.5 0.905 0.600 3.23 1.10 0.086 0.0074 3.40 0.89 0.0145
2,0 0.9[4 0.613 2,95 1.13 0.083 0.0077 3.25 0.90 0.0\34
2.5 0.922 0.626 2.78 1.15 0.081 0.0081 3.16 0.91 0.0125
3.0 0.930 0.640 2,62 1.18 0.079 O.00B3 3.08 0.91 0.0118
4.0 0.944 0.663 2.40 1.22 0.075 0.0088 3.02 0.92 0.0106
SO 0.957 0.683 224 1,25 0,073 0,0092 2,94 0.93 0.0096
6.0 0.969 0.702 2,13 1.28 0,070 Q,009S 2,95 0.95 0.0087
8.0 0.995 0.737 1.96 1,33 0.066 0,0101 2.95 0.97 0.0074
10 1.023 0.769 1.88 1,38 0.06] 0.0107 3.05 1,01 0.0063
15 1.]02 0.865 1.67 1.50 0.057 0.0117 3.23 1.11 0.0042
20 1.234 0.969 1.49 1.69 0.053 0.0126 3.47 1,]0 0.0029
25 \.36 Lt9 1.33 0.047 0.0134 3.84 0.0019
30 1.52 1.60 1.16 0.042 0.014 4.2 0.0009
Iii'

CONTENTS
BACK ,
3S 1.73 2.5 I- 0.037 0.016 0.0005

~
40 Z

NEXT
f- 0.0001
BACK
w xLl.J
CONT ENTS I-
41.2 z z 0.0000
0 ,
N EXT "01
"C"tlc~1 pom!.
 Table Al2 Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerant 12 at l·bar Pressure

T. L'
" h, .5 ).L. c,,' k, Pr
K m'jkg kJjkg kJ /(kg . K) 10-" Pa ' ~ kJj(kg' Kl W/(m' K)

300 0.2024 572.1 4.701 1.26 0.614 0,0097 0,798

320 0,2J67 5R4.5 4.741 1.34 0.631 0,0107 O.78k
340 0,2309 597,3 4,7~0 1.47 0.647 0,0118 0,775
360 0,2450 610.3 4.817 1.49 0.661 O.Q] 29 0,760
380 0.2590 623.7 4.853 1.56 0.674 0.0140 0.745
400 0.2730 637.3 4.890 1.62 0.684 a.oIS} 0.730
420 0.2870 651.2 4.924 1.67 0,694 0.0162 0.715
440 0.3009 665.3 4.956 1.72 0,705 0.0173 0.703
460 0.3148 697.7 4.987 1.78 0.716 0.0184 0.693
480 0.3288 694.3 5.018 1.84 0.727 0.OJ96 0.6H]
500 0.3427 709.0 5.048 1,90 0.739 0.0208 0.674

CONTENTS
BACK I

NEXT
BACK
CONTENU;

NEXT
 QI
TABL~ A23 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Refrigerant 22
~

T. P, t'[. CR' hI' h~, sf' s~. c,,1 ' C px'

K bar mJ/kg mJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K)

150 0.0017 6.209.- 4 !G.40 268.2 547.3 3.355 5.215 1.059

160 0.0054 6.293. - 4 28.20 278.2 552.1 3.430 5.141 1.058
170 0.0150 6.381. - 4 to.85 288.3 557.0 3.494 5.075 1.057
IRO 0.0369 6.474. - .:\ 4.673 298.7 561.9 3.551 5.013 1.058
190 0.0821 6.573. - 4 2.225 308.6 566.8 3.605 4.963 1.060
200 0.1662 6.680.- 4 1.145 318.8 571.6 3.675 4.921 1.065 0.502
2)0 0.3116 6.794.- 4 0.6370 329.1 576.5 3.707 4.885 1.071 0.544
220 0.5470 6.917.- 4 0.3772 339.7 581.2 3.756 4.854 1.080 0.577
230 0.9076 7.050.- 4 0.2352 350.6 585.9 3.804 4.828 1.09! 0.603
240 1.4346 7,195.- 4 0.1532 361.7 590.5 3.852 4.805 1,\05 0.626
250 2.174 7.35\. - 4 0.1037 373.0 594.9 3.898 4,785 1,122 0.648
260 3.\77 7.523.- 4 0.07237 384.5 599.0 .1.942 4.768 1,143 0.673
270 4.497 7.733. - 4 0.05187 396.3 603.0 3.986 4.752 1.169 0.703
280 6.192 7.923. - 4 0,03803 408.2 606.6 4.029 4,738 1.193 0.74J
290 8.324 8.158. - .:\ 0,02838 420.4 610.0 4.071 4.725 1.220 0.791
300 10.956 8.426. - 4 0.02148 432.7 612.8 4.1 JJ 4.713 1.257 0.854
310 14.17 8.734. - 4 0.01643 445.5 615.1 4.153 4.701 1.305 0.935
320 18.02 9.096. - 4 0.01265 458.6 616.7 4.194 4.688 1.372 1.036
330 22.61 9.535. - 4 9.753. - 3 472.4 617.3 4.235 4.674 1.460 1.159
340 28.03 1.010. - 3 7.479. - 3 487.2 616.5 4.278 4.658 1.573 1.308
350 34.41 1.086. - 3 5.613.- 3 503.7 61lJ . 4.324 4.637 [.718 1.486

CONTENTS
BACK 360 41.86 1.212. - 3 4.036. - J 523.7 605 5 ~ 078 4.605 L.897
S~ ~ ~ '§ 4.501
NEXT
BACK
369.3" 49.89 2.015. - 3 2.015. - 3 570.0 4.501 00 00
CONTENTS I
DCrilical pOll'll.
a:J1 -Z
0
Z
NEXT u
 TABLE A23 ( Continued)

T, j.Jr1' JL ~ , A, . Ax' f' f ' [S ;: I Prf Pr~ a.

K 10-· Pa . ~ 10" 4 Pa . S W / (m ' K) W / (m' K) m/ s m/ s N/ m
150 0161
160 0. 156
170 7.70 0.15) 142,6 5.39
180 6.47 0.146 146, 1 4.69
190 5.54 0.141 149.4 4.16
200 4,81 0. '36 1007 152.6 3.77 0.024
210 4.24 0.131 957 155,2 3.47 0 .022
220 3,78 0. 126 909 157.6 3.24 0,021
230 3.40 0. 100 (1. 121 0.0067 862 159.7 3,07 0.89 0,019
240 3.09 0. 1()4 0 . 117 0.0073 814 161.3 2,92 0.89 0.017
250 2.82 0.109 0. 112 0.0080 766 162.5 2.83 0.89 0.0155
260 2.60 0. 114 0. 107 0,0086 716 163.1 2.78 0 .89 0.0138
270 2.41 0.118 0.102 0.0092 668 163.4 2.76 0.90 0.0121
280 2.25 0.123 0.097 0.0098 622 162.1 2.77 0.93 0.0104
290 2.11 0.129 0.092 0.0105 578 161.1 2.80 0.97 0.0087
300 1.98 0.135 0.087 0,0111 536 160.1 2.86 1.04 0.0071
310 1.86 0.141 0.082 0,0117 496 157.2 2.96 1.13 0.0055
320 1.76 0.148 0.077 0,0123 458 153.4 3.14 1.25 0.0040
330 1.67 0.157 0.072 0.0130 408 148.5 3.39 1.42 0.0026
340 1.5 I 0.171 0.067 0.0140 355 142.7 3.55 1.60 0.0014
350 1.30 0 .060 290 135 ,9 3.72 0 ,0008
360 1.06

CONTENTS
BACK I 369.3 ....til
~~
NEXT
BACK
CONTEN~ , ~co .... IoU

NEXT I
IN
81' I
 Table A24 Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerant R22 at Atmospheric Pressure

T, L' , h, s, c", z l'\-, Jl.. k. Pr

K mJ j kg kJjkg kJ/(kg . K) kJ j(kg . K) m/s 10- 6 Pa . S Wj(m' K)

232.3 0.2126 586.9 4.8230 0.608 0.9644 160.1 10.1 0.0067 0.893
240 0.2205 591.5 4,8673 0,6117 0.9682 163,0 lOA 0,0074 0,860
260 0,2408 604.0 4,8919 0,6255 0,9760 169,9 11.2 0,0084 0,838
280 0,2608 616 .8 4.9389 0,6431 0,9815 176,2 12,0 0,0094 0,820
300 0,2806 630,0 4,9840 0,6619 0.9857 182..1 12.8 0,0106 0,804
320 0.3001 64304 5.0274 0,6816 0.9883 188.0 13 ,7 0,0118 0,790
340 0.3196 657.3 5.0699 0.7017 0.9906 193.5 14.4 0,0130 0,777
360 0.3390 671.7 5, III j 0,7213 0.9923 198.9 15.1 0,0142 0.767
380 0.3583 686.5 5.1506 0.7406 0.9936 204.1 15.8 0.0154 0.760
400 0,3775 701.5 5.1892 0.7598 0.9945 209.1 16.5 0.0166 0.755
420 0.3967 717.0 5.2267 0.77S6 0.9953 214 .0 17,2 0.0178 0.753
440 0.4159 732.8 5.2635 0 .7971 0.9961 218.8 17 .9 0.0190 0.752
460 0.8 150 223,5 18.6 0.0202 0.751
480 0 .8326 227.9 19.3 0.0214 0.75)
500 0.8502 19.9 0.0225 0.750

CONTENTS
BACK I

NEXT
BACK
CONTENTS
NEXT I
 TABLE A25 Thermophysical Propel1ies of Saturated Refrigerant R134a
r
K h~r
P. '(.
m·l/k~
I'll'
m'/k!l kJ/kg
" f· ",.. , f'
kJ/kg kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg
" . K) c ~/'
kJ/(kg . K) kJ/(kg' K)
c. p ". 1',. 1', .
10-' Pa ' s 10-' I'a . 5
kf • k,.
W/(m' K) W/(m K)
P'f Pr~ T.

N/m

200 0()70 O.o()()MI D2 - 3n.O 201.0 -0.1&9\ I.UISJ

210 I) Ill7 O.ll()()674 0.906 - 2td 21Jlj. I -0.1175 ('.9941
220 0.252 O.OOOnS7 0.6% - 15.3 21d 5 - 00664 0.97SM
2)0 O.4311 O.OO()701 0.416 -37 no l; - 0015!! o 9M)2 1.113 0732
240 o 72l! 0.OOJII6 0.2Sl! Is.> 227.1 0.0343 0.9471 1.162 0764 4.25 0.095 0.099 0.008 4.99 0.90
~SO 1 159 0.0007.\ I 0.1(,7 211 "\ ?II "\ 11. IlM 0 119J~ .\ 1.212 (,79K .\ 70 0.099 00<)$ OOO:S 4.n 0.96 0014')
260 I 765 00007411 (I 112 J29 239.4 0.13.11 0.9276 1.2W 0105 3.2.5 0. 104 0.091 o OOS ~ 44 \ 02 0.0131
270 2.607 o ()(I0766 0077 454 2441\ o HIP 0.9211 U06 01116 2&S O. IOR 0.087 0 .009 ·UJ 1.08 0.1)117
21!O J .nl O.()(I07ll6 0.1155 542 251 I 01299 O.~155 1351 0.921 2.56 0 . 112 OJlS3 0009 4 . 17 1.14 0 .0103
2<;10 5 175 0000806 0 .040 72.9 256.6 02775 09114 1.397 11972 2.30 0. 117 0 .079 0.010 407 1.20 O.OO'!O

300 7.02 00001121 0029 87.0 2hl .9 032411 Ot,HltlO loW6 1.030 2.0M 0.121 0.075 0.010 400 1.27
)10 '> 53 0.0001165 oon 101.5 2bb.~ O..nlll 0 .9050 1,497 I )04 I.M9 0 . 125 oml 0010 3.98 1.34
3W 12.)& 0.000895 1l.016 Ilh.6 271.2 OAI1I9 0.9021 1.559 1.l91! 1.72 0 . 129 0.068 0011 3.94 ].44
330 )5.59 0000935 0.012 IJ1.J 27'.0 o 4M3 089Bt. l .bJS I .'2~ 1.51! 0 . 133 0.064 0.011 39$ 157
)40 19.71 0.0009l!4 0.0094 14~ ." 277.H 0514b 0.8937 I 7S0 1.520 lAS 0137 0060 0012 423 I 74
350 24,60 0.00105 1).(}()71 166.6 279.1 O.S(,.{'} 0!j.S1>1 1.931 U<)S 1.34 0 . 14 0.056 0-012 462 2.09
J(,() 3040 0.00115 0.0051 I S6 .5 2n7 01>19~ O.8nl 2.J<14 2nl0 1.20 0 . 16 0054 O.()i.\ 5.16 3.2\
370 37.31 0.00))4 0.O()35 211> .0 no.o 0&910 0.K.170 0.95 OZ6
374.3" 40.67 0.00195 0.0020 2480 24~(J (I 771~ 07714

aCrilic~1 poinl.

CONTENTS
~, I-
zw
~ ~I
NEXT
BACK
\It

CONTENTS ] I-
Z
0
NEXT u
 CD
.....
01

Table A26 Properties of Refrigerant 134a at Atmospheric Pressure

T, I" Jr, .~ , cpo Z GIl
K m.'/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) m/s
247 0.1901 231.5 0.940 0.787 0.957 145.9
260 0.2017 241.8 0.980 0.801 0.965 150.0
280 0.2193 258.1 1.04) 0.827 0.974 156.3
300 0.2365 274.9 1.099 0.856 0.980 162.1
320 0.2532 292.3 1.155 0.885 0.984 [67.6
340 0.2699 310.3 1.209 0.915 0.987 172.8
360 0.2866 328.8 ).26.1 0.945 0.990 177.6
380 0.3032 347.8 1.313 0.976 0.992 182.0
400 0.3J98 367.2 I.J6l 1.006 0.994 Ig6.0

CONTENTS
BACK I

NEXT
BACK
CONTENTSj

NEXT
 TABLE Al7 Tbermophysical Properties of Saluraled (cf-Waler-Sleam

P, T, a
Lj , t'r h/. hw' !l fI' k/, k~. Pr/ Pr R
bar K IO-J m"/kg m'/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg 10-' Pa . S W/(m' K) W/(m' K)

0.001 252.84 1.0010 1167 - 374.9 2464. 1 0.0723 2.40 0.0169

0.002 260.2J 1.0010 600 - 360.1 2477.4 0.Q751 2.35 0.0174
0.003 265.11 1.0010 408.5 - 350.9 2486.0 0.077\ 2.3J 0.0177
0.004 267.95 1.0010 309.1 - 344.4 2491.9 0.0780 2-29 0.0179
0.005 270.74 1.0010 249.6 - 337 .9 2497.3 0.0789 2.27 0.0180
0.006 273.06 1.0010 209.7 - 333,6 2502 0.0798 2.26 0.0182
0.0061 273.15 1.0010 206.0 - 333.5 2502 0.0802 2.26 0.0182
0,0061 273.15 1.0002 206.0 0.0 2502 0.0802 0.566 0.0182 13.04 0.817
0,008 276.73 1.000\ 159.4 21.9 2508 00816 0.568 0.018-4 11 .66 0.823
0.010 280.13 1.0001 129.2 29.4 2513.4 00829 0.57R 0.0186 10.19 0.828
0.02 290.66 1.0013 67.00 73.5 2532.7 0.0872 0.595 0.0193 7.51 0.841
0.03 297,24 1.0028 45.66 \01.1 2544.8 0.0898 0.605 0.0195 6.29 0.854
0.04 302.\3 1.0041 34 ,80 \21A 2553.6 0.0918 0.612 0.0198 5.57 0.865
0.05 306.04 1.0053 28.19 lJ7 ,H 2560.6 0.0933 0.618 0.0201 5.08 0.871
0.06 30933 1.0065 23 .74 151.5 2566.6 0.0946 0.622 0.0203 4.62 0.877
0.08 314.68 1.0085 18.10 173.9 2576.2 0.0968 0.629 0.0207 4.22 0.883
0.10 318.98 1.0103 14.67 19l.9 2583.9 0.0985 0.635 0.0209 3.87 0.893
0.20 333.23 1.0172 7.65 251.5 2608.9 0.1042 0.651 0.0219 3.00 0.913
0.30 342.27 1.0222 5.23 289.3 2624.6 0.1078 0.660 0.0224 2.60 0.929
OAO 349.04 1.0264 3.99 317.7 2636.2 0.1105 0.666 0.0229 2.36 0.941
0.5 354.50 1.0299 3.24 340.6 2645.4 0.1J27 0.669 0.0233 2.19 0.951
0.6 359.11 1.0331 2.73 359,9 2653.0· 0.1147 0.673 0.0236 2.06 0.961

CONTENTS
BACK , 0.8 366,66 1.0385 2.09 391,7 'J6~ ~ 'J'Jz
- .: .: : -,.. .0.1176 0.677 0.0242 1.88 0.979

NEXT
BACK
""" I
CONT E ~
1.0 372.78 1.0434 1.6937 417.5 2t .d ~ riS p.1202 0,6805 0.0244 1.735 1.009
..... 1.5 384 .52 1.0530 1.1590 467.1 2(, ~ .1 0 z z O. 1247 0.6347 0.0259 1.538 1.000
NEXT U
 ...
CII
CII
TABLEA27 (Continued)
P, T. a
L'f' ("", 11/. h._ J.i.".
10 _J POI . s
k/. kg. Pr/ Pr g
bar K 10-" m) jkg m J jkg kJjkg kJ /kg Wj(m' K) Wj(m' K)

2.0 393.38 1.0608 0.8854 504.7 2706.3 0.1280 0.6866 0,0268 J.419 1.013
2.5 400.58 1.0676 0.7184 535.3 2716,4 0.1307 0.6876 0.0275 1.335 1,027
3.0 406.69 1.0735 0.6056 561.4 2724.7 0.1329 0.6879 0.0281 1.273 1.040
3.5 412.02 1.0789 0.5240 584.3 2731.6 0.1349 0.6878 0.0287 1.224 1.050
4.0 416.77 1.0839 0,4622 604.7 2737.6 OJ367 0.6875 0.0293 1.185 1,057
4.5 421.07 1.0885 0,4138 623.2 2742.9 0.1382 0.6869 00298 1.152 [,066
5 424.99 1.(1928 0.3747 640.1 2747.5 0.1396 0.6863 0.0303 1.124 1,073
6 432.00 1.1009 0.3155 670.4 2755.5 0.\421 0.6847 0.0311 1.079 1,091
7 438.11 1.1082 0.2727 697.1 2762.0 0.1443 0.682B 0.0319 1.044 1.105
8 445.57 1.1150 0.2403 720.9 2767.S 0.1462 0.6809 0.0327 1.016 l.l J5
9 448.5\ 1.1214 0.2148 742.6 2772.1 0.1479 0.6788 0.0334 0.992 1.127
10 453.03 1.1274 0.1943 762.6 2776.1 0.1495 0.6767 0.034\ 0.973 1.137
12 461.11 1.1386 0.1632 798,4 2782.7 0.1523 0.6723 0.0354 0.943 1.156
14 468.19 1.1489 0.1407 830.1 2787.3 0.1548 0.6680 0.0366 0.920 1.175
16 474.52 1.1586 0.1237 858.6 2791.8 0.1569 0.66.16 0.0377 0.902 1.191
18 480.26 1.1678 0.1103 884.6 2794.8 0.1589 0.6593 0.0388 0.889 1.206
20 485.53 1.1766 0.0995 908.6 2797.2 0.1608 0.6550 0.0399 0.877 1.229
25 497.09 1.1972 0.0799 962.0 2800.9 0.1648 0.6447 0.0424 0.859 1.251
30 506.99 1.2163 0.0666 1008.4 2802.3 0.1684 0.6347 0.0499 0.849 1,278
35 515.69 1.2345 0.0570 1049.8 2802.0 0.\7J6 0.6250 0.0472 0.845 1.3(}6
40 523.48 1.2521 0.0497 1087.4 2800.3 0.1746 0.6158 0.0496 0.845 1.331
45 530.56 1.2691 0.0440 1122.1 2797.-..." 0.1775 0.6068 0.0519 0.849 1.358

CONTENTS
BACK 1 SO 537.06 1.2858 0.0394 1154,5 2:?S :4, ~ f-1O .\802 0.5981 0.0542 0.855 1.386

NEXT
BACK
J ~ )- . ~
X
CONTENTS 60 548.70 1.3187 0.0324 1213.7 ~ W IO.1854 0.5813 0.0589 0.874 1.442
70 558,94 1.3515 0.0274 1267.4 2f'(t Z 0.1904 0.5653 0.0638 0.901 1.503
N E~ I u
 80 568.12 1.3843 0.0235 1317.1 2759.9 0.1954 0.5499 0.0688 0.936 1.573
90 576.46 t.4179 0.0205 \363.7 2744.0 0.2005 0.5352 0.0741 0.97l:l 1.651
100 584 .1 I 1.4526 0.0180 1408.0 2727.7 0.2057 0.5209 0.0798 1.029 1.737
110 591.20 1.4887 0.0160 1450.6 2709.3 0.2110 0.5071 0.085 9 1. 090 1.837
120 597.80 1.5268 0.0143 1491.8 2689.2 0.2166 0.4936 0.0925 1. 16:\ 1.963
130 603 .98 t .5672 0.0128 1532 .0 2607.0 0.2224 0.4806 0.0998 ) .252 2. 126
J40 609 .79 l.6106 0.0115 1571 .6 2642 .4 0.2286 0.4678 0.1080 1.362 2.343
)50 615.28 1.6579 0.OL03 161 LD 26 15.0 0.2373 0.4554 0.1307 1.502 2.571
160 620.48 1.7103 0.0093 1650.5 2584 .9 0.2497 0.4433 0.1280 l .o8R ."\.041
170 625.41 1.7696 0.0084 1691.7 2551.6 0.2627 0.4315 0.1404 2.09S 3.344
)80 630.11 1.8399 0.0075 1734.8 251.1 .9 0.2766 0.4200 0. 1557 2.360 3.807
J90 634 .5R 1. 9260 0.0067 1778.7 2470.0 0.2920 0.4087 0.1749 2.951 8.021
200 038.85 ~ . O.l70 0.0059 1826 ::; 24104 0.:;094 0.3976 0.2007 42U2 \2 16

P. S I" ' ~¥ . C P./ '

.1
(',,- ,, ~ J.I. (. y!' y< r ../" . I ,).1( ' (J ,n

bar kJ / (kg . K) kJ / (kg · K) kJ / (kg . K ) kJ / (kg ' 10 ]O - J Pa ~ m/ s Ill / 50 I' / m

0.001 - 1.378 9.848 1.957
0.002 - 1.321 9.585 2.015
0.003 -1.280 9.456 2.053
0.004 -1 .260 9.339 2.075
0.005 - \.240 9.250 2.097 1.851
0.006 - l.222 9.16(1 2.106 1.854
0.0061 -1 .221 9.159 2.116 1.854
0.0061 0.0000 9.159 .:U.17 1.854 17.50 0.0756
0.008 O.05·n '1.0379 -1 .206 1.856 15 .75 0.0751
0.010 0.1059 8.9132 4.\98 1.85M . 14.30 0.0747

CONTENTS
(rJ
I-
BACK 0.02 0.21'105 8.1212 4.183 I :~: Zw 10.67 0.0731

NEXT
BACK
I-

~I
0.03 0.3543 8.5756 4.180 I. I- 9.09 0.0721
CONTEN-e
CD 0.04 0.4222 8.4724 4. 17'1 I. {l). J 0z 8.15 0.07[4
NEXT u
 G)
1'1) TABLE A17 (Continued)
0
;:'l.~,
4 Q
P, Sf· sX' cpo f' c p . ~' iJ.f' Yr- YN VI. I"~ (7"

bar kJ/(kg' Kl kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' K) 1O-'Pa-s m/s mjs Njm

0.05 0.4761 8.3928 4.178 1.878 7.51 0.0707

0.06 0.5208 8.3283 4.\78 1.88\ 7.03 0.0702
0.08 0.5925 8.2266 4.179 1.887 6.35 0.0693
0.\0 0.6493 8.1482 4.180 1.894 5.88 0.0686
0.20 0.8321 7.9065 4.184 1.917 4.06 0.0661
0.30 0.9441 7.7670 4.189 1.935 4.09 0.0646
DAD 1.0261 7.6686 4.194 1.953 3.74 0.0634
0.5 1.0912 7.5928 4.198 1.967 3.49 0.0624
0.6 1.1454 7.5309 4.201 1.978 3.30 0.0616
0.8 1.2330 7.4338 4.209 2.015 3.03 0.0605
1.0 1.3027 7.3598 4.222 2.048 2.801 ).136 U21 438.74 472.98 0.0589
1.5 1.4336 7.2234 4.231 2.077 2.490 1.139 \.318 445,05 478.73 0.0566
2.0 1.5301 7.1268 4.245 2. 121 2.295 1.141 1.316 44951 4R2.78 0.0548
2.5 1.6071 7.0520 4.258 2.161 2 lSI) 1.142 1..114 452.92 485.RS 0.0534
3.0 1.6716 6.9909 4.27\ 2.198 2.D51 !.J43 1..113 45565 018836 0(52)
3.5 1.7273 6.9392 4.282 2.233 1.966 1.143 UII 457.91 490.43 0.05 \0
4.0 1.7764 68943 094 2.266 1.897 1.144 UIO 459.82 492.18 0.0500
4.5 1.8204 6.8547 005 2.298 1.8.18 1.144 1.309 461.46 493.69 0.0491
5 \ .8604 6.8192 4.315 2329 \.787 1.144 1.308 462.88 495.01 0.0483
6 1.9308 6.7575 4335 2.387 1.704 1.144 1.106 465.13 497.22 0.0468
7 1.9918 6.7052 4.354 2.442 1.637 1.143 1.304 467.08 498.99 0.0455
8 2.0457 6.6596 4372 2.495 1.581 1.142 10303 468.57 500.55 0.0444
~

CONTENTS
BAO< 9 2.0941 6.6192 4.390 2.5<1'; .... 1.534 1.142 1.302 469.78 501.64 0.0433
z
2's'~1 ~
NEXT
BACK
)0 2.1382 6.5821 4.407 ....u.i 1.494 1.\41 1300 470.76 502.64 0.0423
CONTENT~
12 2.2161 6.5194 4.440 2.6, ' Z 1.427 1.139 1.298 472.23 504.2l 0.0405
0
NEXT u
 14 2.2837 6.4651 4.472 2.777 1.373 1.137 1.296 473.18 505 .33 0.0389
16 2.3436 6.4175 4.504 2.862 1.329 1.134 1.294 473.78 506.12 0.0375
18 2.3976 6.3751 4.534 2.944 1.291 1.132 1.293 474 .09 506.65 0.0362
20 2.4469 6.3367 4.564 3.025 1.259 1.129 1.29\ 474.18 506.98 0.0350
25 2.5543 6.2536 4.640 3.219 1.193 1.123 1.288 473.71 507.16 0.0323
30 2.6455 6.1837 4.716 3.407 1.143 1.117 1.284 472.51 506.65 0.0300
35 2.7253 6.1229 4.792 3.593 1.102 l.1l1 1.281 470.80 505.66 0.0280
40 2.7965 6.0685 4.870 3.781 1.069 l.104 1.278 468 .72 504.29 0.0261
45 2.&612 6_0191 4.951 3.972 1.040 1.097 1.27S 466.31 502.68 0.0244
50 2.9206 5.9735 5.034 4.l68 \.016 \ .09\ 1.272 463.67 500.73 0.0229
60 3.0273 5.8908 5.211 4.582 0.975 1.077 1.266 457.77 496.33 O.020}
70 3.1219 5.8162 5.405 5.035 0.942 1.063 1.260 451.21 49\.31 0.0177
80 3.2076 5.747\ 5.621 5.588 0.915 1.048 \.254 444.12 485 .80 0.0156
90 3.2!l67 5.6820 5.865 6.100 0.892 1.033 1.249 436.50 479.90 0.0136
100 3.3606 5.6198 6.142 6.738 0.872 1.016 1.244 428.24 473.67 0.0119
110 3.4304 5.5595 6.463 7.480 0.855 0.998 1.2:39 4)9.20 467.13 0.0103
120 3.4972 5.5002 6.838 8.384 0.840 0.978 1.236 409.38 460.25 0.0089
l30 3.5616 5.4408 7.286 9.539 0.826 0.956 1.234 398.90 453.00 0.0076
140 3.6243 5.3803 7.834 1\.07 0.813 0.935 1.232 388.00 445.34 0.0064
150 3.6859 5.3178 8.529 13 .06 0.802 0.916 1.233 377.00 437.29 0.0053
160 3.7471 5.2531 9.456 15 .59 0.792 0.90\ 1.235 366.24 428.89 0.0043
170 3.8197 5.1855 11.30 17.87 0.782 0.867 ).240 35) .19 420.07 0.0034
180 3.8765 5.1128 12.82 2\.43 0.773 0.838 1.248 336.35 410.39 0.0026
190 3.9429 5.0332 15 .76 27.47 0.765 0.808 1.260 320.20 399.87 0.0018
200 4.0149 4.9412 22.05 39.31 0.758 0.756 1.280 298.10 387.81 0.0011

CONTENTS
->II-
BACK I-
"Above tlte solid lin~, solid pha~e: below Ihe line. hQuld. Z

~ @ NEXT
BACK
u..
CONTENTS I-
Z
CD 0
NEXT ~ t..l
 0)
N
N
TABLE AlB Thermophysical Propenies of Sleam al I-bar Pressure

.T. L' h, s. c,,' c, ' y Z 1'" j).. A, Pr

K m·l/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg' K) kJ/(kg' X) kJ(kg' X) m/s 1O- 5 Pa . S Wj(m' X)

373.[5 1.679 2676.2 7.356 2.029 1.510 1.344 0.9750 472.8 1.20 0.0248 0.982
400 1.827 2730.2 7.502 1.996 1.496 1.334 0.9897 490.4 1.32 0.0268 0.980
450 2.063 2829.7 7,741 1.981 1.498 1.322 0.9934 520.6 1.52 0.0.111 0.968
500 2.298 2928.7 7,944 1.983 1.510 1.313 0.9959 540.3 1.73 0.0358 0.958
550 2.531 3028 8,134 2.000 1.531 1.306 0.9971 574.2 1.94 0.0410 0.946
600 2.763 3[29 8.309 2.024 \.557 1.300 0.9978 598.6 2.15 0.0464 0.938
650 2.995 3231 8.472 2.054 1.589 1.293 0.9988 621.8 2.36 0,0521 0.930
700 3.227 3334 8.625 2.085 1.620 1.287 0.9989 643.9 2.57 0.0581 0.922
750 3.459 3439 8,770 2,118 1.653 1.281 9.9992 665.1 2.77 0.0646 0.913
800 3.690 3546 8,908 2.151 1.687 \.275 0.9995 685.4 2.98 0.0710 0.903
850 3.921 3654 9,039 2.185 1.722 1.269 0.9996 705.1 3.18 0.0776 0.897
900 4.152 37M 9.[65 2.219 1.756 1.264 0.9996 723.9 3.39 0.0843 0.892
950 4.383 31:176 9,286 2.253 1.791 1.258 0.9997 742.2 3.59 0.0912 0.886
1000 4.614 3990 9,402 2,286 1,823 J 254 0,9998 760.1 ),78 0.0981 0,881
1100 5.076 4223 9,625 2.36 0.9999 794.) 4.13 0.113 O.8SS
1200 5.538 4463 9.384 2.43 1.0000 826,8 4.48 0.130 0.837
1300 5.999 4711 10.032 2.51 1.0000 857.9 4.n 0.144 0.826
1400 6,461 4965 10.221 2.58 1.0000 887.9 5.06 0.160 0.816
1500 6.924 5227 10.402 2.65 1.0002 916.9 5.35 0.18 0.788
1600 7.386 5497 10.576 2.73 J.OOO4 945.0 5.65 0.21 0.735
1800 8.316 6068 10.912 3.02 1.0011 999.4 6,19 0.33 0.567

CONTENTS
BAo< l 2000 9.263 6706 11.248 3.79 1.0036 )051.0 6.70 0.57 0.445
j&"S
NEXT
BACK

CONTENTS
OJ ~I ~ I
NEXT u
 TABLE A29 Thennophysical Properties of Water-Steam at High Pressures

T. L'. h, 5, cpo C, • Y Z Z·,r! J.t. k. p,

K mJjkg kJjkg kJj(kg' KJ kJ /(kg . K) kJ /(kg . K) mjs Pa's W/(m' K)

P"" 10 bar
300 1.003.- :1 113.4 0,392 4,18 4.13 1,01 0.0072 1500 8.57. - 4 0.615 5.82
350 1.027. - 3 322.5 1.037 4,19 3.89 1,08 0.0064 1552 3.70. - 4 0.668 2.32
400 1.067. - 3 533.4 1.600 4,25 3.65 1.17 0.0058 1509 2.17. - 4 0.689 1.34
450 !.l23.- 3 749.0 2.109 4.39 3.44 1.28 0.0054 1399 LSl. - 4 0.677 0.981
500 0.221 2891 6.823 2.29 \,68 1.36 0.957 535.7 1.71. - 5 0.D38 1.028
600 0.271 3109 7.223 2.13 1.61 1.32 0.987 592.5 :U5,- 5 0,047 0.963
800 0.367 3537 7.837 2.18 1.70 1.28 0.994 686.2 2.99. - 5 0.072 0.908
1000 0.460 3984 8.336 2.30 1,83 1.26 0.997 759.4 3.78. - 5 0,099 0.881
1500 0.692 5224 9.337 2.66 1.000 917.2 5.35. - 5 0.18 0.80
2000 0.925 6649 10.154 3.29 1.002 1050 6,70. - 5 0.39 0.57
r"" 50 bar
300 1.001. - 3 117.1 0.39\ 4.16 4,11 1.01 0.0362 1508 8.55. - 4 0.618 5.76
350 1.025. - 3 325.6 1.034 4.18 3.88 1.08 0.0317 1561 3.71. - 4 0.671 2,3!
400 1.064. - 3 536.0 1.596 4.24 3.64 1.16 0.0288 1519 2.18. - 4 0.691 1.34
450 1.120,- 3 751.4 2.103 4.37 3.43 1.27 0.0270 1437 1.52. - 4 0.681 0.975
500 1.200. - 3 976.1 2.575 4.64 3.25 1.43 0.0260 1246 1J9. - 4 0.645 0,856
600 0.0490 3013 6.350 2.85 \.94 1.47 0.885 560.5 2.14. - 5 0.054 1,129
800 0.071) 3496 7.049 2.31 \.74 1.32 0.966 674.5 3,03. - 5 0.075 0.929
1000 0.0911 3961 7.575 2.35 1.85 1.27 0.987 756.5 3.81. - 5 0.102 O.8!{O
1500 0.1384 5214 8.589 2.66 1.000 918.8 5.37. - 5 0.18 0.81
2000 0.1850 6626 9.398 3.12 1.002 1053 6.70. - 5 0.33 0.64

P=IOOt"~

CONTENTS
BAO< , I-
zu.i
~I
9.99. - 4 5,69
]4.(i~
300 121.8 0.390 4.15 8.52. - 4 0.622

NEXT
0.0722 1516
BACK

.CONTE ~S J 350 1.022. - .3 329.6 1.031 4,17 .t I-

Z ~ '18 0.0633 1571 3.73. - 4 0.675 231
Co)
400 1.061.- 3 539,6 1.590 4.23 3.()"I 0 LI6 0.0575 1532 2.20. - 4 0.694 1.34
NEXT u
450 !.l16. - 3 754.1 2.097 4.35 3.43 1.27 D.OS37 1452 1.53. - 4 0.685 0.975
 CD
I'll 500 1.193.- 3 977.3 2.567 4.60 3.24 1.42 0.0517 1269 1.21. - 4 0.651 0.853
~
600 0.0201 2820 5.775 5.22 2.64 1.97 0.726 502.3 2.14. - 5 0.07) \.74
800 0.0343 3442 6.685 2.52 1.82 1.38 0.929 662.4 3.08. - 5 0.081 0.960
1000 0.0449 3935 7.233 2.44 \.88 1.30 0.973 753.3 3.85. - 5 0.107 0.876
1500 0.0692 5203 8.262 2.68 1.000 921.1 5.37. - 5 0.18 0.82
2000 0.0926 6616 9.073 3.08 1.003 1057 6.70. - 5 0.31 0.67
P = 250 bar
300 9.93. - 3 135.3 0.385 4.J2 4.06 1.02 0.1792 \542 8.48. - 4 0.634 5.50
350 1.016. - 3 341.7 1.022 4.14 3.84 1.08 0.1572 1599 3.78. - 4 0.686 2.28
400 1.053. - 3 550. \ 1.578 4.20 3.62 1.16 0.1426 1568 2.24. - 4 0.704 1.33
450 1.105. - 3 762.4 2.078 4.30 3.41 1.26 0.1330 1496 1.57. - 4 0.696 0.969
500 1.175. - 3 981.9 2.541 4.50 0.1273 1331 1.24 .- 4 0.666 0.838
600 1.454. - 3 1479 3.443 5.88 4.22 1.40 0.1313 R96.9 8.63. - 5 0.532 0.952
800 0.0120 3261 6.0!l6 3.41 0.813 627.3 3.29. - 5 0.109 1.03
1000 0.0173 3845 6.741 2.69 1.97 1.36 0.935 745 .9 3.98. - 5 0.125 0.856
}500 0.0277 5186 7.827 2.73 1.000 929.1 5.40. - 5 0.18 0.819
2000 0.0372 6608 8.642 3.04 1.008 1068
P = 500 bar
300 9.83. - 4 157.7 0,378 4.06 3.98 1.02 0.3549 J583 8.45 . - 4 0.650 5.28
350 1.005. - 3 361 .8 1.007 4. 10 3.81 1.08 0.3J\2 1644 3.87. - 4 0.700 2.27
400 1.041. - 3 567.B 1.557 4. 14 3.59 1.15 0.2820 1623 2.31. - 4 0.719 1.33
450 1.088. - 3 776.9 2.050 4.23 3.39 1.25 0.2618 1561 1.62. - 4 0.714 0.960
500 \.151.-3 991 .5 2.502 4.37 0.2493 1418 1.29. - 4 0.689 0.822
600 1.362. - 3 1456 3.346 5.08 3.72 1.37 0.2459 1080 9.34. - 5 0.588 0.808
BOO 4.576. - 3 2895 5.937 5.84 2.7C}. 2.10 0.620 597.8 4.04 . - 5 0.178 t.33

CONTENTS
BACK 1000 8.102. - 3 3697 6.302 3.17 1 ,~ f-J l.76 0.878 742.1 4.28. - 5 0.150 0.905

NEXT
BACK
1500
CONTENTS I 2000
0.0139 5157 7.484 2.82 ~ ;:: xw 1.004 943.6
0.0188 6595 8.310 3.04 co z Z 1.018 1086
NEXT -8j
 TARLE ,uo Therm a l E .~I'a"$ ioo Cne Hicieol if or Wa lrf

to. I(I , K
T."
K 0 4
• ,
270 ( - J.2yxt ( - O.IN9)" - 0.530 - 0. l x5 0 . 1.'1
2X1) ()JYJ () 7 17 (l.\I9) 1. 217 1.4l1 I
290 1.72.' I '/.14 2. 157 "2.361 2.55x
.lOU 2.747 2.Y311 .1. 107 3.271) 3.44S
3 11l 3.0117 .' 7(>-1 3.9 17 4.tlo 7 4.213
320 4.356 ..I .Nh ..1 .633 ..1.767 4.H1)()
330 5.U21J S 1<;7 5.2x7 5.407 5.530
340 5.65 1 5.770 S.M88 0.004 fl. 120
351l h.D4 6. IJ7 6.451) 6.5711 h.hXl
'60
370
6.79()
7.385
fdN9
7.. 1 " 2
7.(1()g
7.000
7. 170
7.7117
7.27K
7.X 14
"Column Ile~ dln " (fl. 2•. ) II "~' Ilm .1 <.111111 (If 1
~Sut,,:ook<l IIqul<l.

TABLE AJI I.solh r rm a l C(,"lp",ss ibilily Cot'ffidcnl ~r orWa lt r

T.'
, 13/.1(1 , b"r
4
• ,
K

270
"
(S.2 11J)" (5. 13<; 1" SJI.<;7 4.l}lIh 4.112"2
2XO 4.863 4.XIO 4.1.'8 4.(,% Jof)7h
4.11411 4.flU 7 ..1.577 4.."iS I ..1.517
'''''
3fMI 45 1)() 4...1117 4.47 1 4.457 4.445
JIO 4.435 4.4 2K 4.42"2 4.4 Iii 4.41 5
320 4.41 5 4 .. 1 1(, 4.41') 4,42 .• ..1.421:1
l·O 4.436 4.401..1 4.454 4.4h5 4.471<
.140 4A1J2 4..~(l 7 4524 4.S41 4.5flO
350 4.5&1 4.N12 4.024 4.641< 01 .61.'
]6() 4.1>99 4.7l7 4.755 4.7X5 4J-Ilh
:HO vwx 4.X";:! 4.1)1(, 4.')53 4.1)1)2

~ C"I"mn Ilc;lllmg.' W.:. liP" " llill d dIll-II <liT.

~S "l:M:ook '" lI\lu;<.I .

825

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TABLE AlZ Thermophys icfll Properties 01 Unused En Rine Oil

T.
K
1'( .

m'/kg
r". /.
kJ / (kg.K)
" I'
Pa.~
" .
W / tm ' K)
P'r "r'
m!/s

25(} 1.09.1- 3" 1. 72 32.20 £1. 15 1 ]07.000 Y.OO. - H

2'" 1. 101. - 3 1.76 12.D U. IJY 144.SIKI Y.32. - X
2m 1.1 09. - 3 1.79 4.99 O.IJH 60.400 9. 17. - ~
2f!() 1.110.- 3 IX, 2.17 0 . 146 27.200 8.90. - g
2.., 1.124.- J un I.tKJ II.IJ5 J2,9CKI Kn. - K
300 1.131. - ] 1.9 1 OAR6 0.1 -1-1 6,450 8.53. - K
310 I.I3Y.- 3 1.95 0.25-' o.l·n 3,4sn KJS. - k
320 1.14 7. - .l 1.99 0. 141 0 . 1-1 1 I.<}IXI KI3. - X
330 1.1 55.-3 2.()4 O.0X4 n . I-IO 1,225 7.QJ. - 8
340 I.I H - J 2J1H 0.053 O. I.W 795 1.77. - x
350 1.171.-3 2.12 O.03fl O.I JR 550 1.fl2 . -8
360 1.179.- J 2. 16 (I.U 25 0. 117 395 1.4x. - x
370 1.1 88. - 3 2.20 0.019 O. IJ 6 .lOS 1.34 . - x
.'f!() 1.190. - 3 :U5 n .0 14 0 .1.16 230 7.2,l. - x
)'!II U05. - J 2.2<,1 (U II I II I 1:,\ IX5 7. 111. - K
400 1.21 4. - 3 2.34 0.00<1 II I,lJ 1:'\5 n.YS. - R

°The /l<llalin" I OQ.1._ .1 signitiu 1.(9) ( 10

,

TABLE A3J Conve rs ion Factor s

Area: I m ~ - 155CJ.0 in. 2 - 10.7631} f1 2 .. Ll'151J1J yd : C~ 2.47104 x 10 .. ;lCrc '" 1 x

10 .. ha .. 10 ~ km 1 _ 3.!:Kl IO x 10 1 mi ~
IRnsity: I kg/ m ' .. 0.06243 Ib,.,./ft 1 _ O.Oltl02 Ib", / U. K. ~" lInn " K3454 x 10 I
Ibm/U .S. gOlllon .. 1.94f)J x 111 - ) slul!. / fl l _ III I I!./cm'
[nelltY: I kJ .. 731.56 ft · Ib, - 238.85 caJ .. 0.'141153 Btu .. ,'-125 1 x 10 .. hp · hr ..
2.77Td x IO - ~ kW · hr
H~a t transrer coefficient: 1 W/ (m 2 . K) .. 0,1:.;5<,1 :-: kxal / (m !' hr . on .. 1I. 17M
Btu / (ft : . hr . OF) .. 10 ~ W / (cm ~ . K) .. O . 2:m.~ " 10 4 cal / lr m : . ~ . -0
Inertia: I kg · m 1 .. 3.4 1711 x III ' It> · in.: .. U.7315h ,I u~ ' fl :
Le nglh: 1 m " 10 1" Angstrom units .. JQ.370 in ." J ~:-:( ~'W fl .. 4.1J7( l ink~ .. 1.119J6
yd .. O.54MB ratho ms - 0.04971 cha in .. 4.97{)t}7 . 1(1 ' furlong .. 10 ' km ..
S.3% 1 x III 4 U .K. nautical miles ... 5.391)6 x l(l • U.S. nautie,11 mi1c ~ ..
6.2 137 x JO 4 mi
Mass: 1 kg - 2.20402Ib,,, .. O.t.lOK52l1olug .. 1.Ul2] x III 'U .S. Ion " 1U 1 lonne ..
9$42 1 X 10 ~ U .K. ton
Mass How ra te: I kg/ ~ .. 2.204112 Ib / s .. 132.28 Ib / min .. 71JJ6.64 Ib/hr = 3.54314
long lon / hr .. 3.IJ6XJ2 short lon / hr
Power. I W .. 44.2531 f1 . lh l / min .. J.4121-1 Blu/ hr - 1 l /s .. 0.7,,75() ft . Ih l/~-
0.23&15 c;J l/s .. 0.~591S kcal / hr

.26

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TABLE AJJ (Continued)

l'nssun: I har .. 10 '~ N/m ~ '" I O ~ POI " 750.06 mm Hg at O"C'" 401.47 in. H ,O at
J~F ... 29.530 in. Hg OIl O"C .. 14.504 Ib,/ in.l .. 14.504 psia ... 1.01972 k gicm~
... 0.98692 aim '" 0.1 MPa
Specific enellO': 1 kJ /kg '" 334.55 ft . Ib(/ Ib... ... 0.4299 Btu / Ibm '" 0.2388 caljg
Specific energy per degree: 1 kJ /( k~ ' K) _ 0.23885 Btu/ Ob m • OF ) ... U.2J&~5 cal/
(g . '0
SUrratt te nsion: I N/ m .. 5.71O J5 )( 10 .llbl/i n.
Tempuatu~: T (K) .. T (~C) + 273. IS - IT ( ~ F ) + 459.t17]/1.I:; .. T (OR)/1.8
Tempelll tu~ ditre~ nce: o.T ( K) .. ~T (°0 .. ~ T (OF)/ 1.8 .. j, T (OR )/ 1.8
Thermal conductivity: I W /(m . K) ... 0.8604 kcalj(m . hr . DC) .. 0.57H2 Btu/ HI · hr
. OF) .. om W/(cm' K) .. 2.39£1 x 10 J ca l/ (cm ' s· 00
n
Therma l ditrus ivity: I m 2/ s .. 38.750 h ~/ hr '" 36QO m ~/ h r " 10,764 21s
Torque: IN· m .. 141.6 1 oz . in. = 1S.8S073 Ib , . in. '" 0.73756 Ibf ' fl .. 0. 10197 kg, .
m
Velocity: I m/s '" 1011 c m /~ ... I%J;5 ft / min ... 3.28084 ft/s ... 2.1.'694 mi / hr ...
2.23694 mph ... 3.6 km / hr .. I.'N2hO U. K. knot - 1.94384 In!. knot
Viscosity, dynamic: I (N ' ~)/m2 ~ I POI' ~ - 10' p.P '" 24 19.1 Ibm/ HI ' hr} ... 10 )
cp ... 75. 188 slug/ {ft . hTl ... 10 P ... 0.6720 Ibm/Ht · s) ... 0.02089 Ub f ' s )/ ft 1
Viscosity, kinematic: (sec Thcrmallhll'usivity)
Volume: I nl" '" 6 1,024 in .' .. 1000 litc r~'" 219.97 U. K. gallon ... 264.17 U.S. gallon
... 35.3 147 fe' ... 1.30795 yd J .. 1 "tere = 0.8 1071 x 10 - 1 acre·fool
Volume "<»I" ra te: I m·l /s '" JS ..l 147 fl l/s ~ 2118,9 ft \/ min - 13 19H U.K.
gallon/min - 791,891 U.K. galll)n/hr ... 15 .85() U.S. gallon/ min ... 951.019 U.S.
gallon/hr

827

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