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"Education is a liberating force, and in

our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across the barriers of caste snd
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances. "
- Indira Gandhi
/
lndira Gandhi
National Open University
MNR-OOl
School of Agriculture
Indian Agricultural
Development
Block
1
INDIAN AGRICULTURE: AN OVERVIEW
UNITl
Evolution, Scope and Diversity of Agriculture 5
UNIT 2
Indian Farmers Traditions, Beliefs and Practices 24
UNIT 3
Agriculture and Indian Economy 40
UNIT 4
. Development of Indian Agriculture 52
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
Prof. Panjab Singh Dr. T. J-iaque, Former Chairman
Former Vice Chancellor, Banaras Hindu University Commission Agricultural Costs and Prices
Banaras (UP) Ministry of Agriculture, Shastri Bhawan
New Delhi-I 10 001
Prof. D. Jha, Former Director
National Centre for Agri. Eco. & Policy Research Dr. Suresh Babu
Library Avenue, Pusa, New Delhi-IIO 012 International Food Policy Research Institute
(lFPRI), 2033 K Street, NW Washington
Dr. R.P. Singh, Former Head
Division of Agricultural Economics DC 20006. US
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) Dr. V. Balaji
Pusa, New Delhi-IIO 012 Head, Information Resource Management
Dr. P.N. Mathur International Crop Research Institute for
Former Deputy Director General (Ext.), ICAR Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)
16B, Pocket-AN, DDA Flats, Shalimar Bagh Patancheru-502 324 (AP)
New Delhi-I I 0 088
Dr. Mruthyunjaya. National Director
Dr. J.P. Mishra National Agriculture Innovation Project
Assistant Director General (P&ESM), ICAR Pusa, New Delhi-I 10 012
Ministry of Agriculture, Krishi Bhawan
New Delhi-I 10 001 Dr: v.P.S. Arora
Centre for Business Management
Dr. Prem Vashishtha GB Pant University of Agriculture &
Agro Economic Research Centre Technology
Delhi University, Delhi-I I 0 007 Pantnagar-263 145 (Uttaranchal)
Dr. Praduman Kumar, Professor (Retd.)
Dr. Pramod Kumar
Division of Agricultural Economics
Division of Agricultural Economics
IARI, Pusa, New Delhi-I 10 012
IARI, Pusa, New Delhi-I 10 012
Dr. M.S. Bhatia, Member
Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices Prof. Madhulika Kaushik
New Delhi- 110 001 School of Management Studies
. IGNOU, New Delhi-I 10 068
Dr. Alka Singh
Division of Agricultural Economics Faculty Members (SoA, IGNOll)
IARI, Pusa, New Delhi-I 10 012 Dr. M. K. Salooja, Professor
Dr. M.C. Nair, Dy. Director (Co-coordinator up
Dr. Ranjil Kumar to April, 2006)
Divisio~ or Agricultural Economics
Dr. Indrani Lahiri, Asstt, Director (Coordinator
IARI, Pusa, New Delhi-I I 0 012
up to April, 2006)
Dr. K. Barik Dr. D.S. Khurdlya, Sr. Consultant
School of Social Science Dr. P.L. Yadav, S~. Consultant
IGNOU, New Delhi-IIO 068 Shri Jaya Raj, Sr. Consultant
Shri Rajesh Singh, Consultant
Programme Coordinators: Prof. 8.S. Hansra, Prof. M.K. Salooja and Dr. Praveen Kumar Jain
Block Preparation Team

Unit Writer Editors
Dr. M. N. Khare (Units I, 3 & 4) Dr. Praveen Kumar Jain, Lecturer
24, Ravindra Nagar SoA, IGNOU, New Delhi-I 10 068
Adhartal, Jabalpur-482 001
Dr. K.N. Rai, Senior Consultant
Mrs. Mythili Jagannathan (Unit 2) SoA, IGNOU, New Delhi-I 10 068
6A, DDA Flat, Masjid Moth
Near Chirag Delhi, . New Delhi-I 10 068
Course Coordinator: Dr. Praveen Kumar Jain
MATERIAL PRODUCTION
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Ms. Rajshree Saini Sh. Ramesh Nath
Section Officer (Publications) (Proof Reader) (Word Processing)
SOA, IGNOU, New Delhi . SOA, IGNOU, New Delhi SOA, IGNOU, New Delhi
.Feb, 2012- (Reprint)
J(;L!.11.4.i!'a
Gandhi National QRen lL,niversity;lOOS
_lSBN:_ 978-81-266-3615-0
All rights 'reserved. No pan or this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may he obiained from the
University's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-I l I) 0.68 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Pri'nted and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Director,
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MNR-OOl INDIAN AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
Welcome to the course Indian Agricultural Development. This course is of four
credits and one of the components of PG Programme in Agriculture Policy. After
going through is course, you should be able to:
• state the various phases of the Indian agriculture development;'
• define Indian farmers traditions, beliefs and practices;
• explain importance of agriculture in the national economy;
• determine the status, utilization pattern, problems and development of different

agricultural resources viz., land, labour; water, biodiversity, livestock and
fisheries;
• illustrate both public and private institutional infrastructures for Indian agricultural
development;
• justify the concept of capital formation, agricultural pricing, taxation and

subsidies for agricultural production management;
.'
• explain the role of procurement, storage, marketing and distribution. research
and technology transfer in Indian agriculture development; and
• recognise the emerging issues and trends in agriculture such as diversification.

agriculture industry interface, trade, quality, gender and sustainability, WTO,
SPS measures. Information and Communication Technology (lCT).
The course is expected to familiarize you with different stages of agriculture

development and its role in the Indian economy. The course shall also acquaint with
various agricultural resources, institutional development, management of agriculture
production, emerging trends in Indian agriculture and need for reforms .
.
,
The contents of the course are contained in five blocks. Block 1 the introductory
block of the course, gives an overview of the Indian agriculture. In this block, you
will learn about the evolution. scope and diversity of agriculture. traditions and belief
that guide farm practices, importance of agriculture in Indian economy and various
reform and development in Indian agriculture.
Several resources are required for agriculture production. Availability of these

resources varies from one part of the country to other and over the time. The Block 2
of this course will familiarize you about the land distribution and its utilization,
availability of water resources, cropping pattern, biodiversity and genetic resources,'
size and composition oflabour force, characteristics of agricultural labour, livestock
"and fisheries resources. This block will also explain the various measures taken for
the development of these resources such as land reforms, conservation of plant
genetic resources, molecular techniques, bio-technology, IPR, schemes and
programmes for agriculture labour, etc.
Institutional infrastructure plays a vital role in the agro-socio-economic

development of the country. After independence, large investment have been
made to develop institutional support for agriculture credit, insurance, warehouses,'
public distribution system, cooperatives, farmers organization, education,
Indian Agriculture: research and extension. Block 3 details out the structure and progress of the various
An Overview
institutional infrastructure developments and their role in Indian agriculture
development. .
The agricultural development is central point of the overall economic development

ofthe economy as the majority ofthe people depend on agricultural production for
their livelihoods. Management of agricultural production is needed for sustainable
and balanced growth of agriculture and allied sectors. B1ock4 of your course will
elaborate the role and importance of capital formation, pricing, taxation and subsidies,
procurement, storage, marketing. research and development and other subsystems
in agricultural production management of the country.
The final block: Block 5 will expose you with the process of diversification,
importanceof diversification, strategies for diversification, agro-processing, rural
industrialization and govemment support, WTO and agriculture, issues on quality,
sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures, gender and sustainability in intemational trade.
The block will also explore you to the information gap in agriculture and importance
ofICT in agriculture.
The course assessment is, as per IGNOU norms. in the form of assignments and
term-end examination. You must prepare the assignments on the basis of your
understanding of the content of this course and the application of the same to the
proposed business activity.
4
BLOCK 1 INDIAN AGRICULTURE:
AN OVERVIEW
Indian agriculture has been transformed from subsistence farming to commercial
farming. It passed through various phases/changes to reach at this level. This block .
will explore you to the evolution of agriculture, scope and importance and performance
of agriculture in Indian economy. .
Important components of Indian agriculture development are briefly discussed under
followingunits:
Unit 1 deals with the periodic changes in the agriculture, improvement in crops/
varieties, farming systems, crop management practices etc., which leads to Indian
agriculture development.
Unit 2 contains the traditional beliefs and practices that help the agriculture planning.
This unit will enlighten you on the traditional farm practices related to soil treatment,
pre-sowing treatment, plant protection, irrigation, harvesting etc. The role and status
of farm animals and farm machinery in traditional agriculture is also covered.
Unit 3 expose you to the agriculture production status in India. The unit also focuses
on the importance of agriculture in national income, employment, industrial
development, international trade and consumption. The unit will elaborate you on
the performance of the different sectors of agriculture over the'period;
Agriculture is the backbone of the country as it provides food and other raw materials
useful for human directly or indirectly, Agriculture development took place in several
phases through both refinement of indigenous farm practices and adoption of modem
production technologies. Unit 4 deals with the various development phases in
agriculture such as land reforms, green revolution, chemical fertilizers, quality seed,
irrigation, farm implements, proper prices, agriculture education, research and
extension.
The material provided in this block is supplemented with various examples and
activitieswhich will make the learning process simple andinteresting.Alist of reference
books has been provided at the end of each unit for further detailed reading.
UNIT 1 EVOLUTION, SCOPE AND
DIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution
12.1 History ofIndian Agriculture
122 Agriculture in Prehistoric Era
12.3 Development in Agriculture before Independence
12.4 Development in Agriculture after Independence
12.5 Modem Indian Agriculture

12.6 Global Issues Related to Agriculture
1.3 Scope
1.3.1 Food Security
1.32 Efficient Use of Knowledge of Agricultural Sciences

1.3.3 Efficient Use of Natural Resources
1.3.4 Development of New Plant Types

1.3.5 Development of Multiple Resistance Crop Varieties
1.3.6 Commercialization of Agriculture

1.3.7 Sustainable Agriculture
1.3.8 Risk Management in Agriculture
1.3.9 Organic Farming
1.3.10 Post-harvest Management
1.4 Diversity
,
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 KeyWords
1.7 Some Useful Books / References
1.8 Answers / Hints to Check Your Progress
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• describe the changes in agriculture since the inception of civilization till today;
• explain the change in farming systems involving crop production, animal
.husbandry, poultry, fisheries, piggeries, agro-forestry etc.;
• explain the changes in practices of crop-management; and
• discuss the modem site-specific agricultural production technology for
sustainable agriculture with special reference to changing global needs. 7
Indian Agriculture:
An Overview 1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word 'agriculture' is derived from the two Latin words' Ager' referring to the
soil and 'Cultura' referring to the cultivation. Thus, agriculture is a very broad
term encompassing all aspects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries,
poultry, forestry etc. Agriculture started with the civilization of human beings. All
primary necessities of human life viz., food,clothing and housing are directly
related with the agriculture. At present agriculture are the main profession and the
most important human economic activity worldwide. It differs from other industries
being a biological process. Soil, water, air, seeds, land and peasants are the six
major pillars on which agriculture is based. The physical environment of soil,
water and air are.the-resource base.
The principal objective of agriculture is to channelise as much as possible the

energy from incoming solar radiation into crops and/or livestock through efficient
management practices as well as to minimize that is used by such potential
competitors as weeds and pests. The physical resource base determines the level
of use to which land can be most economically put to agriculture at a particular
time. The natural variability of the physical environment makes agriculture one of
the most unpredictable human activities. Soil, climate and plants are three major
components of agriculture. In the absence of anyone of these, agriculture is not
possible; Growing plants in the existing land base under prevailing climatic
conditions is basically agriculture. Both soil and climate together make the
environment which influences the completion of plant life cycle. Environment of
plants constitutes both soil and aerial, as root portion of plant is inside the soil and
shoot portion of plant is exposed to the aerial atmosphere. Soil environments are
amenable for manipulation or modification through tillage, irrigation, fertilizer
application etc. The physical environment of soil comprises of soil air, soil water
and soil temperature, while soil pH, electrical conductivity, and concentration of
nutrients (minerals) constitutes the chemical environment. The soil biological
environment is constituted with the presence ofliving organisms both flora and
fauna called soil micro-biota. The aerial environment includes solar radiation,
rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity.
Basically, plants converts the environmental inputs like solar energy,carbon dioxide,
water and soil nutrients into economic products in terms of human or animal food
or industrial raw materials.
1.2 EVOLUTION
In this section, we will study the various phases of agriculture development over
the period. Let us discuss the agriculture development under the following sub
heads.
1.2.1 History of Indian Agriculture

India was the pastoral country before agriculture started. Concurrently, development
of crops and animals took place leading to the emergence of various types of
farming systems that are now seen in different parts of the country.
Most important contribution ofIndia towards development of agriculture is the

cultivation of rice which is now staple food of south, south-east and east Asia.
8
I Sugarcane, several legumes and tropical fruits like mango are also native of India. Evolution, Scope and
Diversity of AgricuUtire
Mohan Jodaro to Harappa territory was the centre of agricultural revolution in
Indus valley during the period 3000-1700 BC. The scene of this revolution was
in the countries between river Nile and Ganges. Excavations in this area have
revealed huge granaries. Barely, wheat, sesamum, peas, cotton, mustard, date-
palm and lentil were the main crops during the period. Wooden plough and
wheeled cart were in use. Harappans knew ginning, spinning and weaving of
. cotton into cloth. Farmers used sling-boll for scaring birds, cattle, buffalo, goat,
sheep, pig, camel, ass, dog and cat. These have special mention in the list of
domesticated animals.
About 1800-1600 BC, Aryans migrated to India and got mixed with the Harappans.
Horses were the main domesticated animal besides cattle. Agriculture was the
'. most important profession during Vedic age (1500-1000 BC). Useof iron
~ implements, particularly iron plough became prevalent. Besides, barley, wheat,
_ beans, sesamum, millets and rice are frequently referred in Vedas. The importance
. of trees is mentioned during Budhist period (600 BC). The importance of sowing .
season, climate, cloud, soil fertility,irrigation and weed control has been emphasized
several times in Mahabharat and Ramayan during the period 1000 and 500 BC,
respectively. Irrigation from rivers, lakes and reservoirs has also been mentioned.
During first century of Christian era and 300 AD, cultivation of rice with irrigation
from Cauvery river was the most important event in Indian agriculture. After 300
AD, during the period of Chandragupta II, Amarkosha was written, in which
there is mention of classification of soil arid land use, irrigation, implements and
use of manures. Rice transplanting was practiced till that period besides cultivation
of several field crops, vegetables and fruits etc.
During Kanuj Empire of Harsha (606-647 AD), fine scented rice was grown in
Magadh. Pomegranates and sweet orange were also grown during this period.
There is mention about land manuring, crop rotation, irrigation, tillage, implements,
. crop protection and meteorology in the book "Krishi Parastra" written during
950-1100 AD. Several water reservoirs were made during the period 1336-1646
. AD and irrigation channels were constructed and 'Anantaraja Sagar' in
Vijayanagar district of;A.P. (1337 AD) is one example. Later Babar laid the'
foundation ofMughal dynasty in India. Except for gardens, flowers and provision
of irrigation mainly in South India, there was nothing special about agricultural
development. The peasants became disinterested in agriculture because of large
sum extracted from them as peasantry (tax).
1.2.2 Agriculture in Prehistoric Era

Since agriculture fulfils the need of food to human and animal, it appears to be a
very primitive step of human civilization. The earliest man (Homo erectus) emerged
around one and half million years ago and spread throughout. old world tropics
and later to temperate zones. About 500 thousand years ago, he probably learnt
to control and use fire. The earliest man was distinguished from fellow animals by
his intelligence and skill in making tools and selection for self use.
Homo sapiens, the direct ancestor of modern man lived 250 thousand years ago.
Homo sapiens, the modern man, appeared in Afrioa 35 thousand years ago. He
was distinguished from all other extinct species of genus Homo, by large brain,
small teeth and chin and capacity for making and using tools. He hunted a variety
9
Indian Agriculture: of animals and cooked their meat on fire. The weapons for hunting were boulders
An Overview
and spears of wood tipped with blades of flint. He also used stone-tipped
arrows. Later, he domesticated the dog, which greatly helped him in hunting.
Apart from the meat, he gathered a variety of seeds, leaves, fruits, roots, and
other parts of plants from the forest for food. He had no control over food
supply and was unable to cloth and shelter adequately. During the period 8700
BC to 7700 BC, he domesticated animals and turned a herdsman: He first
domesticated sheep and later goat. Between the period 7500 BC to 6~00 BC,
man'gradually shifted from hunting towards agriculture. Stone axes were used for
cutting trees and fire for burning forests. Agriculture has no single and simple
origin. It was started in different parts of the world during different periods. The
evolution of agriculture took place gradually with the changes in human civilization,
mostly based on the experiences. The exact evidences are not known about
shifting of man into agriculture from hunting and gathering of animal for food. The
hunting and gathering food was difficult job to collect the food for each individual,
while pastoral life and agriculture could support to a group. Thus, residing in
group or camps and dependency offood on plants had started in human civilizatiOn.
It is expected that pre-historic agriculture might have developed in several' steps
as under: . .
a) Conservation of Desirable Native Plants
Byusing various parts of plants like roots, seeds, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc.,
probably man have identified the desirable plants which he referred as crop
plants and later he might have tried to conserve those plants from danger ..
b) Collection and Preservation of Seeds
After eating the fruits, man would have thrown the seeds elsewhere and they
have seen the germination of same type of plants from thrown seeds. With
this experience they might have learned and decided to grow these plant by
using the collected and preserved seeds at desirable place. In this way they'
would have started the collection and preservation of seeds of useful plants.
c) Sowing of Seeds
With the increase in population, when man would have faced shortage of
foods, they might have started sowing on the basis of climatic suitability.
d) Tilling of Land
When birds or air or flow of water damaged seeds, they might have thought
to loose the hard soil surface with the help of stone or wooden tools putting
the seeds inside the soil to avoid the damages.
e) Shifting Cultivation . .
After continuous growing of same plants for a long time, they might have
observed poor growth in plant and finally the yield. Thus, they might have
.left the land by using another land.for growing the plants. Initially,there were'
enough land for raising the crops/plants and when they found reduction in the
yield on the same land, then they might have shifted their farming in other
newly acquired land by leaving the old land and living places. This system of
farming is referred as shifting cultivation and is followed in some tribal belts
of Africa and Asia.
10
1) Weed Control Evolution. Scope and I;
Diversity of Agriculture
Farmers in ancient age might have seen growing several unwanted plants
with the desirable plants competing with them for growth resources. With
this experience, they might have started control of these unwanted plants
(weeds) from the fields by uprooting or cutting etc. Women mostly performed
this work from the very beginning.
g) Fallowing of Land
With the gradual increase in the population, people have probably started
living in groups together and established villages with some economic
management and then practice of shifting cultivation would have been avoided.
On experiencing the reduction in yield due to continuous raising of a crop
plants on the same soil, they might have started fallowing of some portion of
land and tilling of old fallow land with unwanted green plants. Then they
might have experienced good yield from the fallow land.
.h) Use of Domestic Wastes as Plant Nourishment
By the use of domestic wastes in agriculture as plant nourishment, people

must have experienced the good growth of crop plants. Then they might
have started to preserve these wastes and use them in the cropped land as
manure. Meanwhile, they might have domesticated several animals like
sheep, goat, cow and buffalo etc., for their support and then they must have
seen tremendous effect of dung, urine and animal wastes in improving the soil
fertility. Thus, they had started use of ashes, domestic wastes, animal dung
and urine and animal wastes in the process of agricultural production.
i) Following Crop Rotation

,
In due time, the cultivators must have realized that growing cereals after
legume crop give better yield which resulted in crop rotation practice. Later
they must have known that legume plants fix atmospheric nitrogen through
their root nodules.
j) Green Manuring
Later with this experience, legumes must have been grown and then turning
them into the soil with the help of available equipments to improve the soil
fertility.
The important events in the history of agriculture after 7500 BC, can be listed as
below:
Period Event
7500 BC Conservation of crops (wheat, barley).
6000 BC Domestication of cattle and pigs.
4000 BC Cultivation of maize.
3500 BC Cultivation of potato.
3400 BC Wheel was invented.
3000 BC Bronze was used to make tools. 11

Indian Agriculture: 2900 BC Plough was invented and irrigation started.
An Overview
2700 BC Silk moth domesticated.
2300 BC Cultivation of chickpea, pea, mustard and cotton

Domestication of fowl, buffalo and elephant.
2200 BC Cultivation of rice in India.
1200 BC Cultivation of finger millet (ragi).
1725 BC Cultivation of sorghum.
1700 BC Taming of horses.
1500 BC Cultivation of sugarcane and irrigation from wells.
1400 BC Use of iron.
1500AD Cultivation of sweet orange, sour orange, wild brinjal,

pomegranate.
1600AD Introduction of several crops in India from Portugal-like,

sweet potato, arrow root, cassava, tomato, chillies, pumpkin.
papaya, pineapple, guava, custard apple, groundnut.
cashewnut, tobacco, American cotton, rubber.
1.2.3 Development in Agriculture before Independence

The Europeans, primarily the Britishers, arrived in India in early seventeenth
century and by the 18th century had made a profound impact on India. India was
forced, for the first time into a coordinate role within a world system based on
industrial production rather than agriculture. Many of the dynamic craft and
cottage industries that had long attracted foreigners to India suffered extensively
under competition with new modes of mass production fostered by the British.
Modem institutions, such as universities and technologies, rail lines, roads, mass
communication were developed to serve British, rather than Indian, economic
interest. A country, that in the 18th century was a magnet for trade, by the 20th
century, became an underdeveloped and over populated under alien domination.
Land ownership was given to small group of people to collect the rent from
individual farmers and pay to the Government, a system known as 'Zamindari'.
There was also' Rytwari' system in which the ruler used to collect rent directly
from farmers, who had settled on the land. Farmers had no security of possessed
land hence they had no interest in land development. Irrigatiori schemes were
initiated in major river deltas for raising additional revenue. '
A separate Department of Agriculture was created at national level in 1871.

Some of the provinces (now states) also created independent Agriculture
Departments. Facilities for agricultural education were created at Coimbatore in
1878 andPune in 1890. After the great famine of 1876-77, a Famine Commission
was appointed in 1880. Dr. l.A. Voelekar, Consultant Chairman of the Royal
Agriculture Society submitted report on improvement in Indian agriculture in 1891.
In the first decade of20th century the Empirical (Now Indian) Agricultural Research
Institute was set up in 1905 at Pusa (Bihar). Subsequently, agricultural colleges
were started at Coimbatorc, Pune, Nagpur and Kanpur. Royal Commission (1926)
12
'" ••.• l'
report was accepted in 1928. Department of Food was created in 1942 in order Evolution, Scope and
to meet the food requirement. Grow More Food Campaign, Food Policy
Diversity
.
of Agriculture
Committee, Famine Enquiry Committee and Fertilizer Production Programme

were initiated. In January 1946, Statement of Agriculture and Food Policy in
India was issued with 10 objectives to promote welfare of the people and
improvement of their standard ofliving. Steps were taken to organize research
supports to agriculture through research institutions. '
1;2.4 Development in Agriculture after Independence

During the post independence, extension of agricultural education in country
- has witnessed a sea change both 'in content and quality, in view of changed
-scenario of agriculture. On the recommendation of the Education Commission
~1948), Joint Indo-American teams of 1955, 1959 and 1961 and Education
, Commission (1964-66), State Agricultural Universities (SAUs,) were established
to integrate agriculture education, research and extension activities in the country
through State Governments. At present 43 SAUs,4 Deemed Universities and
one central agricultural university besides about 40 Faculties of Agriculture in
traditional universities with the enrolment capacity of nearly 6400 in agriculture
and 1500 in veterinary science in graduate, masters and doctoral courses exist.
These institutions include agriculture, veterinary science, agricultural engineering,
forestry, dairy technology, food technology, horticulture, fisheries, home science
and agriculturalmarketing. The seventh schedule of the Constitutionof India allocated
.the responsibility of agricultural education, research and extension functions to the
Union and State Governments. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), as the apex agency, is responsible for the growth and development of
agricultural education and research in India. The ICAR coordinates research in
the country through its wide network of National and Central Research Institutes
(48), National Research Centers (30), Project Directorates (12), All India
Coordinated Research Proj ect (61) and other proj ects / programmes (16).
1.2.5 Modern Indian Agriculture

Modem agriculture developed with the advancement of science and technology
and its practical application in the field of agriculture. Now farmers are adapting
new techniques of agricultural production by replacing the traditional practices to
harness the high level of productivity. Consequently, the productions of different
kinds of produce at national level are quite satisfactory to meet the current needs
of the human being and livestock. Such achievement in maintaining the pace in
agricultural production with the growing population of human and cattle are mainly
contributed due to the following facts:
a) Development of Improved Plant Types/Varieties

After 1960, vast improvement in crop varieties has been made. Introduction
of high yielding varieties responding to better management particularly in
wheat and rice and hybrids in maize, sorghum, pearl millet, cotton and
several vegetable crops have made tremendous positive change in agricultural
production. Varieties resistant to many diseases and insect-pests are available.
Now the crop varieties superior in grain quality, high oil contents, high quality
of fiber, as well as tolerance to abiotic stresses like drought, floods, frost,
high temperature etc., are also available. The crop varieties 'of varying
duration (early, medium and late) have encouraged growingof these crops in
varied agro-climatic conditions 'and cropping/farming systems. 13
Indian Agriculture: b) Development of Improved Crop Production Technologies
An Overview
Improved production techniques for crop cultivation based on the availability

of various resources viz., land, water, capital and farm rnachineries have'
been developed. Improved production technology includes selection of
suitable crops/varieties, proper land preparation, efficient sowing management
(sowing time, seed rate, sowing method and plant geometry, etc.), balanced
nutrition, effective weed control, adequate water management and proper
plant protection measures. Thus, now agriculture itself is an industry.
c) Minimum/Zero Tillage
Earlier, it was considered that more yields are possible with more tillage, but
now this idea has been changed. Now growers try to utilize the rich nutrition
of upper soil surface and soil moisture more efficiently by minimizing or not
doing the tillage operations.
d) Intensive Cropping
In the past, mono cropping and double cropping under rainfed farming were
considered ideal for crop production. Now due to availability of early
maturing high yielding varieties and efficient soil moisture conservation
techniques, several double cropping systems have been evolved. Growing
of three or more crops in a succession even without giving the rest to land
became quite feasible to raise 'the returns per unit area and time. Many
studies found that, intensive cropping systems have no adverse effect on soil
properties.
e) Dryland Agriculture
In the areas where evapo-transpiration is greater than precipitation, growing
of crops was risky but now improved cultivation technology for growing
suitable crops has been developed. Now, it is said, that soils of dry farming
regions ar~ m~re Qungrythan thirsty.
1) Use of Problematic and Waste Land in Agriculture
The problematic soils like saline, alkaline, acidic, flood prone, desert and
other soils unsuitable for agricultural use are being reclaimed with suitable
scientific technologies for their efficient use in agriculture.
g) Maintenance of Soil Health
It is well known that soil is a medium for plant growth to give ultimate yields.
Hence, any operation on the soil for agriculture viz., tillage, manuring, fertilizer
application, irri~ation, drainage, weeding, interculture practices and use of
agro-chemicals I\lay be done taking due consideration about their influence
on soil-properties:
The old philosophy of Indian farming is getting changed and modem improved
agro techniques for growing crops are being adopted.
1.2.6 . Global Issues Related to Agriculture

Improvement in food and nutritional security would not be the major issue for,
agricultural development in India, but emphasis for environmental protection,
sustainability and profitability would be more important in future to come. Following
the General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) and liberalization process,
14
globalization of markets would call for competitiveness and efficiency of agricultural Evolution, Scope and
production.
Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Discuss the historical sketch of primitive agriculture in the country.
2) Summarize the development of Indian agriculture after independence.
________________________________________ ~!·l~ _
1.3 SCOPE
Indian agriculture has now entered in a dynamic phase. The innovation of new
seeds, use of farm chemicals and irrigation water had lead to "Green Revolution"
after 1970. Presently, in the context to rapid agro-economic change'S and
globalization of system, a more complete development approach is needed. It
should not only concern with producing competitive and quality farm produces,
but also address issues of natural farm resource management, environmental support
to farming and institutionalizing development linkage. Agricultural achievements in
India during its 50 years of independence have been positive and changed the
.image of the country from food importer to potential exporter. However, in India
population is growing at the rate of 1.9 per cent 'annually and reached to 1.2
billion in the year 2005. To keep pace with current rate of population growth and
consumption patterns, the requirement of food grains will reach to 246 million
tones by the year 2020. There is a need to reduce crop losses from pests,
diseases and weeds and to promote fertilizer use efficiency to further increase the
agricultural production.
India is a leading agricultural country in the world. Presently, agricultural production

(food grains, edible oils, pulses, vegetables, fish, milk, sugar, fibre and feed) is
almost satisfactory to meet the current demand. But the estimates of requirement
of food, feed, fibre and raw materials towards the middle of 21 SI century are likely
to be doubled. Th~ current trend of population growth has created alarming
situation as the scope of increasing in area under cultivation is not possible besides
possibility of reduction in area due to urbanization and in:frastructuraldevelopment.
Thus, there is urgent need to accelerate the pace of agricultural growth in order to
fulfill the expected needs."
Indian agriculture has a wide scope to serve the human being with reference to
.following aspects: .
15
Indian Agriculture: 1.3.1 Food Security
An Overview
Advancement of civilization is closely related to agriculture. As 21 SI century has

commenced it is high time to start anticipating challenges to be faced with their
solutions. Strategies are to be worked out to enhance agricultural production
under all odds. The future requirements must be worked out looking into changed
food habits and change in standard ofliving. Vertical increase in the productivity
appears to be solution to double the agricultural production. Therefore, cultivation
of high yielding varieties with improved production technologies, efficient use of
the available resources, including farm machineries and power, efficient use of
agro-inputs, must be well known to the farmers. Proper training to the farmers
and concerned persons is a must
1.3.2 Efficient Use of Knowledge of Agricultural Sciences

In pre-scientific agriculture, 6 persons could produce enough food for themselves
and for 4 other persons. In years of bad harvest, they could produce only enough
for themselves. With the development of agricultural science and application of
advanced technology, 5 persons are able to produce enough for 95 others besides
themselves.
Agriculture as a science is derived with the integration of the knowledge of

biology, physics, chemistry, economics, social science, geography, geology, agro-
meteorology and engineering. There is tremendous development in the knowledge
of these subjects.A good coordination is required to have multidisciplinary approach
to advance the agricultural resources. Biotechnology and genetic engineering are
important in evolving crop varieties with desired characters for future use.
1.3.3 Efficient Use of Natural Resources

The natural resources affecting over all atmosphere of crop plants should be
efficiently used. At present, the available solar radiation, water, air, CO2 etc., are
underused in the field of agriculture. Most of the improved varieties are sensitive
to light and they synthesize their food from the light. The plants use only a small
portion of radiant energy and huge amount of available radiant energy remains
unused. Mostly upper leaves of the many plants get advantages of light, while
lower leaves remain without light. Thus, distribution oflight is uneven to the plant.
Therefore, such plant types should be evolved or planting geometry may be
developed, so that crop plants may utilize light more efficiently.
Soil and water are the other natural resources, which are used without proper
attention. The management of soil according to land use capabilities, involving
proper tillage, irrigation, checking of erosion, avoiding water logging, balanced
manuring etc., leading to profitable crop production. The prevention of land
degradation, conservation of rain water, irrigation with higher water use efficiency,
maintaining the quality of water, improving the ground water potential for improving
the productivity of crops under both irrigated and rainfed production systems is
needed.
1.3.4 Development of New Plant Types

As mentioned above, the crop canopies are not suitable to utilize the radiant
energy efficiently, hence there is need to evolve such plant types in crops in future,
which may be able to utilize the radiant energy maximum. For this purpose, the
leaves of plants may be semi erect or erect with narrow lamina-rather to drooping
· with.broad lamina. The size of plants to be reduced with more economic yielding Evolution, Scope and
ability and thus, harvest index will be high. The small plants may be responsive to .
high level of fertilizer application and irrigation supplies resulting in high yields.
The histology of plants may also be changed in future. At present, 33 per cent of
synthesized food of plant is utilized for growth, but now it is discovered that more
food material can be consumed by respiration through green tissues and it is
known as photorespiration. The crops having ability of photorespiration result in
poor photosynthesis owing to less yields. Therefore, now such plant types may be
evolved, which have less or no photo-respiration.
1.3.5 Development of Multiple Resistance Crop Varieties

With the advancement in biotechnology and genetic engineering, such varieties
may be evolved, which have resistance against adverse effect of several biotic
(insect-pests and diseases) and abiotic (climatic and cultural practices) stresses.
1.3.6 Commercialization of Agriculture

The agriculture is not related only for arranging foods and other livelihoods, but it
js a profession for raising the socio-economic status of an individual farmer as well
as the nation. India has potential to become the world's largest exporter of
agricultural products and also to become fourth largest economy after the USA,
Japan, and China by the year 2020. However, failing on the farm front and not
orienting its agricultural practices towards greater food production would mollify
its prospects. Though there has been vast change in Indian agriculture resulting in
self sufficiency of food, it is entirely a self contained system with the seed coming
from the previous harvest, manures from the farm wastes and labour from the
joint family, while produce is meant primarily for family consumption. The.
occasional surplus in agricultural production due to favourable weather conditions
is saved for lean year. After this, country has forced towards surplus farming,
making ~se of the new agricultural technology as well as agro inputs (seeds/
fertilizer) developed by own or collected from external origin. In addition to this,
the recent trends ofliberalization and globalization are pushing farmers into global
market competition. Thus, commercial agriculture has become insurable. At
present on an average majority of Indian farmers are unaware about international
market. Therefore, adequate efforts are needed to equip them for this purpose
by building managerial confidence in farmers for commercial farming, development
of adequate infrastructure for promoting commercial farming and making
cooperative efforts for developing marketing and market intelligence.
1.3.7 Sustainable' Agriculture

.After the independence, there was great challenge before the nation to achieve
self-sufficiency in food.grain production which has been achieved within a short
period by following several strategies viz., expansion of area under crop,
development of water resources for irrigation, development of policies for input
supplies, markets infrastructure and evolution of high yielding varieties responsive
to higher input etc. But increase in agricultural produ~tion has created many
problems pertaining to land degradation, pesticide residues in farm produce, gene
erosion and atmospheric as well as water pollution in some areas.
Sustainable agriculture is a form of agriculture aimed to maintain the pace of

agricultural production with the burgeoning population without endangering the
17
Indian Agriculture: resource base of the future generation. Dependence on the use of synthetic fertilizers,
, An Overview
pesticides, and other agro-chemicals to raise the vertical productivity is posing
threat to ecologically fragile environment. Use of more irrigation water.is looking
serious challenges and meanwhile, injudicious use of irrigation is creating many
serious problems in soils. Thus, sustainable agriculture is a balanced management
system of renewable-resources including soil.wildlife, forests,crops, fish, livestock,
plant genetic resources and ecosystem without degradation and.to provide food
livelihood for current and future generation 'by maintaining or improving the
ecosystem services of these resources. The sustainable agriculture system has to
be economically viable, environmentally sustainable both with short and long term
perspectives. Natural resources not only provide food, fibre, fuel and fodder, but
also perform ecosystem services viz. detoxification of noxious chemicals within
soils, purification of water, favourable weather and regulation of hydrological
processes within watershed. It has to prevent land degradation and soil erosion.
It has to replenish nutrients and control weeds, pests and diseases through biological '
and cultural practices. Thus sustainable agriculture can be based on natural farming
or organic farming. '
The sustainable agriculture substantially differs from modem agriculture as under:
Particular Sustainable Agriculture Modern Agriculture
Management of Using FYM, composts, green Fertilizers.

.-
plant nutrition manures, biofertilizers, oilcakes,
crop residues and agro-waste.
Pest control Crop rotation, cultural methods , Useoftoxic .;;

'i',.
and biological methods. chemicals.
.'
, ,
"
Ecology Stable ecology. Fragile ecology.
Use of resources The rate of extraction from forests, The rate of extraction '
fisheries, underground water and exceeds the rate of, '
other renewable resources do regeneration besides
not exceed the rate of pollution of water
regeneration. ; bodies.
..
Quality of food Food materials are safe. - Food materials may

materials containtoxicresidues.
The following practices are needed for sustainable' agric~ture:
1) Soil and water conservation to prevent degradation of soil productivity and

increasing crop growing period for optimum crop productivity.
2) Efficient use oflimited irrigation water.
3), Crop rotations that mitigate weeds, diseasesand insectproblems, increase

soil productivity and minimize soil erosion. , ,,,' "
4) Integra~ nutrient management that reduces the n~ed f~Cal fertilizers,

improves the soil health, and minimizes the environmental 'pollution by
conjunctive use of organic, inorganic and biofertilizers. " '
5) Integrated pest management that reduces the need for agro-chemicals by,
crop rotation, weather forecasting, use of resistant varieties, timely sowing
rs • and biological pest control.
6) Integrated. weed management by adopting preventive measures, tillage, - Evolution, Scope and
Diversity of Agdculture
timely interculture, intercropping and crop rotation to improve soil and plant
health.
1.3.8 Risk Management in Agriculture

Risk has always been a part of agriculture. But presently successful farmers are
now looking at a deliberate and knowledgeable approach to risk management as
vital part of their game plan. Risk management means farming with confidence in a
rapidly changing world. It is the ability to deal with risk that comes with new;
attractive farming opportunities. Generally, in agriculture one has to manage
production, marketing and fmancial risks to achieve expected outcome/profit from
.
agriculture. Presently computer based modules have been
,
developed which helps
in reducing the risk in agriculture.
a) ProductionRisks
The major sources of production risks are weather, pests, diseases, the interaction
of technology with other farm and management characteristics, genetics,
machinery efficiency and the quality of inputs. Some of the risk management
strategies like enterprise diversification, crop insurance, contract farming and
alternate technoiogies are adopted so as to reduce production risks.
b) Marketing Risks
Marketing is the part of business that transforms production activities into financial .
success. Unanticipated forces such as weather or government action may lead to
dramatic changes in crop and livestock product prices. To be successful, one
takes an informed and balanced approach for making marketing decisions by
focusing on long-term profitability. Academic studies indicate that marketing
strategies that depend on price chasing or speculation have not been shown to be
consistently profitable. Also, those strategies that do not consider financial and
production risks is likely to prove poor. Managing marketing risk begins with a .
marketing plan. The goals and objectives of business derive marketing plan, An
accurate understanding of production costs is a critical part of a sound marketing.
Beside this, better knowledge of supply and demand, of agricultural commodities
in local market/area and average prices received in previous years are important
considerations for developing market plans.
c) Financial Risks
Financial risk has three basic components mainly the cost and availability of debt
capital, the ability to meet cash-flow needs in a timely manner and the ability to
maintain and grow equity. A set of well-maintained financial records is an"absolute
necessity for better financial control of a farm. Essential financial statements like
balance sheet and statement of owners equity, income statement and projected
and actual cash-flow, provide a history of your business and the data one needs
to calculate financial performance. Ratios such as dept to asset, dept to equity .
. and turnover-are important in monitoring over all performance and in turn lowering
the'financial risk in agriculture.
1.3.9 Organic Farming

India has made tremendous progress in agricultural production after the inception
of green revolution, in mid sixties and achieved self sufficiency in food grain
Indian Agriculture: production within a period of 3-4 decades. But on the other hand, it also led to
An Overview
development of many problems like decline in fertility and productivity of soils,
soil salinization, water logging and appearance of micro nutrients deficiency due to
addition of major nutrients through fertilizers only. Besides, the stagnation in yield
of major field and vegetable crops, human anti animal health hazards and unsafe
agricultural produce etc., are some of challenges which forced the scientists/ .
planners/policy makers/fanners to switch from chemical intensive fanning to organic
farming. Organic farming is a new production system which involves the use of
I
locally and naturally available materials to cater the need of production system
, while conserving resources and improving the quality of environment and agricultural
produce. India has so far nearly 2 million hectare area under organic farming and
in the years to come the area may grow due to refmement in production technology
as per national/international standards, certification and value addition of organic
produce.
1.3.10 Post-harvest Management

The post-harvest management plays an important role in improving the quality,
storability and finally the economic value of agricultural commodities. With the
advent 'of World Trade Organisation, the farmers are realizing the importance of
post harvest management in agriculture because the peasants get excellent economic
returns from their produce, if they have better knowledge of growing conditions
and production practices that promote post parvest quality of agricultural produce.
Quality of agricultural produce cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; .
therefore the crops are to be harvested at the proper stage, later threshed and
winnowed in due course of time. The produce, thus obtained is stored properly at.
nearly 10 per cent moisture. The value addition of the produce is done through
grading and making small pack of rice, wheat etc., to improve quality and prevent
physical damage to produce and ease in handling. The perishable crops particularly
potato are refrigerated in cold storage to retard the undesirable growth such as
sprouting and sold in the market so as to get higher price ofthe produce.

1) Discuss the future thrust for food security with the efficient use of natural .
resources .
............................................................................................................... ~..
.................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
. .
2) Describe the scope of commercialization of agriculture. '
..................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................... .; .
.................................................................................................................
.. '
....................................................................................................................
20
..........: . Evolution,' Scope and
DLvtrsity or AgriCUlture,
3) Give your comments on post-harvest management
................................................................................................................. - ---- ...
1.4 DIVERSITY
, The diversification towards need based cropping system by replacing conventional
cropping system is essential for efficient utilization of available agro-resources
viz., land, labour, water, farm machineries, managerial capabilities etc. Growing of
need based crops in non-conventional season and area should be explored. Now;
the use ofland to grow only crop(s) is not sufficient to meet the livelihood of .
farmers. Farmers cannot satisfy their all needs by growing crops only even in the
intensive manner, butthey need several other components viz., milk, meat, eggs,
medicines, fuel, fodder, woods and manures etc. Thus, thereis need to exploit
available diversities to make farming more sustainable and therefore, farming
system approach is essential for successful agriculture in present day and future
also. Farming system approach is applied to agriculture for efficient utilization of
all resources, maintaining stability in production and obtaining higher net returns.
Farming system consists of several enterprises viz., crop-husbandry, dairying,
piggery, poultry, fishery, bee-keeping etc. These enterprises are inter-related. The
end products and wastes-of one enterprise are used as inputs in others. The
wastes of dairying like dung, urine, etc., are used for the preparation of organic
manures which is an input in cropping systems.
Farming systems represent an appropriate combination of different farm enterprises
for increasing profitability of farms. They interact adequately with environment
without dislocating the ecological and socio-economic balance on the one hand
<:
and attempt to meet the national goals on the other. The integration of alternate
farming system based on the needs of the farmers, national as well as global
markets and ecological balance may be the best option of diversification in
agriculture.
1.5 LET US SUM UP

Attempts have been made in this unit to explain the meaning of agriculture and its
importance in relation to civilization of human being. Under the head of evolution,
the changes in agriculture based on the experiences by following farming practices
and development in socio-economic status of human aredescribed. The status of
primitive (pre-historic era) agriculture and then advancement in agriculture during
pre and post independence: of the nation are mentioned here. Finally, the modem
status of agriculture and.its relevance to present changing scenario is explained for
the knowledge. The future thrusts of agriculture are mentioned for further
advancement to meet the challenging task of food security in future. The possibility 21
Indian Agriculture: for alternate farming system t<;raise the socio-economic status of mankind without
An Overview
deteriorating the natural resources and disturbing the ecological balance are also
described.
1.6 KEY WORDS

Homo Sapiens The direct ancestor of modern man.
Organic Farming It is production system which involves the use of locally

and naturally' available materials to cater need of
production system while conserving resources and
improving the quality of environment and agricultural
produce.
Risk Management Risk management means farming with confidence in a

rapidly changing world.
Sustainable It is a farm of agriculture aimed to maintain the pace of

Agriculture agricultural production without endangering the resource
base of the future generation.
Zero Tillage Planting crops without doing tillage operation.
1.7 SOME USEFUL BOOKSIREFERENCES

Randhawa, M.S. (1986). A History of Agriculture in India. Vol. IV, 1947 - .
1981. ICAR, New Delhi. pp 716.
Reddy, S.R. (1999). Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani Publication, New Delhi.

pp 447.
Reddy, T.Y: and Reddy, G.H.S. (1992). Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani

Publication, New Delhi. pp 464.
Singh, Panjab (2002). Food and Environmental Security - A Continuing

Challenge, Presidential Address during Second International Agronomy
Congress on Balancing Food and Environmental Security held at New Delhi
during Nov. 26-30, 2002, ISA, New Delhi - 110012.
Tiwari, K.N. (2002): Balanced Fertilizer for Food Security. Fertilizer News;
Vol. 47 (11): 113-122. .
1.8 ANSWERSIHINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Your answer should include the listing of important Agricultural Development

during 7500 BC to 1600 AD.
2) Extension of Agriculture education, establishment of SAUs, development of

research and extension system, development of improved crop production
technologies, etc., are important. .
22,
Check Your Progress 2 Evolution, Scope and
1) Prevention ofland degradation, conservation of rain water, irrigation-with

higher water use efficiency, maintaining the quality of water, improving the
ground water potential for increasing food production.
2) Agriculture is not only to provide foods but it is a profession for raising the
socio-economic stands of the people of country. Indian agriculature has
great potential for exports and food processing industries.
3) Post-harvest management is important for improving.thaquality, storabiling

and economic value of agricultural production.
UNIT 2 INDIAN FARMERS TRADITIONS,
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
Structure
2.0· Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Traditional Role of Fanners in Society
2.3 Farm Practices and the Zodiac: How are They Related?
2.4 Soil Treatment and Practices
2.5 Pre-sowing Cultivation Practices
2.6 Plant Protection Practices

2.7 Harvesting and Threshing
2.8 Farm Implements and Transportation

2.9 FannAnima1s
2.10 Irrigation Practices
2.11 Let Us Sum Up
2.12 Key Words
2.13 Some Useful BookslReferences
2.14 AnswerslHints to Check Your Progress
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• discuss traditions and beliefs that guide farm practices arid influence fanners
attitudes and behaviour;
• assess those beliefs and practices which are helping agricultural growth;
• identify agricultural programmes based on traditional systems and beliefs;

and
• analyse the impact of various agriculture development models and understand

fanners view point.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the dominant economic activity in over 6,00,000 villages of India,
populated by 742 million people. In the last six decades, great strides have been
made in agriculture sciences. Locations specific technologies have been evolved
which can help us to reach the potential of both resource-rich and resource-poor
regions.
24
In many places, farm production has overtaken annual population growth resulting Indian Farmers
Traditions, Beliefs and
in a surplus and buffer stocks of foodgrains. A quantum jump in the number of
Practices
cross-bred milch animals has led to a boom in dairying, often described as the
White Revolution.
After Independence, the start of the planning era in 1951 brought dynamism into
Indian agriculture through programs like Community Development, and three-tier
Panchayati Raj system oflocal self- government. '.
/.
Despite these achievements, many regions were by-passed by modernisation and

growth. Seventy per cent of farmers and land- based workers continue to be
deprived of basic needs like food, water and health care. Thousands leave their
homes every day and migrate to nearby towns and cities seeking a livelihood. This
great majority has lost its customary rights, status in society and their self- esteem
and confidence.
In this Unit, we look into the traditional beliefs and practices of fanners. These are
often ignored but have provided mental and spiritual strength to people. They
helped the community to maintain its identity and social structure through battles,
invasions and natural calamities. Faced with a crisis, they withdrew to another
place. When the invasion was over, they returned and lived harmoniously in the
same peaceful pattern as before.
The origin of Indian farmers traditions and practices is traced to the scholars and
sages who lived in the early Aryan settlements. These practices were needed once
I
the pastoral groups settled down to regular cultivation of crops. We find these
mentioned in the Rig Veda, the Atharva Veda, in the treatise by sage Kasyapa on
'agriculture, in the observations of scientists and physicians Parasara, Susruta, and
Charaka, astronomers like Varahamihira and others. Scholars of different regions
added to the store of knowledge from time to time. Many practices have been .1
noted by Kautilya in the Arthashastra, written in about 250 A.D. Observations of
foreign travellers in ancient and medieval India, have given detailed descriptions of
agriculture practices and administration. .
2.2 TRADITIONAL ROLE OF FARMERS IN

SOCIETY
Socio - economic status and role of farmers in ancient India is discussed as
under:
• The Sacred Trust of the Farmer
The Sanskrit saying "Agriculture is a divine skill taught by sages to farmers for
sustenance of life" shows the high regard for farmers in society. The farmer was
the Annadata - the provider of food.
He raised fodder for animals. He planted and maintained the grove of sacred
trees next to the village, maintained pasture land, grew herbs and medicinal plants
for supply to the village physician, and fragrant flowers for worship at the temple.
He nurtured cattle, which gave milk and carried burdens for the community. He
was the source of raw materials for all artisans.
25
--- - - -------- -
Indian Agriculture: • Land Ownership and Duties
An Overview
The Laws of Manu state that "The sages have said that the land belongs to one
who cleared and tilled it". The farmer believed that the land was a sacred trust
held by him. During cultivation, he had to avoid damaging the land, polluting the
soil or letting the land go waste.
• The Farmer in Village Administration
Up to the middle of the sixteenth century, farmers continued to have absolute

rights over their lands. The rulers had claim to a portion of the grain produced, but
had no title to the farmers land. The entire administration of the village community
was in the hands of groups of farmers called' Kutumbin' in Sanskrit, and by
different names in different regions.
Ancient texts describe the Gram Sabha in every village in which farmers elected
office-bearers to look after the administration and welfare of the community. Thus
farmers were responsiblefor their own administration. The Gram Sabha was
noted for its prompt action to settle disputes and administer justice. Running poor.
houses, schools, rest-houses for travellers, maintaining wells and tanks, building
bunds for protection from floods and even defence against enerp.y attack were
.'
part of its duties .
• Declining Role of the Farmer
.. From other Units in this Block, you will understand how farmers rights Were
slowly whittled down at first by foreign invasions, later by changes in the land
,:
tenure system. Replacement of the old system by Zamindari, Rytwari, and other .
land tenures deprived the fanner of his customary rights including security of'land
-. . < rights, so that he became a hired h.and on his own land.

\ .. .
. Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.

b) Check your-answer with those given at the end of the unit.
-: ."
1) From your own knowledge, can you identifytwo traditional beliefs related to
. land and environment? .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• e .••••••••••••••• ~ •••••••••••••••••••• ; •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• i> •••••••• ~ •••••••••••• ~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
........................................................ ~............................................................•............................. ' .
•••••••• .o ••• ~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••• ; ••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••• ~., '" •.••••••••••••••••••••••• .;.
2) Can you give one example of custonlarypra~ticerelated to'health?
••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••••••• .o •••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .o.o • .o • .o •••••••• .o •• .o ••• .o • .o •••••••••• .o ••••••••
•• ••••• •• .o •••••• .o ••••••••••• .o ••••• ' •••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••• e e ••• e ••••• e· ••••• .; ••• e •••••••• e ••••••••••••••••••••••• .o •••••••••••••••••••••
... .... ...... .•.• ~ .

.
.......................................................................................................................... .
Indian Farmers
2.3 FARM PRACTICES AND THE ZODIAC: Traditions, Beliefs and
Practices
HOW ARE THEY RELATED?
Traditional fanning community in India believed that the movement of planet and
their position at particular point of time affect fate/performance of farming. The
relationship between these believes and their decisions on farming practices are
discussed as under.
• The Indian Almanac - the Panchang
Can stars and planets dictate our fate? Do movements of the sun, moon and
constellations influence events in our lives? What is therein the universe beyond
the earth and the sun? Questions like these have been asked from earliest times.
Efforts are still being made to find the answers. Ancient astronomers had developed
the science through observation, calculation and intense study of the heavens.
Based on this, they developed prediction of physical phenomena, events and even
the fate of human beings. As agriculture was the dominant economic activity, many
guidelines for farmers were made based on the signs of the Zodiac and planetary
movements.
• How the Panchang is Calculated
It is interesting to go through the Indian almanac compiled every year by scholars

working in religious institutions (Mathas). It is prepared according to many texts,
supplemented and made relevant to the region by scientist-scholars. At the start of
the Indian new year, (which occurs at different times in each region), the almanac'
(Panchang) is eagerly awaited in village homes. It gives major predictions for the
year, lists out auspicious periods for various activities, gives the dates of major
festivals as well as the mode of celebration and provides a general over-view of
life of the community and nation in the coming year.
• Agricultural Predictions
Farmers, eagerly await the predictions of rain, drought or wind direction which
are worked out from the position of planets, constellations, the sun and the moon
calculated for the year. A great deal of actual observation of climate or weather
, conditions goes into these predictions. For example the ascent of the star Ardra,
which rises in the Gemini constellation in June-July is the time when the farmer
is advised to start sowing crops, is also the rainy season. For vegetables and
short duration crops, he is asked to commence sowing under the star Rasta
(called Hathhi. in local dialect), which rises in the Virgo constellation in the
period 15th August to 15th September. Again this is a time when there is plenty of
soil moisture and little irrigation is required. The almanac gives a list of auspicious .
days for important practices like ploughing, sowing, irrigation, digging of wells,
harvesting and other practices.
• Some Proverbs and Sayings

Of course a great many of these guidelines are already known to farmers from
pithy sayings, proverbs and folk-songs. Ghagh, the folk poet says in one of his
verses "Jo barkha Chitra men hoye, Sagri kheti jawe khoye." When the star
Chitra is in ascent (around mid-April), the crop is almost ready for harvest, he~
.. 27
,-------
Indian Agriculture: the farmer is warned that rain will ruin the crop. Another proverb says" Bajre ke
AnOver.view
khet men, kabhi na macca boye, Boye to na hoye, gharwali nit roye". The farmer
is advised not to grow corn after a.crop ofbajra because the crop 'will fail and his
wife will be in tears.
• Some General Common Beliefs that Guide Farmers
The days of the bright fortnight are auspicious for starting agriculture activities,
while the days when the moon is waning and the new moon (amavasya) are to be
avoided. Out of27 constellations, fifteen were selected for giving best results to
the fanner. Sage Kasyapa says that in general the best time to start cultivation was
when Jupiter was in his lagna ( mansion), when Venus was in ascent or the moon
was in conjunction with Purvashada (this occurs around mid- January), which is a ,
suitable time for sowing some crops: '
Negative stars like Rahu were to be avoided for all operations. Specific times
(related to the season) were suggested for each crop. For example, the period
when the sun entered Aquarius was ideal for planting sugar-cane cuttings.
For the growing of fragrant and fruit trees in the sacred grove near the village, an
elaborate astronomical chart was provided, because trees were believed to be the
source of wisdom and spiritual strength.
, The signs of the Zodiac and planetary positions which determine important events
in life continue to be consulted by farmers, especially at critical times. '
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answer.

1) List out some common beliefs that guide farmers in his farm operations .
..... . .. e:·············· ~ .
•••• ••••• ••••••• ••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••• ••••• ••• ••••• •••••• ••• ••• ••• •••••••• ••• •••••••• •••• ••••••• e.* •• , •••••
2.4 SOIL TREATMENT AND PRACTICES

In this section, we will go through selection of crops according to different
types of soil and soil preparation practices followed by the traditional farming ",
communities.
Do you ever think about the soil under your feet? Probably not unless you walk
into a rain - water puddle, or hurt your feet on a ';9;.:~.,For everyone who works
on the land, the soil has always been a very important factor of life and livelihood. ,
28
- -- ------ --.. - -1
Indian Farmers .
• Ways of Improving Soil
I
Practices
Soil preparation and manuring have always been considered important for soil
fertility. Cattle were left overnight on the fields for a few days before start of the
sowing season alternately cow dung was liberally spread over the field. In some
cases, the mud from the bottom of water tanks was spread and mixed with the
top-soil, thus adding nutrients. The Yajur Veda mentions that before taking a
second crop, manuring of the field is essential.
• Soil Type Suited to Different Crops
Although the actual chemicals in the soil were known only in general terms, the
methods adopted to improve soil nutrition were based on scientific study,
-observations and knowledge of the properties of herbs and medicinal barks
needed for soil treatment.
Soil was divided into Urvara (fertile) and Usara (sterile). By experiment soils
suitable for different crops were identified. The nature of soil best suited for
growing barley, rice, sesamum or green gram was described. River banks were
best for growing pumpkin and flooded soils for sugarcane, pepper and grapes.
Soils in the vicinity of wells were suited to root vegetables. Marginal-furrows

between two rows of a crop were considered best for growing fragrant plants,
herbs, Khus roots and Lac. Potato would thrive when grown beside a bamboo
_grove. Clay soils were ideal suited for jute and sandy soil for summer paddy. We
can see farmers today following many of these ancient precepts.
Soils were also classified according to those which were totally dependant on rain
and those were irrigated by rivers. Kautilya in the Arthashastra (around 250 BC) I
I
classified soil according to the economic importance of the crops grown and their
I
productivity, as these parameters helped to determine the amount of taxation to
be imposed.
I
2.5 PRE-SOWING CULTIVATION PRACTICES

This section explains the different pre-sowing activities undertaken by the traditional
farmingcommunity.
• Pre-sowing Treatments
Some of the pre-sowing practices followed by farmers were: Cut ends of sugarcane
l cuttings were covered with a mixture of honey, ghee, animal fat and cow dung;
I
Bulbs of root vegetables were treated with cow dung mixture before placing in the
soil, Cotton seeds were first mixed with cow dung which functions as an antiseptic,
repels insects and adds minerals to the soil; Roots of trees were manured with the
ashes of bones and cow dung burnt together; Seeds of cereals were exposed to
heat and mist for seven days and nights, etc.
• Seed and Root Treatment I

\
The methods for treating-seeds included rubbing with cow dung, soaking in milk,
scrubbing with honey, soaking in jaggery water or keeping underground in a
packing of leaves with a fire constantly burning overhead. In many of these
practices we can find sound principles of plant nutrition and plant protection, for 29 I
---_._---- ------ -
Indian Agriculture: example both cow dung and Neem leaves have antiseptic properties that can
An Overvie~.
protect tender roots from insect infestation. -Buttermilk poured on tender roots
gives extra calcium and VitaminC for protection against fungus or disease.

b) . Check your answer with the given at the end of the unit.
I) Suggest two traditional methods of soil improvement which can b~ applied

by farmers today.
•••••••••••••••••• 0." •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••••
...................................................................................................................
••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••• 0 •••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••• ,
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• r'•••
.
..................................................................................................................
..
••• •••••• ••• •••••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••• 0 •••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••• \

. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
.
2.6 PLANT PROTECTION PRACTICES
Plant protection is important farm practice to protect the crop from the insect!
pest, birds and animals. The various practices followed by the farmers are briefly
discussed in the following section.
• Protecting the Crops from Bird and Animals _

.-'
Go into the fields at harvest time and watch a small boy perched on a machan in
the middle of a field of ripening grain, you will soon hear him shout and swing a
stone tied to the end of a rope, swiftly and vigorously around his head. His duty is
to guard the field from flocks of birds which attack the crop before it is harvested,
using his sling and a few stones. .
• Practices for Protecting Plants at Different Stage
There are many traditional practices for saving the crop at different stages. In the
centuries before chemical methods were found, farmed protected their trees and
crops by a variety of practices including fumigation with milk, ghee and jaggery,
spraying a decoction of bitter herbs and barks and scattering of ashes and sesamum
seed paste at the roots of trees. Some insects were controlled by smearing the
plant with a paste of lotus and tubers.
In addition to chemical sprays which are harmful to health, there me now biological
based sprays which adapt traditional knowledge to pest and disease control in
plants.
30
, Indian Farmers
Check Your Progress 4 Traditions, Beliefs and
Practices
b) Check your answer with those given atthe end of the unit.
1) Can a farmer protect his crop by low- cost methuds'L
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• f •••••••••••• ;~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,'" •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• e'••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ; •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
...........•.... .....•.... ...•.... ...•.. .......•...•.. .....•...•.... .• .• ...•.. .• .. ....•. ...........• ~ .
2.7 HARVESTING AND THRESHING

In the traditional society, like other crop production practices, the harvesting is .
also influenced by the movement of planet. The traditional methods ofharvesting
and threshing are discussed in this section. --
When the months of toil are over and the farmer is rewarded with the sight ofa
golden crop standing 01). his field. Then it is time to find the auspicious day for
preparing the threshing floor and harvesting the grain.
During the harvest season, you can go to a village and see traditional threshing
methods, especially in poorer regions where fields are small .and unsuited to the .
use of harvesting and threshing machines. Every members of the family assist in
.gathering the harvest, bringing it to the threshing yard, covering it with a-layer of
straw to preventthe grain from breaking, winnowing the grain, cleaning and
storing. .
The picture is not very different from the one described by Albenmi, the Persian
traveller who came with Shah Mahtnoud Ghasnavi to India, in 1074 A.D. 'Farmers
prepare the threshing floors close to each other in area which isagainst the
direction of the wind. A strong wooden post is fixed at the centre. Oxen are tied
to the post with strong ropes. Harvest is brought to the threshing floor, stamped
by oxen and then gathered in baskets.
Wmnowinggrain is the task of women. The farmers wife stands on a high ground ,
and scatters grain against the direction of the wind. The chaff is blown away and
grain falling to the ground is gathered by children into small heaps. It is dried in the
sun t~~#y6~~any moisture and stored in baked clay turrets. Grain is also
dehusked in wooden mortars. Straw and chaff are carefully removed and stored
for fodder.
There is a great variety of storage methods including earthen pots, cane baskets,
jute sacks and pits lined with 'straw and burnt cow dung. These old methods have
now been supplemented but not entirely replaced by metal bins. '
31
Indian Agriculture:
An Overview Check Your: Progress 5
1) Name the storage methods used for storing grain, pulses, vegetables. and
fruits and straw in the villages ..
2.8 FARM IMPLEMENTS AND

TRANSPORTATION
Some time back, we were travelling in an interior district of Maharashtra, when
the vehicle broke down. In the four hours it took for repairs, we sat in the make-
shift shelter of a blacksmith on the road-side. He was busy making traditional
farming tools. In one corner, there was a display of sickles, hoes, spades and
trowels. As we watched, he did a denting and repairing job on several damaged
ploughs, axes and sickles.
He waited tool in hand, while his wife blew vigorously into a pair of buffalo-skin
bellows on a lighted wood-fire. When the flame was red-hot, he thrust the tool
into it, expertly beating it to the desired shape. As ifby magic, a gleaming new
farm implement came out of the flames.
He told us that for generations his family had practised the craft. With machine-
made implements coming into the market, all other blacksmiths had left the village
to become labourers in nearby towns. But he decided to remain and continue to
provide service to local farmers. "Sometimes when the bus stops here, farmers
from other villages also flock to buy my work" he said with modest pride.
Farm implements are needed from the beginning because the first task of the
farmer is to culture the land. He breaks up lumps of earth and levels the soil to
enable irrigation and sowing of grain. One of the oldest of farm instruments is the
iron plough.
• Importance of Plough and Bullock Cart
The plough is honoured as it is essential for cultivation. "Facing the east, the
farmer should pray to mother earth, offer milk, place garlands around the necks of
the oxen and worship both the plough and the oxen." says sage Kasyapa.
An interesting comment is made by sage Parasara in his treatise' Krishi Parasara'

that the land ploughed ten times will yield greatest prosperity, that ploughed five
times gives sufficient wealth, three times mere subsistence and once will only
produce debt. Ploughing is one operation restricted to "men only" throughout the
country.
12
--- ------ ----

The plough appears to have retained its form from the Vedic era where it is Indian Farmers
Traditions,' Beliefs and
described in great detail. Ploughs were made for deep or shallow ploughing,
Practices
for being drawn by a single bullock, pair of bullocks or by 6 to 8 oxen for clay
soil. The number of ploughings depended on the soil moisture and crop. For
wheat, 7-8 ploughings were recommended, for rice 1-2.Other common implements
were the harrow, sickle, hoe, winnowing basket, winnowing fan and sieve.
Auspicious days of the week were fixed for ploughing. At cock- crow, the
ploughmen left with their bullocks to start their work. When the last round of
ploughing was over, the farmers wife would pour seed into wooden bowl attached
to the plough. After the seed dropped, the iron plough-share would cover it with
a thin layer of soil. Other implements continue to be n.i.adealmost in the same
time-honoured designs and sizes, as we saw in the workshop of our friend the
blacksmith. A great many improved tools have been scientifically designed. These
are efficient and reduce drudgery. If produced on a large-scale, they will be within
the reach of poor farmers and improve productivity.
Historians believe that the invention of the bullock cart which combines the wheel
with use of animal power was of great scientific significance. It enabled the spread
of cultivation beyond the earlier limits. Along with it there was a development of
culture and civilization. It is said that the wheel was invented in ancient Mesopotamia
(corresponding to modem Iraq). When we see the great variety of carts in our
country, it seems that the origin of the bullock-cart must have been in some part of
our sub-continent.
A wooden toy cart found at the Harappan site of about 2300 B.c., has solid
wooden wheels similar to carts still found in Gujarat.
The bullock-cart which carried the farmers family and his produce was decorated
for bringing a bride or carried pilgrims from one part of the country to the other,
has ceased to be an essential part of the fanners household. Maintaining bullocks
has become difficult due to the disappearance of pasture land. Improved varieties
of cattle are profitable, but the bullocks do not have the hump required for pulling
a cart or shouldering a heavy plough-share. If you see a bullock-cart moving on a
narrow village roads, stop to watch it for sometime, because it may not be around
after two or three decades.

1) Give two reasons whythe plough and the bullock-cart led to the spread of
civilization
Indian Agriculture:
An Overview 2.9 FARM ANIMALS , f~'
Animals have been the main stay of traditional arming system. Even today it is
most important complementary enterprise to agriculture. Let us discuss the status
and importance of animals in Indian agriculture.~
Many of you must have heard of Kamadhenu, the legendary cow of sage Vasishta
which arose from the historic churning of the ocean which is described in the
Puranas. The remarkable cow could mind-read the thoughts ef the sage and
instantly produce bountiful hospitality to any number of visitors to the ashram.
Perhaps the Aryan settlers had the legendary cow as a role model. They held the
cow, bull and oxen in great reverence. "By means of cattle, soil is tilled and·
production of foodgrains becomes possible. Oxen draw water, carry heavy burdens
and draw carriages. Even if they are weary, they carry home the entire harvest.
• Cow as a Symbol of Prosperity
In Vedas and Puranas, cattle especially milch animals are regarded as symbols of
prosperity. The cow being the abode of several deities, its worship was sure to
bring divine blessings to the household hence the house holder had the duty to
worship the cow every morning. In practice this duty was undertaken by women
of the household who also tended to the animals.
• Rule for Treatment of Cattle
Feeding and proper care of the cow was believed to be a sure way to get
liberation from the cycle of birth. Ill-treatment of cattle attracted the severest
punishment, even death. During the ceremonies after death, the gift of a cow was
believed to lead the departed soul to heaven. A Sanskrit verse says, "He who
goes round the cow, keeping to her left, earns the same merit as ifhe had gone
round the world seven times".
• Cattle and the Status of Farmers
Naturally the spiritual, social and economic value of the cow was reflected in the
social status of the cattle owner whose prestige rose in proportion to the number
of cattle he owned. Cattle were owned by individual farmers who were responsible
for its proper care. Every farmer had a few draught and milch animals for his
farming and family needs.
• Expert Traditional Herdsmen
Cowherds and buffalo herdsmen had an important place in the social order. When
crops were in the field, herdsmen were hired collectively by the village to take
cattle daily to the pastures, protect them from wild beasts in the forests and bring
them back safely in the evening. They also attended to ailments and injuries.
Expert and experienced herdsmen must have created some of the finest cattle
breeds still found in the country.
• Sanitation and Hygiene of Cattle
Cowsheds were to be cleaned and decorated with fresh flowers, perfumed with
incense and fumigated from time to time by burning pine-cone, oris roots, resin
34
gum or asafoetida and mustard seed mixture. To improve sanitation, planting of an Indian Farmers
asafoetida tree in the cowshed was advised. Rations were prescribed for the Practices
good health of cows, bulls, buffaloes, horses, mules, camels. This included straw,
fresh grass, oil-cake, oil, salt and in winter jaggery and ghee. Ailments and injuries
were treated with herbs, rock-salt, oils and spices like turmeric and ginger.
Priority was given to treating and healing cows especially milch animals. In his
book sage Parasara, gives tips for keeping cattle happy as well as healthy,
• Cattle Breeding
In the Mauryan age (250 - 350 A.D.), great strides were made in the breeding
and nurture of all animals including elephants, horses, camels, cows, buffaloes,
Sheep and goats.
• Superintendent of Cattle
There was a Superintendent of cattle. His task was to brand cattle, supervise the
work of herdsmen and supervise veterinary doctors who were posted throughout
the kingdom and keep an account of the number of animals including horses,
elephants and mules.
• Cattle Hospital
There were separate herds of crippled cattle and dry cows. Buffaloes were also
herded and nurtured. The Arthashastra prescribes four bulls for every ten cows or
for ten she- buffaloes for breeding purposes. The gopa, was the village accountant
responsible for setting apart pasture land. Veterinary doctors were given free land
for farming. Farm land was also allotted to other important members of the
community such as accountants, physicians and horse-trainers. Similar systems for
administration of cattle existed in all kingdoms in the ancient and medieval period.
Animals which assist the farmer include horses, camels and mules. Those which
provide milk or meat include goats, sheep and pigs. The poor farmer gets economic
returns from ducks and poultry rearing and fish breeding.
"-
An edict of Emperor Asoka states that two kinds of hospitals were established all
over the kingdom, one for men, the other for beasts. Herb gardens were planted
near hospitals for use as medicines.
2.10 IRRIGATION PRACTICES

Irrigation is the crucial inputs to get the good harvest of crop. This section discuss
the traditional believes followed in searching water as well as irrigation techniques
practiced by the farmers.
• The Water Diviner
He has almost vanished from our midst. But you may possibly fmd him in a village
in an unirrigated or remote comer of the country. You will see a lean figure running
over fields, with groups of farmers in hot pursuit. His routine starts early in the
moming. He bath, dress in a white or red dhoti and wears on his forehead the
sacred red mark. After prayers, he picks up his divining rod and meets the waiting
farmers. They escort him eagerly to fields where wells or small tanks are to be
dug.
35
Indian Agriculture: He is the water diviner. Go along with the group and watch him moving briskly
An Overview •
across the land, stopping to tap the earth now and then with his stick, like a
doctor tapping his stethoscope on a patient's chest. Suddenly he stops. It seems
as though the stick is stuck on the ground. "Here", he says. The farmer runs to
mark the spot "There is water below the ground here, at 3 feet" says the diviner.
Sometimes he draws a line and explains that it is the direction of the flow of
underground water. He tells them whether the water is sweet or salty or bitter. If
asked, he demarcates the land suited for agriculture, forestry, for excavating tanks
or wells, as required by the village Panchayat. He gets a reward for his labour.
Generally the farmer finds the water source as indicated by the diviner.
• Monsoon Driven Cultivation
In a monsoon dependant faming system, the farmer makes all efforts to find,
collect and store water for cultivation.
The ancients have said that the key to a good harvest is in the hands of Indra,
Lord of the Heaven. In his treatise on agriculture, sage Kasyapa says "Before
starting cultivation, the farmer must have complete knowledge about rainfall,
because rain is as essential to cultivation as cultivation is to life"
• Ancient Irrigation Systems
As cultivation spread to areas having low rainfall, an irrigation system became

necessary for growing crops. Rigvedic farmers constructed channels from wells
and rivers. Artificial lakes, dams and rainwater storage systems were common in
the Deccan plateau and southern region. In the Visnu Purana there is a reference
to Balarama diverting the Yamuna towards Vrindavan for cultivation.
• Water Administration at Farm and Kingdom Level
The role of a king in providing irrigation is illustrated in the question put by Rishi
Narada to king Yudhishtira in the Mahabharat. "Have large and overflowing lakes
been prepared all over the kingdom or is agriculture totally dependant on rain?"
he asks, to which the king replies describing the help given to farmers through an
irrigation system, regularly inspected by the king.
Farmers dug canals and tanks through cooperative effort. There are many references
to dikes and bunds to prevent flood water. When there were signs of flood,
village folk with baskets and shovels went to strengthen bunds. Chandr~gupta
Maurya maintained a canal irrigation system in which water flow was regulated
through sluices. Superintendents were appointed to monitor, regulate and maintain
the irrigation system. In different parts of India, the water administrator was
known by titles such as Kohli or Patkari in Maharashtra, Hawaldar in some
parts of Northern India and Kambukatti or Nirkatti in southern regions.
Asoka in his edicts describes the pious act of constructing tanks, wells and
maintaining places where the weary traveller could drink water and rest.
• Methods of Taking Water to the Fields
The tools and implements for lifting water can be seen even today. One traditional
method of lifting water from rivers in which a drum shaped wheel turns on a
vertical plane over the pond, a number of pots are tied around it, lift the water and
36
empty it on the downward turn of the wheel drawn by oxen. Known as the Indian Farmers
Persian wheel, it is sometimes turned by hand. Another method is the 'Dhenkli' in Practices
which water is scooped out by small cane which is emptied into the field.
The Kharavela kings of Kalinga and Chola kings of southern India were noted for
magnificent irrigation enterprises, including dams, anicuts and chain wells, whose
traces can be seen today. In chronically dry regions like Rajasthan and Gujarat,
you will see huge, stone lined water tanks built in every kingdom. These were
regularly cleaned and maintained by the administration.
The method of irrigating different crops was worked out in great detail according
to soil and climate conditions.

1) Give two traditional methods for collecting and storing water.
2.11 LET US SUM UP

What is the present relevance of traditional beliefs and practices? How they help
in agriculture planning? Are they still relevant to resource poor farmers? Can old
beliefs deal with the challenge of poverty, inequality and the impact of globalization
on small producers and village artisans? How can they stop migration from rural
/
areas to towns which tilt the socio-economic balance against the poor?
You can see some answers tothese questions in action taken by our farmers and
women-folk to deal with crises. Gaura devi, an illiterate widow in Renu, a tiny
village in the Himalayan district of Chamoli, now in the state of Uttarakhand
stopped destruction of the mighty pines and other trees near her home. She
created environmental history in 1974. She and her friends clung to the trees (this
gave rise to the name of the Chipko movement) and forced the timber contractors
to withdraw. The struggle went on for about two decades and stopped tree felling
by the powerful timber lobby.
Farmers in flood-prone aleas have heroically faced the threat of floods, by

strengthening river embankments facing the fury of r~ and torrent.
In many regions of water scarcity, farmers have created watersheds, collected

and stored rain water and reclaimed land for cultivation.
Tribal farmers have formed groups and regenerated dying forests in the Western
\
I
Ghats.
37
L
Indian Agriculture: Recently, a potato growing district in Maharashtra would have collapsed
An Overview
economically, because surplus production brought down prices. In this instance
women rallied. They took bank loans, bought processing equipment, processed
and marketed a huge variety of potato products which brought back the smile of
prosperity on farmers faces. .'
In the PURA (Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas), a leading farmers
NOO has given knowledge connectivity through electronic which has led to setting
up an infrastructure by which hundreds of villages in scarcity areas in Gujarat and
Tamil Nadu have sustainable agriculture, diversified farming and employment in
managing water supply, power generation and running marketing centres.
The motivation behind these and numerous other efforts are traditional community
bonding, the belief in giving and sharing and common action towards a common
goal.
The experience of agriculture growth over five decades shows that the era of top-
down planning, when a few officials implement ready made plans over a vast
majority of poor farmers, is over. Planning for increasing an individual farmers
profit is not effective, because the farmer is not isolated from his past generations,
his society, values and beliefs.
A participatory approach based on the consensus of farmers can bring new life to
farm practices and motivate the man behind the plough to venture into new area.
Farmers acting together can find the ways and means to reach the common goal
of reducing poverty, inequality, and deal with future challenges.
2.12 KEY WORDS

Dhenkli It is an ancient method of irrigation in which water is scooped
out by small cane which is emptied hi to field.
Panchang It is compiled every year by scholars working in religious
institutions (Mathas). It is prepared according to many texts,
supplemented and made relevant to region by scientist-
scholars.
Persian Wheel It is one of the traditional methods oflifting water from rivers.
In this case a drum shaped wheel turns on a vertical plane
over the pond, a number of pots are tied around it lift the
water emptied it on the down turn of the wheel drawn by
oxen.
/
Water Diviner :, He is a person having knowledge of presence of under
. ground water in farmers fields. His knowledge is passed on
own experience and advise received from parents. It is a
. family art.
\
2.13 SOME USEFUL BOOKS/REFERENCES

Agriculture in Ancient India (1964). ICAR, New Delhi.
"
Mosher, A.T (1969). The Development Problems of Subsistence Farmers: A
Preliminary Review. In:Wharton, C.R.1R (ed.) Subsistence Agricultureand
Economic Development. Aldine Publishing Company, Honolulu, Chicago.
38
Prasad, C. (1989). Agricultural Extension Services in 40 years of Agricultural Indian Farmers
Research and Education in India, ICAR, New Delhi. . Practices
Randhawa, M.S (1982). A History of Agriculture in India, Eighth to Eighteenth
Centuries. ICAR, New Delhi, Vol.-:-2.
Randhawa, M.S. (1980). A History of Agriculture in India, Eighth to Eighteenth

Centuries. ICAR, New Delhi, Vol.- L
Randhawa, M.S. (1983). A History of Agriculture in India (1757-1947). ICAR,

New Delhi, Vol.-3.
RogerD. Norton. (2004). Agricultural Development Policy - Concepts and

Experiences. FAO / John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
2.14 . ANSWERSIHINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Since most beliefs are based on the connection between man and nature,
you can choose any two.
2) All home -made remedies are nature - based, for example, tulsi (basil)
. leaves tea relieves congestion and sore throat.

1) • Day of bright-fortnignt are anspicious for starting agriculture activity.
• Best time to start-cultivation was when Jupiter was in lagna (mansion)

etc.

-
.1) You can choose from organic matter like composted leaves, kitchen waste,
or farmyard manure.

1) . Neem (margosa) leaves boiled and sprayed on the plants.

1) Earthen pots, came baskets, jute sacks and pits lined with straw and burnt
..-.•.....•..
oowdung.

1) The bullock - cart gave mobility to people to move to new places, and the
plough enabled the spread of cultivation.

. 1) Persian Wheel, Dhenkli.
. 39 .
UNIT 3 AGRICULTUREAND·INDIAN
ECONOMY
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Role of Agriculture in Indian Economy
3.3 Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy

3.3.1 Industrial Development
3.3.2 International Trade
3.3.3 Capital Formation
3.3.4 Consumption
i
3.4 Performance of Agriculture

3.4.1 Area, Production and Productivity of Foodgrains
3.4.2 Area, Production and Productivity Major Cereal Crops
3.4.3 Area, Production and Productivity of Pulses and Oilseeds
3.4,4 Horticultural Production
3.4.5 Livestock Production
3.4.6 Fisheries Production
3.5 LetUsSumUp
3.6 FCeyVVords
3.8 AnswersIHints to Check Your Progress
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss he current status of agricultural production in India;
• anlayse the performance of agriculture in pre and post green revolution

periods; and
• explain the role and importance of agriculture in national economy.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Agriculture in India is basically a part of life; it is a system of work and
culture. None of the fanner of the country likes to keep out land fallow, whether
it is profitable 'Ornot. Fanners spend maximum time in the field. Earlier the
country was self-dependent and was termed as 'Golden Bird'. However, the
situation changed with the arrival of Mug ha Is and Britishers and their colonial
40
policies. After independence our main problem was how to feed to people. Then Agriculture and
Indian Economy
our planners and policy makers, agricultural scientists and economists decided to
produce more food grains in order to achieve self-sufficiency. The period of late
mid sixties is known as the green revolution period. Dr. Swaminathan and Dr.
Borlag along with other agricultural scientists took a challenge to enhance the
production and they succeeded. After overcoming' the food problem by producing
sufficient paddy and wheat, the next aim was to become self sufficient in pulses,
oilseed and milk, with quality products. Currently, the country is in a position to
export the agricultural produce and products. Now the country is economically
sound as the per capita income of the people has increased but still it is not fully
satisfactory. The farmers are yet to undertake cultivation in a professional way.
Many industries have come up with new agriculture products. Now the question
\
is how to make the best use of alternative available. This unit discusses the role,
\<importance and performance of agriculture in India.
3.2 . ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIAN

ECONOMY
Indian agriculture was in the stage of great development and maturity much before
the newly advanced countries of the world embarked on the path of progress.
There was a proper balance between agriculture and industry and both flourished
hand in hand. This situation continued till the middle of 18th century. The
.interference from the-alien British govemment and its deliberate policy of throttling
the village handicrafts and cottage industries destroyed the fibre of balance and
economy of the country was badly shattered. British pursued a typical colonial
policy in India and did nothing to develop agriculture. Instead they created a class
of intermediaries known as Zamidars who sucked the blood of the rural poor.
The parasitic class took a substantial part of the produce away and the actual
cultivators were left only with subsistence income. The cultivators had t'ieitherthe
resources nor the incentive to invest in agriculture. Therefore, Indian agriculture in
the pre independence period can be correctly described as a' subsistence
occupation which yielded too little to live on and too much to die on. The
Zamidars and money lenders grated a largepart of land on the pretext of settlement
.for debt taken by cultivators and a number of cultivators were thus left landless.
This created a class of landless labourers or agriculture workers who worked on
the land of others for wage which was often too meagre to keep the body and
I
soul together. A majority of farmers were just able to take out few leaves of
.subsistence from agricultural activities, it was only after the advent of planning
(and more precisely after the advent of green revolution in 1966) that some
farmers started adopting agriculture on a commercial basis.
1). Share of'Agriculture in National Income
At the time of First World War, agriculture contributed two third of national
income. However, after the initiation of planned economic development, the share
of agriculture has gradually and regularly declined on account of the development
of the secondary and tertiary sectors of economy. The share of agriculture in GDP
41
I
I
L _._---
Indian Agriculture: at factor. cost was 56.5 percentin 1950-51 declined steadily to 18 percent in t
An Overview
2006-07. The declining share of agriculture in national income is often taken as an
indicator of economic development. Normally in developed countries, the economy
is less dependent on agriculture ~ compared to under developed countries.
2) Largest Employment Providing Sector
One of the important roles of agriculture sector is to provide employinent to large

section of society in India. In 1951,69.5 percent of the working population was
engaged in agriculture. The percentage has fallen marginally to 62 per cent in
1995 and around 60 per cent in 2003. However, there is large andrapid
increase in the absolute number of people engaged in agriculture. Development of
other sectors of the economy has not been sufficient to provide employment to
the ever rising addition to working population who are, therefore, forced to fall
back upon agriculture even if their marginal productivity is almost zero.
\
3) Other Roles Played by Agriculture
i) Remove poverty and hunger.
it) Providing food and nutrition.
fu) Get rid of imports.
iv) Be~sible utilization of resources.
v) Development ofhorticulture.animal husbandry and fisheries.
VI) Saving of foreign exchange.
vii) Improving purchasing power of entire population.
3.3 8
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN
INDIAN ECONOMY
Indian agriculture is incomparable in Indian economy. Though its contribution is
diminishirig due to higher growth in secondary arid tertiary sectors, yet, more than
60 per cent working population is engaged in agriculture. We get raw material
from our agriculture for industries. Agriculture provides food to the entire population
and feed and fodder to livestock .. Agriculture is also an important source of
finance of central and state governments. Indian agriculture has an honourable
place intemationallevel earning valuable foreign exchange for the country..
3.3.1 Industrial Development

In India, agriculture plays an important role in industrial development. Agriculture
. . ..----.,
provides raw material to the industries like cotton textiles, jute, sugar and.Vanaspati
etc., which are of basic importance to national economy. Not only this, all
workers engaged in industries depend for their consumption requirements on
agriculture. Agriculture also provides market for industrial products.However, .
the level of income of farmers and landless labourers is very low in India, In spite .
42
of low level of income, markets for industrial products in agricultural sector is Agriculture and
Indian Economy
considerable on account of largest size of population residing in rural area.
3.3.2 International Trade

Agriculture sector in India has occupied an important place in the export of the
country. The Agricultural imports amounting Rs.1,205.86 crores was 2.79 per cent
of total national imports in 1990-91 it rose to Rs.16,066.73 crores in 1999-2000,
it was 7.45 per cent of total nationa Iimports. In' the year 2005-06, it became
Rs. 21,0~5 crores which was 3.33 p~r cent of the total national imports. Thus it
can be concluded that though in absolute terms the imports amount has increased
since 1990-91 to 2005-06 but year-wise percentage of agricultural imports
fluctuated, .
The agricultural export which was Rs.6,012.76 crores i.e. 18.49 per cent of the
total national exports in 1990-91 came down to 10.95 per cent in 2005-06. In
absolute terms in 2005-06, the Agricultural export was Rs. 49,803 crores. Keeping
agricultural imports and exports into consideration, agricultural exports have been
always higher than the imports showing a positive trade balance.
3.3.3 Capital Formation

The gross capital formation in agriculture and allied sector was Rs.187 crores in
1950-51 which increase to Rs.1752 crores in 1974-75 and Rs. 54,539 crores in
2005-06 (Source: Central Statistical Organization, New Delhi). This includes
both public sector and private sector. But there is decreasing trend of capital
formation through agriculture to total gross capital formation. In 1950-51 the
share of agriculture and allied sector in gross capital formation was 19 per cent
which decreased to 11 per cent in 1974-75 and 6.5 per cent in 2002-03 (Central
Statistical Organization, New Delhi). This is because of declining share of public
sector, low level of domestic savings, lack of entrepreneurship, weak inducement
to invest, etc.
3.3.4 Consumption
The per capita income of India is very low, consequently, a large part of this. .
income is spent on fulfilling the basic consumption requirements of the people. It
has been estimated that, in India rural population spends 65 per cent of income on
food, whereas the urban population spends about 55 per cent of income on the
food expenditure. Thus, food dominates the household budget. Keeping in view
the possibilities of increase in population and per capita consumption expenditure,
the planning commission has estimated that demand tor agricultural commodities is
likely to increase at the rate of 4,.7per cent per annum. Accordingly, the nation
can remain selfreliant in agriculture only if, agricultural output rises at least at the
rate of5 per cent per annum. '--c,' .
3.4 PERFORMANCE OF AGRICULTURE

For assessing the performance. of Indian agricultural sector, it is necessary to
.discuss the production and productivity trend in agriculture. Agricultural production
has two components: Foodgrains and non foodgrains. The former contributes
approximately about two third of total agricultural production.
43
Indian Agriculture: 3.4.1 Area, Production and Productivity of Foodgrains
An Overview
The trend in area, production and productivity of foodgrains f~r the last five
decades are given below:
Table 3.1: Area, Production and Yield of Foodgrains in India
Year Area Production Yield Per cent Area

(Million (Million (KgIha) under
hectares) tonnes) Irrigation
1950-51 97.32 50.82 522 18.1
1960-61 115.58 82.02 710 19.1
1970-71 , 124.32 108.32 872 24.1
1980-81 126.67 129.59 1023 29.6
1990-91 127.84 176.39 1380 35.1
2000-01 121.05 196.81 1626 43.4
2005-06 121.60 208.60 1715 NA

Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance - 2006-07, DES, Govt. of India
The foodgrain production in India Was increased from 50.82 million tonnes in
1950-51 to 208.60 million tonnes in 2005-06. The worst drought of 2002-03
pulled down the country's foodgrains production to 174.19 million tonnes in the I
I
lowest in the last ten years. However Indian agriculture has made a smart
recovery with production of208.60 million tonnes in 2005-06 (Table 3.1).
I
Since 1950-51, the productivity has increased-around four times whereas the.
area has increased 1.5 times. In absolute terms, the area and production of
foodgrains has increased by 24.28 million hectare and 157.78 million tonnes in
.2005-06. The productivity of total food grain is increased by 3.27 times.
The irrigated area, which was only 18.1 per cent, rose to about 44 per cent in
2003-04.
In totality it can be said that technological changes in agricultural production

coupled with increased availability of irrigation water has brought about perceptible
changes in Indian agricultural production scenario.
3.4.2 Area, Production and Productivity of Major Cereal

Crops
Decadal change in area, production, productivity and per cent area irrigated of
important cereals are given in the Table 3.2.
44
Table 3.2: Area, Production, Productivity and Percent Irrigated Area of Agriculture and
Indian Economy
Major Crops
Crop 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2005-06
. Rice A 30.81 34.13 37.59 40.15 42.69 44.71 43.66
P 20.58 34.58 42.22 53.63 74.29 84.98 91.79

,
y 668 1013 1123 1336 1740 1901 2102
lA 31.7 36.8 38.4 40.7 45.5 53.6 NA

Wheat A 9.75 12.92 18.24 22.28 24.17 25.7 26.48
p 6.46 11.00 23.83 36.31 55.14 69.68 69.35
y 663 851 1307 1630 2281 2708 2619
lA 34.0 32.7 54.3 76.5 8l.l 88.1 NA

Jawar A 15.57 18.41 17.37 15.81 14.36 9.86 8.67
p 5.50 9.81 8.11 10.43 11.68 7.53 7.24
Y 353 533 466 660 814 764 8!ro
lA 3 3.6 3.6 4.7 5.6 7.9 NA

Bajra A 9.02 11.47 12.91 11.66 10.48 9.83 9.58
p 2.60 3.28 8.03 5.34 6.89 6.76 7.68
Y 2.88 286 622 458 658 688 802
lA 3.4 2.8 4.0 5.5 5.1 8.0 NA

Maize A 3.16 4.41 5.85 6.01 5.90 6.61 7.59
P 1.73 4.08 7.49 6.96 8.96 12.04 14.71

y 547 926 1279 1159 1518 1822 1938
lA 11.4 12.6 15.9 20.1 19.7 22.4 NA

Note: A- Area (million hect.), P- Production (million tonnes), Y- Productivity (Kg/ha)
IA- Per cent area irrigated
Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance -2006-07, DES, Govt. of India.
The overall production of rice stood at 91.79 million tonnes in year 2005-06. It
was 71.21 million tonnes more than the output in 1950-51 (20.58 million tonnes).
Wheat production also made a smart recovery from early years. Being major
Rabi crop, wheat production increased to 69.35 million tonnes in 2005-06 over
6.46 million tonnes in 1950-51.
The total jowar production was 7.24 million tonnes in 2005-06, against 5.50
million tonnes in 1950-51. The production ofbajra increased from 2.60 million
tonnes in 1950-51 to 7.68 million tonnes in 2005-06 (Table 3.2).
Similarly, Kharif maize did well with the record production of 14.71 million tonnes
in 2005-06 and surpassed the target of 11.70 million tonnes.
45
Indian Agriculture: Ragi crop grown mainly in Kharif season, accounted for the production of2.0 1
An 'Overview
million tonnes, which was less than the target of2A6 million tonnes in 2003-04.
Jowar production was 7.24 million tonnes, which was less then the expectation.
After a good Kharif harvest, the country also had satisfactory performance of
Rabi crops. The area under almost all Rabi crops had increased.

1) Discuss the changes in area, production and productivity of wheat.
............................................................................................................... ; ..
...................................................................................................................
2) List out the possible factors playing important role in agricultural development.
....... .• ~.•
3.4.3 Area, Production and Productivity of Pulses and

Oilseeds
The total pulse production touched to 13.39 million tonnes in 2005-06. It was the
second highest production so far. Pigeon pea (Tur), the major Kharifpulse crop,
recorded a production of2.74 million tonnes. Gram the most important Rabi
pulse crop, recorded a production of 5.60 million tonnes. Lentil production
increased from 0.37 million tonnes in 1970-71 to 0.95 million tonnes in 2005-06
(Table 3.3).
Table 3.3: Area, Production and Productivity of Pulses in India

Crop 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2005-06
Total A 19.09 23.56 22.54 22.46 24.66 20.35 22.39

pulses
p 8.41 12.70 11.82 10.63 14.26 11.08 13.39
Y 441 539 524 473 578 544 598

,-
lA 9.4 8.0 8.8 9.0 10.5 12.5 NA
Gram A 7.57 9.28 7.84 6.58 7.52 5.19 6.93
P 3.65 6.25 5.20 4.33 5.36 3.86 5.60
"
Y 482 674 663 657 712 744 808

lA 12.5 11.9 15.6 20.6 20.5 30.9 N;A
46
Agriculture and
Tur A 2.18 2.43 2.66 2.84 3.59 ~.63 358 Indian Economy
(Arhar) p 1.72 2.07 1.88 1.96 2.41 2.25 2.74
y 788 849 709 689 . 673 618 765
lA 0.5 0.5 0.3 . 2.6 5.5 4.2 NA.
Lentil A - - 0.75 0.93 1.19 1.48 1.56

(Masoor) p 0.37 0.47
- - 0.85 0.92 0.95
y - - 497 498 717 619 629
lA - - - - - - -
Note: A=Area in million hectare, P=Production in million tonnes, Y= Yield in Kg/ha,
IA= Per cent irrigated area.
Source: 'Agricultural Statistics at Cl Glance- 2006-07. DES Govt. of India.
Table 3.4: Area, Production and Production of Oilseeds in India
Total A 10.73 13.77 16.64 17.60 24.15 22.77 27.86

Oil seeds
p 5.16 6.98 9.63 9.37 18.61 18.44 27.98
(Nine)
y 481 507 579 532 771 810 1004
lA - 3.3 7.4 14.5 22.9 23.0 NA
, Groundnut A 4.49 6.46 7.33 6.80 8.31 6.56 6.74
p 3.48 4.81 6.11 5.01 7.51 6.41 7.99

y 775 745 834 736 904 977 1187
lA NA 3.0 7.5 13.3 18.6 17.6 NA
Rapeseed A 2.07 2.88 3.32 4.11 5.78 4.48 ,7.28.

and p 0.76 1.35 1.98 2.30 5.23 4.19 8.13
mustard
y 368 467 594 560 904 935 1117
lA NA 12.1 25.2 43.7 59.8 66.1 N~
Soybean A - - 0.03 0.61 2.56 6.42 7.71
p - - 0.01 0.44 2.60. 5.28 8.27

y - - 426 728 1015 822 1073
lA - - - - - 1.4 -
Sunflower A ~ - 0.12 0.12 1.63 1.07 2.34
P - - 0.08 0.07 0.87 0.65 ·1.44

, y - - 653· 555 535 602 615
lA - - - - - 27.6 -
Note: A=Area in miHion hectare, P=Production in million tonnes, Y= Yield in Kg/ha,
lA = Per cent irrigated area.
Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance- 2006-07. DES Govt. of India.; 47
Indian Agriculture: Reports of accelerated area under oilseeds; particularly rapeseed and mustard
An Overview
were made by various states. Oilseeds acreage went up by 17.13 million hectares.
Rapeseed and mustard were sown in 7.28 million hectares with the area under the
crop rising especially in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh (Table 3.4). Sunflower
is mainly grown in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka States.
The total production of nine major oilseeds (groundnut, caster, sesamum, niger,
rapeseed and mustard, linseed, safflower, sunflower and soybean) was a high of
27.98 million tonnes. It exceeded the previous production of24.75 million tonnes
in 1998-99. The total ground nut production was 7.99 million tonnes. Sunflower
production was only 1.44 million tonnes. Soybean production was at a new height
of8.27 million tonnes (Table 3.4,.
The average annual growth rate of agriculture fell from more than 4 per cent
during 1992-93 to 1996-97 to less than two per cent during the period 1997-98
to 2002-03 and it remained low.

1) Name the major oilseed crops grown in the country.
2) Discuss the contribution of oilseeds and pulses in Agricultural production .
...................................................................................................................
3.4.4 Horticultural Production

India has been primarily an agricultural based economy with an enterprising fanning
community. The prevailing diverse agro-climatic conditions enabled the production
of wide array of horticultural crops.
Beside a rich biodiversity-in fruits, vegetables and medicinal crops exist in the
country, the excellent human resource in research and development with large
network of research on horticulture under the NARS (National Agriculture
Research System) has been an asset. It helped in the development and transfer of
technologies to the farmers, with the result that the country is now a second
largest producer of fruits and vegetable in the world. The total production of fruits
has gone up from 32.96 to 45.2 million tonnes and vegetables from 63.8 to 84.8
million tonnes over a period of ten years 1992-93 'to 2002-03 registering an
48 ~
increase of37 per cent and 33 per cent, respectively. The increase in production Agriculture and
Indian Economy
is both on account of increase in area and productivity,
3.4.5 Livestock Production

Livestock as a diversified option amounts to Rs. 934 billions, accounting 25
per cent of the overall agricultural sector contribution. The GDP Growth rate of
livestock sector is about 4.3 per cent annually. India leads the world in milk
production with an output of90 million tonnes per year. Over 70 per cent ofthe
milk produced in India is contributed by semi-medium, small, marginal and landless
farmers.
In the agriculturally progressive north western India including Punjab, Haryana,

Western UP and part of Rajasthan, farmers are resourceful to maintain large
producing stock. Grazing land and common property resources are declining. At
present it is about 3.5 per cent ofthe total geographical area .
. Hilly regions.and lands adjoining to forests and vallies where crop production has
less feasibility,livestock raising are natural alternatives. The favourable temperature
and availability of green edible biomass can be efficiently routed food chain
through the livestock particularly in the hilly regions. The goat popul~tion is second
only to China, while the sheep population is third, after China and Australia. India
occupies 6th position regarding chicks with the world led by China.
The world milk production was estimated at 613 million tonnes in 2004 and has
been growing since on Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 1.1 per cent.
India not only ranks first in milk production with 88.2 million tonnes per annum in
2003-04 but is also growing at a CAGR of 4 per cent. India contributes 4 million
tonnes to the worlds' incremental production of7.5 million tonnes. In spite of the
high growth rate, the per capita availability of milk in India is 229 grams per day
which is lower than the world average of285 grams per day. In India, buffalo
milk accounts for 57 per cent of the total milk produced.
3.4.6 Fisheries Production

Aquaculture has been one of the fastest growing agricultural sector ofthe country,
with bulk of production coming from fresh water environment. Fish has occupied
an important place in the global food basket as a safe and cheap source of animal
protein Withhigh consumer acceptability. Fish production either capture or culture
has been aremunerative activity, be it trawling in the deep sea, seining in the
coastal water, gill netting or seining in the inland water or farming in small
impoundments.
The fish production of the country has increased from 0.75 million tonnes in
1950-51 to over 6.4 million tonnes in 2002-03, an over eight folds increase. At
the same time the share of inland fisheries has gone up from 29 per cent to over
50 per cent.
The average growth rate of over 6 per cent per year in the last two decades is the
testimony of the potential the sector possesses. Present fresh water aquaculture
production is about 2.4 tonnes / hectare. Fresh water aquaculture accounts for 95
per cent of the total aquaculture production and about 40 per cent of the total fish
production of the country. It has been possible through phenomenal growth in
development of fish farming in small inland water bodies, i.e. ponds and tanks. 49
Indian Agriculture: Development of several epoch making technologies and their effective dissemination
An Overview
to the receptive farmers can very well take credit for achieving such of status.
• Agricultural Development
It has been recommended that increasing investment in rural infrastructure and

agricultural research and development should permit rural and agricultural
development. Social safety networking should be reoriented to create more
employment in rural areas and the human resource base should be strengthened
through education, nutrition and empowerment of women. Better physical
infrastructure should be built. Water management should be given proper attention.
Water pricing system should be designed on the basis of water rights to cope with
increasing scarce supply for agriculture.
• Marketing of Produce
New opportunities to participate in production and marketing of high value livestock

products, fruits, vegetables and fishery should be explored. The nation should
work towards strengthening and establishing rules based on multilateral trading
system through WTO negotiations and explore the second best opti~ns for free
regional trade agreement with other developing countries.
$
3.5 LET US SUM UP

The agriculture in India is basically a part of life; it is a system of work and culture.
Earlier the country was known as "Golden Bird". However, the scenario changed
completely with the invasion ofMughals and Britishers. After independence the
main problem was now to feed the people as the country was facing severe food
shortages. During mid sixties the technological change in agricultural sector
particularly in wheat and rice crops gave break by enhancing production. After
overcoming the food problem by providing sufficient food, the next target was to
,, become self sufficient in pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, milk and milk products and
fish and fish products. Thus, total development was classified into four parts
which was ultimately named as green revolution, white revolution, yellow revolution
and bluerevolution.
The role of agriculture in national income, in providing employment, in industrial

development, in international trade, in consumption, in Indian economy as a whole
is significantly noticed and recorded.
The area of total foodgrains which was 97.32 million hectare in 1950-51 rose to
121.60 million hectare in 2005-06. The production and productivity increased by
four and three and a half times over base year, respectively. Out of the major
cereals, rice, wheat and maize have increased to commendable-position in respect
to area, production and yield. A significant growth has been observed also in area,
production and productivity of oilseeds and pulses but, it was comparatively less
to cereals.
It has been recommended that rural and agricultural development should be

promoted by increasing investment in rural infrastructure and agricultural research
rand development. Water management should get proper attention. New
opportunities to participate in production 'and marketing oflivestock and their
products, fruits, vegetables, fishery should be explored.
50
Agriculture and
3.6 KEY WORDS Indian Economy·
Capital Formation . It is the diversion of a part of society's current

available resources to the purpose of increasing the
stock of capital goods, so as to make possible an
expansion of consumable output in future.
.Common Property The resources owned by the community as a whole .

Resources
3.7 SOME USEFUL BOOKS / REFERENCES

Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2003. Directorate of Economics & Statistics,
Department of Agriculture & Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government
of India.
Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2004. Directorate of Economics & Statistics,

Department of Agriculture & Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government
of India. ,
Anonymous (2003).Survey of Indian Agriculture, The Hindu.
Anonymous (2006). Survey of Indian Agriculture, The Hindu.
Mishra, S.,X and V. K. Puri. (2005). Indian Economy. Himalays Publishing

House, Delhi. .

PROGRESS
1) Wheat area, production and productivity has increased to 26.48 m.ha,

...• ·69.35 m. tonnes and 2619 kg/ha in 2005-06 from 9.75 m.ha, 6.46 m.tonnes
and 663 kg/ha. in 1950-51 respectively.
2) Varietals improvement, irrigation development, increased use of farm

chemical and other technological development.
.1) Groundnut rape seed & mustard and soyabean.
2) The pulses and oilseeds production touched to 13.39 and 27.98 million
tonnes in 2005-06, respectively.
51
,.
UNIT 4 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN
AGRICULTURE
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Historical Development
4.3 Land Reforms

4.4 Green Revolution
4.5 Chemical Fertilizers
4.6 Quality Seeds
4.7 Irrigation
4.8 Farm Implements
4.9 Agricultural Prices
4.10 Agricultural Education, Research and Extension
4.11 Animal Husbandry
4.12 Globalization of Agriculture
4.13 LetUsSumUp
4.14 Key Words
4.16 AnswerslHints to Check Your Progress
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the phases of agriculture development in India;
• state the various programmes for land improvement;
• explain green revolution in the country;
• highlight the role of education, research and extension in agricultural

advancement.
• . assess the improvement in animal production and advances in animal sciences;

and
,
• identify the
, future steps to be taken looking into the globalization of agriculture.
52
Development of Indian
4.1 INTRODUCTION Agriculture
Agriculture is being practiced in the country from Vedic period. There have been
continuous changes leading to refmement in all the concerned aspects in phases
for better yields. Biodiversity is being used for better plant types with desired
characters to have better, yields with resistance to biotic and abiotic factors,
needed yield parameters and suitable for specific agro-ecological conditions. Crops
are selected on the basis of soil groups like alluvial soils, black soils, red soils,
laterite soils, mountain and hill soils, arid and desert soils, saline and alkali soils,
peat and organic soils. The soils differ in texture and consistency like sand, loam
and heavy soils. They vary in fertility levels comprising of different quantum of ,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium as major
elements and boron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, copper cobalt as micro
elements. Fertility level is decided looking to the crop to be grown, Soil water
holding capacity varies and the irrigation requirement depends upon the crop and
soil structure. Better methods have been developed for raising various crops.
Crop is protected from diseases, insect-pests and weeds by use of mechanical
practices, chemicals and bio-pesticides. Regular researches have resulted in better
equipments for field operations, harvesting and threshing. Now the harvest can
be stored in better storage structures quite safely. The post-harvest technology
has attracted the attention of cultivators all the times. The technological
improvement was influenced by the dynasties of the country.
India has 329 million hectare geographical area of which around- 180 million
hectare is cropped. There are 95 million agricultural holdings of which 75 per cent
are marginal and small farmers with up to 2 ha land holdings. Expansion of
cultivable land is not possible, hence efforts are needed to increase productivity
per hectare to feed the ever rising population.
4.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Different dynasties had promulgated rules which had influence on the agriculture.
During the domain of Arabs, taxes were laid on land in the form of two-fifths
produce or in cash. Later in the regime of Alauddin, the revenue was fixed at
one-half of the produce, however the charges were calculated on the basis of
standard yields. Agriculture suffered due to framing of rules not favourable to
farming community. The produce was collected and kept under .storage by the
rulers. The agriculture was encouraged by Ghiasuddin Tughlak (1321-1325).
The taxes in the form of land revenue were reduced. The land revenues were
settled upon principle which was not more than one-tenth of the produce.Granaries
were established to store grains for long periods. During the time of Mohammed bin
T~hlak, Sultan used to posses best fertile land and to enhance the productivity
resources were used officially. The private cultivators were again taxed heavily
which put negative influence on the agriculture. According to Ibn Batuta (1325-
1354), work on reclamation of waste land was started along with State farming.
Wells were digged and cultivators were given loans. The rotation of crop was also
initiated. Attention was given on planting various economical fruit trees. Firoz
Shah Tughlak (1351-1388) introduced Jagir system by giving lands to the actual
owners. The canal system for irrigation was introduced and Western Yamuna
canal was constructed to use the flood water in 1355. Tax was introduced on
irrigation water. The barren land became usable for agriculture.
53
Indian Agriculture: Land revenue assessment system varied in different states as per order of the
An Overview
ruler, usually based on the type of land under cultivation -whether wet, dry or
garden land. The revenue was collected both in kind or cash .. Sher Shah made
new rules for land revenue assessment based on measurement ofland, the produce
and kind of grain. One third of the produce was going to the State as land
revenue in kind or cash.
During Akbar's period (1555-1605), Todar Mal made reforms in revenue system
by obtaining correct measurement of the land; ascertained the quality of the
produce and settlement on equivalent in money. The productivity based on fertility
was also considered. Tax on fruit gardens was also introduced.
Taquavi loans were allowed to cultivators for the purchase of seed and cattle on
surety for their payment. Repayment was made at first harvest and remaining by
the next. The cultivators who were cultivating the land personally were given
permanent and hereditary occupancy of the land he tilled.
Later the burden of taxation increased on cultivators which resulted in revolts. As

a result, the Zamindari system was abolished during 1669-1710 in East Punjab.
Hastings in 1772 changed the revenue system according to which, lands were
allotted to farmers for five years and Pattas were given which lead to permanent
settlement but the cultivators and their tenants remained to live in distress.
During the British regime attempts were made to boost up the agricultural
production. General improvement made in transport like rail system, promotion of
export of some agricultural commodities, introduction of land tenure system also
helped the agriculture in generaL Department of Agriculture was created by the
Government ofIndia in 1871 which was followed by the State Governments. In
1943 All India Policy on Agriculture was drafted. As a result of Bengal famine in
1942, efforts were made to increase the agricultural production in the country.
Several steps were taken up to improve agriculture at pre-independence era.

1) What influence the dynasties have on agriculture in India?
2) How advancement in transport system influenced agricultural development?
.......................... ~\ ' ~ .
54
4.3 LAND REFORMS Agrtculture
At the time of independence three types of land tenure systems prevailed in the
country; the Zamindari, Mahelwari and Rytwari. They differed in mode of payment
ofland revenue. Zamindari and Mahelwari have exploited farmers as it created a
class ofZamindars who did not cultivate the land themselves but were getting the
cultivation done by labour. Such labour depended on Zamindars for dwellings,
food and other needs. After independence the land reforms were basically taken
to stop exploitation of actual tillers of the soil with the following objectives.
i) To remove impediments to increase agricultural production as were faced in
the past.
ii) To eliminate all types of exploitations and social injustice within the agrarian
system to provide security to the actual tillers of soil and assure equality of
status and opportunity to all sections of the rural population.
Attempts were made to abolish the role of intermediaries; to reform the tenancy
conditions by making regulation of rent, security of tenure and ownership rights to
tenants; to redistribute the land; to consolidate land holdings and to introduce
cooperative farming. Ceiling on agricultural holdings was done. A statutory limit on
the area ofland an individual can posse was fixed including existing holdings and
future acquisition. This is based on local conditions of the states in economical or
uneconomical lands. The land ceiling is helpful in providing land to landless persons
who may work with better zeal and produce more by increasing the productivity.
The fallow land is brought under cultivation. Cooperative farming has also been
followed for better production. This has bean a big step in improving the socio-
economic conditions of village people.
4.4 GREEN REVOLUTION

A team of experts sponsored by the ford foundation was invited by the Government
ofIndia in the later half of the second five year plan to suggest ways and means to
increase agricultural production and productivity. The necessity was realized due
to the need to increase agricultural production in the face of continuing stagnation
of production on one hand and rapidly increasing demand on the other. The team
submitted its report entitled "Indian food crises and steps to meet" in April 1959.
This report suggested increasing production and productivity in some selected
regions of the country with emphasis on use of modern inputs like fertilizers,
credit,marketing facilitiesetc. The government introduced an Intensive Development
Programme in seven selected districts of seven states in 1960 and this programme
was named as IADP (Intensive Area Development Programme). The selected
districts under IADP were required to have assured irrigation, minimum hazards
like floods, drought and soil erosion, use of fertilizers, plant protection measures
and easy availability of agricultural credit. The programme was implemented in
West Godavari (AP,) Shahabad (Bihar), Raipur (MP), Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu),
Ludhiana (punjab), Aligarh (UP) and Pali (Rajasthan). The first four were selected
for rice, the next two for wheat and last one for millets. Eight more districts were
added in 1962-63. This programme was later extended to all States by selecting
one district from each State for intensive development. In October 1965, the
programme was widened to 114 districts out of325, in the name oflntensive
Agricultural Area Programme.
55
Indian Agriculture: The period of mid sixties was very significant from the point of view of agriculture.
An Overview
New high yielding varieties of wheat were developed in Mexico by Prof. Narman
Borlaug and his associates. As a result of this, production of wheat per hectare
rose to the high level of 5000 to 6000 kg in Mexico in 1965. Taiwan also
recorded almost similar yield. These High Yielding Varieties (HYV) required proper
irrigation facilities and extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides. Accordingly,
these were introduced in the form of a package programme. Dwarfhigh yielding
varieties of wheat like Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were developed using 'Norin'
dwarfing gene. In 1965 on the initiation of Sh. C. Subramaniam the Minister of
Food and Agriculture 250 tonnes of wheat seed of important varieties Lerma
Rojo 64 and Sonora 64 were imported from Mexico. The area under dwarf high
yielding varieties of wheat was increased tram 4 ha in 1964 to 4 m ha in 1971.
This could give 20 to 30 per cent more yield. The farming area was continuously
expanded and multiple cropcultivation was encouraged.
The term green revolution was coined in 1960s when improved varieties of wheat
resulted in quite high yields as they were more responsive to controlled irrigation,
chemical fertilizers and better plant protection measures. Later, new high yielding
varieties of rice and maize were also developed increasing the yields tremendously.
This was followed by continued expansion of farming areas and double cropping
system. The value of seed with improved genetics was realized. The green
revolution resulted in a record production of 131 million tonnes in 1978-79. The.
yield per hectare was increased by 30 per cent.
Besides advantages; the Green Revolution has created some problems. To arrange
the required inputs farmers often went into debt. Many small land holders and
landless farm workers migrated to urban areas. Assured irrigation has created
problem of salinization, water logging and lowering of water tables in certain
areas. The pesticide residue problem increased due to more use of pesticides.
The Green Revolution in agriculture has affected both agricultural biodiversity and
wild biodiversity negatively as it depended more on a few varieties in each crop.
4.5 CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS

Chemical fertilizer is an important input in increasing agricultural production and
has played a vital role in the green revolution. By 1980, India had more than 100
fertilizer factories manufacturing urea, ammonium phosphate and potash. The utility
of chemical fertilizers was realized, due to drought in 1950 and 1951, which
created food shortage resulting in import of huge quantities offoodgrains. Three
important fertilizer manufacturing ventures are Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative
Ltd. (IFFCO) (1967); National Fertilizers Limited, New Delhi (1974) and Shriram
Fertilizers and Chemicals, Kota (1963-69). The installed capacity of urea has
increased from 1.58 lakh tonnes in 1970-71 to 20.1 lakh tonnes in 2001-02.
Similarly phosphatic fertilizers production capacity has also increased from 0.4
lakh tonnes P20S to 5.251akh tonnes P20S' The fertilizer consumption has increased
from 2 kg/ha in 1961 to 91 kg/ha in 2001 which increased the food production
from 83 million tonnes to 211 million tonnes during the same period.
Emphasis is being given on bio-fertilizers like nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphorus

solubilizing bacteria, blue green algae, vermicompost etc. Organic farming is being
preferred these days.
56
4.6 QUALITY SEEDS Agriculture
In any crop production programme pathogen free quality seed is a must. Farmers
used to select; save and store seeds for sowing. Issues on seeds were reviewed
by a Seed Review Committee in 1968 and subsequent committees. True seed
and plant parts used as seed attracted attention. Seed certification started.
For quality seed production National Seed Corporation (1963) and State
Farms Corporations (1969) were established. Indian Seed Act was passed in
1966 and seed rules were framed in 1968 to control quality of seed. Indian
Minimum Seed Standards ~ere fixed in 1971 which were revised in 1988. The
parameters of seed quality were genetic purity, free from other crop seeds, weed
seeds, inert matter, seed moisture, seed germination and seed borne pathogens.
The seeds are classified into Nucleus seed, Breeder seed, Foundation seed and
Certified seed. Nucleus seed is the basic seed developed by the concerned
breeder ..The breeder seed is produced from nucleus seed by the breeders. From
breeder seed foundation seed is produced and from foundation seed, certified
seed 'is produced. The breeder seeds are produced by agricultural universities
(SAl) and intitutions. The foundation and certified seeds are produced by State
Seed Corporation as well as SAUs and Institutes. Seed certification is done by
State Seed Certification Agencies, There are Seed Testing Laboratories in States.
The seed replacement rate is 2-80 per cent in different crops but the-average is
only 15 per cent in the country. Efforts are being made to increase the seed
replacement rate.
4.7~ IRRIGATION
Water is an essential component in crop production system. The selection of

crops in a region is based on the availability of water. Collection of rain water.
an
and its utilization at distant places and different times through canals is age old
practice. The area under irrigation has increased and the efforts are continuing to
increase it further. In 1950 net irrigated area was 20.6 million hectare which was
about 27 per cent of the total irrigation potential of the country. Large dams were
constructed like Bhakra Nangal dam (1948-63), Mayurakshi Scheme on
Mayurakshi river (1946-56), Hirakund Project on Mahanadi river (1948-57);
DamodarValley Project on Damodar river (1950-58); Rihand dam on Sone river
(1952-62), Tungabhadra Project on Tungabhadra river (1945;-54); Kakrapara
Project on Tapti river (1949-55) etc. A number of large dams are still under
construction on important rivers. They not only provide water for irrigation but
are also used for electricity generation.
Irrigation is being done through open wells and tube wells also. Small and large
water sheds are made in villages of a group of villages to collect rain water and
use it in Kharif and Rahi season as per need. Sprinkler and drip irrigation
systems have been evolved to have better water use efficiency. It is particularly
helpful in undulating rainfed areas.
About 70 million hectare area is irrigated but 2/3 rd area is still rainfed and efforts
are continued to use available water further. Projects onjoining of rivers are being
planned to have better utilization of available water.
57
Indian Agriculture:
An Overview 4.8 FARM IMPLEMENTS
In early days, farmers used to develop implements as per need. They used
ploughs, hoes, sickles etc., which are modified :fromtime to time. Their place has
bean taken over by farm machines like tractors, cultivators, seed drills, harvesters,
threshers, combine harvesters etc. Machines have been developed looking to the
need of special crops like sugarcane, potato groundnut etc., for planting as well
as harvesting. For seed industry, special machinery has been developed for .
processing, cleaning, storage, packaging etc. Production of tractors started in
1961-62 in India and later several manufacturing units started working. The
mechanization enabled farmers to change their cropping pattern preferring more
profitable crops.
Note: a) U se the spaces given below for your answers. !
b) Check your answer with those given at the en1 of the unit.
1) Why high quality seed is necessary in crop production?
2) What is the role of chemical fertilizers in crop production?
3) How more area could be covered under irrigation?
....................................................................................................................
4.9 AGRICULTURAL PRICES

The cultivators were exploited by merchants as they gave the minimum price for
their produce. At harvest, the merchants used to dictate the price, purchased at
cheap price, retained the produce and sold at higher price later. Looking to the
input cost on fertilizers, improved seed, farm equipments, intercultural operations
etc., agriculture became a commercial enterprise. Agricultural prices commission
58
was established in 1965, now renamed as Commission for Agriculture Costs and Development of Indian
Agriculture
Prices (CACP) with the function to fix support price in advance of the harvest for
all major crops. Based on the increase in cost of inputs, the support price is
increased accordingly year wise. The food corporation ofIndia was formed in
1965 to procure, store, transport, distribute and control the sale of foodgrains.
This helped the cultivators in selling their produce at reasonable price.
4.10 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,

'')
RESEARCHAND EXTENSION
To educate people in agricultural production aspects and to bring further
improvement in technology, agriculture colleges were opened. Agriculture colleges
were established at Pune in 1905 for diploma course and degree in B.Ag. was
started in 1908, Coimbatore in 1906 followed by Sabour, Kanpur, Nagpur and
Layallpur (Now in Pakistan). An Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was
established at Pusa (Bihar). Mr. Henry Phipps of USA made a generous donation
of 30,000 pound for the Institute. The name PUSA came from Mr. Phipps and
USA the country he belonged. In 1948, there were 17 agricultural colleges in
India. University Education Commission (1949) headed by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
recommended establishment of rural universities and Land - Grant College
Philosophy of USA was introduced. During 1960-65, seven State Agricultural
Universities came into existence and now are 43.
Due to earthquake on 14th January 1934, the buildings oflmperialAgricultural

Research Institute of Pusa were destroyed, and it was shifted to New Delhi in
1945 and later renamed as Indian Agricultural Research Institute. All the branches
of agriculture like Genetics, Plant Breeding, Agronomy, Soil Science, Horticulture,
Vegetables, Plant Pathology, Entomology, Agricultural Economics, Extension,
Statistics, Biotechnology, Physiology, Seed Technology, Post Harvest Technology,
Agricultural Engineering are there in the form of Divisions.
The universities, deemed universities, colleges and institutes undertake research

work as curricular research as well as basic and applied research on different
problems.
Extension activities are also undertaken to transfer the developed technology to

cultivators for use in field. Lab to land programme is followed. Demonstrations
are laid on farmers' field on newly developed technologies so that they may be
adopted by them. Trainings are organized for agricultural officers as well as
cultivators. This has helped in increasing the agricultural production. Booklets,
handouts, pamphlets
• Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was constituted to promote, guide and

coordinate agricultural research in the country, to impart training to researchers
and to provide scholarships for students. It included animal husbandry as well.
The resolution was passed on 23 May, 1929. After independence, the Imperial
word was replaced by Indian.
,
At present, ICAR is headed by Director General, supported by Deputy Director
Generals and Assistant Director Generals. There are National Institutes on crops
59
Indian Agriculture: like Rice (CRR!, Cuttack), Cotton (CICR, Nagpur) Pulses (IIPR, Kanpur), Jute
An Overview
(CRlJAF, Barrackpore), Sugarcane (IISR, Lucknow), Sugarcane Breeding (SBI,
Coimbatore), Tobacco (CTRl, Rajahmundry) and Forages (lGFRl, Jhansi).
National Research Centres are for Groundnut (Junagarh), Sorghum (Hyderabad)
and Soybean (lndore). Project Directorates are for Rice (Hyderabad), Oilseeds
(Hyderabad), Wheat (Karnal), Maize (New Delhi), Rapeseed & mustard
(Bharatpur). In Horticultural Crops, National Institutes are for Mango (Lucknow),
Tuber crops (Thirvananthapuram), Horticultural Research (Hassarghatta), Plantation
crops (Kasargod), Potato (Shimla), Arid Horticulture (Bikaner), Temperate
Horticulture (Srinagar), Spices (Marikunnu) and Vegetables (Varanasi).The National
Research Centres are for Citrus (Nagpur), Mushroom (Solan), Cashewnut (puttur),
Oil palm (Padaregi), Orchids (Sikkim), Grapes (Pune), Banana (Trichy), Onion
and Garlic (Pune), Medicinal and Aromatic plants (Anand) and Seed species
(Ajmer). Some other centres are NBPGR (New Delhi), NCIPM (New Delhi),
Biotechnology (New Delhi), Finger Printing (New Delhi), Biological Control
(Bangalore), Weed Science (Jabalpur), and NBAIM (Mhow). In all there are 48
institutes including four with deemed university status, five National Bureau, 30
National Research Centres and 12 Project Directorates.
Eighty two All India Coordinated Research Projects in the crops are running in
different agro-climatic regions to find the varieties and production technology
suited to specific areas. There are main centres, sub centres and verifying centres
as per need.
• St~teAgricultural Universities (SAUs)
There are 43 State Agricultural Universities and one Central Agricultural University
(CAU). Some States have one and some more than one Agricultural University. I
The CAU is located at Imphal (Manipur). It has colleges with different functions
in North Eastern States. All the agricultural universities have faculties as per need
and facilities to cover different aspects of agriculture.
• Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs)
KVKs have been established to cater the immediate need of farmers as well as to
keep them updated with new technology developed on various crops and allied
areas. There are'536 KVKs in the country and the effort is to have one in each
district in the country. Most KVKs are with agricultural unive-rsities, whereas
some are with other agencies including Non-Government Organizations.

1) What is the role of education in agricultural development in the country?
........................................................ - .
60
2) Why research is essential in agricultural sector? Development of Indian
Agriculture
.......................................................................... \ .
3) How a good 'strong extension programme is helpful in increasing crop

productivity? -
4.11 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal Husbandry is a part of integrated agricultural system. Dairy,poultry, fisheries,
goats and sheep are closely associated with agriculture.
i) Dairy
Cattle were indispensable in past and even today; they have importance as they
are used in agricultural practices like ploughing, sowing, interculture, threshing
operations and transport through bullock carts etc. Cows provide milk.
Development of cattle was both for milk as well as for draught capacity. Some
Indian breeds of cattle are excellent. Theyare classified into milch breed, general
utility breed and draught breed.
India is the largestmilk producing country in the world.About 70 million households

are engaged in dairy, Cooperative dairy units are.very strong. Earlier, the dairy
depended on the crop residues and other left over and by products as feed, but
now grains and other required nutrients are being provided. The livestock efficiency
has been increased by introducing new breeds and hybridization programme. The
upkeep oflivestock has experienced vast advancement. Buffaloes are also being
given the same attention. Handling of milk is highly scientific and is being
transported to long distances. National Dairy Development Board through
Operation Flood programme not only made India self sufficient in milk and milk
products but started exporting to other countries. This is flamed as White Revolution.
The operation flood was implemented in phases through cooperatives from 1970
when 20 million tonnes was the production. In 1980 it got increased to 50 and in
2003 to 89 million tonnes. Dairy industry has developed most successfully.
ii) Poultry
Poultry includes domestic fowls which are reared for their flesh, eggs and feathers
like chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowls, pigeons etc. However, usually
chickens have gained greater importance aspoultry. Much advancement has
been made in chickens to home breeds with more egg laying capacity and tender
flesh. Poultries are now hand mu»JgcLi as well as fully mechanized.
61
Indian Agriculture: India is the second largest producer of eggs arid one of the largest broiler producers
An Overview
in the world. The country has developed the essential technology and capability of
providing required inputs for poultry fanning.
iii) Fisheries
Fisheries have received great attention as a large number of population depends

on fishes of sea shores, river banks, large tanks etc. Excellent development has
taken place in advancement of fisheries from egg management to full development
and post harvest technology. The fishes are of various kinds like cat fish, mulIets,
dorab, herrings, pomfrets, shrimps, tuna etc. The total fish production in 2001-02
was 6.3 million tonnes with about 3 million tonnes marine fish from coastal areas
as well as deep sea and 3.3' million tonnes from inland areas. Fresh water
aquaculture has gained great importance in the country with a production of more
than 3 million tonnes.
iv) Goats and Sheep
Goats and sheep are important component in agricultural enterprise. Goats

reproduce fast and can live on sparse vegetation and extreme climatic conditions.
They are good for arid and semi arid zones. They provide meat, skin, milk and
manure. Sheep are useful for getting wool. 'Chegu' an inhabitant of temperate
region like Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand is famous for very soft, fine and
warm fibre called' Pashrnina' . Another breed Changthangi of Leh region also
produces similar fine fibre. The long fibres of 'Gaddi' and Marwadi sheep are
used for making rugs, ropes etc. In India more than 20 well defined breeds of
goat exist besides some regional goats. Barbari and Jamunapari from UP, Beetal
from Punjab, Surati from Gujarat, 'Sirohi' from Rajasthan, Kannaiaadu from
Tamil Nadu are some important breed used for different purposes. Efforts are
being made for further advancements and improvements.

1) How animal husbandry is a part of integrated agricultural system?
2) How poultry could achieve the present status in the country?
..................................................................................................... ~ .
.... ~ .
....................................................................................................................
62
3) Enumerate the advances made in fisheries in the country? Development of Indian
Agriculture
4.12 GLOBALIZATION OF AGRICULTURE

The agricultural development strategy followed in India is based on improved high
yielding varieties of crops, assured irrigation, use of fertilizers, better plant protection
measures, dependable post-harvest technology, improved storage facilities, value
added products and better market facilities. On all these fronts international
cooperation and coordination is a must. International Board for Plant Genetic
Resources (IBPGR) was established in 1974 with FAO at Rome as headquarter,
to collect, conserve, evaluate and document the biodiversity and to supply the
germplasm to countries on request. In India, National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR) New Delhi has been assigned this work and has linkages
with more than 85 countries. This Bureau caters the need of agricultural and
horticultural crops. Forest Research Institute, Dehradun has the responsibility of
forest plants and Botanical Survey of India for other economic plants. International
Institutes are established for various crops and regions.
. Their main function is to evolve varieties for high yields, resistance to biotic and
abiotic factors, better production technology and plant protection measures, to
have trials under different agro-climatic situations and supply seed and know how
to different nations. Biotechnological approach has been used to develop
genetically modified plants.
Regulations are made by individual countries for trade of agricultural commodities.
In India, Destructive Insects and Pests Act 1914 was promulgated by the
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Ministry of Agriculture
and Irrigation. Revisions were made in 1976 and later. For imports into India,
1984 Plants, fruits and seeds regulation of imports was imposed which was
revised in 1989 (Seed Tech News 30 (3, 4) 2000: 34-53). According to it, no
consignment can be imported into the country without an official 'Import permit'
and Phyto-sanitary Certificate issued by the official Plant Quarantine Agency of
the exporting country. As international trade on agricultural and allied products
involves risks of spread of diseases, insect-pests, weeds and unwanted chemical
residues which may result in health hazards of plants, animals and pollute the
environment, each country has its own rules and regulations of quarantine. Due to
the want of harmony in the rules and regulation and their implementation the
General Agreement on Tariffs an. Trade (GATT) which was operative from 1947
. and revised in 1995 was transformed into the World Trade Organization (WTO).
India is a member country ofWTO. WTO made an agreement on the application
of sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) measures uniformly applicable to all the
member countries.
The agreement also includes the trade related aspects like Intellectual Property
Rights and Trade in Counterfeit Goods known as TRIPS agreement. The point of
subsidies is of great concern for developing countries.
63
Indian Agriculture: The techniques developed in other countries are being used in our country in.
An Overview
agricultural production like drip irrigation from Israel. Excellent cooperation
is desired at global level to improve agricultural production. Similar efforts are
made in animal husbandry to have better production in milk, poultry, piggery,
fisheries etc.
4.14 LET US SUM UP

The agricultural development took place in several phases in all the components
of agriculture. The agriculture was governed by age old practices which were
modified and refined from time to time. Different dynasties had their influence. The
cultivators were to pay high taxes in cash or kind. The Zamindari system had its
influence in negative way as zamindars were not the actual cultivators and cultivation
was done by labour. The Zamindars had large land holdings. The method ofland
assessment was modified by.the rulers. After independence land ceiling was
introduced and several land reforms were made. Several commissions were formed
to suggest methods for agricultural advancement and betterment offarmers. The
introduction of dwarf wheat from Mexico changed the scenario of wheat cultivation.
Some lessons were learnt due to Bengal famine in 1942. Intensive Area
Development Programme was started which gradually covered whole India. Steps
were taken to establish factories for chemical fertilizers, pesticides and other
requirements in agriculture production. Proper attention was given to quality seed.
Irrigation facilities were increased by constructing large and small dams. They
were also used for generating power. The farm implements were modified and
farm machineries were introduced. Attention was given for agricultural education,
research and extension through Agricultural Universities and Institutes. Indian
Council of Agricultural Research is responsible for all the activities in education,
research and extension in all the disciplines of agriculture. Similar attention has
been given to animal sciences including dairy, poultry, fisheries, goats, sheep and
pigs. Advances are also being made through biotechnology. The planning has
been made to boost the agricultural production not only for self sufficiency but
also to have a good export quantum.
4.15 KEY WORDS

CACP (Commission Main functions ofCACP is to fix support price in
for Agricultural advance of the harvest for all major crops based on
Costs and Prices) the cost of production and some incentive over the
cost.'
GAIT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
IADP The selected districts underIADP (Intensive Area
Development Programme) were required to have
assured irrigation, minimum hazard like flood, drought
and soil erosion, use of fertilizers, plant protection
measures and availability of agricultural credit.
Nucleus Seed It is basic seed developed by the concerned breeder.
•
SPS Sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures.
TaquaviLoan Loan given to the cultivators for purchase of seed and
cattle on surety for their payment.
64
4.16 SOME USEFUL BOOKS / REFERENCES Agriculture
Anonymous (2002-2004). Survey of Indian Agriculture- The Hindu.
Menon, K.P.A. (1985). Indian Agriculture, Administrative and Organisational

Constraints. Arthashastri Prakashan, New Delhi. pp. 236.
Randhawa, M.S. (1962). Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in India. ICAR,

New Delhi. pp. 342.
Randhawa, M.S. (1982). A History of Agriculture in India. Vol. n. 1206 to

1761 ICAR, New Delhi. pp. 543.
Randhawa, M.S. (1986). A History of Agriculture in India. Vol. IV. 1947-

1981, ICARNewDelhi. pp. 716. \

PROGRESS
1) Dynasties with the frequent change of land revenue system had adverse
impact on agricultural development.
2) It makes faster movement of products from one place to another.
1) High quality seed gives higher yield and quality product.
2) Chemical fertilizers help in achieving higher yield.
3) Through development of inigation facilitiesand efficientutilization of available

irrigation water.
.1) Education helps in over all development of agriculture (development of

technology and its transfer to the farmers, purchase and sale of agricultural
inputs and output, etc.)
.2) Research is the basic requirements of development of new technology and

refinement in the existing one.
3) Good extension programme helps in transfer and propagation of improved

crop production technologies among the producers.
1) Crop production and animal husbandry are complementary enterprises.
- 2) 'Through new breeds along with other poultry development activities.
3) Fish breeding, better management of production system, development of

conditioned storage system, processing.
·65
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"Education is a liberating force, and in

Block Preparation Team

Printed at :- Berry art Press A-9,Mayapuri Phase-I New Delhi-110064

• state the various phases of the Indian agriculture development;'

• define Indian farmers traditions, beliefs and practices;

• explain importance of agriculture in the national economy;

• determine the status, utilization pattern, problems and development of different

• justify the concept of capital formation, agricultural pricing, taxation and

• recognise the emerging issues and trends in agriculture such as diversification.

The course is expected to familiarize you with different stages of agriculture

Several resources are required for agriculture production. Availability of these

Institutional infrastructure plays a vital role in the agro-socio-economic

The agricultural development is central point of the overall economic development

12.4 Development in Agriculture after Independence

12.5 Modem Indian Agriculture

1.32 Efficient Use of Knowledge of Agricultural Sciences

1.3.4 Development of New Plant Types

1.3.6 Commercialization of Agriculture

1.3.10 Post-harvest Management

The principal objective of agriculture is to channelise as much as possible the

1.2.1 History of Indian Agriculture

Most important contribution ofIndia towards development of agriculture is the

1.2.2 Agriculture in Prehistoric Era

a) Conservation of Desirable Native Plants

b) Collection and Preservation of Seeds

.h) Use of Domestic Wastes as Plant Nourishment

By the use of domestic wastes in agriculture as plant nourishment, people

i) Following Crop Rotation

7500 BC Conservation of crops (wheat, barley).

6000 BC Domestication of cattle and pigs.

4000 BC Cultivation of maize.

3500 BC Cultivation of potato.

3400 BC Wheel was invented.

3000 BC Bronze was used to make tools. 11

2700 BC Silk moth domesticated.

2300 BC Cultivation of chickpea, pea, mustard and cotton

2200 BC Cultivation of rice in India.

1200 BC Cultivation of finger millet (ragi).

1725 BC Cultivation of sorghum.

1700 BC Taming of horses.

1500 BC Cultivation of sugarcane and irrigation from wells.

1400 BC Use of iron.

1500AD Cultivation of sweet orange, sour orange, wild brinjal,

1600AD Introduction of several crops in India from Portugal-like,

1.2.3 Development in Agriculture before Independence

A separate Department of Agriculture was created at national level in 1871.

Committee, Famine Enquiry Committee and Fertilizer Production Programme

1;2.4 Development in Agriculture after Independence

1.2.5 Modern Indian Agriculture

a) Development of Improved Plant Types/Varieties

Improved production techniques for crop cultivation based on the availability

1.2.6 . Global Issues Related to Agriculture

Check Your Progress 1

2) Summarize the development of Indian agriculture after independence.

India is a leading agricultural country in the world. Presently, agricultural production

Advancement of civilization is closely related to agriculture. As 21 SI century has

1.3.2 Efficient Use of Knowledge of Agricultural Sciences

Agriculture as a science is derived with the integration of the knowledge of

1.3.3 Efficient Use of Natural Resources

1.3.4 Development of New Plant Types

1.3.5 Development of Multiple Resistance Crop Varieties