Question:-

Explain Eigen value problem showing some of the civil engineering applications. Also elaborate
the basic method for solution of Eigen value problems.
Answer:-
Eigen Value:
In linear algebra, an eigenvector or characteristic vector of a linear transformation is a non-zero
vector that does not change its direction when that linear transformation is applied to it. More
formally, if T is a linear transformation from a vector space V over a field F into itself and v is a
vector in V that is not the zero vector, then v is an eigenvector of T if T(v) is a scalar multiple of
v. This condition can be written as the equation
T(v)=λv
where λ is a scalar in the field F, known as the eigenvalue, characteristic value, or characteristic
root associated with the eigenvector v.

Use of Eigen Value in Structure Engineering

Vibration Analysis
1. The eigenvalues are used to determine the natural frequencies (or eigenfrequencies) of
vibration, and the eigenvectors determine the shapes of these vibrational modes.

Practical Applications in Structural Engineering

1. Most structures from buildings to bridges have a natural frequency of vibration. It means
all these structures have their own system of eigenvibrations and eigenfrequencies. Now
external forces like wind and earthquake may cause these structures to undergo vibrations.
In case the frequency of these vibrations becomes equal to the natural frequencies of these
structures, vibrations with large amplitudes are set up. It is a phenomena called Resonance.
This can lead to the collapse of the structure by a process called aeroelastic flutter. One
very famous example of the collapse of a structure due to this phenomena is the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge (1940) in which the wind provided an external periodic frequency that
matched the bridge's natural structural frequency. So vibration analysis of these structures
are done at the time of their design using eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
2. Eigenvalues can also be used to test for cracks or deformities in structural components used
for construction. When a beam is struck, its natural frequencies (eigenvalues) can be heard
or measured. If the beam "rings," then it is not flawed. A dull sound will result from a
flawed beam because the flaw causes the eigenvalues to change. Sensitive machines can
be used to "see" and "hear" eigenvalues more precisely.
3. The eigenvalues can also be used to determine if a structure has deformed under the
application of a particular force. Eigenvalues for the structure are measured before and
after the application of force. If a change in the eigenvalues is observed, it means the
structure has undergone deformation.
Question:-
Explain the Laplace Transform method.
Answer:-
Laplace transform is a method frequently employed by engineers. By applying the Laplace
transform, one can change an ordinary dif- ferential equation into an algebraic equation, as
algebraic equation is generally easier to deal with. Another advantage of Laplace transform is in
dealing the external force is either impulsive , (the force lasts a very shot time period such as the
bat hits a baseball) or the force is on and off for some regular or irregular period of time.

If f(t) is defined over interval [0,1), the Laplace transform of f, denoted as f(s); Is

Some common Laplace transforms are,

Question:-
Explain the Fourier Transform method.
Answer:-
The Fourier Transform is a tool that breaks a waveform (a function or signal) into an alternate
representation, characterized by sine and cosines. The Fourier Transform shows that any waveform
can be re-written as the sum of sinusoidal functions. Virtually everything in the world can be
described via a waveform - a function of time, space or some other variable. For instance, sound
waves, electromagnetic fields, the elevation of a hill versus location, a plot of VSWR versus
frequency, the price of your favorite stock versus time, etc. The Fourier Transform gives us a
unique and powerful way of viewing these waveforms.
Fourier transformation can be denoted as,

Some common Laplace transforms are,

Question:-
How Euler’s equation is used in civil engineering perspective.
Answer:-
Use of Euler’s equation in civil engineering can be listed as follows
1. Can be use to solve ODE equations in structure mechanics
2. Useful to generate fluid viscosity lines, for solution of fluid problems
3. Buckling and bending of columns and beams respectively can be solved by Euler’s
equation.
4. Evaluation of damper vibration can be calculated by Euler’s equation
5. Also mode shapes can be calculated by eigen value also can calculated by Euler’s
Equation.
Question:-
Explain “Principle of Least Squares”. Write its application to civil engineering.
Answer:-
The principle of least squares is one of the popular methods for finding a curve fitting a given data.
Say (x1,y1), (x2,y2),....(xn,yn) be n observations from an experiment. We are interested in finding a
curve
y = f(x)
Closely fitting the given data of size 'n'. Now at x=x1 while the observed value of y is y1, the
expected value of y from the curve is f(x1). Let us define the residual by
e1 = y1 - f(x1)
The residuals at all other points are given by
e2 = y2 - f(x2)
……………..
……………..
en = yn - f(xn)
Use of Principals of least square method in civil engineering is,
Mostly least square method used in civil engineering for surveying purpose.