Saudi Aramco Visual Testing Level II

Saudi Aramco
Inspection Department
Training & Contractor Workforce Saudization Group
VISUAL TESTING
LVEL II
The training materials contained in this module are the property of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco) and
are intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco employees enrolled in advanced inspection training courses. Any
material contained in this manual which is not already in the public domain, may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given or
disclosed to third parties or otherwise used, in whole or in part, for purposes other than for use in Saudi Aramco’s
Professional Engineering Development Unit courses without the prior written permission of the Chief Engineer of Saudi
Aramco
NDT-203 PARTICIPANT REVISION
DATE REVISION DESCRIPTION
02/07/05 ORIGINAL COPY

PREPARED BY : ALZAKI ABDULLAH ALZAKI
References :
 PCN Classroom Training Handbook – PCN Certification Services.
 Industrial Remote Visual Inspection Product Guide – Olympus Industrial.

MODULE COMPONENT PAGE
Terminal Objective 2
Enabling Objectives 2
INTERODUCTION 3
Definition of visual inspection 3
Visual inspection applications 3
Primary processing inspection 3
Secondary and finishing process inspection 4
In-service inspection 4
Conditions for visual inspection 4
Standards for visual inspection 5
PHYSICS OF LIGHT 6
Luminous flux 6
Luminous intensity 6
Luminance 7
Illuminance 7
Luminous efficiency 7
Properties of light 7
Reflection 8
Diffused reflection 9
Refraction 9
Diffraction 10
Interference 10
Polarized light 10
Inverse square law 11
Theories of Light 12
Blackbody radiation 12
Wier Radiation Law 12
Stefan Boltzmann Law 12
Spectral emissivity 13
Color temperature 13
Measurement of light 13
Measurement of visible light 13

Measurement of ultraviolet light 14
REVIEW QUESTIONS 15
THE EYE AND VISION 21
The eye 21
Vision 22
Vision acuity 22
Near vision examination 23
Far vision examination 23
Color vision testing 24
Photopic vision 24
Scotopic vision 24
The effects of health on vision 24
Perception 25
Lighting 25
Distance and three-dimensional perception 25
Effects of fatigue and health on perception 25
Eye and Camera 26
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 27
Cleanliness 27
Lighting 27
Access and viewing distance 28
Viewing angles and distances 28
Atmospheric conditions 28
Safety 29
Solvents 29
Light sources 29
UV hazards (ultraviolet light) 30
Infrared hazards 31
Laser hazards 31
Photo sensitizers 31
Thermal factors 31
Blue hazards. 32
Eye protection filters 32

LIGHT SOURCES 33
Daylight 33
Flash light 33
Hand lamp 33
Desk top/angle poise lamps 33
Fluorescent lamps. 34
Sodium and mercury vapour lamps 34
Stroboscopic light sources 34
Ultraviolet light 34
Halogen lamp 34
Miscellaneous 34
REVIEW QUESTIONS 36
OPTICAL AIDS 44
Mirrors 44
Borescopes and endoscopes 45
Types of borescopes 45
Rigid borescopes 45
Setting up a rigid borescope 48
Endoscopes or Fibrescopes 49
Fibre optics 49
Application of borescopes and endoscopes 51
Video systems 51
Television camera 52
Picture tube - cathode ray tube 53
Image quality 53
Effect of magnification 53
Depth of field 54
Applications 54
REVIEW QUESTIONS 55
MEASURING EQUIPMENT 65
Measurement 65
Measurement and calibration system 65
Frequency of calibration 66
Calibration records 66
Rules 67
Tape rules 67
Squares or templates 68
Protractors 68
Calipers 69
Vernier calipers 69
Micrometers 71
Clock gauges 72
Adjustable Fillet Weld Gauge 73
Automatic Weld Size Weld Gauge 74
7 Piece Fillet Weld Set 74
Skew-T Fillet Weld Gauge 75
Bridge Cam Gauge 76
V-WAC Gage 77
HI-LO Gauge 78
Slip gauges 78
Shadow graphs 78
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 79
Radiation pyrometers 79
Optical pyrometers 79
Temperature indicating sticks 80
Nonreversible Temperature Labels 80
Liquid temperature indicators 80
SURFACE CONDITIONS 81
Cleanliness of test surface 81
Methods of cleaning 81
Dry abrasive blasting 82
High-pressure pure water blasting 82
High-pressure water plus abrasive injection 82
Low-pressure water plus abrasive injection 82
Steam cleaning, with or without abrasive injection 83
Air blasting with water injection 83

Wire brushing 83
Grinding 83
Scraping 83
Needle gunning 83
Flame cleaning 83
Dehydration 84
Heat penetration 84
Paint strippers 84
Vapour degreasing 84
Solvent cleaning 84
Detergent cleaning 85
Surface profile and finish 85
As Cast 86
Hot worked 86
Machined 87
Sawn 87
Ground 87
Polished 87
Blasted 87
Temperature 88
Surface coating 88
Color 88
Hue 89
Lightness 89
Saturation/Brightness 89
The Munsell system 89
INSPECTION PROCEDURES 90
Inspection within a quality system 90
Inspection verses quality control 90
Normative documents - definitions 91
Information required to perform inspection 91
Sampling methods 92
Acceptance/Rejection criteria 93
REVIEW QUESTIONS 96
REPORTING & RECORDING 105
Reporting 105
Recording Observations 106
Photography 106
Video Systems 107
Thermal Printout 107
Replication 107
GLOSSARY 109
NDT-104 PARTICIPANT INFORMATION
Terminal Objective
Upon completion of this module, the participant will be able to perform visual testing as
defined by the scope of his job description with Saudi Aramco and will be able to qualify
for and pass, the Level I and Level II Visual Testing Certification Examination.
Enabling Objectives
In order to achieve the terminal objective, the participant will be able to accomplish the
following:
 Understand the Physics of Light.
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 The environmental conditions under which visual inspection is to be carried out.
 Be aware of different light sources and act appropriately for protection.
 Selection and calibration of optical aids and measuring equipment.
 Properly prepare a specimen surface for visual test.
 Document inspection results.
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INTERODUCTION
Definition of visual inspection
Visual inspection is the monitoring of specific parameters by visual and optical

assessments of test objects and surfaces using the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Inspection may be by the use of the eye alone or can be enhanced using optical
systems such as magnifiers and microscopes. A variety of equipment is available to the
visual inspector including mirrors and gauges, which can be used for profile assessment,
borescopes and endoscopes, which are used on parts with limited access, and video
and computer enhancement systems.
Although a visual test is a test in itself, it also forms an integral part of many of the other
nondestructive testing methods. For example, magnetic particle and penetrant
inspection requires visual observation and assessment of the detected indication;
radiographs require visual inspection for the interpretation of results; ultrasonic
inspection requires the visual assessment of the trace on a CRT.
Visual inspection applications
Visual inspection has applications in virtually every industry. It is used for inspecting
exposed or accessible surfaces of opaque objects, such as the surface of a finished
steel part, and for inspecting the interior of transparent objects, such as the inside of a
glass object.
The methods employed are similar for all visual inspections in that the eye, sometimes
assisted by optical systems, picks up and transmits information to the brain, which
assimilates the information and is able to make a judgment with reference to previous
experience.
Primary processing inspection
This is visual inspection of the raw materials used in a process, and of the plant and
manufacturing processes being employed. This means checking raw materials to ensure
conformity to specification and checking manufacturing conditions at each stage. For
example, in the metal industry, furnace conditions, ladle lining, and ingot mould
conditions would be checked. During processing, melt condition, slag cover, stream
condition, turbulence, splashing etc., could all he monitored. Knowledge of the industry
is essential for monitoring and interpreting process information, so that deviations are
spotted immediately. These observations may influence the choice of route for further
processing.
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Other examples are inspections on mould stripping, ingot, concast bloom or casting
condition, soaking pit and roll condition and observation of stock rolling for problems.
Secondary and finishing process inspection
The inspection and monitoring of dies and components for forging, extrusion and
drawing, the cutting and joining in fabrication, the forming by welding, soldering, brazing,
spinning and press forming are some of the metal manufacturing processes monitored
by visual inspection.
Finishing processes such as final shaping, cleaning, heat treatment, plating, coatings,
and assembling, etc., require visual inspection. Visual inspection often plays a major role
and in some cases is the only method of assessing process performance. Visual
inspection can be done alone or before other tests (including other non-destructive tests)
are made. Other manufacturing industries, for example plastics, composites, electronics,
food and textile industries, employ a similar pattern of inspection.
In-service inspection
Visual inspection is a vital part of in-service inspection, which may or may not be backed
up by other NDT methods. The examinations made are for fatigue cracks, creep failure,
corrosion, erosion, abrasion, mechanical damage, wear and tear, distortion and poor
workmanship. The ability to differentiate between different damage mechanisms, which
may, to an untrained inspector, have similar appearances, often results in incorrect
diagnoses. The trained, experienced visual inspector can elicit a great deal of
information, and could use this information to decide which other tests to perform in
order to confirm a diagnosis of the problem.
Conditions for visual inspection
Visual inspection must take place in a clean, comfortable environment with adequate
lighting. There should be reasonable access to the parts to be inspected and attention
should be paid to safety, working position, and atmospheric conditions. The test piece
should be clean and free from protective coatings. Any equipment to be used should be
checked for accuracy and its operation understood by the inspector. The procedures to
be followed should be documented, all relevant specifications should be to hand, and
results of any observations should be clearly presented.
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Standards for visual inspection
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Comite Europeen de
Normalization (CEN) are drafting generic standards covering the general principles of
visual testing, as well as equipment and terminology associated with this NDT method.
In addition, many application standards have recognized the importance of visual
inspection.
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PHYSICS OF LIGHT
Radiant energy-energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves Light
Visible light is defined as radiant energy capable of exciting the human retina and
creating a visual sensation. It is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with
wavelengths between 380-770 nm. At these wavelengths radiant energy makes visible
anything from which it is emitted or reflected in sufficient quantity to activate the
receptors of the eye.
Light can be quantified in many ways:
Luminous flux
The luminous energy emitted per second from a light source. The unit of luminous flux is
the lumen (Im). As the lumen is a measure of energy per unit time it must he related to
the Watt (W). The energy of a light source depends on its wavelength, but as a rough
guide 1W equals 621 lumens of green light (wavelength 5.54 x I0 -10m).
Luminous intensity
This is the luminous flux emitted per unit solid angle.
Solid angles are measured in steradian (sr), and therefore the unit of luminous intensity
is the lumen per steradian or Imsr-1.
A practical unit of luminous intensity is the candela (cd), where

1candela = 1lumen steradian -1,
or, a light source with intensity 1 candela emits 1 lumen per steradian.
Luminous intensity
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Luminance
The luminance of a surface is the luminous flux per unit area coming from that surface. It
is measured in lumen per meter 2, or m.m -2 .
Illuminance
Considering a surface on which light falls, illuminance is defined as the luminous flux per
unit area falling on a surface. It is measured in lux (lx), one lux being the illuminance of a
surface one meter from light source of one candela.
Luminous efficiency
The luminous efficiency of a light source is the ratio of total luminous flux (lumens) to
total radiant energy output. Overall luminous efficiency is the ratio of the total luminous
flux to total energy input.
Properties of light
Light can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and polarized. These are properties of
waves, and it is thought that light can he described as a wave motion traveling in straight
lines at a speed of 2.99 x 10 -8ms-1 (in a vacuum). A wave has a wavelength, frequency
and velocity. Wavelength is usually measured in nanometers (1x 10 -9 m), and the
frequency in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second.
Velocity = wavelength x frequency.
Transverse wave
The visible spectrum consists of all the colors from violet through to red, i.e. violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. White light is all the colors combined together.
The colors represent different wavelengths, red being the longer and violet the shorter.
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The shorter wavelength, higher frequency waves are more energetic than longer, tower
frequency waves.
Electromagnetic spectrum
Reflection
A reflected ray is one turned back from a surface. There are two laws of reflection:
1. The reflected ray, the incident ray and the normal to the reflected surface all tie in
the same plane (they are in the same medium).
2. The incident angle and reflected angle are equal.
Regular reflection
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Diffused reflection
Diffused reflection
Reflection can be regular or diffuse. On a polished smooth surface all rays incident at a
given angle are reflected hack at that angle, i.e. parallel rays are reflected back parallel
to each other. This is regular reflection. On the other hand, on a rough surface such as
paper, the light is reflected in different directions. At each point on the surface the laws of
reflection are obeyed, but the angle of incidence of each ray is different. This is known
as diffused reflection.
Refraction
When a tight ray is incident on the surface of a transparent object, only a small
percentage is reflected, the rest of the light continuing through the new medium in a new
direction. The amount that the light is bent depends upon the two mediums and the
incident angle. 5nell's Low states that for a given boundary, the ratio of the sine of the
incident angle to the sine of the refracted angle is a constant.
sin i
The constant is known as the Refractive Index. (µ) = µ (R.I)
sin 
As for reflection, the incident and the refracted rays and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
Refraction
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Note: Coherent light sources -sources, which have the same wavelength and
amplitude of vibration and are in phase with each other.
Diffraction
Diffraction is when light waves pass around an object and spread beyond the limits of
the geometric shadow. It operates as a point source.
Diffraction
Interference
When two or more coherent light beams reach the same area, their effect is additive.
This leads to the phenomenon known as interference and appears as a pattern of light
and dark bands showing where the wave-fronts have either reinforced or cancelled each
other. The reinforcement is called constructive interference and the canceling effect is
called destructive interference.
Double split showing interference of overlapping beams
Polarized light
This is light in which the electromagnetic vibration is only in one plane.
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Inverse square law
Light obeys the inverse square law, which states that at double the distance the intensity
will fall to a quarter of the original intensity i.e.
Polarization
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Theories of Light
There are several theories describing radiant energy:
a. Corpuscular Theory by Sir Isaac Newton - luminous bodies emits radiant energy
in particles, which are intermittently ejected and travel in straight lines. The
particles act on the eye to stimulate the optic nerves to produce light sensation,
b. Wave Theory by Christian Huygens - states light results from molecular

vibrations in luminous material, which is transmitted through a hypothetical
medium in wave-like movements.
c. Electromagnetic Theory by James Clerk Maxwell - suggests luminous bodies

emit light in the form of radiant energy, which is propagated in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
d. Quantum Theory by Planck - this is an update on the corpuscular theory. Energy

is emitted and absorbed in discrete quantities (quanta). These packages of
energy are known as photons.
e. Unified Theory by be Broglie and Heisenberg - based on the premise that every
moving particle has an associated waveform, i.e. light can be thought of as both
a particle and a wave.
At present, the true nature of light is not well understood and there is still much debate
as to whether or not the Quantum and Unified Theories are valid.
Blackbody radiation
A black body is a body, which completely absorbs any heat or light radiation falling upon
it. Blackbody conditions relate to either an absorber or a reflector in which a true black
body will, in the case of the absorber, totally absorb all incoming radiation, irrespective of
wavelength. For a reflector or emitter, a black body can be a perfect radiator.
There are various laws, which attempt to relate wavelength and intensity of absorbed or
emitted radiation to the temperature (or energy) of a black body.
Plank's Radiation Law relates to an equation to produce a series of energy curves from a
blackbody source.
Wier Radiation Law produces a simplified Planck's equation applying to the visible
region (380-770 nm).
Stefan Boltzmann Law is a modification of the Planck's equation. The law states that
the total radiant power/per unit area varies as the fourth power of the absolute
temperature.
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Spectral emissivity
This is the ratio of output of any wavelength to that of a blackbody at the same
temperature and wavelength. When the spectral emissivity is the same for all
wavelengths it is known as a grey body.
Color temperature
The color temperature of a radiator is the temperature at which a black body must
operate so that its output is the closest approximation to a perfect color match with the
output of the selective radiator.
Significant errors usually arise when using color temperatures for incandescent (glowing)
source assessments.
Color temperatures associated with light sources (other than incandescent) are
correlated color temperatures, not true temperatures.
Measurement of light
Although the human eye is the main detector for white light, instrument detectors such
as photoconductive cells, photodiodes, phototransistors and photographic film etc. can
measure the radiant properties of light and provide accurate data not available by human
eye assessment.
The measurement of light is called photometry with the measurement instruments being
called photometers and radiometers and are either portable or laboratory based, the
latter being the most accurate. A radiometer is an instrument used to detect and
measure electromagnetic radiant
energy. A photometer is a specific type of radiometer, which measures only the visible
part of the radiant energy.
Measurement of visible light
Photometers are used to measure light energy within the visible spectrum and can
measure luminous intensity, luminous flux, illuminance, luminance, light distribution, light
reflection and light transmittance. A spectroscope measures the spectral distribution of
colors or selective wavelengths. Apparent differences in the intensity of various light
sources can be due to differences in the ability of the measuring instrument to detect
different wavelengths (spectral response). This needs to be considered when any
measurement of visible light is being made.
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There are many types of photometers. For example, one type incorporates a photometer
for visible light and radiometer for ultraviolet light. The choice of photometer will depend
on the intensity of the light source, the wavelengths of the source, the accuracy required,
whether testing is indoor or outdoors etc.
Measurement of ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet Light, known also as black light, is not visible to the human eye, but can be
made visible by using fluorescent dyes. These dyes absorb the ultraviolet radiation and
emit the absorbed energy as light of wavelengths usually in the yellow-green portion of
the spectrum. Ultraviolet radiation is defined as the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
having wavelengths from 100-400 nm i.e. just beyond the violet end of the visible
spectrum. It is divided into 3 types, UV A, UV-B, and UV-C.
UV-A is the portion between 315-400 nm; UV -B is the portion between 280-315 nm; UV
-C is the portion between 100-280 nm. Radiometers are used to measure radiant power
over a wide range of wavelengths, including ultraviolet light. These instruments measure
ultraviolet light in microwatts per cm2.
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Review Questions
1. Basic requirements for visual inspection are
a. clean space.
b. Good light.
c. Good vision.
d. All of the above.
e. Only b and c.
2. Visible range of electromagnetic radiation is ;
a. 370 - 780 nm.

b. 380 - 770 nm.
c. 365 - 780 nm.
d. None of the above.
3. If blue light has wavelength 400 nm. What is the frequency ?
a. 7.5 x 1014.
b. 12 x 1017.
c. 1.33 x 1015.
4. A light having single wavelength is a
a. diffused light.
b. Regular light.
c. Monochromatic light.
d. Ultraviolet light.
5. White light consists of ;
a. black and white light.

b. Blue and green light.
c. Seven colors.
d. Monochromatic light.
e. All of the above.
6. Lowest wavelength of visible light in electromagnetic radiation is ;
a. 550 nm.
b. 770 nm.
c. 380 nm.
d. 365 nm.
e. None of the above.
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7. Light beam travels in
a. all directions.
b. Straight line.
c. Around the bends.
8. When light beam strikes a rough surface, the angle of incidence is equal to
a. angle of normal.
b. Angle of refraction.
c. Angle of reflection.
9. Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant and is

called
a. normal.
b. Density.
c. Refractive index.
d. Flux.
10. Intensity of a light at a distance away from source is
a. directly proportional to square of the distance.

b. Inversely proportional to square of the distance.
c. Inversely proportional to the distance.
11. Wave theory of light is described by ;
a. Newton.
b. Debroglie.
c. Huygenes.
d. Maxwell.
12. Highest wavelength of visible light in electromagnetic radiation is ;
a. 550 nm.
b. 770 nm. c. 380 nm.
c. 365 nm.
13. Technique of measuring intensity of light is ;

a. radiometry.
b. Photometer.
c. Photometry.
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14. Can a person with lens corrected vision perform a visual inspection ?
a. No.
b. Yes.
c. It will decided by the inspector.
15. Black body is one which is
a. a perfect reflector.
b. A perfect absorber.
c. A perfect diffuser.
e. Only a and b above.
16. Instrument used to measure the intensity of light in visible range of electromagnetic
radiation is ;
a. radiometer.
b. Photometry.
c. Ammeter.
d. Photometer.
17. Quantum theory of light is described by ;
a. Newton.
b. Debroglie.
c. Plank.
d. Maxwell.
18. Intensity of visible light is measured in
a. flux.
b. Lux.
c. Lumen.
d. Candles.
e. Only b and above.
19. Wavelength range of UV radiation is
a. 200 - 400 nm.

b. 300 - 400 rim.
c. 100 - 400 nm .
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20. Intensity of UV light radiation is measured in
a. foot candle.
b. Lux.
c. Microwatt per centimeter square.
d. Only a and b above.
21. Instrument used to measure the intensity of light in ultra violet range of
electromagnetic radiation is ;
a. radiometer.
b. photometry.
c. ammeter.
d. photometer.
e. all of the above.
22. Which of following properties are of light ?
a. refraction.
b. Diffraction.
c. Reflection.
23. Refractive index of a material
a. changes as the angle of incidence change.

b. Changes as velocity of light changes.
c. Does not change.
d. Is not constant.
24. For interference phenomenon, there is requirement of
a. one light source.

b. Two light sources.
c. Three light sources.
25. After diffraction, light beam travels in ;
a. plane front.
b. Circular front.
c. Conical front.
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26. Regular reflection is obtained from
a. rough surface.
b. Dirty surface,
c. Smooth surface.
d. Painted surface.
27. Illuminance of light is measured in
a. foot candle.
b. Lux.
c. Microwatt per centimeter square.
28. In welding process two metals are joined together are
a. Of same hardness.
b. Of same type.
c. Of same thickness.
29. Mechanical properties of material in HAZ ( heat affected zone ) are
a. same as base metal.

b. Better than base metal.
c. Poorer than base metal.
30. During welding two metal pieces are joined together
a. by filler metal.
b. Without filler metal.
c. Filler metal is necessary.
31. Light energy emitted per unit solid angle is
a. Luminous intensity.
b. Luminance.
c. Luminous flux.
d. Measured in lux.
32. When light beam travels from one medium into another medium then it undergoes
a. reflection.
b. Diffraction.
c. Polarization.
d. Refraction.
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33. Which of the following is a weld joint ?
a. grove weld.
b. Fillet weld.
c. Butt weld.
d. Socket weld.
34. Which of the following is not a weld joint ?
a. edge joint.
b. Groove joint.
c. Corner joint. d. Butt joint.
35. What is the temperature at the place of arc strike ?
a. 1700 deg C.
b. 1800 deg C.
c. 3000 deg C.
d. 2000 deg C.
36. If light has wavelength 500 nm. What is the frequency ?
a. 60.0 x 1014
b. 15 x 1017.
c. 0.60 x 1015
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The Eye And Vision
The eye
Components of the human eye in cross section
The eye operates in a similar way to a camera. Light passes through the transparent
cornea and enters the inner part of the eye through the pupil. The size of the pupil and
thus the amount of light entering the eye is controlled by the iris. The lens focuses light
rays from an object onto the retina, at the rear of the eyeball. The tight rays are then
converted from light energy to electrical signals by groups of receptor cells called rods
and tones. Rods are not color sensitive hut detect the intensity of the light and can
respond at very low levels, whereas cones are sensitive to different colors, responding
according to the color’s specific wavelength, but need a much higher intensity of light to
respond. These signals are passed along the optic nerve to the brain which then
processes the information and forms the picture we see. To enable the picture to he
formed and identified, the brain requires process data, which is gained by training and
experience.
The eye is a complex receptor organ, the mechanism of which is only partly understood.
When the eye views a scene it views it in two stages:
1. Entire field vision called pre-attentive processing.
2. Localized focus on a specific object in the field.
Both of the above are processed by the brain to produce the pictures we see.
It is thought that the eye and brain simplify the various tight patterns into spots, lines,
shadows, edges, colors, orientation and position within the entire field. This data is then
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compared with data previously collected and stored in the brain's long-term memory.
This enables images to be identified and compared and allows differentiation between
pattern changes and color changes. Different objects can be easily identified but
problems arise when attempting to identify objects of similar shapes, characters and
colors.
When an unspecified object is being sought, the full field of vision requires careful
examination but when a specified object is of a known characteristic, it can be shown
that only half the field requires inspection and so is identified more quickly.
Webers Law is used by psychophysicists and states that:
1. Single points and lines are more important than their relationship to each other.
2. Closed forms or objects appear to stand out more than open forms.
These laws mean that the brain picks out certain items in preference to others, e.g. the
brain will pay more attention to a closed, solid object than to open shapes. Each item
within a field of view is coded and stored in a specific part of the brain and withdrawn
when required to produce a complete picture. Sometimes the incorrect item is withdrawn
and positioned in the wrong place, thus creating an optical illusion and causing the real
picture to be misunderstood. This also accounts in part for the differences between what
people see and the true picture.
Vision
Vision acuity
Vision acuity is the term used to express the spatial resolving power of the eye. It
involves near vision and far vision to cover and identify what is seen and will be
dependent on physical, medical and physiological conditions and differs from person to
person.
The limitation of unaided normal vision with average viewing conditions is a disc
approximately 0.25 mm diameter and a line 0.025 mm wide at a distance of about 150
mm, the nearest the eye can focus.
All the rays of light mast focus on the retina for perfect vision. Some people have eye
defects in which the rays of light cannot focus on the retina, creating an out of focus
image.
Near sightedness is when the eye lens focuses the light rays in front of the retina. Far
sightedness is when the lens of the eye focuses light rays beyond the retina. Both of
these conditions can be corrected by placing a suitable eye-glass lens 17-21 mm from
the retina.
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The majority of visual tests require near vision acuity within 400 mm. Far vision
examination is carried out at 6. m. The charts used for the vision examination should be
white with letters printed clearly in black. The lighting conditions should be as specified,
e.g. the room lighting should he 800 Ix and the background luminance of the chart
should be 5 cd m2
Near vision examination
This is carried out with or without eyeglasses, usually at a distance of 300-400 mm using
suitable reading charts - the chart used by opticians and ophthalmologists is a standard
test chart devised by the British College of Ophthalmologists. A Jaeger chart can be
used instead. This is a standard reading chart with text sizes ranging from Jaeger 1 (J1-
very small) to Jaeger 20 (J20 - large). It is an easy test to administer as it involves
reading a small paragraph at a specified distance.
Vision can also be checked with certain machines. These produce patterns of all shapes
and sizes and are used to perform a quick check or screen the eyesight. If someone fails
an eye test using this type of machine, their vision is then checked more accurately
using one of the standard reading charts.
The test specified by PCN in order to he eligible for examinations in NDT requires that:
"All candidates shall have natural or corrected vision to be capable of reading from a
standard test chart, Jaeger No.] letters or Times Roman N4 or equivalent at a distance of
not less than 30 cm. "Candidates will also need to pass the Ishihara color perception test
(see below).
ASNT specify the following:
"the applicant is capable of reading a minimum of Jaeger No.2 or equivalent type and
size of letter at a distance of not less than 12 inches on a standard Jaeger test chart.
The ability to perceive an Ortho-Rater minimum of 8 or a similar test pattern is also
acceptable. This test should he administered annually. Candidates must also he capable
of differentiating different shades of colors - this color vision must be tested every 3
years.
Far vision examination
As for near vision examination, standard test charts or machines can be used. If using a
Chart, the test is carried out at 6 m with the charts containing varying sizes of letters.
Color vision
There are applications where color vision is a major factor in the correct assessment of
an object. A person's ability to correctly identify all the colors is therefore important. If
there are color deficiencies (color blindness), then important details can he missed or
misinterpreted.
Color deficiencies and true color blindness can be either inherited or acquired from
specific medical problems. Ten per cent of the male population have some sort of color
deficiency. The most common hereditary defect is an inability to distinguish clearly
between red and green, and occurs in approximately 2% of males hut very rarely in
23
females. Acquired color deficiencies can be due to many illnesses and varies in severity
depending on cause. Ageing can also affect color vision.
Color vision testing
Color vision testing can be carried out with:
1. An anomaloscope, which allows mixing of colors.
Charts with different colored spots. A commonly used test is one devised by 5
Ishihara, which is a set of charts using colored dot patterns.
3. Caps with 15 changes in color hue to check for red blindness and green
blindness.
Photopic vision
Photopic vision (foveal vision) is when the eye is adapted to light vision - after a few
minutes of exposure to more than 3.0 cdm2. As the cones work effectively at higher light
intensities, phototopic vision is mediated mainly by the color sensitive cones and so
color vision is clear.
Scotopic vision
Scotopic vision (parafoveal vision) is when the eye becomes dark adapted to low levels
of illumination of below 3.0 x 10-5cdt-2 . This requires a considerable time of 30-45
minutes, depending upon the initial light exposure values. Only the rods are sensitive to
low light intensities, therefore differences in intensity can be detected but color vision is
poor or absent.
The effects of health on vision
A person's health affects their sight ability, a variable that may he difficult to detect but
which produces inconsistent or incorrect visual assessments.
Diabetes impairs normal vision years after it first appears, and may produce a gradual
loss of vision due to cataracts, which is a loss of transparency in the lens of the eye.
Glaucoma is the build up of pressure within the eye starting with slight vision impairment
and, when severe, results in total blindness and destruction of the eye. This is genetic
and capable of appearing in persons whose parents are afflicted with the disease.
Detection is by frequent eye pressure checks, at least once per year, by an optician and,
if present, can be controlled with drugs.
24
Standard eye testing only detects certain physical abnormalities, such as long
sightedness or short sightedness, color blindness etc., hut there are many other eye-
related factors which are not assessed and which may influence visual ability.
Perception
Perception is the difference between physical reality and the view that we think we see.
It is how an observer's brain interprets the data it is being given. The Muller-Lyer illusion
demonstrates one of the problems. Different individuals perceive the same view in
different ways and it is important to know why and how these differences occur.
The difference between observers depends upon pre-programming of the brain by

training and experience and the mental and physical state at the time of observation.
Lighting
The eye is capable of adaptation to variable lighting conditions. Time is required and it
can take up to 30 minutes to achieve full sensitivity with changes from high to low levels
of lighting and vice versa. The adaptation time is also influenced by disease, fatigue,
chemical emissions and drugs and generally becomes more sluggish with age. These,
together with environmental factors of heat, noise, dust and posture, can produce
images far removed from the actual physical object being inspected.
Distance and three-dimensional perception
When a person views an image or scene, each eye records the view from a slightly
different angle producing two views of the same object or scene. This enables the brain
to produce three dimensional images of objects and produces a perception of depth and
distance when viewing a scene.
An important consideration is the expectation factor or the pre-programmed condition of

what is expected in the inspection and is influenced by either a negative or positive pre-
emption, i.e. if a person is told to look for defects in an object, defects may be found
even if none are present.
Effects of fatigue and health on perception
Seeing is an active process, where changing images are constantly being processed
and interpreted by the brain. Fatigue reduces an observer's efficiency and visual ability.
There are many diseases which, will impair the sight and general ill health will reduce
25
In the Miller-Layer illusion, the shafts of two arrows are the o same length -
contrary to appearances
the brain's processing ability. These problems will all lead to inaccurate interpretation of
physical data. For visual inspection to have the highest degree of detectability we require
a set of conditions which, whilst desirable, are often not achievable and will generally be
a compromise, except under laboratory or test room conditions.
Probably the major factors that, are controllable are training, experience, lighting,
environmental conditions and equipment. As outlined above, accurate observation of
physical data needs ideal environmental conditions and training/experience to overcome
the problems associated with perception.
Eye and Camera
Functionally eye and camera have many things in common. Lens in camera corresponds
to lens (Pupil) in eye. A film in camera is same as the retina in eye.
A diaphragm in camera which controls the quantity of light is similar to iris in the eye.
Focusing in camera is performed by adjusting movement of the lens either forward or
backward, while in eye lens (pupil) thickens to look at object which is close and thins to
look at object which is far away.
26
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
The environment in which visual inspection is to he carried out requires careful attention.
The following considerations are the most important.
1. Cleanliness
2. Lighting
3. Access
4. Atmospheric conditions (temperature, humidity etc.)
5. Safety
Cleanliness
Cleanliness is a basic requirement for accurate visual inspection. The subject under
examination must be clean to the extent required for accurate visual inspection. In some
cases, e.g. critical inspection, the test-piece must be extremely clean and free from dirt,
grease, scale, flux and all protective coatings.
Methods of cleaning the test-piece are discussed more fully in Unit V9 Surface
Conditions. The examination area must also be clean to avoid contamination of the test
sample and interference with test equipment.
These clean conditions are easily achieved in a test house or laboratory, but if an in-
service inspection of a large piece of plant is being made, the environment is fixed and
the inspector will normally have to do the test under difficult conditions, e.g. on bridges
or on rigs offshore. Plastic sheeting is often used to protect the surface from a
contaminating environment.
Lighting
The background of the area in which testing is carried out has to be given careful
consideration. Reflections and shadows from the structure, walls, windows, ceiling and
floor will all affect visual perception and influence the outcome of the test. The test area
should be correctly lit - the recommended lighting ratio is about 3:1 between test-piece
and dark background and 1:3 between test-piece and light background.
The human eye works most efficiently in daylight, but this is not always achievable.
When working in conditions other than daylight, the eye can work effectively hut must be
given time to adapt.
For visual inspection, brightness or adequate illumination of the test surface is a major
factor and this depends on the reflectivity and intensity of the light source. Excessive
27
brightness interferes with the ability to see clearly and therefore impairs critical
inspection. The light intensity must be
concentrated with a recommended minimum value of 160 Ix for general inspection and
500 lx for critical examination. Specific standards may require higher minimum values.
The different types of light sources commonly used in visual testing are described in
(Light Sources).
Access and viewing distance
If unaided visual inspection is to be carried out accurately, observations must be made

within 300 mm. Direct access is not always available, for example, inside small-bore
pipe work, small chambers, inside combustion chambers of internal combustion and jet
engines and environments which are hostile due to radiation, chemical or heat hazards.
NOTES: The improper use of any light source can damage human vision.
Where access is restricted, inspection can be made using special equipment. See
(Optical Aids).
Viewing angles and distances
The eye's resolving power is dependent on the angle and distance from the test surface.
The average eye at 300mm can resolve the angular separation of two points on a test-
piece down to 0.01670 (1 minute of arc). This means that the best resolution is about
0.09 mm at 300 mm and 0.18 mm at 600 mm.
It is recommended that direct vision testing should be carried out between 250 mm and
600mm and the angle between the eye and test surface not less than 30°.
Atmospheric conditions
Temperature and humidity should be moderate in order for working conditions to he as

comfortable as possible. There are rules from the Health & Safety Executive regarding
the minimum temperatures allowed for working. The minimum is 16°C after the first hour.
There are also suggestions regarding overcrowding and ventilation. Bad conditions
could affect the inspector's perception and lead to inaccuracies. Laboratories or test
houses can be made reasonably comfortable hut when the inspection has to he made
outdoors or in a workshop then the environment is not controllable and the inspector has
28
to do the best assessment he can, in some cases noting down the atmospheric
conditions at the time of the inspection.
Safety
The test area must he made as safe as possible. Many precautions are common sense,
but special mention should be made concerning the use of solvents for cleaning and the
safety of different light sources. Fatigue is also an important factor Perception is affected
by stress and fatigue. It is obviously unsafe for an inspector to work when he is overtired
and prone to accidents.
Solvents
There are regulations covering the storage and use of solvents. Many solvents are
inflammable and present a fire hazard, and some are toxic. Safety data sheets
containing information such as the Occupational Exposure Limit and Flash Point should
be available and appropriate precautions taken. Most solvents are covered by the
COSHH regulations and many can present a long-term health hazard.
Light sources
The safety of different light sources varies considerably. It is important that the inspector
is aware of these differences and takes appropriate measures to protect himself and
other workers. Before commencing visual inspection it is essential that the hazards of
light sources be clearly understood to prevent temporary or permanent damage to the
sensitive parts of the eye. Manufacturers' instructions and literature must be consulted
before working near or with any artificial light or radiation source.
The use of high-intensity light sources, both natural and artificial, creates a potential eye
hazard. The human eye operates most effectively in an area illuminated with sunlight,
with its characteristic spectrum distribution and intensities that are significantly different
from some artificial sources. Light sources for visual inspection require careful selection
to produce as near to optimum conditions as possible for the human eye.
NOTES: Photochemical - a chemical that responds to light
The effects of long-term exposure to natural light (normal daylight illumination) have
been studied and there is evidence that photochemical changes occur in the eye, with a
long- and short-term impairment of vision. Natural sunlight has components other than
visible light, e.g. ultraviolet and infrared, which may have biological effects, the
29
lengthening and shortening of daylight with the time of year affects all biological
systems, including vision, and there is also some evidence that chronic over-exposure to
sunlight weakens the immune system.
Exposure to light before and during inspection can result in incorrect visual
assessments. Excessive exposure to light during visual inspection may result in the
failure to make the correct assessment, similar to insufficient illumination.
In industry, the visual inspector may encounter many different sources of visible light and
other forms of radiation. There are different hazards associated with different sources
depending on their output, and so it is important to know the hazards associated with
each type of radiation.
Reaction to a very bright visible light source
This is probably the greatest danger to the eye, with the normal reaction being to look
away from the source or close the eyes. A very intense light will cause burning over a
large area of the retina. This damage can be irreversible and permanent. There are very
few guidelines for the safe use of visible light.
UV hazards (ultraviolet light)
Ultraviolet (UV) is the invisible short wavelength radiation just beyond the short
wavelength end of the visible spectrum and covers the wavelengths 100 nm to 400 nm.
The responses or effects on the eye are known to produce the following, even with very
short exposure:
a. Possible cause of cataracts.
b. Reddening of the skin (erytherma)
c. Lens fluorescence, eyestrain and headaches.
d. Fatigue.
e. Welder's flash.
Long-term exposure (chronic) is known to produce an increased risk of skin cancer and
skin ageing. The cancer melanoma can be life threatening.
Values indicating maximum recommended exposures have been determined. Ultraviolet

absorbing eye protection, face wear and gloves are available and should be worn when
exposure would exceed these values.
30
Infrared hazards
Infrared radiation is invisible radiation beyond the red end of the visible spectrum - it can
produce hyperthermia (overheating), which can he lethal to cells of living tissue.
Consequently, infrared radiation entering the eye can produce damage. It also causes
burning, the natural response being to move away from the source.
Laser hazards
Laser light is high intensity and will cause loss of vision from burning of the retina similar
to looking at the sun. Laser hazard controls are mainly common sense:
a. Use eye protection.
b. Do not enter the laser beam path.
c. Limit the primary and secondary beam from occupied areas.
If an individual is accidentally exposed to laser light, the retina is likely to become

damaged. However, tong-term visual impairment is unusual, as only a small area of the
retina will have suffered.
Photo sensitizers
Photo sensitizers are substances, which can enhance the effect of and consequently the
damage done by, light on human tissues. A large number of commonly used drugs, food
additives and cosmetics are known to be phototoxic or photo allergenic agents. Some of
these substances can sensitize organs beneath the skin and, as the longer wavelengths
of light can penetrate into these areas, damage can be done at lower intensities than
expected. It should also be remembered that people vary in their genetic susceptibility to
damage by light, sonic people being much more sensitive than others.
Thermal factors
Visible and infrared radiation enters the eye and is absorbed by the retina. Only a small
part is absorbed by the visual pigments, the rest of the energy being transmitted as heat
to the retina, which causes a rise in temperature. If the intensity is high enough, this can
lead to burning. The human retina is normally subject to irradiance below 1microwatt per
mm2, except for occasional brief exposures to the sun, arc lamps, quartz halogen lamps
etc. Normally, only when arc or filaments are magnified can this produce burning of part
31
of the retina. Lower exposures produce short-term depression in phototopic (daylight)

sensitivity and a marked longer-term loss of Scotopic (dark adapted) vision.
Blue hazards.
The blue hazard is based on the fact that the retina can be damaged by blue light at
intensities that do not increase retinal temperature sufficient to cause a thermal hazard.
It has been found that blue light can produce 100 times more retinal damage than longer
visible wavelengths. Precautions should therefore be taken to limit exposure to
excessive blue light.
Eye protection filters
Eye protection filters for various groups of workers are standardized as shades and
specified for particular applications, e.g. welding and steel making operations. The
shades filter the most intense wavelengths from a particular source but otherwise allow
adequate vision. Applicable normative documents:
 B5 2092 1987- Specification for eye protection for industrial and non-industrial
use.
 85 6967 1988 - Glossary of terms for personal eye protection.
 B5 EN 169 - Specification for filters for personal eye protection equipment used
in welding and similar operations.
 BS EN 170- Specifications for UV filters used in personal eye protection

equipment.
 BS EN 171 - Specifications for infrared filters used in personal eye protection

equipment.
32
LIGHT SOURCES
Notes: Monochromatic - light of only a single wavelength. In practice, there is no

such thing as monochromatic light, but sources exist which emit a very
limited band of wavelengths.
The light required for visual testing can be provided by a number of sources. The source
should be chosen according to the application of the visual test or it may be that the
source is specified in a procedure. Background lighting conditions can also vary. A bright
background with too much glare will interfere with the inspection, as will a background,
which is too dark or casts shadows over the test area. The following light sources are the
most frequently used for visual inspection.
Daylight
Daylight is the best light possible as it provides optimum wavelength distribution for
practice; there is no such the human eye. It is not always feasible to use daylight, and an
overcast day gives much thing as monochromatic better results than bright sunshine. It
is the best light for photography. Filters may be used to produce a light of a specific
wavelength where monochromatic light is required.
Flash light
This is a tungsten filament bulb wit a battery supply of up to 2 V.A flash light is portable,
robust, and easy to use.
Hand lamp
This is a low-voltage mains operated lamp, with a tungsten filament bulb. A transformer
is used to produce voltages of less than 10 V. It is portable and easy to use.
Desk top/angle poise lamps
These lamps have tungsten filament bulbs and use mains voltage. They are very useful
as they can he adjusted to all angles and positioned to give the best possible view.
33
Fluorescent lamps.
These are gas discharge tubes, either straight or circular, which can be battery operated
or use mains voltages. Their usefulness is limited, but they give a soft light, uniform over
a large area.
Sodium and mercury vapour lamps
These are gas discharge lamps. They emit only certain (selective) wavelengths, so are
usually only used when there is no other source available.
Stroboscopic light sources
A method of using a synchronized pulse of tight to inspect rapid moving machinery. This
makes rotary/moving components appear still, so that they can be inspected more
accurately.
Ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet lamps are used with fluorescent material producing a secondary light
emission of a longer wavelength within the visible spectrum. The fluorescence produces
an excellent contrast usually yellow/green against a dark violet/black background.
Various fluorescent dyes exist and the color emitted depends on the chemicals chosen.
The optimum fluorescence is governed by the wavelength of the UV light and its
intensity.
Halogen lamp
This is the tungsten-halogen filament lamp. The presence of a small amount of iodine
helps to prevent evaporation of the tungsten filament - this leads to longer life for the
filament and allows the lamp to he run at higher temperatures, giving a very white light.
They give the greatest tight output of all types of bulb.
Miscellaneous
Borescopes, endoscopes, fibre optics and microscopes require light sources which
range from battery-operated on portable equipment to mains-operated on fixed or
34
laboratory-based equipment. The mains output of 240 V maybe used at full value for
high-pressure, high- intensity light sources. When low-intensity sources are used, the
voltage is reduced about 6 V.
The following table shows the maximum working distances to produce 500 Ix at the test
surface. Source Distance

Flash light 250mm
60W bulb 250mm
75W bulb 380 mm
100W bulb 460 mm
Measurements should be made with a photometer to produce a profile of the lighting in

the inspection area. The glare index can also be calculated by reference to published
tables.
35
Review Questions
1. Monochromatic light means
a. Light. having all wavelengths.

b. Light having only one wavelength.
c. Polarized light.
d. Diffracted light.
2. Brinell microscope is an example of
a. Laboratory microscope.
b. Shop floor microscope.
c. Special microscope.
d. all of the above.
3. Exposure of eyes to infrared radiation causes
a. Blue hazard.
b. cataract.
c. hyperthermia.
4. Exposure of eyes to laser radiation causes
a. Blue hazard.
b. cataract.
c. hyperthern1ia.
d. burning of retina.
5. Which of the following are used as temperature indicators ?
a. liquid.
b. pallet.
c. stick.
6. Which of the following abrasives are used in abrasive cleaning ?
a. grit.
b. stone.
c. steel balls.
d. only a and above.
36
7. Discontinuities like crack are found in
a. casting.
b. welding.
c. 2x - lOx.
d. up to 40x. c. 4x - 8x.
e. all of he above..
8. Magnification of magnifier is:
a. 2x – 10x.
b. 20x – 40x.
c. c.4x – 8x.
d. all of the above
9. Magnification of a low magnification microscope is:
a. 2x – 10x.
b. up to 40x.
c. 4x – 8x.
10. Refractive index of medium is defined as
a. Sin i / Sin r.
b. Sin r / Sin i.
c. Sin i / Sin  .
d. none of the above.
11. Luminous energy emitted per unit time is defined as:
a. flux
b. foot-candle.
c. luminous flux.
d. illuminance.
12. Which of the following types of discontinuities can be detected by visual inspection ?
a. forging lap.
b. deep internal crack.
c. surface porosity.
d. only a and c above.
13. Which of the discontinuities can be classified as manufacturing discontinuities ?
a. fatigue cracks.
b. porosity.
c. C. corrosion.
37
14. Which of the following can be classified as service induced discontinuity ?
a. lamination.
b. lack of fusion.
c. fatigue crack.
d. lap.
15. Light energy illuminating a surface with a source of one candela at a distance of one
meter. Illumination of surface is measured in:
a. candelas.
b. foot-candle.
c. flux.
d. only b and c above.
16. Visible range of electromagnetic spectrum is:
a. 370 - 780 nm.

b. 500 - 700 nm.
c. 180 - 470 nm.
d. 380 - 770 nm.
17. Wavelength of ultraviolet radiation is:
a. 525 nm.
b. 555 nm. c. 365 nm.
d. both b and c above.
18. In an incandescent lamp filament used is made of:
a. halogen.
b. mercury.
c. sodium.
d. tungsten.
19. Measurement of light energy is:
a. radiometry.
b. photometry.
c. spectrometry.
20. Intensity of light in ultraviolet range is measured by:

a. radiometer.
b. spectrometer.
c. reflectometer.
d. photometer.
38
21. Basic requirements for visual inspection are:
a. clean space.
b. adequate light.
c. easy access.
22. Wavelength of yellow-green radiation reflected by fluorescent dye is:
a. 525 nm.
b. 555 nm.
c. 365 nm.
d. both b and c above.
23. In the borescope, the relay lenses have magnification of 2, 1.25 and 0.8. The
magnifying power of the borescope will be:
a. 20.
b. 10.
c. 2.
24. In fiber optic scope, the image is carried to eye piece through:
a. relay lenses.
b. fiber optic bundle.
c. magnifier.
d. iris.
25. Which of the following is sensitive to color in darkness?
a. rods.
b. cones.
c. optic nerve.
26. The term used for dark adaptation vision using only the rods in the retina when
differences in brightness can be detected is called :
a. photopic vision.
b. mesopic vision.
c. Scotopic vision.
d. fovea vision.
27. Observation of an object / specimen may be affected by:

a. light.
b. Environment.
c. Fatigue.
39
28. In fiber optic scope, the light is carried to object through:
a. relay lenses.
b. fiber optic bundle.
c. magnifier.
d. iris.
29. Ultraviolet light sources are hazardous and may cause:
a. temporary damage to the eyes.

b. permanent damage to the eyes.
c. both a and b above.
30. Damage to eye retina by exposure to blue light is approximately:
a. 100 time more, than exposure to normal light.

b. 10 times more than exposure to normal light.
c. 1000 times more than exposure to normal light.
31. Comparing a camera with an eye, film in camera corresponds to:
a. lens.
b. aperture.
c. retina.
32. Best method of cleaning surface prior to inspection is ;
a. abrasive cleaning.
b. detergent cleaning.
c. vapour degreasing.
33. Physical characteristics of color include:
a. brightness, saturation, wavelength.

b. hue, purity, brightness.
c. wavelength, spectrum, contrast.
d. acuity, perception, distance.
34. Porosity is
a. material used during the welding process.

b. gas entrapped below the surface of the material.
c. gas entrapped below or at the surface of the material.
d. foreign crystallized material entrapped below the surface of the material.
40
35. For the measurements of the angles in inspection instrument used is:
a. vernier.
b. micrometer.
c. protractor.
36. Micrometer is used when accuracy required is of the order of:
a. 1 / 10 inch.
b. 1 / 1000 inch.
c. 1 / 100 inch.
37. Stroboscopic light is used for the inspection of:
a. stationary objects.
b. moving objects.
c. transparent objects.
38. Quality of image depends on:
a. brightness.
b. resolution.
c. contrast.
39. Semiconductor chip used in video camera is:
a. photoelectric target.
b. CCD.
c. TV camera.
40. Contrast is affected b y :
a. shadow.
b. surface finish.
c. reflected light.
d. only a and c above.
41. Maximum length of fiberscope is:
a. 1 meter.
b. 5 meter.
c. 30 meter.
d. 40 meter.
41
42. To inspect inaccessible areas optical instrument used is:
a. mirror.
b. microscope.
c. magnifier.
43. In fixed borescope the image of an object is brought to eyepiece by:
a. fiber optic bundle.

b. relay lenses.
c. optical mirror
44. Damages caused to eyes due to exposure to blue light is called:
a. hyperthermia.
b. erytherma.
c. blue hazard.
45. For fore-oblique view, the direction of objective is:
a. 0 deg.
b. 45 deg.
c. 90 deg.
d. 110 deg.
46. In rigid borescope source of light is:
a. inside the instrument.

b. outside the instrument.
c. it can be inside as well as outside.
47. A camera system can be:
a. pushed through a tube.

b. pulled through a tube.
c. lowered into a tube.
48. If depth of field is decreased, magnification will:
a. increase.
b. decrease.
c. not change.
42
49. Accuracy of measurement of vernier scale is:
a. Inside the instrument.

b. Outside the instrument.
c. It can be inside as well as outside.
50. In fiber optic borescope source of light is
a. inside the instrument.

b. outside the instrument.
c. it can be inside as well as outside.
through the objective by a light reflector on to the surface of opaque samples which
reflects the light hack through the objective and to the eyepiece.
43
OPTICAL AIDS
Shop microscope -about 40x magnification. Used for a range of inspection from plated
and painted surfaces to defective components and surface wear. (e.g. Brinell
microscope)
Laboratory microscope this is a conventional compound microscope. A great range of

magnification, field coverage and resolution is available. Magnification can range from
100x to 2000x. It is designed principally for transmitted light as it tends to be used with
transparent or semitransparent materials.
Illuminated Pocket Microscopes
Metallurgical microscope - this is very similar to a laboratory microscope but will have
vertical illumination so that opaque samples can be viewed using reflected light. Brinell
microscope - See example above.
Mirrors
Can be made with minors allowing viewing behind or underneath objects or components
with flexibility to obtain optimum viewing angles.
Mirrors are available in various shapes, sizes and curvature configurations (convex,
concave, parabolic), with adjustable and telescopic handles.
The use of mirrors requires a degree of practice to reflect the light and obtain the desired
reflection.
44
Borescopes and endoscopes
The borescope, which is a self-illuminated telescope, originates from an early

development of equipment to explore inside human bodies without having to operate.
The original equipment was called an endoscope, derived from the Greek words for
inside view and this is the term now used in Britain for flexible borescopes.
Cystoscopes (a tube incorporating a lens and light source) were developed for
examination of the human bladder and are the basis for borescopes used in visual
inspection.
Types of borescopes
Rigid borescopes
The rigid borescope was originally developed to inspect the bores of rifles and gun
barrels. The image at the eyepiece is produced by an objective lens, prism, relay lenses
and eyepiece and may have either fixed or adjustable focusing, the latter having a
greater advantage over the fixed focus type.
Relay lens system brings the image from objective to eye piece by magnifying to in
proportion to magnifying power of each lens in relay lens.
Industrial rigid Borescopes
45
Typical borescope lens system
A rigid mini-borescope contains a single solid fibre to replace the lenses. The fibre is
about 1 mm in diameter and the lens aperture equal to a pin-hole camera, resulting in an
infinite depth of field.
Focusing adjustments can help in overcoming and compensating for variability in
eyesight and expands the depth of field, therefore producing sharper images
The following is a list of special borescopes used for special examination:
Panoramic borescopes - this has a scanning mirror mounted in front of the objective lens
system. This gives a wide range of vision and allows the rapid inspection of the insides
of cylinders, pipes etc.
Typical borescope showing available angles of view
46
Direction of view
Water- or gas-proof borescopes - for high-temperature applications inside engines etc.

Can be used in liquid or gas environments.
Angulated borescopes - having various bends, permitting inspection of areas not

normally accessible by a rigid straight borescope.
In
47
 Right-angled borescopes - used for looking around corners.
 Wide-field borescopes - up to 1200 field of view.
 Miniature borescope - down to 1.75 mm diameter.
 Periscope borescopes - used to see above or over objects.
 Ultraviolet borescopes - used in fluorescent inspection (e.g. magnetic particle

inspection and penetrant testing). Comes complete with UV light source, filters
etc.
 Calibrated borescopes - used in special examinations. The external tube is

calibrated in order to indicate depth of insertion during tests.
Setting up a rigid borescope
1. Place a protractor on a board and position the borescope parallel to the 0° line
with the lens directly over the centre mark.
2. Ensure that the protractor centre is behind the lens window between 25 to 50 mm
away.
3. Sight through the instrument and, using marks on the edge of the protractor,
Mark the field of view, left and right hand edge and centre. Readings from the
protractor give direction and field of view. The angle of view ranges from 200 to
360°.
48
Endoscopes or Fibrescopes
Endoscopes are flexible systems using fibre optics, which are used in a similar manner
to borescopes. They are used extensively in medicine and many engineering
applications.
Fibre optics
Fibre optics use very thin flexible glass fibre filaments between 9-30 microns in diameter.
These filaments are capable of transmitting light within the boundaries of the fibre by
internal reflections, the light following the path of the fibre irrespective of its shape. This
property allows the light or image to he transmitted around bends and curves without
additional optical equipment.
The fibre consists of a core of high quality optical glass with a case of glass of different
refractive index, which acts as a mirror. The fibres are very small in cross-section and
transmit very little light; therefore the fibres are grouped together in bundles, many
thousands at a time, to produce the required level of illumination.
49
Working Direction of Field of

Max dia Depth of field
length view view
(mm) (mm)
(mm) (DOV) (FOV)
292 Lateral (90º) 50 º 2 - infinity
4.10
333 Direct (0º) 60 º 4 - infinity
76 10º FOV 80-infinity
161 30º FOV 10-infinity
4.10 Direct (0º) 10º, 30º, 60 º or
247 50º/60º FOV(direct)
333 4-4 infinity
121
50º/60º FOV(lateral)
207
4.10 Direct (0º) 30 or 50º 2 - lateral
292
80º FOV - infinity
379
290
440 Direct (0º)
590
290
440 Fore-oblique (45º)
5.48 55º 5 – infinity
590
290
440
Lateral (90º)
590
770
240
440 Direct (0º)
560
240
440
240
55º 5 – infinity
340
7.89 Fore-oblique (45º)
440
550
Lateral (90º)
760
960
1280
340 30º 10– infinity
340 Retro(110º) 55º 5 – infinity
240
Direct (0º)
440
440 Fore-oblique (45º)
240
340 55º 5 – infinity
9.98
440
550 Lateral (90º)
760
960
340 330º 10 - infinity
11.98 340 Lateral (90º) 330º 10 - infinity
50
The application of transmitting light and receiving images requires the use of two
separate bunches of fiber, one to transmit (the light guide) and one to receive (the image
guide). The fiber filaments for light guides are about 30 micron in diameter, and are used
in bundles, the light guide bundle. The fibers for the image guide have a diameter of
about 9-17 microns, smaller than the light guide fibres, because the diameter of the
fibres is one of the factors which will affect the resolution. An objective lens is attached to
one end of the fibres to focus the picture, which is transmitted by fibre optics to the
eyepiece and can then be adjusted to produce a sharp image.
Application of borescopes and endoscopes
The many variants of the borescope are used to inspect the internal condition and
integrity of pipework, combustion chambers, gas cylinders, small tanks, chambers and
vessels where unaided visual inspection is not practical.
Borescopes are widely used in the automotive industry, to examine engine cylinders
without having to take the engine apart. In machine shops, they are used to test the
internal surface conditions of many components. They are used in the nuclear and
chemical industries for remote observation, so that an inspector can remain in a safe
area while examining a more dangerous environment. This is particularly important in
tube inspection in power stations, chemical plants, etc.
Video systems
As remote inspection requirements become ever more complex and demanding, the
systems design engineer seeks more sophisticated solutions to inspection problems.
This often leads to the use of video systems, using either real or virtual images. A real
image is composed of real light waves, which can be projected onto a screen or
captured on film or video tape. A virtual image is only an apparent image and so cannot
be directly captured, but the sophisticated electronics in a video system allows the virtual
image to be converted into a real picture.
Video systems work on the principle that a picture can be thought of as being composed
of a large number of very small dots (picture elements or pixels). These dots can be any
shade of brightness from white (brightest) through shades of grey to black (darkest).
When observing the screen from normal viewing distance, these dots merge to form a
continuous picture. This technique is used in television, where information on the degree
of brightness of each pixel is sent from the transmitting end to the receiving end, where a
reproduction of the original scene is formed.
The basic equipment required for a video system is the video camera, a TV monitor and
cables to relay electrical information between them. Additions to the system can include
light sources, a control unit, and signal processing/analyzing equipment. An analyzer
makes it possible to store or to freeze images. Stored images can be processed to
51
improve upon the real image in order to enhance inspection and detection of
discontinuities in the object inspected
Video Systems
Television camera
The optical image of the scene to be televised is focused, via a zoom lens, onto the
target of the camera tube. The target is coated in photo-conductive or photo-emissive
material, and this generates a pattern of electrical voltages at the back of the target, with
the voltage at any point being proportional to the brightness of the corresponding image
point.
The target is scanned by an electron beam generated in the camera tube - moving left to
right across the target and rapidly back to left again, then left to right and rapidly back
and so on. The beam starts at the top of the target and works down to the bottom, and
returns rapidly to the top and begins the process again.
As the target is being scanned the voltages representing detail in the image are
transferred to the output terminal of the camera tube.
A video camera operates in the same way as a TV camera, but is usually of a much
simpler construction.
Another method of televising an image is by the use of a semiconductor pick-up device

in place of the tube. Each small chip contains thousands of silicon photodiodes, with
each diode storing a degree of charge dependent upon the amount of light falling on it.
Each diode represents a pixel and can be electronically read and converted to
corresponding image in a picture tube.
52
Picture tube - cathode ray tube
A cathode ray tube is used to convert the signals from the camera hack to an image. The
tube contains an electron beam, which is fired at a screen coated in a material, which
emits light when struck by electrons. The beam density is controlled at each point by the
picture signal input from the camera, i.e. the voltages representing each point of the
scene determine the electron density hitting the screen, and therefore the brightness, at
the corresponding point on the screen, and so a reproduction of the original image is
built up on the screen.
Video Monitors
Image quality
The television camera tube is a very important component in the system since it must
produce high resolution pictures. As mentioned above, any image can be regarded as a
series of very small dots or elements. The best resolution is obtained with the highest
number of image picture elements as possible, therefore the higher the number of pixels,
the better the resolution on the target. The quality of the picture on the screen is
governed by scattered and reflected light within the tube, all of which reduce image
contrast. The visual interpretation of the images/pictures on the screen is governed by
contrast, brightness and the resolution or number of lines in the picture. The greater the
number of lines, the better the resolution. Therefore with the screen size, number of lines
in the picture and the magnification, it is possible to calculate the smallest resolvable
detail.
Effect of magnification
An increase in the size of the image, which is then projected electronically onto a screen,
improves the resolution of the smallest detail without having to resort to improving the
resolution of the monitor. The disadvantages are that increasing magnification of the
53
test-piece also magnifies any movement in the camera system and may also affect the
depth of field available.
Depth of field
Depth of field is the range over which the camera/lens produces satisfactory definition
which is in focus. It can he expected that the depth of field will decrease with increase in
magnification.
Applications
Cameras can operate in a range of diverse applications. They can be used alone, with
zoom and telescopic lenses, or in conjunction with optical fibres to produce very small
endoscopes. Video cameras can also he fitted to visual equipment such as magnifiers,
microscopes etc.
Inspection of pipework and vessels which may appear difficult, if not impossible, can
now be performed by remote control video equipment employing small cameras and
lighting systems. The equipment is complex, usually consisting of a video endoscope
incorporating a camera, fibre optic lighting and control systems, all of which are
controlled from a distance. The cameras can be front view, wide angle or side view or a
combination of these kinds.
Fibre optics are used to transmit light to the working head from a remote source. In
general, cable lengths are limited to 30 meters since electronic problems occur with
longer lengths.
The camera is only a small part of the total system, which requires control systems,
energy and light sources, monitoring systems and recording systems, the latter often
being a video recorder.
The camera system can be, pushed through a tube, pulled through a tube or lowered
into a tube. If pushed, the cable must be able to carry all the systems to operate the
camera and rigid enough to push the system, and yet it has to he flexible enough to
negotiate bends up to about 45º, Cable reels with hand cranking systems are used to
pull inspection systems through pipe work.
Cables for camera systems require sheaves and guides at all changes in section in
order to avoid damage or sticking.
54
Review questions
1. A high intensity source of light may cause an inspection problem because

a. it produces excessive glare.
b. It produces considerable heat.
c. It has a short bulb life.
d. The lamp head can not be adjusted.
2. A common inspection instrument that is used to visually inspect internal bore surface
is a
a. magnifying glass.
b. Borescope.
c. Phototube.
d. Microscope.
3. Glare can be reduced on an inspection surface by using
a. visible light.
b. Spectral light.
c. Screens.
d. Polarized lights.
4. When scale is partially rolled into surface of a steel plate it is called

a. scabs.
b. Rolled-in-scale.
c. Pits.
d. Tears.
5. Bolting failures physically occur at

a. the thread root area.
b. The head to shank area.
c. Nicks and gouges.
6. A device that raises, (transfers or pressurizes fluids by pressing , forcing or throwing

the fluid through apertures or pipes is called a
a. valve.
b. Pump.
c. Snubber.
d. Bolt.
55
7. The device in a pump that moves or compresses fluid is called

a. a pump casing.
b. A packing gland.
c. A disk.
d. An impeller.
8. Every inspector is affected differently by perception , fatigue, and attitude. In visual

inspection, these factors are classified as
a. physiological factor.
b. Uncontrolled factors.
c. Production factors.
d. Classic distress factors.
9. To examine areas around bends inside a pipe section the visual examiner uses ;
a. telescope.
b. Fiber optic borescope.
c. Borescope.
d. Microscope.
10. Visual inspection is the most extensively used inspection method on weld joint
because:
a. it is simple and relatively inexpensive.

b. It does not normally require special equipment.
c. It gives important information about conformity to specification.
11. In order to render valid results, visual inspection must include

a. trained operator.
b. Procedure for conducting tests.
c. Standard for interpreting and reporting the results.
12. The maximum diameter of borescope that can be used for the test is determined by
a. object depth.
b. Entry port size.
c. Objective distance.
d. Direction of view.
56
13. In accordance with SNT-TC-IA, certification of visual NDT personnel is the

responsibility of
a. ASNT.
b. The employer.
c. The NDT Level III.
d. An outside agency.
14. Cracking under the combined action of corrosion and tensile stress is referred to as
a. fatigue cracking.
b. Creep cracking.
c. Stress corrosion cracking.
d. Tensile stress cracking.
15. Excessive clearance in pumps will result in

a. accelerated corrosion.
b. Increased cavitations.
c. Reduction in pump efficiency.
d. Increased impeller wear.
16. Radiant energy that excites the retina and produces a visual sensation is called
a. vision.
b. Light.
c. Spectrum.
d. Color.
17. The visible portion o1 the electromagnetic spectrum extends from

a. 100 - 400 nm.
b. 210 - 370 nm.
c. 380 - 770 nm.
d. 570 - 890 nm.
18. Photometers used to measure the reflectance of materials or surfaces in specialized

ways are called
a. radiometers.
b. Gloss meters.
c. Photometers.
d. Reflectometers.
57
19. The portion of the eye that regulates / controls the quantity of light admitted in is
Called
a. iris.
b. Pupil.
c. Retina.
d. Cones.
20. In general , visual weld inspection is performed

a. before welding.
b. During welding.
c. After welding.
21. Cameras used in video pipe testing may be transported inside the pipe by
a. pushing.
b. Pulling.
c. Carrying.
22. The science of obtaining quantitative measurements of physical objects through

processes of recording, measuring and interpreting photographic images is called ;
a. photography.
b. Photometry.
c. Photogrammetry.
d. Stereophotography.
23. A valve is a mechanical device that

a. moves fluids or gases.
b. Controls flow.
c. Is rarely used in a nuclear power plant.
d. Is always welded into system.
24. Wavelength of UV / black light radiation is

a. 3650 nm.
b. 356 nm.
c. 525 nm.
d. 365nm.
25. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation spectrum can be found out by
a. X= V x f.
b. X = V + f.
c. X = f / V.
d. λ=V/f.
58
26. The portion of base metal that has riot been melted but where mechanical properties
or microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding is defined as
a. the fusion zone.

b. The heat affected zone.
c. Both a and b above.
27. In order to obtain light of specific wavelength, use ;

a. filters.
b. Shades.
c. Reflectors.
d. Diffractive screens.
28. A remote visual examination aid that is used for viewing around corners with a
flexible distal end is called ;
a. an optiscope.
b. Fiber optic borescope.
c. A mirror.
d. A magnifier.
29. Recording information from a visual examination is accomplished by

a. a videotape recording.
b. Photographs.
c. A subjective report.
30. A high depth of field means

a. Low magnification.
b. High magnification.
c. No change in magnification.
31. A mechanical device that controls the flow is called ;

a. a pump.
b. A valve.
c. A Snubber ( shock absorber ).
59
32. The color having highest wavelength in visible range is

a. yellow.
b. red.
c. Blue.
e. Both a and b above.
33. Important characteristics of color are

a. Wavelength, brightness and contrast.
b. Acuity, vision and color.
c. Hue, brightness and purity.
34. Visual inspection is easy to apply, quick and relatively inexpensive and requires no
special equipment other than ;
a. a clean work area.

b. 25x magnification.
c. Good eyesight.
d. 200 ftc of illumination.
35. Direct visual examination is possible when the eye can be placed within ;
a. 305 mm of the inspection surface.
b. 400 mm of the inspection surface.
c. 610 mm of the inspection surface.
d. 762 mm of the,- inspection surface.
36. During the performance of a visual examination , the borescope is used to

a. determine inside pipe diameter dimensions.
b. Examine external parts of the weld.
c. Determine outside diameter dimensions.
d. Examine internal parts of a pipes and components.
37. When ingot is rolled a lamination can result if it contains

a. blowhole.
b. Seams.
c. Glass.
d. Arc strikes.
60
38. During the visual examination of forging, a folded thin flap of excess metal was
observed. This is typically called
a. forging porosity.
b. A cold shut.
c. A crack.
d. A surface lap.
39. Which of the following is optical aid (instrument)
a. magnifier.
b. Borescope.
c. microscope.
40. Basic requirements, for visual inspection are

a. clean space.
b. adequate light
c. easy access.
41. Visual inspection can be enhanced ( improved ) by

a. magnifier.
b. mirrors.
c. borescopes.
42. Light entering into eye is controlled by

a. lens.
b. pupil.
c. cornea.
d. iris.
43. Which of the following is sensitive to color in darkness?

a. rods
b. cones
c. optic nerve
d. all of the above
44. The term used for ark adaptation vision using only the rods in the retina when
differences in brightness can be detected is called ;
a. photopic vision.
b. mesopic vision.
c. scotopic vision.
d. fovea vision.
61
45. Observation of an abject /specimen maybe affected by

a. light.
b. Environment.
c. Fatigue.
46. Infrared light sources are hazardous and may cause

a. blue hazard.
b. hyperthermia.
c. both a and b.
d. none of the above
47. Comparing an eye with camera, iris in an eye corresponds to

a. lens.
b. aperture.
c. retina.
48. Comparing a ca era with an eye, film in camera corresponds to

a. lens.
b. aperture.
c. retina.
49. Physical character tics of color include

a. brightness, saturation, wavelength.
b. hue, purity, brightness.
c. wavelength , spectrum, contrast.
d. acuity, perception, distance.
50. Porosity is
a. material us d during the welding process.
b. gas entrap ed below the surface of the material.
c. gas entrap ed below or at the surface of the material.
d. foreign crystallized material entrapped below the surface of the material.
51. Ultra Violet light intensity is measured in

a. microwatt per cm square.
b. foot-candles.
c. lux.
d. both b and above.
62
52. Light can

a. reflect.
b. Refract.
c. diffract.
d. polarize.
53. Discontinuities like crack are found in

a. heat treatment.
b. welding.
c. Grinding.
54. Hot tear is common discontinuity found in

a. welding.
b. forging.
c. casting.
d. all of he above
55. Which of the following is a secondary manufacturing process ?

a. casting.
b. forging.
c. powder metallurgy.
56. Discontinuity 'cold shut' is found in

a. forging
b. welding.
c. casting.
d. grinding.
57. Which of the folio mg types of discontinuities can be detected by VT ?

a. forging lap
b. surface crack
c. surface porosity
d. all of the above
63
58. Which of the discontinuities can be classified as manufacturing discontinuities ?

a. fatigue cracks.
b. porosity.
c. corrosion.
59. Which of the folio mg can be classified as service induced discontinuity?

a. lamination
b. lack of fusion.
c. fatigue crack.
d. lap.
60. The electronic chip used in video camera of borescope is

a. CID.
b. CDS
c. CCD
d. ABC
64
MEASURING EQUIPMENT
Measurement
A measurement can be defined as a quantity, condition, or property that can be

determined objectively. There should be a defined procedure to accomplish the
measurement. The measurement process is always a comparison of the measured with
a reference quantity of the same kind.
Where it is not possible for direct contact measurement to be made, then a converted
measurement may be used, e.g. radiation measured at a distance can be converted to
give source qualities.
Measuring equipment used in inspection covers a large range of types of gauges, rules,
micrometers etc. 85 5781 and ISO 10012-1 cover the quality assurance requirements for
measuring equipment. It is intended that visual inspection is restricted to the following list
in view of the complexity of the subject.
1. Rules.
2. Tapes.
3. Square and templates.
4. Protractors.
5. Calipers (internal and external).
6. Verniers.
7. Micrometers
8. Clock gauges.
9. Slip gauges.
10. Shadow graphs.
Measurement and calibration system
A supplier or purchaser needs maximum confidence that a product meets the specified
requirements in terms of its physical attributes, e.g. correct dimensions.
Confidence is gained by using a calibration system to attempt to ensure that all
measuring equipment is accurate to within stated tolerances.
A calibration system is necessary for a supplier to be assured of the correct

measurements of his own products. A calibration system is also necessary for a
purchaser who wishes to verify conformance of the supplied product.
65
A calibration system should allow time for any detected deficiencies to be corrected. A
calibration system should be reviewed periodically and systematically.
In most circumstances, measurement standards and measuring equipment used should

be traceable back to national or international standards. The calibration system should
demonstrate that this is ultimately the case.
Frequency of calibration
Where practical, all measuring equipment and calibration standards should be identified
to indicate their calibration status, e.g. by the use of labels or tags. Where it is not
practical to identify equipment in this way, the calibration procedure should identify how
the equipment is controlled to meet the specified requirements.
The frequency of checking and calibration depends on various factors a. Type of

measuring equipment.
b. Amount and degree of use.
c. Purpose of measurement.
d. Stability of measuring equipment.
Calibration records
To be in accordance with B5 5781, calibration records should include the following

information:
a. The description of equipment and unique identification.
b. The date on which each calibration was performed.
c. The results obtained from calibration.
d. The planned calibration interval. Plus, where appropriate, the following additional
information:
e. The designated permissible limits of error.
f. The reference to calibration procedures.
g. The source of calibration used to establish traceability.
h. The environmental condition for calibration and the measurement data as

measured and as corrected to reference conditions.
66
i. A statement of the cumulative effect of uncertainties on the data obtained in the

calibration.
j. Details of any maintenance (servicing, adjustment, repairs) or modifications that

could affect the calibration status.
k. Any limitations in use.
I. Equipment descriptions.
Rules
Thin steel rules are used by the visual inspector for accuracy, i.e. less parallax error,
good dimensional stability and small width of graticules. Measurement markings may he
metric, imperial or both. The smallest increment is usually 0.5 mm or 1/64 inch.
Standard Reading
Quick Reading
Tape rules
These are manufactured from steel with measurements painted or engraved.

Measurements can he metric, imperial or both, the smallest increment is usually 1 mm
and they are available from about I m to 100m in length. Tape rules should be checked
for accuracy at a specified temperature and tension.
67
Tape Rules
Squares or templates
These are devices used to check profiles. They should he made from a stable material,
preferably steel. The square, for checking right angles., is placed on the component
requiring checking and viewed for contact against the surface usually with a light source
behind so that any non-contact area can he seen. Templates are used in a similar
manner. It may he required that the gap between the template and the surface be
measured a tapered gauge with engraved graduations is often used for this.
Squares
Protractors
Usually manufactured from a clear stable plastic, with engraved markings in degrees.
They are used to measure angles which are actual, projected or transferred.
68
Protractors
Calipers
There are two types of calipers, (1) for internal use - used mainly to measure bore
diameters, and (2) for external use - used mainly for measuring external diameters.
Calipers may be used for direct measurements or may be used to compare dimensions
on one component, or compare dimensions between components.
Vernier calipers
A vernier is a small movable auxiliary scale attached to, and sliding in contact with, a
scale of graduation. It is usually graduated in 9/10 the of the main scale to enable
readings to be made to a fraction (usually one tenth) of a division on the fine scale.
"Verniers are either digital or direct reading which are capable of measuring dimensions
to an accuracy of 0.01 mm, or 0.0005".
The vernier calipers has the vernier attached to the calipers. The calipers exist in a
variety of forms hut the contact points are commonly chisel shaped. Typical uses are the
thickness measurements of plate; pipe etc., inside diameters of bores, wire diameters
and depths of blind holes.
Slide Calipers
69
How to read a vernier
Graduated in increments of 0.001" (0.02 mm)
Dial Caliper
Electronic Caliper
70
Micrometers
A standard micrometer is a U-shaped gauge in which the gap between the measuring
surfaces is adjustable by an accurate screwed barrel whose end forms one face. The
measured gap is read off a scale uncovered by the barrel. Metric micrometers are read
to the nearest 0.001 mm; imperial micrometers are read to the nearest 0.00005".
The anvils of the micrometer may he flat, rounded, pointed or chisel shaped depending
on the application. They are typically used for measuring thickness and diameters. They
are also available in other forms, e.g. for use as a depth gauge.
Outside Micrometer
71
Clock gauges
These are length measuring instruments in which the linear displacement of the anvil is
magnified and displayed on a dial gauge by the deflection of a needle pointer or
pointers. The smallest increment depends on the particular clock gauge, but some
metric clock gauges can be read to the nearest 0.001 mm; imperial gauges to the
nearest 0.00005".
There are variety of designs available, some are U-shaped and used similar to a
micrometer, although the anvils are spring loaded. One specific design has a needle
which can be used to measure small dimensional differences in surface profile.
Clock gauge
72
Adjustable Fillet Weld Gauge
Adjustable Fillet Weld Gauge
To measure fillet welds place irregular To measure weld throat thickness place
curve edge flush to horizontal toe of weld the 45‫ ؛‬angle end flush to the horizontal
so the straight edge is in line with the and vertical members. Loosen the thumb
horizontal member. screw and slide the pointer until it touches
the face of the weld.
73
Automatic Weld Size Weld Gauge
For Accurate Calibration of Butt Fillet Type Welds.
Check Reinforcement Check The Throat Check Leg Size

of Butt Weld Of Fillet Weld Of Fillet Weld
7 Piece Fillet Weld Set
7 Piece Fillet Weld Set
Checking Fillet Throat Size Checking Fillet Leg Size
74
Skew-T Fillet Weld Gauge
Calculator
A handy compilation of mathematical relationships between leg length, throats, skew

angles and inspection dimensions.
Checking Angle of Checking Weld Checking Weld

Vertical Member Acute Side Obtuse Side
75
Bridge Cam Gauge
• Angle of preparation, 0º to 60º • Fillet weld throat size

• Excess weld metal (capping size) • Fillet weld length
• Depth of undercut • Misalignment (high-low)
• Depth of pitting
Excess Weld Metal Fillet Weld Throat Angle of Preparation
76
V-WAC Gage
77
HI-LO Gauge
"HI-LO" Gauge Measures Internal Alignment of pipe after fit-up/alignment, cuts

radiographic rejects. Measures internal misalignment of pipe before and after tracking.
Measurements read in standard one side, metric opposite side
Measure internal misalignment of pipe
Slip gauges
A slip gauge is an accurately ground and lapped block plate or bar with known accurate
dimensions between two lapped surfaces. Slip gauges are mainly used for calibration
checks on micrometers, vernier calipers and similar measuring equipment. More than
one slip gauge should he used during calibration to check the linearity of the equipment.
Shadow graphs
The shadow graph is an instrument used to project the profile of a component onto a
screen with an increase In magnification of 5.100x. This allows the profile to he
measured or compared with a template to check the accuracy of the component to the
tolerance requirements specified on a drawing. It is used to check cutter tool profiles for
wear where the machined component profile is critical, e.g. for checking the radii in the
Charpy 'V' notch test-pieces.
78
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Radiation pyrometers
The measurement of high temperatures often requires an instrument which is not in

contact with the hot body. These instruments measure the radiation emitted by the hot
body.
Radiation pyrometers, the instruments used to measure the emitted radiation under
black body conditions, follow the Stefan Boltzrnann Low which may be stated as an
increase of 1 % in the absolute temperature of a radiating body results in an increase of
4% in the energy emitted. Since this only applies to black body conditions similar to
energy emitted from a chamber at uniform temperature, corrections are required for hot
bodies in the open.
Radiation pyrometers use lenses or minors to concentrate the emitted energy onto a
thermocouple which then generates an electro-motive force (EMF) and is measured on a
calibrated millivoltmeter. The bottom end of the temperature measurement is about
500°C, with no upper limit.
Optical pyrometers
Optical pyrometers compare the intensity of light from the hot source with a bulb filament. The current
is applied to the bulb filament until a match is achieved or the filament disappears.
The comparison is carried out in the red light part of the spectrum and temperature can be read off
direct. The method is only effective at temperatures above 5001.
79
Temperature indicating sticks
Temperature sticks are crayon or chalk material with a calibrated specified temperature at which they
will melt and are available over a range of +38°C to +1370°C with an accuracy of +/- 1%.
The stick is placed in contact with the surface of the component and will melt at the temperature
marked on the stick. A typical application is in welding to check preheat and post heating
temperatures. Some sticks do not melt, but change color at the indicated temperature instead.
Nonreversible Temperature Labels

Temperature-indicating windows turn black when rated temperature is reached. Labels
are self-adhesive and have ° F and ° C markings.
Liquid temperature indicators
Liquid indicators, which change color at specific temperatures, are available for component surface
temperature checks where temperature sticks may be unsatisfactory.
The liquid is brushed on before the operation and used on highly polished surfaces or for marking
large areas which require viewing from a distance.
Brush this liquid onto a surface before heating. It melts when rated temperature is
reached. Accuracy is ±1%. Bottles are labeled with ° F and ° C temperatures.
80
SURFACE CONDITIONS
There are a variety of material attributes leading to surface conditions which can affect
the efficacy of a visual examination, these include: cleanliness, color, condition,
geometry, size, temperature, surface texture, type of material and any surface coatings
present.
Cleanliness of test surface
The component or part to he tested must he adequately cleaned prior to inspection. A

dirty surface will make the surface finish appear different, obstructs visual assessment of
a surface and could mask defects. The cleaning method most suitable to use depends
on various factors including the properties of the test-piece, the contaminants to he
removed, skill required, access and cost.
Examples: a large fixed component will not be able to be dipped in a tank of solvent; hut
could be cleaned by brush. Aluminum will react with alkalis, so basic cleaning agents
cannot be used with aluminum components. Certain solvents will dissolve the test-piece
or may cause corrosion. Abrasive cleaning may damage the surface of the-test piece.
Methods of cleaning
The surfaces may have adherent materials or surface contamination requiring different
methods for removal. The main cleaning methods are as follows:
1. Dry abrasive blasting
2. Wet blasting
3. Wire brushing
4. Grinding
5. Scraping
6. Needle gunning
7. Flame cleaning Paint stripper Vapour degreasing
10. Solvent cleaning
11. Detergent cleaning
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Dry abrasive blasting
Abrasive blasting either dry or wet, is carried out with a concentrated stream of small
abrasive particles. The abrasive can be either metallic or mineral and includes sand,
slag, steel or chilled iron grit and shot, slag and bead. These are blasted at the surface
to remove surface scale, rust or paint that is adherent to the surface. Grease and oil
must be removed prior to blasting.
The action of abrasive blasting results in a clean surface which may, depending upon the
abrasive used, produce a rough surface finish which may he required for adhesion
purposes if a subsequent coating is to be used. When used on steel, some abrasives
(especially shot) plastically deform and work harden the surface.
Small surface-breaking defects may he peened over and hidden from view. Wet blasting
Wet blasting methods are good for removing chlorides from surfaces and are good for
the removal of toxic coatings, e.g. red lead paint films, because they do not create dust.
However, all wet blasting methods have similar disadvantages over dry abrasive
blasting, including: the availability and drainage of water, the production and disposal of
sludge (particularly with abrasive injection), the extra cost of supplying and mixing a
substrate inhibitor and the problem of drying a large surface area.
High-pressure pure water blasting
Operates at pressures up to 35,000 p.s.i, which can be extremely dangerous. The

advantages of this method are as follows:
 Simple to operate.
 Highly flexible and mobile in use.
 Suitable for removing soluble contamination.
 Will remove millscale at high pressures.
High-pressure water plus abrasive injection
Operates at pressures up to 20,000 p.s.i. which can he extremely dangerous. The

advantages of this method are the same as for high-pressure pure water blasting, but
will also remove firmly held contamination and will leave a surface profile.
Low-pressure water plus abrasive injection
Operates at 100 p.s.i. It is claimed that this technique is very controllable and will
remove one coat of paint of a multi-coat system if required. Disadvantages include high
cost and low efficiency.
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Steam cleaning, with or without abrasive injection
Operates at approximately 100 p.s.i.. This method is ideal for surfaces contaminated
with oil, grease, etc.. Disadvantages include high cost and low efficiency.
Air blasting with water injection
Water with or without an inhibitor is injected into an air/abrasive stream.
Wire brushing
Hand and power wire brushing is an effective method of removing the majority of the
less adherent materials but not as effective as abrasive blasting for scaled and painted
surfaces.
Grinding
The action of grinding removes the surface metal/material in a localised area and is
useful for spot dressing. Full surface grinding is when all the surface is dressed with
machine grinding producing a uniform surface compared to hand grinding which tends to
produce undulations.
Belt or disc sanding is a less severe method than grinding for surface dressing.
Some materials, i.e. those that can be hardened, are susceptible to grinding cracks
caused by the heat generated by the friction and the subsequent rapid cooling related to
area effects.
Scraping
Hand or power tool cleaning with scrapers remove lightly adherent material from the
surface without significant metal removal, except when employed on soft materials.
Needle gunning
The needle gun consists of numerous air-operated reciprocating needles and are used
to clean areas difficult to reach by other methods, welds and rivet heads.
Flame cleaning
The method of applying an oxyacetylene flame to the steel surface to be cleaned is an

efficient method of removing rust, mill scale and other contamination. The effectiveness
of the process is due to a combination of factors:
Differential expansion
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The mill scale, on contact with the intense heat, expands at a faster rate than the steel to
which it is attached and flakes off.
Dehydration
Rust is a combination of iron oxide and moisture. As the moisture is rapidly driven off,
the rust is dehydrated and converted to a dry powder which can then be removed by
wire brushing.
Heat penetration
The heat from the flame penetrates all the surface irregularities and removes all traces
of moisture, oil, grease etc. The flame cleaning of any form of fastener, e.g. rivets or
bolts, should be avoided as a loss of mechanical strength may be caused.
Paint strippers
One of the most effective methods of removing paint coatings without mechanical
damage to the base material is paint stripper or paint remover. The painted surface is
softened and may then be removed by either scraping or washing. Paint strippers are
solvents and blends of solvents specially formulated to remove different types of paint.
They do not clean dirt, scale, grease etc. effectively.
Vapour degreasing
True vapour degreasing is the immersion of the component for cleaning in a solvent
vapour of 1, 1, 1 trichloroethane or similar. This is regarded as the most effective method
for the removal of grease, oil and semi -adherent surface debris. This method requires
specialist equipment and is most useful for components in a factory house situation. It
requires a special tank/heater and condensation tubes to prevent the vapour from
spilling out of the tank.
Solvent cleaning
Solvents which are capable of breaking down grease and oil-based surface
contamination are very effective in removing lightly adherent surface contamination.
Application by immersion, brushing or wiping requires to be thorough and may require
repeated applications on heavy deposits. No special equipment is required, although
good ventilation is essential for safety. This method can be used on large or small test-
pieces and can be employed in or out of doors. Care must be used to ensure that the
solvent does not react with the test material.
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Detergent cleaning
Detergents are either alkaline or acid based and are generally used to remove light
surface contamination. Grease or oil-based deposits, especially heavy deposits, are very
difficult to remove. Detergent cleaning is a relatively safe method of cleaning.
Surface profile and finish
This section deals with the shape of a surface and its texture. Defects can be difficult to
identify in a rough surface and rough surfaces can cause problems with magnification.
The roughness of a surface is governed by the peak to trough height, the density of
texture, mainly peaks and troughs and shape of the undulations. The peak to trough
height (amplitude) or appearance of a surface may be assessed by a number of
methods, including the use of a surface profile needle gauge, surface replica tape or a
surface comparator.
Amplitudes are often measured on blast surfaces prior to coating application, but for
most other surface assessments a judgment is made by eye, sometimes with the aid of
a comparator. Comparators are available for a variety of surface textures including
machining and blasting.
Replication is a method of copying the surface condition of components for analysis

remote from the test item. Methods of replication range from plaster casting to cellulose
acetate films, the latter being used for metallographic examinations.
A common method for grading a surface texture, especially on machined or ground

components, is to use the arithmetical mean deviation from a reference line drawn
midway between the peaks to trough height. The values, measured in microns, are
suffixed with the R parameter. This measurement was previously known as the CLA or
Centre Line Average.
85
Another method is to use R, which is the 10 point height parameter, which is defined as
the average distance between the five highest peaks and the five deepest valleys within
the sample length, measured from a line parallel to the reference line.
The surface finish of a test item immediately after processing will typically be as follows:
As Cast
Cast surfaces vary from a poor to excellent finish. The degree of fine detail that can be
detected is dependent upon method of casting and condition of the moulds or masters.
Surface roughness ranges from about 1.0 µm R,) on die castings to 25 µm R for sand
castings.
a. Sand casting -generally rough surface finish.
b. Shell mould - smooth, good surface finish.
c. Die casting - smooth, very good finish.
d. Investment casting - depends on the master, but can be a very good finish.
Hot worked
Hot worked surfaces invariably have an oxide layer and, in some instances, grain
boundary penetration of oxide which is part of the high-temperature scaling mechanism.
Examination for fine detail on such surfaces is not possible without dressing (grinding,
sanding etc.) either a small area or the whole surface, in order to remove the oxides.
Surface roughness on hot rolled surfaces is between 12.5 to 25 µm R0, and 3.2 to 12.5
µm for R forged material.
 Hot rolled - scaled finish, surface quality depends upon the finishing temperature.
Hot rolled de-scaled - surface condition depends upon roll surface condition.
 Cold rolled - generally very good surface finish.
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 Hot forged open scaled, moderate surface finish.

 Closed die forging - scaled good surface finish.
 Cold forged (cold heading) - usually very good.
Machined
Machining introduces plastic deformation into the machined surface which tends to
smear the surface layer, so masking fine detail. Machined surfaces vary from 0.05 to 1.6
µm Ra
 Rough machined - coarse surface finish.
 Fine - good surface finish.
 Polished - very good/excellent surface finish.
 Mirror excellent surface finish.
Sawn
The roughness of a sawn surface falls within the range of 3.2 to 25 ? m k.
 Circular - rough surface finish.
 Bandsaw -fine surface finish.
Ground
Depends upon the grit used for grinding; tine to coarse.
Polished
The surface produced may he by mechanical methods, fixed abrasion, slurry/paste, or

electro-polished. Excellent surface finish, typically from 0.02 to 1.0 µm Ra.
Blasted
Finish depends on the hardness of surface, abrasive characteristics (density, size and
shape etc.), and angle of impingement, but amplitudes vary from a few microns to
greater than 100 µ m.
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Temperature
The temperature of objects for visual inspection would normally he at room temperature
(approximately 200˚C). However, there are instances where this is not possible and may
create dimensional problems and possibly a health hazard. Objects with temperatures
below freezing or above about 600˚C can inflict damage on unprotected hands thereby
producing a health risk. Dimensional stability is also affected since calibration is usually
at 200˚C and a component temperature that varies from this will produce inaccuracies in
both component and measuring equipment.
Visual inspection of very hot objects from a distance is a frequent event in manufacturing
to observe the condition of plant and product. Furnace hearth and ladle lining conditions
are examined between casts, soaking pit and reheating furnace every shift for refractory
damage or burner problems. During the manufacturing process, inspection of ingots
takes place above 900˚C, and of hot rolled and forged products between 960˚C and 1
250˚C. In-service inspection of engines, hollers etc. takes place at the elevated working
temperature.
Surface coating
The visual examination of a surface coating is a subject by itself where specialist

knowledge would be required. Within the scope of this unit, surface coatings are relevant
because they interfere with the visual examination of the metal substrate. There are
many types of coating such as organic paints and metallic coatings. Anodized surfaces
may also be encountered; this is a very thin surface finish, 1-2 microns, consisting of an
oxidized layer which can easily he destroyed.
Surfaces should be visually examined prior to coating for surface defects and also for
the correct finish for coating adhesion and coating durability purposes. It is worth noting
that the degree of surface preparation often governs the service life of the coating.
Sometimes the visual examination of a coated surface is a requirement in order to detect

and measure corrosion. To determine the full extent of corrosion the surface coating
must be removed in the vicinity of the problem area. It must not be assumed that organic
paints can all be removed with a solvent. There are many types of paint and some can
only be successfully removed with abrasive blasting or heating, scraping and power
brushing.
Color
A strong contrast of color and patterns such as black and white, red and blue or red and
green should be avoided as this may cause physiological problems and interfere with
perception.
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The color of a surface is considered in terms of its three chief qualities: hue, lightness,
and saturation.
Hue
Colors are divided into groups having the same hue, i.e. into reds, yellows, greens,
blues, purples etc.. In ordinary speech this quality is often vaguely called colour.
Lightness
The lightness of a color is determined by the proportion of light which it reflects,

irrespective of hue and saturation. Corresponding terms used are value and reflectance
value.
Saturation/Brightness
Colors of similar hue and lightness may differ in colorfulness or intensity of color. This
quality, termed saturation, may be defined as the intensity of any particular hue when
compared with a neutral grey of similar lightness, the spectrum colors being the most
intense or of highest saturation. The terms chroma and intensity are also used in a
similar sense.
The Munsell system
The Munsell system of color coding shows in a convenient manner the relationship
between the three chief qualities of color. The circular band represents the hues in
proper order, the vertical axis is the scale of value and the paths protruding outwards
from the centre represent the degree of chroma which increases in intensity in the
direction of the arrow.
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INSPECTION PROCEDURES
Inspection within a quality system
Quality assurance is a system which attempts to ensure the quality of a product or

service, i.e. the customer gets what was required or expected. Quality systems should
cover all operations associated with that product or service to assure quality.
At some stage in the system, the product (either finished or partly finished), raw
materials, or plant will require inspection.
The inspection of many products or materials includes visual testing, non-destructive

testing, destructive testing and/or performance testing. Visual inspection plays an
important part in the testing of a product/material to ensure its quality.
A part does not have to be perfect to be acceptable. Allowable defects and concessions
should he documented. A part is considered acceptable if it passes the specification's
requirements or is within the limits of any concessions.
Documentation is an important part of a quality system and will typically include

instructions, procedures, drawings, appraisals, customer purchase orders, inspection
reports, test results, nonconformity reports, concessions and standards.
Inspection verses quality control
Inspection is defined in B5 4778 Part I Quality Vocabulary as, 'activities such as

measuring, examining, testing, gauging one or more characteristics of a product or
service and comparing these with specified requirements to determine conformity.'
Inspection is one of the important elements within a system for quality assurance which
requires continuing evaluation in the same way as the other elements, e.g. planning,
design/specifications, production etc. Inspection is not quality assurance and it is not
quality control, hut inspection is a method used by both.
Quality control is defined in B5 4778 Part I as, 'the operational techniques and activities
that are used to fulfill requirements for quality.'
Quality control is involved with the monitoring of a process and eliminating the causes of
any deficient output with any process, or any phase during a contract, which has an
effect on quality. The information obtained from inspection, as defined above, is used for
quality control.
Quality control deals with the actual measurement of quality performance, this
performance is compared against what is required, and action is taken on the difference.
Quality control asks the question "is the work/action being performed correctly?"
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Normative documents - definitions
1. Normative document: Document that provides rules, guidelines or characteristics

for activities or their results.
The term normative document is a generic term that covers such documents as
standards, technical specifications, codes of practice and regulations. [ISO
GUIDE 21.
2. Standard: Document, established by consensus and approved by a recognized

body, that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or
characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the
optimum degree of order in a given context. I 1St) GUIDE 21.
3. Code of practice: Document that recommends practices or procedures for the

design, manufacture, installation, maintenance or utilization of equipment,
structures or products.
A code of practice maybe a standard a part of a standard or independent of a
standard. [ISO GUIDE 2].
4. Specification: The document that prescribes the requirements with which the
product or service has to conform.
A specification should refer to or include drawings, patterns or other relevant
documents and should also indicate the means and the criteria where by
conformity can he checked. [BS 4778 PART 1]
5. NDT Procedure: A written description of all essential parameters and precautions

to he observed when applying an NOT technique to a specific test, following an
established standard, code or specification. [PCN/GEN/92]
6. NDT Instruction: A written description of the precise steps to be followed in
testing to an established standard, code, specification or NDT procedure.
[PCN/GEN/92]
Information required to perform inspection
The visual inspector requires certain specific information before inspection can
commence. Ideally, a written procedure and/or a written instruction should be provided
which makes it totally clear as to what is required from the inspection, these should be
written taking into consideration the qualification of the user
Visual inspection procedures should at least cover the following information:
a. Scope.
b. References.
c. Definitions.
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d. Safety.
e. Personnel.
f. Identification and datum's.
g. Surface condition or preparation.
h. Extent of inspection.
i. Equipment to use.
j. Equipment calibration and checks.
k. Lighting requirements.
l. Inspection technique detail.
m. Evaluation of results.
n. Acceptance and rejection criteria to use.
o. Reporting and recording requirements.
Sampling methods
Before the commencement of inspection, the method of sampling must be decided. One
hundred percent visual inspection is used when the highest quality integrity is required
and the cost of this inspection is not prohibitive. By one hundred percent inspection we
mean that every component is examined, instead of a random sample. Usually selective
sampling is used in order to reduce the costs and time involved. Selective sampling may
take the form of a specific number randomly selected from a batch, or a production
sequence selection, e.g. every hundredth component is examined. In this case only a
small percentage of the components are inspected and it is very important that the
method of selective sampling chosen will adequately reflect the true number of defects in
a production process. Probability selection curves are sometimes used to determine this
sampling criteria.
NOTES: Probability selection curves these are graphs which give statistical
information about a process, allowing the most effective and
representative sampling method to be chosen
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Acceptance/Rejection criteria
Inspected parts may be divided into defective and non-defective. Defective parts can be
subdivided into reject or repair. Large expensive parts are more likely to be repaired than
small, cheaper parts, hut the type and extent of the defects has to be considered.
The inspection will normally be performed in accordance with specification requirements

defining tolerances and limitations for that component or system. There are not many
standard specifications specifically for visual inspection, but many application
specifications expect some visual inspection in their routines.
Every industry, manufacturing process and inspection authority has specific acceptance/
rejection criteria for the product or system. To correctly interpret the results from an
inspection against acceptance/rejection criteria often requires a detailed knowledge of
flaws and the process if flaws are being evaluated.
93
An example of acceptance/rejection criteria for welds is shown below:
Defect Type Inspection Acceptance Criteria

External profile Visual Excess weld metal (reinforcement)
shall he uniform and not more than
3 mm in height. It shall merge
smoothly with the parent metal and
shall extend beyond the original
joint
preparation by not more than
3 mm on each side. In no area shall
the weld face be lower than the
adjacent pipe surface.
Internal profile Visual and The root bead or any concavity
Radiographic shall
merge smoothly into the adjacent
surfaces hut at no point shall the
weld
the thinner than the wall thickness
of
the thinnest plate.
Root penetration Visual not to exceed 2.5mm
Root concavity Visual Length not to exceed 25% of total
weld length. Depth not to exceed
2.0mm
Root undercut Visual Length not to exceed 30mm in any
Shrinkage groove continuous weld length of 300 mm
or not to exceed 1/10 of the total
length of the weld when this is
less than 300 mm. Depth not
to exceed 1.5mm
Cracks Visual Length not to exceed 30mm in any
continuous weld length of 300 mm
or not to exceed 1/10 of the total
length of the weld when this is
less than 300 mm.
Cracks Visual and
Not permitted
Radiographic
Cap undercut Visual The toes of the welds shall be
smoothly and gradually into the
parent metal.
Length not to exceed 60mm in any
continuous weld length of 300mm
or not to exceed 20% of the total
length
of the weld when it is less than
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300mm.
Depth not to exceed 1.5mm.
Elongated linear Radiographic Length not to exceed 60mm in any
porosity in root run continuous weld length of 300mm
(hollow bead) or not to exceed 20% of the total
length of the weld when less than 300mm.
Lack of inter-run fusion
Lack of inter-run fusion
Lack of side wall fusion
Elongated inclusions
Defect Type Inspectio Acceptance Criteria

n
Porosity (other Radiographic An isolated pore greater than 25% of the wall thickness or 3
than elongated mm whichever is the smallest in any direction, shall be
in root run) considered acceptable.
Inclusions (other Radiographic Size of an inclusion not to exceed 3 mm in any dimension.
than elongated) Total length of inclusions not to exceed 15 mm in any
e.g. equiaxed continuous weld length of 300 mm and not more than five
inclusions of maximum width in this 300 mm length. Adjacent
inclusions shall he separated by a minimum distance of
20mm.
Burn-through Visual Not to exceed 5 mm in any dimension and only one in any
continuous weld length of 300 mm.
Wormhole Radiographic Not to exceed 6 mm in length or 1.5 mm in diameter
Root alignment Visual Misalignment at the root shall not exceed 10% of the metal
thickness or 2.5mm whichever is the smaller.
Stray arcs Visual Stray arcs on the surface of the parent plate
should he avoided, any that do occur shall be
subject to an acceptable repair procedure.
Weld proximity Visual The toes of adjacent welds including
branches, fittings and attachments should be
separated by a minimum of twice the wall
thickness, or 25 mm, whichever is the least
95
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Review questions
1. The physical characteristics of color are
a. hue, acuity and brightness.

b. Wavelength, contrast, spectrum.
c. Purity, hue, saturation.
2. During an examination of a groove weld, which of the following dimensions is normally

measured ?
a. the root opening.

b. Weld reinforcements.
c. Base material thickness.
3. A jagged, non-integrally bonded piece of metal that leaves the depression in another
metal after it is removed, is called a
a. seam.
b. Blister.
c. Scab.
d. Gouge.
4. Devices that restrict the movement of hanger springs and prevent damage during
installation are called ;
a. clips.
b. Travel stops.
c. Shims.
d. Grout.
5. The combined static and friction head ( vertical difference in elevation ) is called
a. pump head.
b. Total head.
c. Brake horse power.
d. Maximum head.
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6. During visual examination , a welding discontinuity that could not be detected would
be
a. undercut.
b. Underfill.
c. Cracks.
d. Lack of fusion.
7. A valve assembly that is considered to be part of the pressure vessel assembly is

called the
a. drive.
b. Stem.
c. Body.
d. Disk.
8. A physical attribute that can not be visually inspected during welding is
a. the welding process.

b. The acceptability of weld with regard to its appearance.
c. Alignment and fit up.
d. Joint preparation.
9. On a thickness gage, twenty thousandths of an inch is represented by
a. 0.2
b. 0.02.
c. 0.002.
d. 0.0002.
10. The initiation of fatigue crack could occur at
a. weld toes.
b. Notches.
c. Section change.
d. Thread roots.
11. A welding discontinuity typically referred to as distortion is caused by ;
a. the use of tungsten electrode in the GTAW welding process.

b. The uncontrolled heating and cooling of the weld metal.
c. Exposure to radiation and other NDE techniques.
d. The excess amount of porosity in the weld metal.
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12. A `charged couple device' chip is used with ;
a. a fiberoptic borescope.
b. An angulated bore scope.
c. A video imaging device.
d. A profile gage.
13. An instrument that can be equipped with forward , oblique, right angle and
retrospective visual systems is called
a. an angulated borescope.
b. A microscope.
c. A panoramic borescope.
d. A stereoscope.
14. The use of chemical solution to attack material surfaces in order to improve the
visibility of discontinuities for visual inspection at normal and low power
magnification is called
a. Micro-etching.
b. Macro-etching.
c. Replication.
d. Vibro-etching.
15. When measuring plate thickness, the most accurate reading is given by ;
a. steel ruler.
b. Steel tape.
c. Micrometer.
d. Feeler gage.
16. When choosing a magnifier, main consideration should be given to ;
a. power of magnification.
b. Working distance.
c. Field of view,
17. A device that provides the means for comparing a test surface to a standard surface
finish is called a
a. measuring magnifier.
b. Surface calibrator.
c. Surface comparator.
d. Surface magnifier.
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18. The distance a magnifier can be moved toward or away from a subject while keeping
it in good focus is called
a. depth of field.
b. Field of view.
c. Focal spot.
d. Magnification distance.
19. In general the total magnification of borescopes is in the range of ;
a. 3x - 4x.
b. 2x - 6x.
c. 4x - 10x.
d. 5x - 15x.
20. a method used of copying the topography of a surface that can not be moved or one
that would be damaged in transferal is called
a. NDT.
b. In-situ NDT.
c. Replication.
d. Surface metallography.
21. Replication is used for
a. the analysis of fracture surface and microstructure.

b. The evaluation of yield and tensile strengths of metals.
c. Evaluation of corrosion and wear damage.
d. Both a and c above.
22. Temperature indicating materials can take the form of ;
a. sticks.
b. Pallets.
c. Liquids.
23. As related to photographic techniques for recording visual testing results, the range
of distance over which a camera gives satisfactory definition when its lens is in the
best focus for a certain specific distance is referred to as
a. depth of vision.
b. Depth of field.
c. Depth of focus.
d. Field of vision.
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24. The testing of certain numbers less than the total in a production run is called ;
a. random sampling.
b. Partial sampling.
c. Specified sampling.
d. Random specified sampling.
25. The undesirable removal of material from contacting surfaces by mechanical action
is referred to as
a. corrosion.
b. Erosion.
c. Wear.
d. Grinding.
26. Joint penetration in which the weld metal fills the groove and is fused to the base
metal throughout its thickness is referred to as
a. complete penetration.
b. Partial penetration.
c. Incomplete penetration.
d. Complete fusion.
27. The deterioration of a metal resulting from electrochemical reaction s with

environment is referred to as
a. erosion.
b. Corrosion.
c. Wear.
d. Fatigue.
28. Service induced discontinuities in bolting systems may be produced by
a. vibration.
b. Over-tensioning.
c. Corrosion.
29. To measure the diameter of a 76 mm stud most accurately, use
a. a 51 - 76 mm inside micrometer.
b. An outside caliper.
c. A 152 mm diameter caliper.
d. Micrometer depth gage.
101
30. In welding temperature indicating sticks are used to monitor
a. preheat temperatures.
b. Post heat temperatures.
c. Inter-pass temperatures.
31. In a borescope , the image is brought to the eye piece by
a. an objective lens.
b. Relay lens.
c. An eye piece dens.
d. Al of the above.
32. The gage that provides measurements of internal misalignment on 76 mm diameter

pipe is
a. a Cambridge gage.
b. A fillet weld gage.
c. A hi-lo gage.
d. Both a and b above.
33. The deterioration of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction s with its

environment is called
a. erosion.
b. Corrosion.
c. IGSCC.
34. A discontinuity that appears as a series of melted dots beside a weld, resembling a
trail left in striking a match is called
a. linear porosity.
b. Arc strikes.
c. Undercut.
d. Slag.
35. A cause for undercut that occurs during the welding process is called ;
a. excessive voltage or current.

b. Slow travel speed.
c. Excessive travel speed.
d. Both a and c above.
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36. The melting and fusing of the filler metal and base metal into a straight
continuous weld pass is called a
a. Multi-pass weld.
b. Depressed bead.
c. Stringer bead.
d. Weave pattern.
37. A depression on the face of a fillet weld that reduces the cross section of the weld
when measured at the depression is called
a. depressed bead.
b. Excessive convexity.
c. Insufficient throat.
d. Insufficient leg.
38. When visually examining an arc strike, the inspector must inspect for
a. lack of fusion.
b. Craters.
c. Whiskers.
d. Cracks.
39. Pitting is one type of
a. occluded cell corrosion.

b. Stress corrosion.
c. General corrosion.
d. Galvanic corrosion.
40. Joint profiles of finished welds are controlled by
a. acceptance standard.
b. Workmanship standard.
c. Design requirements.
41. A wide angle of view for a borescope provides ;
a. illumination.
c. Shorter depth of field.
d. Greater depth of field.
42. A rounded discontinuity that occurs in the weld and is then distributed in line, parallel
with the weld is called ;
a. melt through.
b. Linear porosity.
c. Cluster porosity.
d. A crack.
103
43. The angles for fore-oblique direction of view borescope is
a. 0 deg.
b. 1 - 89 deg.
c. 90 deg.
d. 91-110 deg.
44. An optical aid used in visual inspection that brings the image to the eye piece by a
lens train is called
a. a fiberoptic borescope.
b. A borescope.
c. A mirror.
d. An image guide.
45. A remote visual examination aid that is used for viewing around corners with a
flexible distal end is called
a. an optiscope.
b. A fiberoptic borescope.
c. A mirror.
d. An image guide.
46. Horizontal indications on the edge of a 3 inch plate are on several levels and do not
extend along the whole edge. The most likely cause of these visual indications is
a. pipe.
b. Porosity.
c. Laminations.
d. Poor burning practice.
46. A narrow angle of view in a borescope is required for
a. low magnification.
c. A greater depth of field.
d. Greater reflectivity.
47. A non-fusion discontinuity that is located at the root area of the welded joint is called
a. porosity.
b. Hot tear.
c. Incomplete joint penetration.
104
48. A condition of excessive offset of the inside diameter surface is called
a. under fill.
b. Misalignment.
c. Overlap.
d. Excessive reinforcement.
49. Failure to adequately penetrate the weld root of a groove weld is called
a. lack of fusion.
b. Excessive penetration.
c. Incomplete joint penetration.
d. Undercut.
50. The structure and shape of mechanical fatigue type cracking is best described as
a. multiple indications or brazing.

b. Relatively straight and non-branched.
c. Multiple inter-granular indications.
d. All of the
105
REPORTING & RECORDING
Reporting
The visual test results should he reported in a manner appropriate to the test being
performed. The procedures for reporting should be decided before the start of the test
and often takes the form of a written report sheet. This maybe accompanied by
permanent images such as photographs, video tape, replicas etc. Sometimes a very
detailed report is required for a part, for example a critical part or a failed part. This may
include the results of all testing performed with photographs or test sheets.
Note: Such a detailed report may not only include the results of visual tests but of
other non- destructive and destructive tests.
The details of a visual test which should be reported are:
1. Conditions. This would include lighting conditions, cleaning methods and surface
preparation, temperature etc.
2. Equipment. This would list all the equipment used, with details of type of
equipment, rating, any identification numbers etc.
3. Identification of the part being tested.
4. Identification of test, e.g. test number.
5. Date of test.
6. Personnel performing the test.
7. Specifications for test.
8. Instruction sheet number and/or procedure number.
9. Results of test, e.g. type of defects found, defect dimensions, defect locations,
relevant measurements of the test item such as thickness or diameter, any
unusual observations.
10. All photographs, videotapes, replicas if applicable. These must he marked with
appropriate test numbers, measurements, and method/conditions of recording.
11 Conclusions. This can be pass/fail, in specification/not in specification, corrective

action needed, written comments etc.. The visual inspector may be required to
discuss the results of the tests with an engineer or quality manager to form a
conclusion and comment on any further action required.
106
Recording Observations
During visual inspection the observations and interpretation of what is apparently seen
by the inspector will require reporting by either a pictorial or written description. In many
situations the preferred method is a picture with text since this will have equal impact but
not necessarily the same interpretation by different people. When people make
observations, their interpretation is subjective (and will differ from person to person).
Visual inspection requires some method of recording results in order to make the
observations more objective (not differing from person to person). Cameras,
microscopes, borescopes, and endoscopes can be used with adapters, giving them the
ability to record observations permanently on video tapes and still photographs.
Photography
Photography is an excellent method of recording specific visual results, but there are
pitfalls to avoid if good results are to be obtained.
To produce consistent results, consider the following photography requirements:
The camera should be SLR 35mm or large format, for selective focusing of the subject.
This should include either a standard lens of 50 mm, a wide angle lens 28-35 mm, or a
telephoto 90-135 mm - all ideally with macro focusing. Close-up lenses (diopters 1, 2 &
3), bellows or extension tubes are used to increase the macro focusing facility.
The type of film requires careful consideration. Fine-grained slow films can only be used
when there is no movement in the system since exposure times tend to be long where
maximum depth of field is required. Past film9 traditionally are coarse-grained and
therefore may not provide the definition required when enlarged since the grain size is
also enlarged. This can result in poor definition compared with fine-grained films.
A Polaroid camera and film can be used instead of the usual 35 mm camera. It requires
special adapters and does not give high quality photographs but it produces instant
results.
Lighting of the subject has to be from the correct orientation with correct color and
intensity. Direct lighting is usually not possible, particularly in close-up photography,
therefore the position of light sources require mobility so that the required illumination
can be achieved. The area/subject to be photographed requires even illumination, free
from shadows and glare, with the best results obtained with diffused light or bounced
light/flash.
Flash unit's illumination requires special care to reduce unwanted reflection by bouncing
the flash from a ceiling. A white background or umbrella produces a more diffused
illumination and often eliminates very dark, deep shadows.
Oblique lighting is sometimes desirable to enhance relief detail, and requires positioning
while actually viewing the subject through the camera.
107
Photographing small objects requires careful selection of the background color and
texture. A general rule is that light colored objects require light backgrounds while dark
colored objects require dark backgrounds. Photography of dark colored objects on white
backgrounds often produces an over dark object on the photograph, with possible loss of
detail.
A measurement scale system should ideally be included on the photograph to enable

size perception to be made when viewing the photograph.
Video Systems
Video systems can he used either alone or with Borescopes for observations in visual
inspection. If the system is complete with some sort of video recording device (e.g. VCR)
then a permanent record of the inspection can be made. This has certain advantages
over photography in that a complete (and dynamic) picture is recorded.
Video recording of a specific feature of the test or of the entire testing event provides a
permanent record which can be viewed later. The quality of the video picture is
dependent upon the video camera and associated equipment. The quality, particularly
the picture sharpness, can be improved by replacing the optical system in a Borescope
by a miniature video camera in the form of a solid-state chip or light sensor which
transmits the image electronically to the remainder of the video recording system and
monitor.
The video recording system consists basically of a VCR, but specialist equipment is
available which will improve the image and give the best quality recording possible.
These systems rely on very advanced electronics.
The advantages of using video for recording are that it is possible to magnify the video
image and therefore improve detail making assessment easier. Videos of events allow
re-fins and freeze frames to study and evaluate any specific feature.
Thermal Printout
A video camera may he linked to a printer to produce a thermal printout image. This acts
like a photocopier, producing an instant image from the video. Quality can be variable
depending on the settings of the thermal printer.
Replication
This is a permanent record of the surface of a part. Replication is used to copy surface
conditions such as impact damage, wear, corrosion, and cracking. The material used to
form the replica determines the tine quality resolvable, with nitrocellulose and cellulose
acetate having the best replication ability. These materials are used when a microscopic
examination is anticipated.
Other materials used to produce replicas are plaster, plastic materials, Plasticine,
varnishes, clays, silicone rubber, and tapes.
108
Note: Silicone rubber has the ability to flow into cracks, crevices and pits.
Examination of the replica allows detailed inspection and measurement of specific

features or profiles. E.g. depths of pits could be measured using gauges, micrometers
or a low-power magnifier with graticules.
109
NDT-104 PARTICIPANT GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Black body A theoretical object that radiates more total

power of any wavelength than any other
source at the same temperature.
Black light A term used for ultraviolet radiation.
Blind spot Part of the eye's retina without any rods or

cones, where the optic nerve enters the
eye.
Blue hazard Over-heating damage to the retina caused

by exposure to high frequency visible light.
Borescope A device with lenses and a light source that

is used for inspecting inaccessible cavities.
The word originates from its use in
inspection of gun bores.
Candela The SI unit of luminous intensity.
Color The sensation produced at the human eye

by rays of light of different wavelengths.
Color blindness Inability to assess all the individual

wavelengths of white light correctly.
Color temperature Temperature of a black body which radiates

predominantly the same wavelength as the
source being described.
Cone A receptor in the retina which dominates

response when the light level is high.
Contrast The difference between the amounts of light

reflected or transmitted by an object.
Dark adaptation Process by which the retina of the eye

adapts to light of less than 0.034 candela
per sq meter
Depth of field Distance over which an image is in focus.
Diffraction The phenomenon in which waves spread

out beyond the geometric shadow of an
obstacle.
110
Directional lighting Lighting from a preferred direction or angle.
Direct viewing Viewing an object in the immediate location.
Endoscope A flexible device used for inside viewing or

inspection.
Far vision Viewing an object beyond arms length.
Fiber optics The transmission of light through fibers of

glass, quartz, or plastics.
Field of view The range of area where things can he seen

through lens or aperture.
Glare Excessive brightness which interferes with

clear vision and judgment.
Grey body A radiator whose spectral emissivity is

uniform for all wavelengths.
Hue The perception of color which discriminates

different colors as a result of their
wavelength.
Illuminance The density of luminous flux measured in

lux (SI unit).
Incandescent Emitting visible radiation as a result of

heating.
Infrared Electromagnetic radiation in the wave length

range 0.75 to 1000 µin approximately.
Interference Interaction between two or more waves of

the same frequency emitted from coherent
sources.
Laser An acronym - Light Amplification by the

Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Lumen SI unit of luminous flux measurement

equivalent to candela x steradian.
Luminance The measure of the brightness of a surface.

Measured in candelas per square meter.
111
Lux SI unit for illuminance. Equivalent to lumens

per square meter.
Machine vision An automated system which acquires,

processes and analyses images.
Monochromatic Light of only one wavelength or, in practice,

a very narrow band of wavelengths.
Near vision Vision of objects generally within arms

length.
Near sightedness Adequate vision acuity to view objects

within arms length.
Peripheral vision The seeing of objects outside the central

vision field.
Phase contrast A technique in microscopy here phase

differences are converted to differences of
light intensity, thereby giving contrasts in the
image wherever a change in thickness or
refractive index occurs.
Photochemical A chemical which changes when exposed to

light.
Photoconductive cell A cell using photoconductive material, often

cadmium sulfide, between electrodes.
Photoconductivity The property of certain materials to change

their electrical conductivity under the
influence of light.
Photodiode A semiconductor diode fitted with a small

lens which can focus light on the p-n
junction. They can be used as light sensors.
Photometry The science and practice of measuring light.
Photopic vision Vision adapted to daylight. Also known as

Foveal vision and light adapted vision.
Phototransistor A 3-electrode photosensitive semiconductor

device.
Pixel A light point on a screen of a digital image.
Polarization Nonrandom orientation of electric and

magnetic fields of electromagnetic waves.
112
Psychophysics Interaction between vision performance and

the physical or psychological factors.
Radiance The luminous flux radiated per unit area.

Measured in lumens per square meter.
Radiation The emission of energy as electromagnetic

waves or particles.
Radiometer An instrument for measuring radiant power

of specified wavelengths or frequencies.
Reflectance The ratio of reflected wave energy to

incident wave energy.
Refraction The change in direction of a wave front

which occurs when the wave travels through
a material boundary.
Resolving power The ability of vision or other detection

systems to separate two points.
Rods A receptor in the retina that response to low

levels of luminance. They are not color
sensitive.
Scotopic vision Dark adapted vision using only the rods of

the retina. Also known as parafoveal vision.
SI units Systeme International d'Unites, an

internationally agreed system of units.
Spectral response The comparative response to light of

constant intensity but different wavelengths.
Spectroscope General term for an instrument which

produces or records different wavelengths
of light.
Spectrum Representation of radiant energy in

adjacent bands.
Specular Mirror like.
Specular reflection When reflected and incident waves form

equal angles.
Ultraviolet radiation Electromagnetic radiation between 100 and

400 nm between visible light and X-rays.
113
Vision Perception by eyesight
Visual acuity A term used to express the spatial resolving

power of the eye. It is measured by
determining the minimum angle of
separation which has to be subtended at the
eye between two points before they can be
seen as two separate points.
114

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Training & Contractor Workforce Saudization Group

DATE REVISION DESCRIPTION

02/07/05 ORIGINAL COPY

 PCN Classroom Training Handbook – PCN Certification Services.

 Industrial Remote Visual Inspection Product Guide – Olympus Industrial.

MODULE COMPONENT PAGE

Measurement of visible light 13

Eye protection filters 32

Air blasting with water injection 83

 Understand the Physics of Light.

 The environmental conditions under which visual inspection is to be carried out.

 Be aware of different light sources and act appropriately for protection.

 Selection and calibration of optical aids and measuring equipment.

 Properly prepare a specimen surface for visual test.

 Document inspection results.

Definition of visual inspection

Visual inspection is the monitoring of specific parameters by visual and optical

Visual inspection applications

Primary processing inspection

Secondary and finishing process inspection

Conditions for visual inspection

Standards for visual inspection

Radiant energy-energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves Light

Light can be quantified in many ways:

This is the luminous flux emitted per unit solid angle.

A practical unit of luminous intensity is the candela (cd), where

Velocity = wavelength x frequency.

2. The incident angle and reflected angle are equal.

Double split showing interference of overlapping beams

This is light in which the electromagnetic vibration is only in one plane.

Inverse square law

There are several theories describing radiant energy:

b. Wave Theory by Christian Huygens - states light results from molecular

c. Electromagnetic Theory by James Clerk Maxwell - suggests luminous bodies

d. Quantum Theory by Planck - this is an update on the corpuscular theory. Energy

Measurement of visible light

Measurement of ultraviolet light

1. Basic requirements for visual inspection are

2. Visible range of electromagnetic radiation is ;

a. 370 - 780 nm.

3. If blue light has wavelength 400 nm. What is the frequency ?

4. A light having single wavelength is a

5. White light consists of ;

a. black and white light.

6. Lowest wavelength of visible light in electromagnetic radiation is ;

7. Light beam travels in

9. Ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant and is

10. Intensity of a light at a distance away from source is

a. directly proportional to square of the distance.

11. Wave theory of light is described by ;

12. Highest wavelength of visible light in electromagnetic radiation is ;

13. Technique of measuring intensity of light is ;

d. None of the above.

15. Black body is one which is

17. Quantum theory of light is described by ;

18. Intensity of visible light is measured in

19. Wavelength range of UV radiation is

a. 200 - 400 nm.

20. Intensity of UV light radiation is measured in

22. Which of following properties are of light ?

23. Refractive index of a material

a. changes as the angle of incidence change.