T}IEORIES AND TRENDS IN RELIGIONS AND IN T}IE

STUDYOFRELIGION
.
Selected Papers ofthe 10ü Confepnce ofthe European Association for the
Study bfReligions :,
Edited by
Bulcsú K. Hoppál
Ijl{r^^tt"n
Budapes! 2015
t&l|y of Religion
2wore the Brest Uniul
,g eksport? In Prublqt
,lrchnyih trudov. Moskc
j nauk. 166-175. (Sto+
7 F-ryrt? [in Russian]- h
lb. collection of scieú
fiíory of Russian Acad€il,
Dl. Nasha vera. Pravoslo3
Pcv I. V., Smimov S. l/l.
y od WorM Religions |l,
|*: russkie pravoslavnylL
Moskva: Tsentr Sovr.
, _&cslZn Nationalists aJ
ilrow: Sova Centre.)
l Mariya Bas alri Zin,ilrl,
tdrhis article.
Sanolr.n TerÁn
The Conceptual Analysis of Shamanistic Concepts
of the SouI
What is Conceptual Analysis
Conceptual analysis is a philosophical meüod used to determine wether an
u."ount of ho* things are given in one vocabulary, makes true án account
given in another vocabulary. This^approach prevents us fr.om acts of faith,
Ór accePing a sentence about the}orld without having tried its truth value
through another sentence given in another vocabulary.
CJnceptual analysis helps us to determine relationships between terms and
sentences, by comparing meanings determined by different vocabularies,
One múod oi conceptual analysis is to imagine how things are in a
counterfactual world, or a world other than our own were things are topsyturvy
and ordinary laws of nature and logic do not apply,
ihrough comparison with our own world, the counterfactual world can
highlight how üings are to be understood.
Logical determination: A-intension
. In the words of Frank Jackson: if we want to understand what a term (T)
applies to, then we are considering, for each world (W), what tlre term
applies to in W, under the supposition that W is the actual world (our
*Ó.to. w" call this the actual extension (A-extension) of term (T) in
world (W).
. The funciion assigning to each world the A-extension ofT in that world,
is the A-intension ofT. (Jackson l998:48)
Logical determinism: C-INtension
. In Frank Jackson's words: in the second case, we are considering, for
each world (W), what term (T) applies to in W given whatever world is in
Theories and Trends in Religions and in the Study ofReligion
fact the actual world, considering the extension ofT in a counterfactual
world.
. This we call the counterfactual (C)-extension ofT in W
. The function assigning to each world the C-extension ofT in that world,
is the C-intension ofT, (Jackson 1998: 48)
Example
Let us see through the analysis of an ordinary word, how this method is
applied. The word of our choice is "memory".
. (l) Memory is the act of remembering of our acquaintance,
. (2a) In world w1 memory is a heart function.
. (2b) In world w2 memory is a brain function.
. The first sentence is based on folk beliefand gives the A-ex?ension ofthe
term by refening to the use ofterm (T) in folk language.
. The A-intension of the term is that the function of memory is to
memorize.
. The two versions ofthe second sentence gives the c-extension ofterm
(T) in two opposing worlds,
Determining meaning
. As vre have seen, the example determines the term "memory" in three
different ways:
. The first sentence only gives the function of memory.
. The two versions ofthe second sentence determines more precisely what
the term means. But how do we know which version of sentence (2) is
correct?
,
A priori and a posteriori knowledge
. we know without further research that the term (memory) is memory. we
know this only from the term itself, without physical experience. Thus,
we have a priori knowledge of what the term means.
. But the truth value of sentence (2a) and (2b) can only be determined by
further scientific inquiry or physical experience.
. scientific research shows that memory is not a heart function, but a brain
function.
. That means, the
(memory) means,
The application of cr
What follows is a sug5
analysis. This method
It has mostly been ap1
applied to describe scj
The study of Sham
religious terminology
beliefs.
We propose, that co
terms from two differe
In her article "Shar
Westem term "soul" d,
(Johansen 2005: l35-.
described in their own
Therefore, our exa
translate Tuvinian conr
However, we rejer
or otherwise - has a
otherwise - have nevel
The goal ofour analy
Our analysis will diffel
far as our goal is not to
Ouranalysis is notai
believers.
Our application ofc
or not there are any sol
Philosophicat Inmplic
This analysis shows tha
if it is insecure wether ,
whole new use for conc
dReligion
'T in a counterfacrual
hw.
b of T in that worlü
I bow this method is
rittance.
ifu A-extension of tb
lEge.
Ém of memory is o
: C-extension of texn
Eo§) ismemot_!- lb
ysi:at experience- Tb.
G.
t ml)- b€ determincd t;t
rrt fi.mction. but a bi
rrm -rnemory" in úrc '
E},.
s more precisely *ff
sitrn of sentence (2) b
Saroha Tat{lr
. That means, that we have a posteriori knowledge of what the term
(memory) means,
The application of conceptual analysis to shamanism
What follows is a suggestion ofa new application ofthe method ofconceptual
analysis. This method has in the past not been applied to the study ofreligions.
It has mostly been applied to the study ofhow terms from folk beliefcan be
applied to describe scientific knowledge.
The study of Shamanism has raised the question, of wether or not Westem
religious terminology can be used to translate and describe Shamanistic
beliefs.
We propose, that conceptual analysis can clarify wether ornottwo religious
terms from two different vocabulariestefer to the same ideas.
In her article "Shamanistic Philosophy", Ulla Johansen sugge§ted that thé_
Westem term "soul" does not apply to Tuvinian beliefs about a man's essence
(Johansen 2005: 135-156). She suggested that Tuvinian concepts can only be
described in their own terminology.
Therefore, our example will be the application of the term "soul" to
translate Tuvinian concepts.
Howevero we reject from the beginning that Shamanism - Tuvinian
or otherwise - has a philosophy, since Shamanistic terms -Tuvinian or
otherwise - have never been explicated in logically rigid systems.
The goal of our analysis
Our analysis will differ from older applications of conceptual analysis, in so
far as our goal is not to validate the use of terms in the natural sciences.
Ouranalysis is not aimed at forcing a Westem understanding on Shamanistic
believers,
Our application ofconceptual analysis does not concern itselfwith wether
or not there are any souls in the natural world.
Philosophical Inmplications
This analysis shows that conceptual analysis can be used to clarifu terms even
if it is insecure wether or not those terms refer to physical realities. This is a
whole new use for conceptual analysis,
279
Theories and Tiends in Religions and in the Study oí Reliqion
_
An analyic philosophor might object that the term (soul) does not refer to
anything, since it is not a scientifically measurable physical thing or quality.
Hence all analysis ofthe term is meaningless.
The objection is true in an early Mttgensteinian understanding of language,
in which sense only words that refer to physical things and qualities have
meaning.
But our analysis can make sense in a late Wittgensteinian sense, in which
context no words express the ontology of anything, hence only language
games in different vocabularies are possible (Hacker 2005: 68-93).
The Westem understanding of the term <soul> and the Tuvininan terms
that express similar concepts, can be seen as two different language games
with different vocabularies.
The two worlds, the Western and the Tuvinian, may both be counterfactual,
Since <soul> is scientifically immeasurable, we might never know empirically
which is the actual world, that is, our world. .t
The function of the soul
Although it may seem like the term "soul" is simple and uncomplicated, we
know from theology and philosophy that the term has many layers of meaning
in Western thought.
"Soul" is believed to play multiple functions in Westem belief and
religion.
Our an3lysis will show wether or not there are any Tuvinian conceps
that refer to the same functions that "soul" is believed to refer to in westem
thougth.
.
Selíhood
The following Westem and Tuvinian terms refer to selfhood:
. (l) Souimeans the not bodily substance that we are acquainted with
through Westem religion.
. (2a) There is a world, were soul means selfhood, a sense ofl.
. (2b) There is a world, were sayn sunus (Djakonov a 1975:2-94) means
selfhood, a sense of I.
. (2c) There is aworldwere sag'rs (Djakonova 197 5:2-94) means selflrood,
a sense of I.
. (3) Soul, sayn sunus and sag's all mean selftrood, a sense ofl.
Explanation
In this example, we b
priori knowledge of 1
belief system. We kn
refers to a substance t]
The C-extension o:
so the c-intension of1
himself.
But what else this
studies, or deeper rese
The variations of tl
.different cultures, givi
Mental capacity
The following terms rt
. (l) Soul means t
through Westem rr
. (2a) There is a wo
. (2b) There is a wo
mental capacities.
. (2c) There is a wor
capacities, such as
. (3) Soul, sayn sunl
.In this instance, the
because the c-inte
expresses that thro
Immortality
The following substanc
. (1) Soul means t]
through Westem re
. (2a) There is a wor
. (2b) There is a wo
immortality.
280
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bds rrot refer o
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rfrrgoflmguge,
d qrnlfties b*
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c onl} lang!.tl
i:6t-93).
! Tw,ininan rrm
rt @uagÉ gJÉ
lüccor.rnrerfad
rr}non-ernpirb§
|wpli<zrcd*
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; Tninian cooc,F
b rt*í to in §'cí
É
lc qrJ.id fl
1-of lrl95:
]-+l) É
sqrolta Tatór
Explanation
In this example, we have seen, that the term <soul> is something we have a
priori knowledge of through our familiarity with Westem beliefs, our own
belief system. We know from the everyday usage of the word that (soul)
refers to a substance that is not bodily.
The C-extension ofthe T in world 2a, 2b and 2c all incorporate selíhood,
§o the C-intension ofthese Ts is üat Man contributes an experience ofselfto
himself.
But what else this term means can only be leamed through theological
studies, or deeper research into the application ofthe term.
The variations ofthe second sentence show what uses the term has in two
different cultures, giving a posteriori knowledge of the term.
Mental capacity
The following terms refer to memory:
. (1) Soul means the not bodily substance that we are acquainted with
through Westem religion.
. (2a) There is a world were soul refers to mental capacities.
. (2b) There is a world were sayn sunus (Djakonova 1975:2-94) refers ío
mental capacities.
. (2c) There is a world, were sag'ú @jakonova 197 5;2-94) refets to mental
capacities. such as memory.
. (3) Soul, sayn sunus and sagis all refer to mental capacities.
. Inthis instance, the C-extension ofT 2a,2b and,2c a|l incorporate memory
because the C-intension ofT is that Man experiences remembrance and
expresses that through this term.
Immortality
The following substances are considered immortal.
. (1) Soul means the not bodily substance that we are acquainted with
through Westem religion.
. (2a) There is'a world were soul means immortality,
. (2b) There is a world, were sayn sunus (Djakonova 1975:2-94) means
immortality.
lerlrcstH'
rEFofl-
281
Theories and Trends in Religions and in the Study of Religion
. (2c) There is a world, were sag'l§ (Djakonova 1975:2-94) means
immortality.
. (3) Soul, sayn sunus and sagís all mean immortality.
. In this instance, the C-extension of T 2a, 2b and 2c all incorporate
immortality, because the C-intension behind the term is Man's inability
to come t terms with the terminality of life.
The three main functions ofthe soul
So far, our analysis has uncovered that the terms "soul" (Westem term) and
"sayn sunus" and "sagis" (Tuvinian terms) all refer to three main functions
that are identical: selíhood, mental oapacities and immortality,
So in the case ofthese three terms, the terms can be used interchangeably,
to translate each other. {.
Howevet "soul" can also refer to more functions that these three:
Life (breathing)
The following soul types are considered responsible for living:
. (1) Soul meaí§ the not bodily substance that we are acquainted with
through Westem religion.
. (2a) There is a world, were soul means breath.
. (2b) Tbere is a world, were myy sunus (Djakonova 1975: 2-94) means
breath,
. (2c) There is a world, were ttn (Djakonova 1975: 2-94, and Johansen
2005: 135-156.) means breath.
. (3) Soul, m}T sunus and trn all means breath.
The function of living
The last analysis has uncovered that although Western thought uses the same
word, "soul"io describe both selíhood, mental capacity, immortality and life,
the Tuvinians introduce new terms to describe the last function,
The C-extension of T 2a,2b and 2c all means breath, but the C-intension
behind these terms and the previous terms is not the same. For a Westerner,
the C-intension behind soul as selfhood, memory immortality and breath is
all the same, but for a T
trn (breath) and sayn su
Thus, "soul" may be
tih to Westem languagr
identical to "soul" (thal
the function of living ol
Immortality of breath
When analysing the Tu,
was simple to align it v
of breath is different in
. (l) Soul means tl
through Western re
. (2a) There is a wor
. (2b) There is a wol
is morial.
. (2c) There is a wor
. Soul, myy sunus ar
. Again, the C-exte
similar, but analysil
that the breath is in
separate the idea of
Health and luck
Tuvinians introduce neu
this to a soul function th
. (1) Soul means th,
through Westem religiol
. (2a) There is a wori
. (2b) There is a wor
luck or health,
. (2c) There is a woI
health,
. Soul, dund sunus ar
. The C-extentsion t
' Actually, the tih is believ
otherwoídly soul, the stin
f,Xeligion
1975: 2-94) means
L
d 2c all incorporate
m is Man's inability
F (§bstem term) and
l tbree main functions
rtelity.
; uscd interchangeably,
í úese three:
ú living:
rc are acquainted with
ora 1975: 2-94) meam .
15: 2-94, and Johansen
il thought uses the saÉ
lü. immortality and lifc,
!í finction.
rcd-l. but the C-intensitn
r same- For a Westenrca
imronality and brearh is
sarolta Tatár
all the same, but for a Tuvinian, the C-intension is different for myy sunus and
ttn (breath) and sayn sunus and sag'rs (the previously analyzed terms).
Thus, "soul" may be used to translate the Tuvinian terms ofmyy sunus and
tm to Westem languages, but the terms tlrat we previously had agreed were
identical to "soul" (that is sayn sunus and sagB) can not be used to translate
the function of living or breathing.
Immortality of breath
When analysing the Tuvinian terms of soul, we first had the impression that it
was simple to align it with our Westem concept. But it tums out üat the fate
of breath is different in Tuva than in Europe.
. (l) Soul means the not bodily substance that we are acquainted with
through Westem religion, ,1
. (2a) There is a world were the breath (soul) is immonal,
. (2b) There is a world were breath (myy sunus) (Djakonova 1975: 2-94)
is mortal.
. (2c) There is a world were breath (tm) is immortal.l
. Soul, myy sunus and tih do not refer to the same thing.
. Again, the C_extension of the terms describing breath is apparently
similar, but analysis uncovers different C-intensions: Westemers believe
that the breath is immortal, because the breath is soul, while Tuvinians
separate the idea of breath from other soul functions,
Health and luck
Tuvinians introduce newterms to describe the health ofthe body, and attributes
this to a soul function that is unknown to modem westem beliefs.
. (1) Soul means the not bodily substance that we aíe acquainted with
through Westem religion.
. (2a) There is a world, were soul does nol méan luck or health.
. (2b) There is a world, were dund sunus (Djakonova 1975:2-94) means
luck or health.
. (2c) There is a world were kut (Djakonova 1975:2-94) means luck or
health.
. Soul, dund sunus and kut do not refer to the same thing.
. The C-extentsion of these Ts is very different: please notice that the
r Actually, the tlh is believed by some Tuvinians to fuse with the sagi§ and become the
otherwordly soul, üe siinezin, Johansen 2005: 144.
Theories and Trends in Religions and in the Stud, oí Reli4ion
expression dund sunus is linguistically related to sayn sunus and myy sunus,
and the expression kut cvovers the same thing, ergo their C-intensions are
the same. But the Western term soul reveals a fundamentally different
C-extension and C-intension: it has nothing to do with good luck or
bodily health,
The immortality of health
Even in the Tuvinian tradition, there is no consensus regarding the fate ofthe
health soul after death.
. (1) Soul means the not bodily substance that we are acquainted with
through Westem religion.
. (2a) Health and luck do not refer to the immortal soul.
. (2b) Dund sunus refers to luck or health and is not immorta| (Djakonova
l975:2-94),
. (2c) Kut refer§ to luck or health and it is undetermined wether it is
immortal or not (Djakonova 197 5: 2-94).
. The word soul can not be used to translate dund sunus
misleading that dund sunus contains the same word for
immortal sayn sunus,
conclusion
Our concfusion is that the Tuvinian Shamanists have a more complex
understanding ofwhat soul is, than the Western understanding. This is mainly
rooted in the fact that they believe in three different types of soul.
This implies, that translations can only work from Western languagos to
Tuvinian, but not from Tuvinian to Westem languages.
When Christian missionaries translate the term "soul", they must choose
a Tuvinian word that is approximately the same. Johansen mentions that
Christian missionaries translated <soul> with <tur>, which means breath. That
is misleading.
The term closest in meaning to the Westem term "soul" is sayn sunus or
sagis. We recommend that this will be used in Bible translations. The use of
terms for "breath" should be avoided, since this is not the most important
aspect of the westem term "soul", athough it is also implied in the Westem
term "soul".
On the other hand, not all Tuvinian terms can be translated back into
Westem languages with the term "soul".
Thus, we hope w
face between these tu
between Tuvinians ar
References
Djakonova, V. P.
etmografóeski ish
Hacker, P. M. S. 200
Sosa (eds.) l Co
PubIishing,
Jackson Frank l998.'l
to Ethics. A Defenc
Johansen, Ulla 2005.
Jankovics, M. (ed.)
135-156. Budapest
or kut. It is
soul as the
284
digion
sand myy sunus,
LC-intensions are
ffirtally different
rith good luck or
úrg the fate of the
rc acquainted with
L
nortal (Djakonova
rnined wether it is
l grrus or kut. It is
ud for soul as the
iE a mor9 complex
rfirrg. This is mainly
rs of soul. tkem languages to
f, they must choose
bsen mentions that
it means breath, That
irrl' is sayn sunus or
mlations. The use of
É ó€ most important
ltied in the western
p translated back into
saroka Tatór
Thus, we hope we have shed light on what communication barriers we
face between these two cultures. Hopefully, our study will help understanding
between Tuvinians and westerners.
References
Djakonova, V. P. l975. Pogrebal'nyj obrjad tuvincev kak istorikoetmografiée
ski istoönik. Leningrad.
Hacker, P. M. S. 2005. Ludwig Wittgenstein. In: A. P. Martinich - David
Sosa (eds.) A Companion to Analytic Philosop|ty. 68-93. Blackwell
Publishing.
Jackson Frank 1998. The Role of Conceptual Analysis.In From Metap|rysics
to Ethics. A Defence of Conceptual Analysis. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
Johansen, Ulla 2005. Sámánfilozófia: Változó Lélekképzetek Tuvában. In
Jankovics, M. (ed.) Csodaszar,,tas. I. Östörténet, vallás és néphaglomány.
135-156, Budapest.