2- Electric potential energy:

- Potential energy Uelec of two and more point charges

- Conservation of mechanical energy

We found:

Change in electric potential energy

Units of energy is the Joule [1 J = 1 N.m]

If we agree on the zero reference of potential energy to coincide with the zero
reference of potential we get:

electric potential energy

Ue is always shared between the test charge and the electric field (source
charges).
The Potential energy of two point charges:
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 a distance r apart.
The potential energy shared by the two point charges is the external work needed
to bring q2 from infinity to a distance r away from q1:

Electric potential energy of two point charges

with the zero potential energy reference at infinity

Here, negative potential energy means attraction, positive means repulsion.

Similarly the potential energy stored between multiple charges is the external
work needed to bring the charges together from infinity.
The potential energy of multiple point charges (for example three) is:
Conservation of mechanical energy:
Mechanical (kinetic + potential) energy is conserved in an isolated system of
particles that interact with each other through conservative forces.
Example: A 2.0 cm × 2.0 cm parallel-plate capacitor with a 2.0 mm spacing
is charged to ±1.0 nC. An electron is released from rest at the midpoint of the
capacitor. What is its speed when it collides with the plate?
Example: A 2.0 mm diameter stationary plastic bead is charged to -1.0 nC.
A proton is fired at the bead from far away with a speed of 1.0 × 106 m/s,
and it collides head-on. What is the impact speed? The potential outside a
charged bead is the same as if the charge was concentrated at its center
(like a point charge).

Example: A 2.0 mm diameter plastic bead is charged to -1.0 nC. An electron

is fired at the bead from far away. It “reflects,” with a turning point 0.10 mm
from the surface of the bead. What was the electron’s initial speed? (Treat the
potential of a bead as that of a point charge). [5.35 x 107 m/s]
3- Capacitors and capacitance:
- V and E inside a parallel plate capacitor (see above)
- Capacitance C.
- Energy stored inside a capacitor
- Series and parallel capacitors

Batteries and emf:

- The most commonly known source of electric potential is a battery.
- Two electrodes made of a different metal are separated inside an electrolyte.
- This causes charge to separate, creating a potential difference (the emf )
between the two electrodes.
- We can visualize the battery as a charge escalator.
It lifts a positive charge from the negative electrode to the positive electrode.

a) 7 V
b) 1 V
c) 5 V
d) 3 V
Capacitors and capacitance:
Capacitors consist of two metal plates separated in space. When a battery is connecte
to the plates, the plate connected to the positive electrode gradually accumulates a
charge +Q, the plate connected to the negative electrode
accumulates a charge -Q. When ∆Vc = ∆Vbattery the charges stop moving.
The capacitor is fully charged.

Let's find the relation between Q (the plates charge) and ∆VC (the potential
accross the plates).

Charge accumulated on parallel plate capacitor

Capacitance of a parallel plate apacitor

The constant of proportionality C that relates Q to ∆V is called the capacitance.

It depends only on the geometry of the capacitor and on the material between
its plates.

C has units in farad 1 farad = 1 F = 1 C / V

Some applications require a large capacitance. This is easily done by inserting

a dielectric material (an insulator) of dielectric constant κ = ε /ε0 (> 1)
between the plates of the capacitors. The capacitance C increases by κ C0,
where C0 describes the air-filled capacitor. Here ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 / (N m2)
is the permittivity of free space and ε is that of the dielectric material.
Energy stored in a capacitor and energy density stored in an electric field:
Capacitors store energy Uc and release it when they discharge. The energy
stored is the work done against the electric field to separate the charges
between a positive and a negative plate:

Energy stored inside a parallel

plate capacitor

In general the energy density (energy per unit volume) stored in the electric
field is:

Energy density stored in an

electric field

where ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 / (N m2) is the permittivity of free space.

Some properties of parallel plate capacitor:
1- The electric field inside a parallel plate capacitor is constant and points
from the positive to negative plate:

E = η / εo = Q / (εo A)

2- The potential inside a parallel plate capacitor varies linearly according to

V(x) = V− + Ex, x is measured from the negative plate.
We usually take the reference V− = 0, so V(x) = Ex

3- The potential difference between the two plates ∆Vc = V+ − V− = Ed.

d being the plate separation.

4- A surface parallel to the plates has constant potential (equipotential surface).

5- By definition Q = C ∆Vc.
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C = ε0 A / d.

6- The energy stored inside a capacitor is Uc = Q ∆V / 2 = Q2 / (2C)

= C (∆V)2 / 2.
How does a defibrillator work?
A simplified circuit of a defibrillator (a device used to deliver a strong
shock to the heart to regulate its functioning) is shown.

Question: In the figure, when the switch is in position A for a long time
as shown, what is the charge on the capacitor?
a) 0.16 C
b) 0.32 C
c) 33.3 C

Question: When the switch is switched to position B, the heart circle position,
the capacitor discharges its energy to the heart.
What is the energy delivered to the body/heart once the capacitor has totally
discharged?
a) 0.004 J
b) 4.0 J
c) 400 J
Stop to think:
Equal but opposite charges Q are placed on the square plates of an air-filled paralle
plate capacitor. The plates are then pulled apart to twice their
original separation. Which of the following statements about this capacitor
are true? (There may be more than one correct choice).

a) The capacitance decreases by a factor of two.

b) The electric field between the plates has doubled.

c) The potential difference across the plates has doubled.

d) The energy stored in the capacitor has doubled.

Parallel and series capacitors:
Parallel capacitors:
Two parallel capacitors have capacitances C1 and C2.
- Describe the potentials and charges.
- What is the equivalent capacitance.

Replace these capacitors by one equivalent capacitor that accumulates charge

Q = Q1 + Q2 under a potential difference ∆Vc.

Parallel capacitors have an equivalent capacitance:

Capacitors in series:
Two capacitors in series have capacitances C1 and C2.
Describe the potentials and charges and find the equivalent capacitance.

Replace these capacitors by one equivalent capacitor that accumulates same

charge Q under a potential difference ∆Vc = ∆V1 + ∆V2.

Capacitors in series have an equivalent capacitance:

Example: Find the charge on and the potential difference across each of the
four capacitors.