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Properly accounting for how bulk sol- For dry bulk solids, the void spaces would
ids actually will f low in a vessel or overall process usually contain air or some other gas, the density
can be crucial for successful operations. So, in of which can be taken as negligible compared to
this article, we will look at two parameters — the the density of the solid particles; so, we can ap-
Compressibility Index and the angle of repose proximate:
(see sidebar) — that can help. While neither
provides definitive answers about “f lowability,”
they do give rough guidance about how a material
is likely to behave. (2)
However, before we discuss these parameters, We can relate this to another common char-
it is important to understand bulk density. It is acteristic, voidage or void fraction, which is the
probably one of the most common and widely percentage of the total volume not occupied by
used of the bulk characteristics. It is employed particles:
to determine wall loading in hopper design, to
size volumetric feeders, such as screws and rotary
valves, to estimate “f lowability,” and in many
other ways. It is rather unfortunate then that such (3)
a useful characteristic is not a constant for a given Again, assuming air or gas in the void spaces
material. The bulk density of a material is simply and taking particle density as , we can write:
the mass of material divided by the volume that it
occupies. The density of the particles themselves (4)
can be taken as constant; however, the complica- To illustrate the range of values that voidage
tion arises because the amount of “space” between can take, consider a static heap of mono-sized
the particles depends upon how the material spheres. If the spheres are in a regular hexagonal
has been handled before the measurement. The packing (the classic “cannon ball” stack), the
volume that a unit mass of product can occupy voidage would be 26%. In contrast, if they were in
can differ by 50% between the material being in regular cubic packing, the voidage would increase
a compressed and a very loose state. Cement, for to 48%. However, even this does not represent the
example, has a compacted bulk density of 1,400 loosest packing possible for large smooth identi-
kg/m3 and an aerated bulk density of 1,000 kg/ cal spheres. The cannon ball stack gives each ball
m3. It is obviously important that the correct six contact points, but simple static mechanics
bulk density value is selected for any calculation. requires only two contact points below the center
of gravity of the ball for equilibrium. Therefore,
Bulk density it is possible to have a stable structure with far
The full expression for bulk density is: fewer contact points and a resulting increase in
voidage [2]. If the particles are irregular in shape,
have a size distribution and in some way cohere to
one another, the packing arrangement can be very
(1) loose and so the voidage can be very large.
Material Tapped bulk density, kg/m3 Poured bulk density, kg/m3 Particle density, kg/m3
Iron powder 3,410 3,360 7,200
Aluminum powder 1,220 1,095 2,650
Cement 1,400 1,100 2,700
Nylon pellets 680 680 1,140
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Angles of repose
Table 2. As with most materials, these three provide different results in each test method. (Data from Ref. 2.)
Despite these difficulties, the angle of repose both give some indication of flowability under dif-
in whatever form can be a useful tool to rank ferent flow conditions, although the applied stresses
materials. As a rough guide, the relationship in both cases can be considered to be relatively
between the angle of repose and f lowability often low. There is no obvious benefit in combining both
follows the structure below: test results into a single index value; both may be
usefully applied separately to benchmark or rank
Angle of repose, degrees Flowability materials based on known plant performance. For
25-30 very free-flowing example, if you have experience that a material
30-38 free-flowing
with a particular flowability value passes through a
chute or indeed an entire process without difficult-
38-45 fair flowing
ly, then you may expect that a different material
45-55 cohesive
with the same flowability value also will not cause
>55 very cohesive
problems. (Most times, you will be correct.) How-
ever, a material with a worse flowability value needs
This classification allows us to make some judge- be treated with more caution. Plants suffering from
ment on the likely flow behavior of a material but poor performance require more detailed testing
has very limited value for equipment selection and to establish the cause(s) of the flow difficulties or
design. In particular, it is a mistake to use the angle product hangups.
of repose in an estimate of the wall angle required
for the converging section of a hopper. However, the The material in this article has been extracted and adapted
angle of repose can serve in some cases to estimate from the author’s recent book “Characterisation of bulk
the surcharge (the material at the top of a hopper solids” [1].
which forms a “heap”) in a storage vessel or the
ground area requirements when forming a stockpile. Dr. Don McGlinchey is a consulting engineer
at Glasgow Caledonian University’s Center for Industrial
Rough guidance Bulk Solids Handling, Glasgow, Scotland. E-mail him at
The Compressibility Index and angle of repose D.McGlinchey@gcal.ac.uk.
References
1. McGlinchey,
D., “Characterisation of bulk solids,” Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, U.K. (2005).
2. D
uran, J., “Sands, powders and grains – an introduction to the physics of granular materials,” Springer-
Verlag, New York (2000).
3. Nedderman, R.M. “Statics and Kinematics of Granular Materials,” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
U.K. (1992).
(800) 652-2466 or
www.fedequip.com
In almost all solids processing operations there excessive build-up on pipe walls, requiring frequent
comes a time when the engineer must deal with a cleaning of the pipes and vessels. Another complica-
slurry (a mixture of solids and liquids). This can be in a tion in handling slurries is the reactivity between the
reactor, crystallizer, centrifuge feed tank, or a pipeline. solids and the liquid.
Often slurries can be treated as just another dense While many of the experiences and design rules of
liquid, especially when residence time isn’t a concern solids suspended in air can be applied to slurries, reac-
or horsepower issues have been addressed. What sets tivity can lead to scale formation, secondary products of
a slurry apart from normal liquids is a longer list of reaction, and agglomeration. This problem is noticeable
physical attributes, including: particle size, distribution, in a crystallizer. New particles form from a reaction
and particle shapes, with the resulting shear, settling, or because of nucleation. Unfortunately, there may be
and drag of the particles. Most of the major problems nuclei formed from attrition of larger particles. Newly
encountered with slurries are due to a poor understand- formed particles tend to be extremely surface-reactive
ing of these factors, or from poorly obtained slurry and the source of operational problems, such as scale.
experimental data. However, much of the knowledge Excessive nuclei hinder growth or can cause products of
obtained from pneumatic conveyors and fluidization a different morphology to be formed. The principles of
systems can be used in understanding slurries. good slurry pipeline design, suspension, and handling
Some of the properties of the liquid become more have been well defined since the early 1950s.
complicated once it becomes part of a slurry. Viscosity However there have been significant refinements
is especially difficult to determine, due to the range of to detailed hydraulic design. In most cases the strategy
solids concentrations or changes in particle size distri- is to make a settling slurry into a non-settling slurry so
bution that can be encountered in normal plant opera- that it can be treated as a normal, homogeneous fluid.
tions. Just as in pneumatic conveyors, the solids can Settling slurries are more complex, and rely on determi-
build up in concentration or size along a pipeline or in nation of the settling rate, at least for pipeline design.
a tank. Experimental work obtained under laboratory Several design methods are described in References 1-5
conditions won’t be of much use unless it is obtained and in some proprietary publications such as Ref. 6.
over a wide range of conditions and with scaleable Some authors suggest that there are slurries that can’t
tests. Even the type of viscometer used during the test be effectively pumped or suspended because they can’t
influences measurements. be classified as settling or non-settling slur ries [7]. For
As an example, obtaining viscosity data requires these, you must rely entirely on previous experience.
consideration for particles bridging the gaps in testing This article focuses on the basic principles of suspen-
equipment. Using viscosity instruments that test a sion for solids in vessels and pipes, with an emphasis on
wide range of disk or cone geometries and sizes can practical rather than theoretical considerations.
eliminate this problem. Particle size and particle attri-
tion can be the primary concern for handling slurries. Vessel considerations
This may be a lesser problem than in pneumatic con- Maintaining a uniform suspension in a crystallizer
veyors that use gas because of the lower velocities, but or a slurry tank is impossible, no matter what the
it can alter the product or lessen equipment life due to theory will tell you. Although colloids and very
the higher shear rate of the liquid. Attrition prod- fine particles can be suspended with appropriate
ucts, due to their high surface energy, also may cause agitation, only a portion of the large particles will be
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Dust-tight or open discharge units, discharge heights from floor level to 40’
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visit: www.materialtransfer.com Material Conditioner Four Post Filler Bulk Bag Filler Discharger
or suspending the slurry, while preserving the desired sure drop will cause settling of the solids and slug
reaction or products in the vessel. A variety of design flow. This leads to higher pressure drop, abrasion,
procedures have been proposed for specifying impel- and excessive mechanical stress on the pipeline. In
ler diameter and shaft speed for a specific duty. One addition, slime may form on the interior of the pipe.
that is widely available is cited in Reference 9. And, abrasion can reduce wall roughness over time.
An additional consideration for slurry systems is The easiest way to design a pipeline is to main-
re-starting agitation after a power failure. Agitators tain non-settling conditions, similar to the design of
are often unable to re-suspend the solids once they dilute-phase pneumatic conveyors. As with pneumatic
have settled. Most pumps are designed for light slurry conveyors, operating too close to the saltation velocity
loads and can’t handle the settled solids, usually due can be problematic, and once a minimum velocity has
to the high viscosity. Sparging with a liquid is the been calculated, a safety factor of at least 25% should
best solution for agitation. Liquid jets can recover the be applied. The saltation velocity is determined
solids suspension, provided the solids aren’t extremely through an empirical relationship based on the solids
cohesive. Nozzles should have the capability of either loading, particle size, and physical properties of the
back flow or solids-free liquid injection after power system. Practical experience and experimental work
failures. Pumping should be stopped until the suspen- are preferable to any theoretical model. One method
sion is restored unless the pump is designed for such to estimate saltation is shown in Figure 2 [10] and
a duty. Positive displacement pumps can handle very represented by Equation 2.
high solids concentrations (maybe as high as 95%), While the saltation velocity for the largest par-
but add considerable cost to the project. ticle in the suspension is usually used, particle size
distribution may be more important. For instance,
Transport lines a slurry with a large percentage of very fine particles
Not maintaining a suspension in a transport line may behave as a single larger particle and overshadow
can really ruin your day. While a slurry can some- the effect of a few large particles. The fine particles
times be treated as dense and highly viscous liquid, may cluster and cause the larger particles to settle at
the particle size and distribution create additional an even higher rate, which would require a higher
problems. Using a larger diameter line to lower pres- slurry velocity. One method to overcome this design
References
1. B rown, N.P. and N.I. Heywood, eds. “Slurry Handling: Design of Solid-Liquid Systems,” Kluwer Publications,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands (1991).
2. G ovier, G.W. and K. Aziz, “The Flow of Complex Mixtures in Pipes,” Van Nostrand Reinhold (1972).
3. Heywood, N.I., “Pipeline Design, Slurry Systems,” in “Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design,” 36,
pp. 363-399, Marcel Dekker, New York (1991).
4. H eywood, N.I., “Stop Your Slurries from Stirring Up Trouble,” CEP, pp. 21-41, (September, 1999).
5. Worster, R.C. and D.F. Denny, “Transport of Solids in Pipes,” Proc. I. Mech. E., 169, pp. 463-486 (1955).
6. Allsford, K.V. and N.I. Heywood, “Pipeline Design for Slurries and Pastes, State-of-the-art Review,” Wet
Solids Handling Report 6, AEA Technology, Oxford, U.K. (1985).
7. Cheng, D.C.-H. and W. Whittaker, “Paper C2,” Hydrotransport 2 (1972).
8. Zwietering, T.N., “Suspending of Solids in Liquids by Agitators,” Chem. Eng. Sci., 8, pp. 244-253 (1958).
9. Gates, L.E. et al., “Selecting and Agitator to Suspend Solids in Liquids,” Chem. Eng., pp 144-150 (May, 1976).
10. Zenz, F.A. and D.F. Othmer, “Fluidization and Fluid-Particle Systems,” Figure 10.9, Reinhold Chemical Engi-
neering Series, p. 328 Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1960).
11. Brown, N.P. and N.I. Heywood, “The Right Instrumentation for Slurries,” Chem. Eng., pp 106-113 (Septem-
ber, 1992).
vacuum
References
1. E
rgun E., Advancements in Explosion Suppression System Product Safety, Reliability & Performance, Ameri-
can Institute of Chemical Engineers, 41st Annual Loss Prevention Symposium, April 8, 2008
2. OSHA Combustible Dust National Emphasis Program (Reissued), Directive No. CPL 03-00-008
3. U .S. CHEMICAL SAFETY AND HAZARD INVESTIGATION BOARD, COMBUSTIBLE DUST HAZARD STUDY,
REPORT NO. 2006-H-1, November 2006
4. U.S. CHEMICAL SAFETY AND HAZARD INVESTIGATION BOARD, INVESTIGATION REPORT SUGAR DUST
EXPLOSION AND FIRE, Report No. 2008-05-I-GA, September 2009
5. N FPA 68 Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, 2007 Edition
6. G uidelines for Safe Handling of Powders and Bulk Solids, 2005 Edition, AICHE CCPS
7. N
FPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems, 2008 Edition
8. http://www.incom-ag.ch/utcfs/ws-998/Assets/Explosion%20Protection_E.pdf
9. N
FPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing and
Handling of Combustible Dusts, 2006 Edition.
10. S iwek, R., Explosion Protection Systems Classification and Design
11. A Tri-fold brochure illustrating the explosion protection options is available at www.fenwalprotection.com
12. K ST is the deflagration index of a dust, and is a measure of the relative explosivity of the material
13. PRED is the maximum pressure developed in a protected enclosure during a vented or suppressed defla-
gration.
Process pipes in chemical plants often carry analysis, a separate finite element or piping analysis
a high amount of energy. During the undesirable package is required.
event of an over-pressurization of the system, caused The RELAP software can be used to analyze fluid
by an unwanted reaction or transient for example, transients and compute resulting loads. RELAP
pressure safety valves (PSVs) will open to reduce the stands for Reactor Excursion and Leakage Analysis
increasing pressure. A fast depressurization transient Program and is a light water reactor transient analysis
may occur that triggers a pressure wave that travels code developed for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
at the speed of sound through the fluid. This can Commission (NRC) for simulation of a wide variety
lead to force imbalances in particular on long pipe of hydraulic and thermal transients in both nuclear
segments. Industry experience has shown that these and nonnuclear systems involving mixtures of steam,
forces can grow large enough to damage pipe sup- water, noncondensable and solute under single phase
ports and possibly the process pipe itself. In case a and two phase conditions.
pipe break occurs, this force is even further increased In a typical analysis with RELAP the piping
by the resulting thrust load. system is finely nodalized to allow the detailed
It is therefore of great importance that these computation of loads on segments throughout the
hydrodynamic loads following the opening of a PSV system. Depending on the node size the time step
are calculated to assure a safe design of the piping size must be below the acoustic courant limit of
system. Recent industry accidents have shown that the system to assure that the pressure wave can be
in particular the PSV tail pipe is often not sufficiently captured. The pipe reaction force is then calculated
restrained. as a post-process activity. The development of the
Bounding steady state values can be calculated transient force time history is based on the general
analytically by using correlations based on choked force equations for a container (Moody, 1990). The
flow theory. Another way of calculating these loads open pipe reaction force during unsteady discharge
is to use a software solution. A computer code has can be written as:
the advantage that it can solve for time history data 
(force versus time) by numerical integration. The time
dependent data can be used to assess the structural re-
sponse of pipe supports and the piping system. If the
transient is fast, the structure might not fully absorb
the peak load due to its inertia, which would provide
the designer with more margin. For a dynamic stress
References
Frederic J. Moody (1990). “Introduction to Unsteady Thermofluid Mechanics”. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, Section 7.4, pp. 365-366.
The image on the left shows the irregular material surface during the empty cycle; the image on the right is the 3D visual representation created by
the software.
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