I.

AMERICAN PERIOD

When America signed the Treaty of Paris after the Spanish-American war,
Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines which was purchased from Spain for a
mere $20 million dollars was given to America. At the time of the Treaty, U.S.
already controlled the city of Manila, but had not ventured into other parts of
the Philippines Islands. After signing the treaty, President McKinley ordered the
War Department to bring all of the islands under military control because the
people of the Philippines were too "uncivilized" to govern themselves. This
shocked the Filipinos, because they had expected the U.S. to help them in their
struggle for independence. Not only did the U.S. not help the Philippines in their
struggle for freedom, they refused to grant them freedom for forty-five years. This
fight for freedom became the Philippine-American War. During the forty-five
years the Philippines changed into the Japanese hands from 1942 to 1945, when
it was again conquered by the United States. It was in July 5, 1945 that the U.S.
once again held the Philippines but under the provisions of the
McDuffie-Tyding's Act of 1934 the Philippines gained their independence from
the U.S.

President Emilio Aguinaldo of the Philippines

Impacts of American Regime

A. Political System

By the time the treaty of Paris was ratified, conflict between Filipino
forces and Americans had broken out due to strong resistance of the
Filipinos against the US sovereignty over the islands and the uncertain
grant of independence. Aguinaldo led the revolutionary movement
and fought the Americans for two years. His capture in March 1901
ended the resistance and gave the US a clear course on setting out
their colonial establishment in the country. William Howard Taft was the
 one chosen to handle the position of presidency and at the same time
as chief justice. Partisan politics was one of those institutions which the
Americans brought to the Philippines. The municipal elections that
followed the implantation of American sovereignty gave the Filipinos
the taste of politics, American-brand. After the creation of a bicameral
legislature in 1916, Philippine politics followed the American groove.
The electors, hitherto innocent, began to be corrupted by politicians.
The Philippine Legislature had two houses – the Senate and the House
of Representatives. Manuel Quezon was elected President of the
Senate and Osmeña again became Speaker of the House. Thus many
American political practices finally found a rich soil in the Philippines.

Partisan

B. Economic Institutions

The economic development of the Philippines under the United

States may be attributed to the free trade relations that the Americans
imposed upon the country. The American Congress passed the Payne-
Aldrich Tariff Act, all Philippine exports, except rice, were allowed to
enter American markets free of duty within certain quota limits. On the
other hand, American exports to the Philippines were unlimited and
duty-free. To correct the inequality in the law, the American Congress
passed the Simmons-Underwood Tariff Act in 1913 which abolished the
quota limitations on Philippine export products like hemp, sugar, and
tobacco.
Domestic trade likewise developed. At the time of the inauguration
of the Commonwealth, the Chinese controlled 50% of the domestic
trade, the Filipino 25%, the Japanese 20% and other nationalities 5%.
The development of Philippine domestic trade under the Americans
was, therefore not actually a boon to the Filipinos, who had to play
second fiddle to the aliens.
Mining, one of the most important industries, became the
backbone of the Philippine economy. The over-all effect of the
Philippine-American free trade relations was, therefore, the placing of
the Philippine economy at the mercy of the Americans.
The means of transportation vastly improved, for while the ancient
bull carts, carretelas, and calesas existed, the cars, trucks, and railway
cars speeded up the means of transportation. Water transportation
 developed. In 1902, the American colonial government opened more
than a hundred ports to domestic shipping.
Towns and provincial capitals were linked together by telephones,
telegraph lines, and radio. Mail offices handled ordinary mail,
telegrams, money orders and air mail letters and packages. The
American role in the economic development of the Philippines,
particularly in the field of transportation and communication is not
exactly altruistic.

C. Educational Transformation

The greatest contribution of the United States to the Philippine

civilization is the system of public education. The American
educational system emphasized the democratic traditions and the
practical application of laws and principles. It is not, however,
assumed that the American system was hostile to religion, but that this
subject was optional rather than compulsory. The relegation of religion
to the optional category was based on the principle of the separation
of Church and State, under which the church had no say in running
the public school. Americans proceeded to compel the Filipinos to
learn the English language. Enrollment of children in the public schools
was compulsory, and to encourage parents to send their children to
schools by giving the students free books, pencils, and other school
supplies. The first public school teachers were the American soldiers
who were later on replaced by the “Thomasites”. Filipino students who
showed aptitudes in some branches of learning were sent to the U.S. as
pensionados. Upon their return, they taught school or worked in
government offices. Thus the American system prepared the Filipino
not only for teaching but also for administrative service, an asset in the
Filipinization of the government.
Higher education was provided by the establishment of the state-
supported University of the Philippines in 1908. Other educational
institutions owned and operated by private individuals or corporations
like the University of Sto. Thomas, the Escuela de Derecho(School of
Law), the Instituto Burgos(Burgos Institute), and others. This increase in
Filipino literacy under the American was made possible not only by the
number of schools, colleges, and universities established during the
period from 1900 to 1935, but by the adult education program of the
American regime but later on, it became a movement.

D. Social Transformation

During the American regime, men were more favoured than

women. They were given a chance to enjoy free press and vote in
 preparation for self-government. There was a bias among gender
which you could see in the way they dressed. Men were given the
freedom to wear western suit and jackets (Americana) while women
should wore the “terno” dress with butterfly sleeves and “panuelo”
(Filipino national dress). The women found it unfavourable because by
that time they were already entering university life and professional
career. But, the different way of dressing of men and women was a
symbol of power struggle between the Americans (portrayed by the
westernised dressing of the men) and the Filipinos (portrayed by the
traditional dressing of the women).
The social status of Filipino Women during the American period.
They were allowed to participate in politics, to work in the government,
and to pursue their studies in college. Matters like health and
cleanliness were improved.

E. Cultural Transformation

1) Music

Contained recently composed music such as “La Flor de

Manila” by Dolores Paterno and “Nena’s Lullaby” by Francisco
Buencamino. The Filipino Folk Songs (1950s) – contains choral
arrangements of Chichiritchit, Bahay Kubo, Leron-Leron Sinta,
Dandansoy, Atin Cupung Singsing, Ti Ayat Ti Maysa nga Ubing,
Chua-ay.
Important Tagalkog Sarswelas: Walang Sugat, Minda Mora
and Talong Bituin by Severino Reyes; Dalagang Bukid and Ilaw
ng Katotohananby Hermogenes Ilagan; Lumubog ang Araw sa
Pilipinas and Bagong Infierno by Pantaleon Lopez; Ang
Maganak and Kundangan (If Not For) by Maximino Delos Reyes.

2) Arts

Paintings

In art america contributed the oil painting and blood red

paint.
 oil paintings- is the process of painting with pigments that are
bound with a medium of drying oil. Often an oil such as linseed
was boiled with a resin such as pine resin or even frankincense.

Blood red paint- is a dark paint also known as alizarin

crimson.chool.

Sculptures

After the Spanish American war in 1898, the Americans

took over rule of the Philippines until after the Second World War.
During this period the Americans constructed many neoclassical
buildings in Manila.
In 1902 Judge William Howard Taft was appointed to head
the Philippine Commission to evaluate the needs of the new
territory. Taft, who later became the Philippines' first civilian
Governor-General, decided that Manila, the capital, should be
a planned town. He hired as his architect and city planner
Daniel Hudson Burnham, who had built Union Station and the
post office in Washington. In Manila, Mr. Burnham had in mind a
long wide, tree-lined boulevard along the bay, beginning at a
park area dominated by a magnificent hotel. To design, what is
now known as, the Manila Hotel Taft hired William E. Parsons, a
New York architect, who envisioned an impressive, but
comfortable hotel, along the lines of a California mission, but
grander. The original design was an H-shaped plan that focused
on well-ventilated rooms on two wings, providing grand vistas of
the harbor, the Luneta, and Intramuros. The top floor was a large
viewing deck that was used for various functions, including
watching the American navy steam into the harbor.
Many of these buildings were heavily damaged during the
Battle of Manila in 1945. After the Second World War many were
rebuilt. Many buildings in Manila were designed by the Filipino
architect Juan M. Arellano.
In 1911 the Army Corps of Engineers constructed the
Manila Army and Navy Club at the shore of Manila Bay
bordering the Luneta Park. The building consists of a Grand
entrance and has three stories that housed the various function
rooms and the Hotel rooms. It has been in use far into the
eighties however it has fallen into dacay and is in need of
restoration.

Emilio Aguinaldo's house in Kawit, Cavite, renovations

designed by Aguinaldo himself, the first President of the
Philippines, in 1919.

At T.M. Kalaw Street stands one of the remaining structures

that survived the liberation of Manila in 1945, the Luneta Hotel,
which was completed in 1918. According to study by Dean
Joseph Fernandez of the University of Santo Tomas, the hotel was
designed by the Spanish architect-engineer Salvador Farre. The
structure is the only remaining example of the French
Renaissance architecture with Filipino stylized beaux arts in the
Philippines to date. This famous landmark fell gradually into
decay. In 2007 the renovation activities have started and it is
hoped that this building will be restored to its old grandeur.
The Manila Metropolitan Theater is an art deco building
designed by the Filipino architect Juan M. Arellano, and built in
1935. During the liberation of Manila by the Americans in 1945,
the theatre we totally destroyed. After reconstruction by the
Americans it gradually fell into disuse in the 1960s. In the following
decade it was meticulously restored but again fell into decay.
The City of Manila is planning a renovation of this once
magnificent building.
 The sculptures in the façade of the theater are from the
Italian sculptor Francesco Riccardo Monti, who lived in Manila
from 1930 until his death in 1958, and worked closely together
with Juan M. Arellano. Highly stylized relief carving of Philippine
plants executed by the artist Isabelo Tampingco decorate the
lobby walls and interior surfaces of the building.
In 1940 the Manila Jai Alai Building was constructed along
Taft Avenue, designed by architect Welton Becket. It has been
built in the Philippine Art Deco style. In addition to the Jai Alai
game it included the famous “Sky Lounge". Unfortunately,
demolition began on July 15, 2000 on the orders of Mayor Lito
Atienza. The building is now gone forever.
At the Far Eastern University (FEU) in Quiapo, Manila, five
Art Deco structures on the campus were designed by National
Artist Pablo Antonio. Three were built before World War II and
two, after. Although FEU buildings were totally damaged during
the war, the university was restored to its original Art Deco design
right after. The university was given a (UNESCO) Asia Pacific-
Heritage Award for Cultural Heritage in 2005 for the outstanding
preservation of its Art Deco structures.

Others

EL NUEVO DIA (The New Day). Established by Sergio

Osmeña in 1900. The American censors twice banned this and
threatened Osmeña with banishment because of his
nationalistic writings. EL GRITO DEL PUEBLO (The Call of the
Nation). Established by Pascual Poblete in 1900.EL
RENACIMIENTO (The Rebirth). Founded by Rafael Palma in 1901.
There were also plays written then but after the first and second
presentations, the Americans put a stop to this because of the
consistent theme of nationalism.
With some newspapers having a space for literary pieces,
writers were given the chance to show and prove the true talent
of the Filipinos. Some of these newspapers were Muling
Pagsilang (1903, Tagalog), Ang Kaluwasan (1902, Cebuano),
Makinaugalingon (1913, Ilonggo), and Nueva Era (1908, Ilokano).
The best known magazines that capitalized on short stories and
poems were Liwayway (1922, Tagalog), Bisaya (1930, Cebuano),
Hiligaynon (1934, Ilonggo), and Bannawag (1934, Ilokano).

3) Literary Works (Tabular Form)

 Story/Book Author
America is in the Carlos Bulosan
Heart (autobiographical)
Many Voices (poetry) José García Villa
The Bamboo Dancers; Bienvenido Santos
"Scent of Apples" (short
story)
"Children of the Ash N.V.M Gonzalez
Covered Loam
Filipino Rebel Maximo Kalaw
His Native Soil Juan C. Laya
"How My Brother Leon Manuel Arguilla
Brought Home a Wife
"Uhaw ang Tigang na Liwayway Arceo
Lupa"
"Ako'y Isang Tinig" Genoveva Edroza Matute

4) Religion

Resistance to American colonialism also found expression in

the Quasi-religious and religious aspects of Philippine society. These
movements actually had their roots in the Spanish period when
some native Filipinos returned to pre-Hispanic beliefs in their attempt
to reject Spanish rule via the rejection of Catholicism, and when
several Filipino priests protested for equal rights within the (Catholic)
Church. These movements saw their revival at the outset of
American occupation in the Philippines. Notable among these
quasi-religious rebel movements were the Dios-Dios movement and
its descendant, the Pulahanes movement. Adherents to these
movements were highly superstitious and miracle-conditioned so
that they believed that their leaders were endowed with
supernatural powers. In fact, they believed that their amulets or
anting-anting made them invulnerable to enemy bullets.
Meanwhile, the most conspicuous revolutionary move initiated by
the Filipino clergy was the establishment of the Iglesia Filipina
Independiente (Philippine Independent Church) in August 1902.

Why did the American regime come to an end?

The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved, ratified, and confirmed
McKinley's Executive Order establishing the Philippine Commission and
stipulated that a legislature would be established composed of a lower
 house, the Philippine Assembly, which would be popularly elected, and an
upper house consisting of the Philippine Commission. The act also provided
for extending the United States Bill of Rights to Filipinos. On July 4, Theodore
Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. Presidency after the assassination
of President McKinley on September 5, 1901 proclaimed a full and complete
pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who had
participated in the conflict.

II. JAPANESE PERIOD

A few hours after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor; the Japanese
launched air raids in several cities and US military installations in the Philippines
on December 8, 1941 and on December 10, the first Japanese troops landed in
Northern Luzon.
General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States Armed Forces in
the Far East (USAFFE), was forced to retreat to Bataan. Manila was occupied by
the Japanese on January 2, 1942. The joint American and Filipino soldiers in
Bataan finally surrendered on April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to Corregidor
then proceeded to Australia. The 76,000 captured soldiers were forced to
embark on the infamous "Death March" to a prison camp more than 100
kilometers north. An estimated 10,000 prisoners died due to thirst, hunger and
exhaustion. In March 1942, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur and President
Quezon fled the country.

Map of the Bataan Death March

 Gen. Arthur McDouglas

Impacts of American Regime

A. Political System

It was important to the Japanese authorities, for propaganda

purposes, that the Filipinos were made to believe that Japan’s
intention was to see the Philippines become a Republic. Premier Hideki
Tozyo addressed that Philippines’ independence will grant, recognizes
Japan’s program of establishing a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere. The Filipino leaders were, however, not fooled by these empty
promises. The announcement was the cue to the Filipino officials to
make preparations for the event. On June 18, 1943, the KALIBAPI
(Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas) was instructed to form
the Preparatory Commission for Philippine independence. The
composition was organized on June 20 with Jose P. Laurel as president
and Benigno S. Aquino and Ramon Avanceña as vice-presidents. The
Commission then prepared the draft of the proposed Constitution,
which was approved on September 4 and ratified by a “popular”
convention two days later. The Constitution provided for a unicameral
National Assembly, whose delegates were chosen on September 20.
The studied enthusiasm over the approaching independence was now
climbing to its climax. On September 25, the National Assembly
elected Jose P. Laurel President of the future Republic. The Japanese
authorities might not have known it, but the last sentence of Laurel’s
inaugural address was pregnant with resolve to demolish all barriers,
including Japanese interference, standing in the way of real
independence.

B. Economic Institutions
 The economic activities during the occupation were necessarily
limited. Industry, commerce and trade suffered a setback. Work
animals decreased and agriculture, at least for sometime, languished.
Horses, cars, trucks, and other means of transportation were
confiscated by the Japanese; in exchange the owners received a
piece of paper with unreadable scribbling on it. Haciendas remained
a commodity of cotton plant needed. The lowly farmers, hitherto
looked down upon by the bourgeoisie and the absentee landlords,
rose in importance. Furniture like lowly takba and baul replaced by the
best aparador. Buy-and-sell business was unwittingly encouraged by
manufacturing what the Filipinos called “Mickey Mouse” money. The
result was inflation.
In view of the scarcity of food, President Laurel appealed to the
people to plant every inch of ground to vegetables. The Bigasang
Bayan (popularly known as BIBA) was organized to control the
procurement and distribution of rice and others cereals. To ensure
equitable distribution of prime commodities, Laurel created the
National Distribution Corporation (popularly known as NIDASCO).
The Japanese occupation of the Philippines redirected a
prosperous, open, peacetime economy into one geared for military
objectives. The occupying Japanese military organization above all
had the prime objective of prosecuting a war. Economic and other
issues were subordinated to this objective, even as a civil government
was set up that was run by Filipinos. Initially, this civil government was
turned over to a commission type government with a chairman. Then,
an “independent” Philippine Republic was established that was still
virtually subservient to the interests of the occupying power.

C. Educational Transformation

The government made some changes in the system of education in

February, 1942. These changes were:
 To stop depending on western countries like the U.S., and Great
Britain. Promote and enrich the Filipino culture.
 To recognize that the Philippines is a part of the Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere so that the Philippines and Japan will have
good relations.
 To be aware of materialism to raise the morality of the Filipinos.
 To learn and adopt Nippongo and to stop using the English
language.
 To spread elementary and vocational education.
 To develop love for work.

D. Social Transformation
 Life under the enemy occupation was most trying and
dangerous. The men of the cities and plains had five (5) mortal
enemies: the Japanese military, diseases, the guerrillas, hunger, and
the Japanese-paid Filipino spies.
Kempeitai (Military police) was an enemy, began a career of
wanton disregard of human lives by inhuman tortures. They tortured
guerillas and men through hanging by the hand, hitting with a four-by-
four piece of wood, and by pressing a red-hot iron or electric wire into
the flesh of the helpless prisoner’s body. Some resistance men and
women were captured and executed by beheading with the use of
samurai. The word “kura” meant two (2) things, ‘come here” and
“dismiss” or “scram”, depending upon the hand movement.
Crimes against persons and property multiplied. Burglary and
holdups were common. However, there were night clubs and
restaurants where the new bourgeoisie and plutocrats spent their
waking hours plotting new business ventures or planning a business
coup.

E. Cultural Transformation

1) Music

During the short invasion of the Japanese, the Filipinazation of

our music became evident since the Japanese disallowed
American music. Despite the terror and uncertainty brought by the
Second World War and the Japanese rule in the country, playing
and listening to music were among the leisure activities that
somehow made life bearable for Filipinos. Japanese music was
heard daily in radio broadcasts. Their songs were also taught in
public schools. The first was a Japanese Musical Mission to the
Philippines held on May 7, 1943, with the support of the New
Philippine Musical Federation headed by Kosak Yamada.
The Japanese nevertheless encouraged the creation and
performance of music with native themes through music contests.
Concerts were also a common form of amusement for Filipinos at
the time and the Metropolitan Theater became an important
venue for cultural events. Classical music, including opera,
flourished during the war. For instance, the New Philippine
Symphony, the first all-Filipino orchestra, was organized. It performed
an all-Philippine symphonic program in July 1942, with Francisco
Santiago as conductor. The Philippine Conservatory of Music, an
affiliate of the Philippine Women’s University, was one of the few
music schools in the country that opened during the war.
2) Arts

Paintings

During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in

World War II, Amorsolo faced the grim realities of World War II,
depicting scenes of destruction in a number of paintings, some
of which can be found in the collection of the Vargas Museum.
At that time, his family lived in Azcarrga Street (now Claro M.
Recto Street), a place near the Far Eastern University and a
Japanese garrison at the time. Concerned about the safety of
his wife and children, Amorsolo rented a separate apartment
along Raon Street. His wife and the rest of Amorsolo’s family
stayed in the house on Raon Street, while Amorsolo himself and
some male relatives resided in the Azcarraga Street home at
daytime. Despite the risk, Amorsolo sketched war scenes from
the window or the rooftop of his wartime home.
Portrayals of human sorrow and suffering were revealed
through his illustrations of “women mourning their dead
husbands, files of people with pushcarts and makeshift bags
leaving a dark burning city tinged with red from fire and blood”.
One particular painting, the Defense of a Filipina Woman’s
Honor (1945), had two figures huddled in a corner: a man
defiantly about to defend his wife or daughter from being raped
or executed by an invisible Japanese soldier. The Japanese
soldier is outside Amorsolo's canvas, but from the defiant look of
the man, it can be assumed that the intruder is still inside the
house.
Amorsolo was also commissioned by a Philippine collector,
Don Alfonso Ongpin, to execute a portrait in absentia of
General Douglas MacArthur. He also painted Japanese
occupation soldiers and self-portraits at this time. His wartime
paintings were exhibited at the Malacanang Presidential Palace
in 1948. These wartime paintings and drawings are regarded as a
personal record of Philippine history.
Deprived not only of painting materials but of pleasant
scenes, during World War II Amorsolo’s personal role as a painter
of timeless panoramas was replaced by the responsibility of
documenting on paper and canvases the destruction of many
landmarks in Manila. He became not only a meticulous recorder
of names of the people he drew or of the time of day when he
painted a person or a scene, but he also became an observer
and documentary painter of pain, tragedy and death. Instead
of producing masterpieces similar to his Ina at Anak, a pacific
painting that demonstrates the love and bond between a
female parent and her infant, Amorsolo chose to draw the lives,
circumstances and sufferings of Filipina women during the
Second World War. Moved by the many horrific events, his
artworks became full of “mothers clutching children fleeing
burning ruins”; of “a woman bayoneted by a Japanese soldier
as her child cries on the ground”; of a mother grieving over her
dead son’s lifeless body; and of “women and children
scavenging for anything to eat”. Amorsolo’s Defense of a Filipina
Woman’s Honor (1945) represented his unspoken defiance
against oppression.

Detail from Fernando

Amorsolo's Bombing of the Intendencia.

Sculptures

On August 18, 1898, the church was the site where Spanish
Governor-General Fermin Jaudenes prepared the terms for the
surrender of Manila to the United States of America following
the Spanish-American War.[5][8] During the Japanese occupation
of the Philippines during World War II, San Agustin Church was
turned into a concentration camp for prisoners. In the final days
of the Battle of Manila, hundreds of Intramuros residents and
clergy were held hostage in the church by Japanese soldiers;
many of the hostages would be killed during the three-week
long battle. The church itself survived the bombardment of
Intramuros by American and Filipino forces with only its roof
damaged, the only one of the seven churches in the walled city
to remain standing. The adjacent monastery however was totally
destroyed, and was later rebuilt in the 1970s as a museum under
the design of architect Angel Nakpil.
In 1927, with the continuing increase in enrollment, the
University moved from Intramuros to its present site which covers
an area of 21.5 hectares in the district of Sampaloc, Manila.
Since its foundation, the University's academic life has been
 interrupted only twice: 1898 to 1899, during the Philippine
revolution against Spain; and 1942 to 1945, during the Japanese
occupation of Manila, when the University of Santo Tomas was
transformed by the Japanese military into an internment camp.

Others

Philippine Literature was interrupted in its development

when the Philippines were again conquered by another foreign
country, Japan. Philippine literature in English came to a halt.
Except for the TRIBUNE and the PHILIPPINE REVIEW, almost all
newspapers in English were stopped by the Japanese. This had
an advantageous effect on Filipino Literature, which
experienced renewed attention because writers in English turned
to writing in Filipino. Juan Laya, who uses to write in English,
turned to Filipino because of the strict prohibitions of the
Japanese regarding any writing in English. Three types of poems
emerged during this period. They were: Haiku, Tanaga, and
Karaniwang Anyo (Usual Form).
In 1943, a group of college actors formed the Dramatic
Philippines, Inc., where they performed at the Metropolitan
Theater such plays as passion play, Applesauce, Seven Keys to
Baldpate, Cyrano de Bergerac, The Husband of Mrs. Cruz, Julius
Caesar, Golden Boy, all adapted into Tagalog, and Sa Pula, Sa
Puti, and adaptation of Julian Cruz Balmaseda’s Isang
Kuwaltang Abaka, won the heart of even the so-called “bakya
crowd”.

3) Literary Works (Tabular Form)

Story/Book Author
Lupang Tinubuan Narciso Reyes
Macario Pineda Brigido
Batungbakal
Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa Liwayway Arceo
Narciso Ramos
Lunsod Nayon at Dagat- NVM Gonzales
Dagatan
Ang 25 pinakamabuting Lupong Tagasuri sa Maikling
maikling kathang Pilipino Katha, 1943 (Philippines)
ng 1943
Without Seeing the Dawn Stevan Javellana
 Ang 25 pinakamabuting
maikling kathang Pilipino ng 1943

4) Religion

Collaboration with Japanese authorities in the area cut

across religious affiliations, and there were Muslim and Christian
leaders on both the guerrilla and Japanese sides.
The religious face of appeasement policy toward the
Christian churches in the Philippines is examined by Terada
Takefumi. To help win the support of the majority Christian
population and elite officials, the Japanese Army General Staff
created a special Religious Section made up of Christian clergy
and laity from Japan. The members of this section visited various
parts of the country to say mass and hold services in local
churches and facilitated the release of detained religious
personnel. Bishop Taguchi of Osaka later joined the section staff
and actively led the appeasement campaign directed at the
Philippine Catholic Church. Through the policy
recommendations of Bishop Taguchi, the Japanese military
administration sought a comprehensive agreement (concordat)
with the Vatican that would have addressed contentious
demands such as the Filipinization of the ruling hierarchy of the
Catholic Church, the regulation of church property, and the
regulation of educational curricula.

Why did the Japanese regime come to an end?

When General MacArthur returned to the Philippines with his army late in
1944, he was well supplied with information. It has been said that by the time
MacArthur returned, he knew what every Japanese lieutenant ate for breakfast
and where he had his hair cut. But the return was not easy. The Japanese
Imperial General Staff decided to make the Philippines their final line of defense,
and to stop the American advance toward Japan. They sent every available
soldier, airplane and naval vessel into the defense of the Philippines.
The Kamikaze corps was created specifically to defend the Philippines. The
Battle of Leyte Gulf was the biggest naval battle of World War II, and the
campaign to re-take the Philippines was the bloodiest campaign of the Pacific
War. But intelligence information gathered by the guerrillas averted a bigger
disaster—they revealed the plans of Japanese General Yamashita to entrap
MacArthur's army, and they led the liberating soldiers to the Japanese
fortifications.
MacArthur's Allied forces landed on the island of Leyte on October 20,
1944, accompanied by Osmeña, who had succeeded to the commonwealth
presidency upon the death of Quezon on August 1, 1944. Landings then
followed on the island of Mindoro and around the Lingayen Gulf on the west
side of Luzon, and the push toward Manila was initiated. The Commonwealth of
the Philippines was restored. Fighting was fierce, particularly in the mountains of
northern Luzon, where Japanese troops had retreated, and in Manila, where
they put up a last-ditch resistance. The Philippine Commonwealth troops and
the recognized guerrilla fighter units rose up everywhere for the final offensive.
Filipino guerrillas also played a large role during the liberation. One guerrilla unit
came to substitute for a regularly constituted American division, and other
guerrilla forces of battalion and regimental size supplemented the efforts of
the U.S. Army units. Moreover, the loyal and willing Filipino population
immeasurably eased the problems of supply, construction,civil administration
and furthermore eased the task of Allied forces in recapturing the country.
Fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945.
The Philippines had suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical
destruction by the time the war was over. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had
been killed from all causes; of these 131,028 were listed as killed in seventy-
two war crime events. U.S. casualties were 10,380 dead and 36,550 wounded;
Japanese dead were 255,795.

III. THIRD REPUBLIC

After president Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972 (lifted in 1982) many
individuals and groups joined revolutionary underground movements; from the
mid-1970s until the 1986 Presidential Snap Elections, peoples movements were
organized to struggle against repression and to establish democracy; after 1986
onwards during the democratization period many non-governmental
organizations were established on various social and political issues, a.o. the
violation of human rights during the Aquino government from 1986-1992; from
the early 1990s many political groups split up and after the latter part of the
1990s the economic crisis and the resulting impoverishment were main issues.

Impacts of American Regime

A. Political System

Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948). Elections were held

in April 1946, with Manuel Roxas becoming the first president of the
independent Republic of the Philippines. The United States ceded its
sovereignty over the Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled.
However, the Philippine economy remained highly dependent on
United States markets– more dependent, according to United States
high commissioner Paul McNutt, than any single U.S. state was
dependent on the rest of the country. The Philippine Trade Act, passed
as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the
United States, exacerbated the dependency with provisions further
tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact
was signed in 1947 granting the United States a 99-year lease on
designated military bases in the country.

Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953). The Roxas

administration granted general amnesty to those who had
collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except for those who
had committed violent crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart attack
in April 1948, and the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, was elevated to
the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating
Jose P. Laurel and winning a four-year term.
World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely
damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the
activities of the Communist-supported Hukbalahap guerrillas (known as
"Huks"), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the
new Philippine government. Government policy towards the Huks
alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression.
Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay initiated a campaign to
defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular
support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the
early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk
leader Luis Taruc in May 1954.

Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957). Supported by

the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1953 on a
populist platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made
progress in land reform by promoting the resettlement of poor people
in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this
relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious
hostilities. Nevertheless, he was extremely popular with the common
 people, and his death in an airplane crash in March 1957 dealt a
serious blow to national morale.

President and Mrs. Magsaysay with

Eleanor Roosevelt at the Malacañang Palace.

Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961). Carlos P.

Garcia succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay's death, and
was elected to a four-year term in the election of November that
same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of
"Filipino first", arguing that the Filipino people should be given the
chances to improve the country's economy.Garcia successfully
negotiated for the United States' relinquishment of large military
land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on
issues of government corruption as his term advanced.

Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965). In

Presidential Election that held on November 14, 1963, Vice President
Diosdado Macapagal won as a president by defeating re-
electionist President Carlos P. Garcia and Emmanuel Pelaez as a
Vice President.

B. Economic Institutions

The war brought losses to the Filipino nation in terms of physical

and human resources. According to 1951 government report, the total
war losses of the Philippines encountered to more than $8 Billion. This
included the value of the public and private property lost and
destroyed in the war, the precious lives of the Filipinos devastated by
the war, and the cost of goods and services that the Japanese took
from the Filipinos without payment.
The war adversely affected the trade and commerce of the nation.
Many factories and offices were destroyed or heavily damaged. Many
Filipinos lost their jobs. The problem was too big for the Philippines to
solve. It did not have the money and other resources to bring back life
to industry and to the economy.
C. Educational Transformation

Philippine education is patterned after the American system,

with English as the medium of instruction. Schools are classified into
public (government) or private (non-government). The general pattern
of formal education follows four stages: Pre-primary level (nursery,
kindergarten and preparatory) offered in most private schools; six years
of primary education, followed by four years of secondary education.
College education usually takes four, sometimes five and in some
cases as in medical and law schools, as long as eight years. Graduate
schooling is an additional two or more years. Classes in Philippine
schools start in June and end in March. Colleges and universities follow
the semestral calendar from June-October and November-March.
There are a number of foreign schools with study programs similar to
those of the mother country. An overall literacy rate was estimated at
95.9 percent for the total population in 2003, 96 % for males and 95.8 %
for females.

D. Social Transformation

The freedoms, political consciousness, and the role of the socialistic

novels- led to a more aggressive movement of the lower class. In 1922,
the peasants banded themselves into the Confederacion de
Aparceros y Obreros Agricolas de Filipinas (Philippine Confederation of
Tenants and Agricultural workers), under the leadership of Jacinto
Manahan. Two years later, it was renamed Katipunang Pambasa ng
mga Magbubukid sa Pilipinas (National Peasants’ Union of the
Philippines). This union and the Philippine Labor Congress became the
most powerful weapons of the lower class in their fight for reforms
beneficial to their class.
The upper class, composed of the uncultured wealthy, has
remained practically the same as before the war, with this difference,
however: that the pre-war upper class was composed largely of big
landowners, while the post-war upper class consists largely of
industrialists and big businessmen, with the landowners occupying the
third place. Feudal relationship between peasant and landowners still
exists, but it is loosening against the impact of progressive laws and
partial industrialization.
The result of such an unbalanced development of the society is
discontent on a grand scale, on the other hand, and grave social
problems, on the other. The first is amply demonstrated in the
Hukbalahap and the other agrarian movements and the second in the
rise in juvenile delinquency, in immorality in high places, in graft and
 corruption, in influence peddling, in the rise in criminality, and. Finally, in
the rise of a new class: the squatters which poverty caused. For
parents, in their craze for wealth and power and social position, have
become so demoralized as to leave their children to fend themselves.
These parents find in gambling sessions and so-called social activities
outlets for their unoccupied hours, and leave their children orphans in
their own homes. The teen-age gangs that have sprouted in urban
centers testify to the moral degradation of many parents of the middle
and upper class. Social mobility during the last two decades has been
from the rural areas to urban centers.

E. Cultural Transformation

1) Music

On music, there is little to say. With the death of Nicanor

Abelardo and Francisco Santiago, the two great Filipino
composers, Filipino music has, as a rule, turned to the
rhumbastyle of noise. The efforts such heroic musicians and
musicologists as Antonio Buenaventura, Lucio San Pedro, Jose
Maceda, and Hilarion Rubio, to develop Filipino music by the use
of folk literature and folk songs as thematic materials have so far
failed to arouse popular interest and sympathy. The primary
cause is the corroding influence of the American popular song
hits which fill the air lanes almost twenty-four hours a day.
The multiplicity of “combos” and the dearth of active
symphony orchestras present a study in contrast: the vulgar
completely dominating the civilzed. The audience in, say, Padilla
de Leon’s Noli Me Tangere and Pajaro’s Binhi ng Kalayaan is
pitifully small compared with that in, a “combo” contest in any
riverside theater or the British Beatles’ idiotic outpourings.

2) Arts

Paintings

From Damian Domingo, “the father of Filipino painting”, to

Fernando Amorsolo, Filipino painting has been largely influenced
by European, especially Spanish, brush. In the mid-1930’s,
however, Filipino painters, many of whom had studied in
American art schools, introduced the so-called modernist
concept of art. Victorio Edades, Diosdado M. Lorenzo, Hernando
R. Ocampo, Galo B. Ocampo, Vicente Manansala, and a few
others, led the “modernist” school.
 Composed mostly of young men and women, the
“modernists”, rebelling against the alleged despotic tradition of
the School of Fine Arts of the University of the Philippines, called
for a creative approach to painting, maintaining that painting is
not a “medium for a story or literature or any extraneous matter
alien to plastic art”. This individualistic philosophy of art led to the
rise of the Neo-Realist school of painting.
Some of the abstract paintings of the Neo-Realists have been
under attack for being incomprehensible and have been
variously described as lunatic expressions and as symbols of a
confused and decadent society. One great advantage of this
over other kinds of painting: they can be hung on the walls in
any position one likes and get away with it.
The Orientalism in contemporary painting is shown in rich
brilliant colors, in the subject of the individual painter, in the
decorative tendency, and in the calligraphic technique.

Sculptures

The wood and stone works of Napoleon V. Abueva, the

foremost sculptor among the Filipino “modernists”, show a
radical departure from the classicism of Guellermo E. Tolentino,
the high priest of Filipino sculpture. “Modernist” sculpture is not
popular as “modernist” painting, probably because it’s not yet
sufficient exposed to the beauty and meaning of, say, a piece
of sculptured stone which looks like an almirez (stone mortar and
pestle), or a piece of wood which, to many, looks like a paddle.

Others

President Ferdinand Marcos’ lady, Mrs. Imelda Romualdez-

Marcos, initiated the Cultural Center Movement to strive for the
best and of providing a “home” for Filipino creative and
performing arts. The opening of the Cultural Center in September
1969 ushered in the era of what may be called cultural discovery
and integration, for the Center is now and, it is hoped, will
continue to be, the symbol of the Filipino people’s struggle for
spiritual, alongside material, re habilitation. The hostility with
which the Center was at first greeted by those involved in the
political power struggle has given way to administration and
pride.

3) Literary Works (Tabular Form)

 Story/Book Author
Banaag at Sikat Lope K. Santos
(novel)
Busabos ng Palad Faustino Aguilar
(novel)
Nangalunod sa
Katihan
Ang Huling Timawa Servando de los Angeles
(novel)
Mga Piling Alejandro Abadilla
Sanaysay (essay
and articles)
Pagkamulat ni Abadilla and Kapulong
Magdalena (novel)
Sa mga Kuko ng Edgardo Reyes
Liwanag (novel)
Ang Makata sa Virgilio S. Almario
Panahon ng
Makina (collection
of essay)
The Wounded Stay, Bienvenido N. Santos
Brother, My Brother,
You Lovely People
Seven Hills Away; N.V.M Gonzalez
A Season of Grace
(novel);
Children of the Ash-
Covered Loam and
Other Stories,
Bamboo Dancers
(novel);
Look, Strangers, On
This island Now

4) Religion

Religion is still the center of life on every Filipino including

Catholics, Muslims, Buddists, Protestants and animists. Religious
associations are part of the system of kinship ties, patronclient
bonds, and other linkages outside the nuclear family. Today,
Filipinos are given freedom to worship free to choose what
religious group they want to join. Majority of the Filipinos about
85% are Roman Catholics. The rest are Buddhism, Protestants, El
 Shaddai, Jesus is Lord Movement, Jesus Miracle Crusade, United
Methodist Church, United Church of Christ in the Philippines, Ang
Dating Daan, Seventh-day Adventist Church, Aglipayanism,
Iglesia Ni Cristo, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism, Islam, Judaism,
Sikhism and Hinduism, Atheism and Agnosticism.

Why did the Third Republic of the Philippines come to an end?

When martial law was declared, the second term of Ferdinand Marcos
led to the Fourth Republic. He was the only one president during the republic.

References

“History of the Filipino People, 8th edition, Teodoro Agoncillo, 1990

LUMINA, Vol. 21, No.1, March 2010, ISSN 2094-1188 HOLY NAME UNIVERSITY, 21, 22

http://tabonwoman.blogspot.com/2009/05/american-period_22.html

http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Filipino.html

http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-
a/article.php?igm=1&i=131

http://www.himig.com.ph/features/17-philippine-music-during-the-japanese-
occupation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Philippines#Architecture_durin
g_the_American_colonial_period

http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php?title=Fernando_Amorsolo

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines#End_of_t
he_occupation

http://www.answers.com/topic/history-of-university-of-santo-tomas

http://www.philippine-history.org/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines#Administration_of_Manu
el_Roxas_.281946.E2.80.931948.29
http://www.etravelpilipinas.com/about_philippines/philippine_religion.htm

http://www.etravelpilipinas.com/about_philippines/philippine_education.htm