TEACHING APTITUDE

 Teaching : Nature, Objectives, Characteristics and Basic Requirements

 Learner’s Characteristics
 Factors affecting Teaching
 Methods of Teaching
 Teaching aids
 Evaluation Systems
Teaching : Nature, Objectives, Characteristics and Basic Requirements
Definition of Teaching
 Teaching is the process of attending to people’s needs, experiences and feelings, and
making specific interventions to help them learn particular things.
 Interventions commonly take the form of questioning, listening, giving information,
explaining some phenomenon, demonstrating a skill or process, testing
understanding and capacity, and facilitating learning activities (such as note taking,
discussion, assignment writing, simulations and practice).
 According to Bingham – “teaching aptitude is a specific ability, potentiality, interest,
satisfaction and fitness in teaching profession”.
 The teaching aptitude means an interest in the teaching work orientation, implementing
teaching principles and methods. Under the gamut of teaching aptitude, teaching skill
occupies a major place.
 Every student is a different entity from the viewpoint of his intelligence, aptitude and
interest. Under a particular situation, different students may have different perceptions,
actions and reactions to a given issue/subject.
 Teaching is a social process in which teacher influences the behaviour of the less
experienced pupil and helps him develop according to the needs of the society. Effecting
coordination among them could be a very difficult task for a teacher and is put to test
only on such occasions.
 Teaching is an art and science as well. It is a professional activity involving teacher and
student with a view to the development of the student. Teaching is a system of actions
varied in form and related with content and pupil behaviour under the prevailing physical
and social conditions.
 Smith (1947)”considered teaching as a tripolar process involving (i) agent or source
producing learning which may be human or material; (ii) a goal or target to be achieved;
(iii) the intervening variables consisting of learning or teaching situation; involving
human or physical conditions and instructional methods”.
 Amidon (1967) ” Teaching as a process of interaction between the teacher and the taught
as a cooperative enterprise, as a two-way traffic”. The manner of teaching should be such
that it makes the pupils feel at home in his class room. The teacher has to ensure that the
 learner is well adjusted to the environment which includes his classmates, school mates
and other members of his society at large.
Common characteristics of good teaching
According to UNESCO (2004) and Scheerens (2004), the main characteristics of good
teaching relate to a number of broad categories:
 Relevance: of the teaching content, in particular alignment with the curriculum.
 Sufficient learning time: this refers to the time devoted to actual teaching, as opposed to
the official hours set in the curriculum.
 Structured teaching, in which learners’ engagement is stimulated, their understanding
monitored, and feedback and reinforcement regularly provided.
 A conductive classroom environment with, in particular, a task-oriented climate, mutual
respect between the students and teacher and among students themselves, orderliness, and
safety.
 Teachers with appropriate subject matter mastery, verbal intelligence, a broad teaching
repertoire, and motivation to achieve.
 What research also underlines though is that adaptability to context matters as different
countries and students may need different teaching contents (both in terms of subject
matter knowledge and of medium of instruction) and different levels of structure tailored
to students’ profile. It is therefore important to critically assess the relevance of both
current and planned objectives (in terms of the content, structure, and context of teaching
and learning) to the national situation.
Nature and characteristics of Teaching
1. The main character of teaching is to provide guidance and training.
2. Teaching is interaction between teacher and students.
3. Teaching is an art to give knowledge to students with effective way.
4. Teaching is a science to educate fact and causes of different topics of different subjects.
5. Teaching is continues process.
6. Teacher can teach effectively, if he has full confidence on the subject.
7. Teaching encourages students to learn more and more.
8. Teaching is formal as well as informal
9. Teaching is communication of information to students. In teaching, teacher imparts
information in interesting way so that students can easily understand the information.
10. Teaching is tool to help student to adjust himself in society and its environment.
LEARNER’S CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Motivational Characteristics
a. Self-efficacy: Bandura defines the term perceived self-efficacy as a belief in one’s
capabilities to organize and execute the actions necessary to manage particular situations.
 Bandura also notes physiological and emotional states can influence individuals to interpret
stress reactions and tension as indicator of vulnerability to poor performance. Therefore
one way to alter self-efficacy is to reduce stress and negative emotional tendencies. Those
who believe they cannot manage threats experience high anxiety arousal. They view many
aspects of their environment as fraught with danger (Bandura, 1993).
b. Attribution Patterns: Attribution research focuses on the ways that individuals arrive at
casual explanations of what takes place in their lives. Success and failure perceived as due
to internal causes such as personality ability or effort respectively raises or lowers self-
esteem or self worth, whereas external attributions for positive or negative outcomes do not
influence feelings about one (Weiner, 1985)
c. Goal Orientation: Mastery Orientation (Learning goal): Student’s are concerned with
developing skills, knowledge, understanding. Performance Orientation ( Performance or
ego goals): Student’s more concerned with the outcome (performance) than the
process/learning.
d. Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic Motivation: Individual is self-directed. Could
be derived from a desire for academic success, knowledge, or working with a positive self-
esteem. Extrinsic Motivation: Individual is other directed. Could be a result of,
 Parental influences: Parents hold academic success in high regard and have high
expectations for the learner.
 Rewards: These could be monetary or material rewards.
 Acknowledgement: Honor roll, or other academic awards, attention of other
students/teacher.
 Classroom privileges for positive academic performances: These could range from
free time, time in organized centers, or other opportunities that students are not
guaranteed.
2. Multiple Intelligence Characteristics
 Existential Intelligence: Students with existential intelligence are attuned to the human
condition. They are able to comprehend issues like the significance of life and death and
the experience of love:
 Inter/Intrapersonal Intelligence: Interpersonallearners understand the mood and
motivations of others enabling them to work and communicate effectively. They enjoy
social activities. Intrapersonal learners have a deep awareness of their own inner
feelings. They have a strong sense of independence and self-confidence.
 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Students who possess bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
have the ability to work skillfully with objects involving both fine and gross motor skills.
They are characterized by a well-developed sense of balance and motor control. In
addition, they are skillful at translating intention into action. These students learn best by
doing.
 Visual-Spatial Intelligence: Spatial intelligence is characterized by a person’s capacity
to perceive the visual world and recreate aspects of it even in the absence of relevant
stimuli. This intelligence is fundamentally tied to the concrete world and the locations of
objects in that world.eg.,Play chess,Guess the mystery object inside a bag.
  Musical/Naturalist Intelligence: No other intelligence emerges earlier than musical
talent. Those who possess high levels of musical or rhythmic intelligence constantly hear
tones, rhythms, and musical patterns in the environment and human voice, as well as
music. The auditory sense is crucial, although not mandatory.
 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The logical-mathematical intelligence initially
develops through observation, manipulation, and handling of physical objects. In time,
the thinking becomes more abstract. This intelligence is closely related to scientific
thinking and deductive reasoning.
 Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence: The power and love of the written and spoken word is at
the heart of this intelligence. Reading, writing, listening, and speaking are the activities
that represent this intelligence
3. Prior Knowledge:
Prior knowledge is the knowledge the learner already has before they meet new
information. A learner’s understanding of a text can be improved by activating their prior
knowledge before dealing with the text, and developing this habit is good learner training for
them.
4. Economic/Home Life
 Proper nutrition before school
 Appropriate/necessary school supplies
 Parents’ ability to assist learner with academic/school related homework and activities.
 Parents involvement in a teacher/parent relationship.
5. Values:
Our values are determined by the beliefs we hold which, in turn, will determine our
behaviors. Beliefs are based on our worldview. One common worldview is naturalism; the idea
that nothing exists outside of natural laws. Transcendentalism is the belief that nature is god and
god is whatever you want it to be. Theism is the belief in a god whom you hold some
responsibility to. The way you interpret the world will significantly effect what you value. Your
values will then determine how you behave.
6. Emotional intelligence:
Emotional intelligence(EI) is the capability of individuals to recognize their own and
other people’s emotions, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, use
emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, and manage and/or adjust emotions to
adapt to environments or achieve one’s goal(s)
7. Culture: the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular people
8. Language
9. Social Skills:
A social skill is any skill facilitating interaction and communication with
others. Social rules and relations are created, communicated, and changed in verbal and
nonverbal ways. The process of learning these skills is called socialization.
10. Health: a person with good health learn better.
Characteristics of Good learners
Good learners are:
 Curious
 Creative
 Resilient in the face of challenges
 Able to embrace change
 Adaptable
 Collaborative
 Open to diverse viewpoints and experiences
 Respectful of others
 Respectful of the environment
 Compassionate
 Optimistic
 Nurturing
 Challenge seeking
 Engaged and enthusiastic
 Future oriented with a global perspective
 Intrinsically motivated
Skills of Good learner
 Solve complex problems
 Make connections between present and future opportunities
 Think critically, reflectively
 Communicate effectively using a variety of media and technology
 Communicate effectively to a variety of audiences
 Utilize multiple literacy skills in learning
 Utilize organizational skills to enhance learning
 Mediate conflict peacefully
 Pursue a healthy lifestyle
 Appreciate beauty and the arts
 Advocate for oneself and others
 Apply current learning to new situations
 Synthesize multiple pieces of information to create new information
 Assume responsibility for learning
 RESEARCH APTITUDE
 Research : Meaning, Characteristics and Types
 Steps of Research.
 Methods of Research
 Research Ethics
 Paper, Articles, Workshop, Seminar, Conference and Symposium.
 Thesis Writing : Its characteristics and format

MEANING OF RESEARCH
First, we should start from the word ‘research’. This word is made up by adding ‘Re’ as a prefix
to the word ‘search’. Search is to make known of an existent unknown thing. Therefore, research
(search of searched) means to elicit some facts out of a known thing. Research in common
parlance refers to a search for knowledge
Every letter of the word ‘research’ emphasizes a special and dignified meaning as given below.
R – Rational (way of thinking)
E – Expert/Exhaustive (Treatment)
S – Search (for solution)
E – Exactness
A – Analytical Analysis (of adequate data)
R – Relationship (of facts)
C – Careful (recording)/ critical (observation) / constructive (attitude) / condensed/and
compactly (stated Generalisation
H – Honesty/Hard work
Research is thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study. observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem in research.

Research word is made up by adding 'Re' as a prefix to the word 'search'. Search is to make
known of an existent unknown thing. Therefore, research (search of searched) means to elicit
some facts out of a known thing. Research is
 an attitude of inquiry,
 an attempt to elicit facts
 a systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method.
  Essentially a state of mind - a friendly, welcoming attitude towards change

Characteristics of Research
1. It is a scientific investigation. Research (research) means to "search again. It connotes
patient study and scientific investigation.
2. It develops concepts and the theories. One reason for conducting research is to develop and
evaluate concepts and the theories.
3. It expands the limits of knowledge. Basic or pure research attempts to expand the limits of
knowledge. It is conducted to verify the acceptability of a given theory or to know more
about a certain concept.
4. It cannot be implemented immediately. It does not directly involve the solution to a
particular problem; its findings generally cannot be implemented immediately.
5. It is essential tool for good decision making. The task of educational research is to make
the information used in decision making more accurate.
6. Educational research is a managerial tool that provides information essential for good
decision making. Research in teaching, training, organizing, or management areas of an
institution are within the scope of training research.
7. Educational research reduces the risk of making wrong decisions. It is an aid to
management judgment, not a substitute of it.

RESEARCH – MEANING AND DEFINITION

Research refers to a systematic study of one’s chosen subject for arriving at both new and valid
conclusions. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also
define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known
as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known
as hypothesis-testing research studies).
Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as
it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post
facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example,frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover
causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental
(to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation.
Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a
view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or
business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why
people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important
type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word
association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the
various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people
like or dislike a particular thing.
It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job
and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental
psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself
with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks
will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables
under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some
way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of
the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other
similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time
research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-
period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending
upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood
as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of
things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering
devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory
research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research
studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study
events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of
time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing
conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for
the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination.
Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of
providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations
under their control.
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Three basic types of questions that research projects:

 Descriptive: When a study is organised for the first time to elaborate what is going on or
what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to elaborate the proportion of people who
hold different opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For example, if we want to
know what percent of the population would vote for a BJP or Congress in the next
election, we are just interested in elaborating something.
 Relational: When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more
variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say
they would vote for a BJP or Congress candidate in the next election is crucially studying
the relationship between gender and voting preference.
Causal: When a study is organised to find out whether one or more variables e. g. a program or
treatment variable causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion
poll to try to find out whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences,
we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters
who would vote BJP or Congress (effect).

Steps Of Research
1. Identification of research: The 1st step of the research process is to figure out the subject
and nature of the problem.
2. Proposal of Action: As soon as we find out the subject or the problem, we are supposed to
set up an action plan to solve the problems or find a relevant solution for the same.
3. Constructing hypothesis: Hypothesis i.e.. Assumptions is a tentative explanation for an
observation, phenomenon or scientific problem that can be tested by investigation. It is a
concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain various facts or phenomena.
Characteristics of hypothesis:
a. It must mention the relationship between variables
b. It must comprise of known facts
c. it can be tested
d. It must be dear in its concept
e. It must be objective and specific (vi).
It must be amendable to testing within the rational time. So our next step is to
construct a hypothesis for research and after that he plans to elaborate it either
based on laboratory experiment or field experiment.
4. Collection of data: The researcher must assimilates the data either in experimental way or
in a non-experimental way.
 5. Presentation of data: This step pertains to the representation of the gathered data into a
scientific manner, so that he or anyone else will be able to analyze that clearly. The most
fundamental way for presentation of data in scientific or social research is to make a table
of the assimilated data in a particular manner, which will reflects the relation between
variables.
6. Analysis of data: The analysis can be performed in both the ways i.e,. Statistical and
descriptive.
7. Declaration of Result: When analyzing of the data is completed, the researcher will
announce the research result.

Method of Research
Research Method:
Research methods include all those techniques/methods that are adopted for conducting research.
Thus, research techniques or methods are the methods that the researchers adopt for conducting
the research studies.
The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business decisions.
The methodology may include publication research, interviews, surveys and other research
techniques, and could include both present and historical information.
Research Methodology:
research methodology is the way in which research problems are solved systematically. It is a
science of studying how research is conducted scientifically. Under it, the researcher acquaints
himself/herself with the various steps generally adopted to study a research problem, along with
the underlying logic behind them. Hence, it is not only important for the researcher to know the
research techniques/ methods, but also the scientific approach called methodology
Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING
ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
 SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will
follow. There are certain things in the research process which are always done in order to get the
most accurate results.
 ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a
planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope.
 FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis
or even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is
no, but it is still an answer.
 QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is of no
use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question,
research has no focus, drive, or purpose.
Research Approaches
There are two main approaches to research, namely quantitative approach and qualitative
approach. The quantitative approach involves the collection of quantitative data, which are put to
 rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid manner. This approach further includes
experimental, inferential, and simulation approaches to research. Meanwhile, the qualitative
approach uses the method of subjective assessment of opinions, behavior and attitudes. Research
in such a situation is a function of the researcher’s impressions and insights. The results
generated by this type of research are either in non-quantitative form or in the form which cannot
be put to rigorous quantitative analysis. Usually, this approach uses techniques like in-depth
interviews, focus group interviews, and projective techniques.
Fig: 01

Methods of Research
 Experiments:
 True-Experiments
 Quasi-Experiments
 Pre-Experiments
 Surveys
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 According to the Span of Time Involved
 Cross-Sectional Surveys
 Longitudinal Surveys
 Case studies
 Illustrative Case Studies.
 Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies.
 Cumulative Case Studies.
 Critical Instance Case Studies.
 Participant and non-participant observation
 Observational trials
 Methods of Observational studies
 Controlled Observations
 Natural Observations
 Participant Observations
 Types of observational studies
 Case-control study
 Cross-sectional study
 Longitudinal study
 Cohort study or Panel study
 Ecological study
 Studies using the Delphi method

Difference between Research methods and Research methodology

Sr. No. Research Methods Research Methodology

1. Tools, techniques or processes that are The principles that guide our research practices.
used for conduction of research.

2. Aims at finding solutions to research Research methodology aims at the employment

problems. of the correct procedures to find out solutions.
Difference between Experimental and Non- Experimental Research
Experimental Research Non- Experimental Research

1. This type of research always begins with some In this type of research it is not essential to always
hypothesis which the research wants to test. have hypothesis. All exploratory researcher and
many descriptive researcher do not have any
hypothesis.

2. Data generated by this research are used to Data generated by this type of research are not
establish cause and affect relationship between helpful in establishing the cause and effect
two variables. On the basis of these data one can relationships between variables. They can be used
predict changes in the independent variable. only to describe certain relationships without
interdependence.
(1) Descriptive vs. Analytical
The fact finding inquiries and the field surveys are main contents of descriptive research. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex
post facto researchprojects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to
measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when
they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical
research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and
analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

(2) Applied vs Fundamental

Applied and fundamental are the two faces of research. Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation
of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake” is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a
view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or
business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research to find out whether
certain communications will be read and understood or the marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of application and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
Sr. No. Pure Research Applied Research

1. Studies a problem usually from the focus Several disciplines collaborate for solving the
of one discipline. problem.

2. Aims to illuminate the theory by enriching Aims to solve a problem by enriching the field
the basic of a discipline. of application of a discipline.

3. Seeks generalizations Often studies individual cases without the

objective to generalize

4. Studies why things happen Studies how things can be changed

5. Reports is in technical language

Report is in common language

6. Works on hypotheses that variables not

measured remains constant.
 Recognizes that other variables are constant by
changing.

(3) Quantitative vs Qualitative

Measurement of quantity is followed by quantitative research. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance,
when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think
or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word
association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative
research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
(4) Conceptual vs Empirical
The research, which is based on some ideas on theory, is known as conceptual research. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their
source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information.
There are many other kinds of research which are variations of one or more of the above stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research,
or the environment in which research is done, or on the basis or some other similar factor. From
the point of view of time, we can think or research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research
or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to
be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such
research follow case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic casual relations.
Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small
samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it
may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypothesis rather
than their testing, whereas formalised research studies are those with substantial structure and
with specific hypothesis to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources
like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy or
persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as problem
oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds
and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need
of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according
to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is
a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions
regarding operations under their control.

Steps of Research
The following order concerning various steps provide a useful procedural guideline regarding
research process :
1. Formulation of Research Problem
2. Literature Survey
3. Developing Hypothesis
4. Preparing Research Design
5. Determining Sample Design
6. Collection of Data
7. Execution of Project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation
11. Preparation of Report
 1. Formulation of Research Problem
Formulation of the problem means defining the problem precisely. In other words a problem
well defined is half solved.
There are two types of research problems:
1. Those which relate to states of nature
2. Those which relate to relationships between variables
The research must first decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he
would like o inquire into. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem :
i. Understanding the problem thoroughly
ii. Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In academic institution the researcher can seek the
help from guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems sin mind.
In private business units or government organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the
administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally
came about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time study all available literature to get himself familiar with the
selected problem.
2. Extensive Literature Review
Once the problem is formulated a brief summary of it should be written down. At this stage the
researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected to the problem. Academic
journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc. must be monitored depending
upon the nature of the problem. The earlier studies which are similar to the study in hand should
be carefully studied.
3. Development of Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption which a researcher wants to test for its logical or empirical
consequences. Hypotheses should be stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep
him on the right track. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data
analysis to be used. It may be mentioned that though a hypothesis is useful it is not always
necessary, specially in case of exploratory researches. However, in a problem oriented research,
it is necessary to formulate a hypothesis .
4. Preparing a Research Design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It is the blueprint
for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. Decision regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. In
other words the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. The following decisions are made in
Research design :
i. What is the study about?
ii. Where will study be carried out?
iii. Why is the study being carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can data be found?
vi. What will be the sample design?
vii. What data collection techniques will be used?
viii. How much time will study take?
5. Determining Sample Design
All the items under consideration is any field of inquiry constitute ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A
sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population. Thus a plan to select 20 of a city’s 100 hospitals in a certain
way constitutes a sample design. The sampling design can be classified into probability sampling
plans and non-probability sampling plans. Different Sampling designs in each of these categories
are listed as follows:
Probability Sampling Plan
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling
Non-probability sampling plan
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Judgement Sampling
3. Quota Sampling
4. Snowball Sampling
Depending on the population size, required precision and available time to carry out the research
project, a suitable sampling plan is to be selected.
6.Collecting the data
Data are the basic input to any decision making process. The processing of data gives statistics of
importance of the study. Data can be classified into :
i. Primary Data
ii. Secondary Data
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey whereas secondary
data is the data which has already been collected by others. This data is primary data for the
agency that collects it and becomes secondary data for someone else who uses this data for his
own purposes. The different methods used for primary data collection are observation method,
personal interview, telephone interview and mail survey. The secondary data can be obtained
from journals,books,magazines,newspapers, reports, government publications, publication of
professional and research organizations and so on.
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration
the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time
and the desired degree of accuracy.
7.Execution of the project
Execution of the project is very important step in the research process. The researcher should see
that the project is executed in a systematic manner an in time. If the survey to be conducted by
means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. If the data are to be
collected through interviews, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of
the interviewers. Steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so
that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy.
8. Analysis of Data
After data are collected, proper tools and techniques should be used for classification and
analysis of data. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The tools of classification of data are
frequency distribution, cumulative frequency distribution, relative frequency distribution and
charts. Different types of charts are pie chart, bar chart, stacked bar chart, histogram, frequency
polygon and ogive curves.
9. Hypothesis Testing
After analysis the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if
formulated earlier. Hypothesis testing is done to know whether the facts support the hypothesis
or they happen to be contrary. Various tests, such as CHI square test, t- test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for this purpose. One or more such tests scan be used for hypothesis
testing.
10. Generalization and Interpretation
If the hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive
at generalization i.e. to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The
process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report
must be done with great care.
The layout of the report should be as follows :
i. Preliminary pages
Preliminary pages contain title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then
there should be table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any,
given in the report.
ii. Main text
Main text of the report should have the following parts:
a) Introduction
It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
b) Summary of the findings
After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non
technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
c) Main Report
The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken down into
readily identifiable sections.
d) Conclusion
Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research
clearly and precisely. It is the final summing up.
iii. End matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e. list of books, journals, reports etc. consulted, should also be given in the end.
Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
The report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems’ or ‘there may be’. Charts and illustration in the main report should
be used only if they present the information more clearly and forcibly.
Methods of Research
The aim of science is to provide new and useful information in the form of verifiable data:
obtained under conditions such that other qualified people can make similar observations and
obtain the same results. This task calls for orderliness and precision in uncovering relationships
and in communicating them to others.
1. Experimental Method
An experiment is a test, a procedure used to find out something not presently known.
Experiments are usually carried out in order to discover the cause of a phenomenon. The
experimental method is a matter of logic, not of location. Even so, most experimentation takes
place in special laboratories, chiefly because the control of conditions commonly requires special
equipment that is best housed and used in one place. The laboratory is generally located in a
university or a research institute of some kind, where it is accessible to scientists who work on a
variety of topics.
i. Laboratory
The distinguishing characteristic of a laboratory is that is a place where the experimenter can
carefully control conditions and take measurements in order to discover orderly relationships
among variables. A variable is something that can occur with different values. For example, in an
experiment seeking to discover the relationship between learning ability and age, both learning
ability and age can have different values, learning being either slow or fast and the learner being
either young or old. To the extent that learning ability changes systematically with increasing
age, we can discover an orderly relationship between them.
ii. Variables
The ability to exercise practice control over variables distinguishes the experimental method
from other methods of observation. If the experimenter seeks to discover whether learning ability
depends on the amount of sleep a person has had, he can control the amount of sleep by
arranging to have several groups of subjects spend the night in the laboratory. One group might
be allowed to go sleep at 11:00 P.M., another at 1.00 A.M., and the third group might be kept
awake until 4:00 A.M. By waking all the subjects at the same time and giving each the same
learning task, the experimenter can determine whether the subjects with more sleep master the
task more quickly than those with less sleep.
In this study, the different amounts of sleep are the antecedent conditions, the learning
performances are the results of these conditions. We call the antecedent condition the
independent variable because it is independent of what the subject does. The variable affected by
changes in the antecedent conditions is called the dependent variable; in psychological research
the dependent variable is usually some measure of the subject’s behavior. The phrase “is a
function of” is used to express the dependency of one variable on another. Thus, for the
experiment above, we could say the subject’s ability to master a task is a function of the amount
of sleep he has had.
iii. Degree of Control
The degree of control possible in the laboratory makes a laboratory experiment the preferred
scientific method when it can be used appropriately. Precision instruments are usually necessary
in order to control stimuli and to obtain exact data. The experimenter may need to produce
colours of known wavelengths in vision studies, or sounds of known frequency in audition
studies. It may be necessary to expose a pattern in an aperture of a viewing screen for a fraction
of a second. With precision instruments, time can be measured in thousandths of a second, and
physiological activity can be studied by means of very slight electrical currents amplified from
the brain. Thus, the psychological laboratory has audiometers, photometers, oscilloscopes,
electronic timers, electroencephalographs, and computers.
iv. Value of an Experiment
The value of an experiment is not determined, however, by the amount of apparatus used. If the
logic of experimentation requires precision apparatus, then such apparatus should be used; if
does not, good experimentation can be carried out with pencil-and-paper procedures.
2. Observational Method
In the observation method, the investigator will collect data through personal observations. In
this method the investigator will observe the behavior of the respondents in disguise. Take the
case of customers transacting with a bank. Here, the behavior of the customers like, patience
while waiting, way of moving with the bank employees, helping fellow customers in filling
different forms, informing the bankers if there is any excess credit in their pass books, returning
excess currency to the cashier if given by him, opinion of the customers about the bank through
their casual discussions, time spent in reading circulars in notice board, etc. will be observed by
the investigator. Continuous monitoring of stock exchange index and share prices movements
through newspaper and magazines is an example of observational method which will help
investment companies and individuals effective management of portfolios.
3. Survey Method (Field Studies)
Those problems which are difficult to study by direct observation may be studied through the use
of questionnaires or interviews. Surveys are usually appropriate in case of social and behavioural
sciences. Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting
conditions that either exist or existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange
for events to happen. Survey are only concerned with conditions or relationships that exist,
opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evidence or trends that are
developing. They primarily concerned with the present but at times do consider past events and
influences as they relate to current conditions. Thus, in surveys, variables that exist or have
already occurred are selected and observed.
Surveys have also been used to obtain information on political opinions, consumer preferences,
health care needs, and many other topics. An adequate survey requires a carefully pre tested
questionnaire, a group of interviewers trained in its use, a sample carefully selected to ensure that
the respondents are representative of the population to be studied, and appropriate methods of
data analysis and reporting so that the results are properly interpreted.
4. Case Studies
The case study method involves careful and complete observation of a social unit a person, a
family, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community. The case study is essentially
an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The objective of the case
study method is to locate the factors that account for the behavior patterns of the given unit as an
integrated totality.
5. Test Method
This method is used to measure all kinds of abilities, interests, attitudes, and accomplishments.
Tests enable the psychologist to obtain large quantities of data from people with minimum
disturbance of their living routines and without elaborate laboratory equipment. A test essentially
presents a uniform situation to a group of people who vary in aspects relevant to the situation
(such as intelligence, manual dexterity, anxiety, and perceptual skills). An analysis of the results
then relates variations in test scores to variations among people. Test construction and use are,
however, no simple matters. They involve many steps in item preparation, scaling, and
establishing norms.
RESEARCH ETHICS
In most research studies three parties are involved: the researcher, the user and the subject. The
interaction of each of these parties with one or both of the other two parties identifies a series of
ethical issues. A number of questions arise because researchers believe they have the right to
seek information, and subjects believe that they have a certain right to privacy. Just as there are
ethical aspects concerning all human interaction, there are some ethical questions about business
research. Some of the code of ethics to be followed by the researchers are as given below:
  Researcher should maintain high standards to ensure that the data are accurate.
 Researcher should not intentionally try to prove a particular point.
 Researcher should ensure that the data have been scientifically investigated and his
findings are totally objective.
 Researcher should not misrepresent the statistical accuracy of the data, nor should he
overstate the significance of the results by altering the findings.
 Researcher should ensure that privacy and anonymity of the respondents are preserved.
 Researcher, prior to entering business research, should check for code of ethics set out by
the professional associations.
Thesis Writing
Thesis writing is the final stage of the research. It provides the achievement of detailed
knowledge over the problems. When a researcher takes a problem for study he finds
modifications of his study. He applies some new techniques. There are three types of researchers
who take their study in different ways: the post-graduates take their for the partial fulfillment, the
doctoral degree also takes researches and professional research workers like scientists,
sociologists, psychologists and anthropologists take their study for the achievement of detailed
knowledge over the problems.
Characteristics of Thesis
It has following characteristics:
1. It is the final stage of the research.
2. It provides overall view and solution to the problem.
3. It provides all the elements of the project taken for study to other researchers.
4. It bears the total summary of the work.
5. It satisfies all its researchers by providing partial or detailed knowledge over their
problems.
Benefits of Thesis Writing
1. The investigator classifies and systematizes his work.
2. The other researchers also may follow the same principle.
3. The students and the educators who could make use of the findings of the investigation.
Considerations in Thesis Writing
The researcher takes some major considerations which help him in writing the report in a very
developed way:
i.What should the general structure of his report be ?
ii.What form should the development, evaluation and organization of his ideas take ?
iii What language medium should he use for his report ?
1. What other media can he use for reinforcing his verbal report?
 2. What steps should he take to get it typed correctly?
Format of the Thesis Writing
For the preparation of research report, the researcher should follow some steps through which
he will be able to make his report a critical and synthetic one.
1. Preliminary section
2. Main Body of the report
3. Reference section.
The Preliminary Section
 Title Page
Title page carries the name of the project. It should be clearly typed in capital letters. It should be
beautifully printed or typed because it impresses the mind of the readers. It creates a curiosity
among them to read the report. It bears the name of the topic, name of the author, the purpose of
the study, the name of the institution and the date of presentation.
 Acknowledgment
At the time of the study, if the researcher has received help and assistance of others, he renders
thanks to them. The acknowledgment should be simple in nature.
 Table of contents
He should clearly mention the procedures and steps of preparation of his study in content. In
content he also makes his study specific and mentions the pages which hold the length of the
chapters of the study.
 List of Tables
A statistical analysis is more clear when it is mentioned through tables.
 List of Figures. Examples and points maybe given through figures by utilizing Roman
numerals like (i) (ii) (iii), etc. In all pages of preliminary section, body of the report, and
reference section are numbered with Roman numerals.
Main Body
This section may be divided into five divisions:
(a) The first section of this branch introduces the topic. Introduction of the topic may follow the
statement of the problem, significance or actual need of the problem for the study, purposes of
the study and assumptions and limitations. All these steps in introduction of the topic should be
carefully defined.
(b) The second section of the study analyses the important literature related to the study. Previous
studies, if any in the area, are taken for reviewing.
(c) The third section of the study explains the design of the study. The tools and techniques
which are used for making the study smooth and to make the study systematic are described in
detail. The source from where the data have been collected and the methods used for collecting
data and devices used for collecting data should be clearly mentioned.
(d) It deals with the presentation and analysis of data. It is the most important stage of research
project. Through textual discussions and tabular and graphic devices the data are analysed and
reported.
(e) It holds the summary and conclusions of the total work. After a critical discussion of the total
project, the summary is drawn. It represents the most significant result of the investigation. The
summary should be ideal in writing because it makes the readers interested to read whole project.
Reference Section
Each and every research work is based on a set of literature which forms the foundation for the
research theme. This includes identification of the broader area of research and then narrow
downing the specific research issues which are not yet tried by other researchers. Further,
literature are helpful for using appropriate tools of analysis. The references can be classified into
journals, books, magazines, newspapers, research studies etc. Following points should be kept in
mind while mentioning the references:
(a) Reference section of the study occupies a very important place in the research study.
Reference followed at the time of study should be arranged in bibliography alphabetically. The
title of the author is listed first. The short statement on references should be given for the clear
understanding and the actual usefulness.
(b) The articles which are taken from journals should be included in the bibliography as per the
following format :
Author(s), Title of the article, Name of the journal, Volume of the journal, Issue number of the
volume, Year of publication, from to numbers of the pages of the article.
(c) Appendix is preceded by a sheet containing the word APPENDIX capitalized and centered on
the page. Tables and data, questionnaires, tests and other data gathering devices may be placed in
the appendix.
(d) Foot-notes are very essential in report writing. The researcher should give the required
explanations and references through foot-notes which will help other researchers to follow. These
are placed at the bottom of the page.
Medium of the Report
Research reports make use of two kinds of media: verbal, and language.
1. Verb-Verbal means language. Effective report writing is not an easy task. Even if skillful
and experienced, investigators have to draft their report very carefully. They revise it
many times before the final manuscript is ready. While preparing the report a careful
attention should be given on grammatical construction of the sentences. The use of words
and expressions should be properly organised and errors of spellings, abbreviations,
capital letters, and quotation marks should be properly watched.
2. Illustrations. Maps, charts, diagrams, graphs, tables should be placed properly. There
must be explanations of purpose of giving illustrations.
Paper
A paper is defined as an essay or dissertation read at a seminar or published on a journal. It is
either a result of research effort or an intellectual exercise. A research paper may entail all the
steps of research such as literature survey, data collection and so on . It usually follows the
journal’s editorial policy. Conceptual papers are not based on data. It presents facts of
research in a logical and lucid style. They can be analytical or argumentative. The paper
usually requires that the sources are cited in a bibliography given at the end.
Article
The articles are usually informative in nature, which typically address the topic in a general
scope as a means of introduction. They may appear in newspaper, magazine, consumer or
industry publication.
A research article is written by and for researchers for the purpose of making specific
findings known to the scientific community at large.
It includes a problem or question, method of research, data and conclusions. Research article
is found exclusively in a peer-reviewed scientific or medical journal, such as Journal of
Medical Research.
A research article illustrates the outcome of scientific research with supporting clinical data.
A research article could be used as a reference when writing a research paper.
Workshops
Workshops tend to be smaller and more intense than seminars. This format involves students
practicing their new skills during the event under the watchful eye of an instructor. Hands-on
workshops typically involve participants doing work on a particular issue during the
program. The promise is that when they leave, they’ll have at least a rough plan or tools in
place to address the challenge.
Seminar
The word seminar is derived from the Latin word seminarium, meaning seed plot. It is formal
presentation by one or more experts to a small group of audience. It can be conducted on
recurring or regular basis, monthly or even weekly, there is an invited speaker, and audience
is much more technically versed or specific in nature.
The motive behind the seminar system is to familiarize the students extensively with vital
aspects of their study and also to allow them to interact with examples of practical problems
that always occur during study or research work. A seminar is, thus, a form of academic
instruction either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial or professional
organization.
Seminars focus on some particular subject in which everyone present is requested to actively
participate.
Symposium
It is usually a formal meeting at which specialists deliver short address on a topic or on
related topics and then answer the questions relating to these topics. It is especially one in
which the participants form an audience and make presentations. Symposium is also defined
as a collection of writings on a particular topic, as in a magazine.
Colloquium
It is usually an academic meeting at which specialists deliver addresses on a topic or on
related topics and then answer the questions relating to these topics. A colloquium is targeted
to a well-educated but not specialized audience.
Conference
A conference is a meeting of people who confer about a topic. It is a meeting where people
come for discussion. It features keynotes and presentations delivered to all attendance, as
well as multiple break out sessions. Attendencees expect to receive information about
industry trends and developments.
It can be an academic conference, a business conference, a parent teacher conference, a peace
conference or so on.
Meeting
A meeting is an assembly or coming together of people whether it is a symposium,
workshop, conference or so. In a very remote sort of way, all of them convey the same
meaning-that is, people coming together for a purpose.
Typing of Report
A. Typing of the report is very important. After writing the manuscript by the researcher it
should be typed well. When the whole work will be typed at that time the researcher should
take the following steps into account:
(i) Typing sheets must be clean, distinct and legible.
(ii) Strike-over should not be made.
(iii) Typing must be one-sided.
(iv) Headings should be typed in the center.
(v)Paragraphs; quotations and footnotes should be mentioned in appropriate places.
(vi) Ditto marks should not be used.
(vii)An efficient typist should be engaged.
(viii) After typing the researcher should read it carefully
(ix) All copies of the report must be legible.
(x) When the typed report is ready, the researcher should check it carefully and make some
corrections if errors are found.
B. The following features of the report should be typed:
(a) Title page
(b) Acknowledgment
(c) Table of contents
(d) List of Tables
(e) List of Figures
(f) Different Chapters
(g) Quotations
(h) Footnotes
(i) Tables
(j) Figures
(k) Bibliography
(l) Appendix
(m) Index
C. After the neat and careful typing of the report the loose sheets will be systematically
arranged through page marks and will be given for binding which will be used as books for
further reference.
COMMUNICATION
Communication: Nature, characteristics and process
Introduction to communication
Communication is defined as “the process of passing information and understanding from one
person to another, it is essentially a bridge of meaning between people” All communication is
essentially sharing of information or some message. Communication is the most important of our
social activities.
We can classify communication as interpersonal, intrapersonal, group communication, Meta
communication, upward, downward, lateral, diagonal, formal, informal, oral, written or non
verbal communication.

Meaning of Communication
The term communication is derived from the latin word “communis” or “communicare” which
means to make common. Thus communication means to make common facts, information’s,
thoughts and requirements. Communication therefore is the exchange of thoughts, message,
information etc. by way of speech, signal or in writing.
Communication is two way process and works well with feedback, this helps to confirm that
intended message has been successful.
Scholar definitions
Communication is transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits
confidence. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver – G.G.
Brown.
“Communication is the intercourse by words, letters or messages”- Fred G. Meyer.
“Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals
and/or organization so that an understanding response results”. – By Peter Little
“Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more
persons”. – By W.H. New man and C.F. summer Jr.
But the definition given by William Scott, appears comprehensive and touches all aspects of
communication process.
“Administrative communication is a process which involves the transmission and accurate
replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions, which will
accomplish organizational goals.”
Elements of Communication Process
A communication process involves the following elements:
(a) Communicator, i.e., the person who intends to communicate the message to other persons.
(b) Message, i.e., the subject matter of communication. This may be opinion, order, appeal,
views, suggestions etc.
(c) Transmission, i.e., the act of conveying the message.
(d) Channel, i.e., the medium used to transmit the message.
(e) Receiver, i.e., the person for whom the message is meant.
(f) Response, i.e., replying or reaction of the receiver.
Process of Communication
Communication is effective when a concise and clear message is delivered well, received
successfully and understand fully. The process of communication has the following distinct
components:

1). Idea: – Idea is the simplification and abstraction of reality filtered through the individuals
mind. Every message weather oral or written begins with an idea. Every business has its own
convention for processing and communicating information.
2). Sender: – Person sending the information is called sender. He is also known as encoder. The
process of communication begins when an idea occurs in his mind. The sender wants to send that
idea to another person/organization to achieve some objective. The sender must have a clear
picture in his mind about what he wants to communicate.
3). Message: – The idea, emotion or opinion transmitted by the sender is called message.
Message is an idea transformed into words. The message can be expressed in different ways
depending on the subjects, purpose, audience, personal style and cultural background of the
sender.
4). Encoding: – The method by which a message is expressed is called encoding. Message arises
in the mind in the form of an idea. That idea is transmitted by the sender to the receiver in the
form of words, symbols, picture etc. If not encoded, it may not be possible for the receiver to
understand it.
5). Medium and Channel: – The method and means by which a message is transmitted by a
sender to the receiver. For instance, letters is a medium and postal or courier service a channel. If
message is communicated by telephone, than oral message is a medium and telephone a channel.
6).Receiver:– The receiver is a person/organization that receives the message. He is the
destination of the message. In the absence, the process of communication is incomplete. He not
only receives the message but also understands what is implied in it. He may be a listener, reader
or viewer of the message.
7). Decoding: – Decoding is the mental process by which the receiver draws meaning from the
word, symbols or picture of the message. Receiver decodes the message send by sender, that’s
why he is also known as decoder.
8). Feedback: – Feedback is the receiver’s response to the message. Feedback is the final ink in
the communication process. Feedback tells the source/sender, how the receiver has interpreted
the message. The effective communication is always sensitive to feedback.
Communication begins with an impulse (or motivation) to pass on a message made up of bits of
information. In the process of encoding, units of information are selected and organized for
transmission. Input is the sum of experiences that build up in the human brain or computer.
Output is the encoded message transmitted by the information source (an individual person or
group of people). The interpretation of the message is referred to as decoding. Feedback is the
response, or message that the recipient (decoder) returns to the sender (encoder).
 Sender has an idea
 Sender encodes the idea
 Sender transmits the message through medium
 Receiver gets the message
 Receiver decodes the message
 Receiver sends feedback
Feedback in the communication process is the response that gives us some indication of how
effectively we communicate. It is the gauge of efficiency in communication.

Classification of Communication
Based on whom the message is addressed
We classify communication according to the number of persons (receivers) to whom the message
is addressed:
 Intrapersonal Communication:
o It is talking to oneself in one’s own mind. Examples are soliloquies or asides in
dramatic works.
 Interpersonal Communication:
o It is the exchange of messages between two persons. For example, a conversation,
dialogue, or an interview in which two persons interact (others may also be
 present as audience). An author communicates interpersonally with his reader,
who is always present as a silent audience in the author’s mind while he writes. A
letter too is an example of interpersonal communication between the writer and
the person to whom it is written.
 Group Communication:
o It can be among small or large groups, like an organization, club or classroom, in
which all individuals retain their individual identity.
 Mass Communication:
o It occurs when the message is sent to large groups of people, for example, by
newspaper, radio, or television. In this process, each person becomes a faceless
individual with almost no opportunity for personal response or feedback.
Based On the basis of the medium employed
 Verbal Communication:
o It means communicating with words, written or spoken. Verbal communication
consists of speaking, listening, writing, reading, and thinking. It may further be
classified as Oral or Written Communication.
 Non-verbal communication:
o It includes using of pictures, signs, gestures, and facial expressions for
exchanging information between persons. It is done through sign language, action
language, or object language. Non-verbal communication flows through all acts of
speaking or writing. It is a wordless message conveyed through gestures (sign),
movements (action language), and object language (pictures/clothes) and so on.
Further non-verbal communication can be identified by personal space
(proxemics), sense of smell (olfactics) and time (chronemics).
 Meta Communication:
o Here the speaker’s choice of words unintentionally communicates something
more than what the actual words state. For example, a flattering remark like “I’ve
never seen you so smartly dressed” could also mean that the regular attire of the
listener needed improvement.
 Formal Communication:
o A formal channel of communication can be defined as a means of communication
that is formally controlled by managers or people occupying positions in an
organization. The communication flows through formal channels, that is,
officially recognized positions along the line in the organization. This ensures that
the information flows orderly, timely, and accurately. Any information, decision,
memo, reminder etc. will follow this path.
 Informal Communication:
o Side by side with the formal channel of communication every organization has an
equally effective channel of communication that is the informal channel. It is not
officially sanctioned, and quite often it is even discouraged or looked down upon.
 But, then, it is very much there, and has been given the name ‘grapevine’
precisely because it runs in all directions-horizontal, vertical, diagonal. As the
management experts put it, “it flows around water coolers, down hallways,
through lunch rooms, and wherever people get together in groups”.
 Downward Communication:
o The Communication that flows from Top to Bottom is known as downward
communication. Any organization has an inbuilt hierarchical system, and in that,
in the first instance, communication invariably flows downwards.
 Upward Communication:
o The Communication that flows from bottom to top, which is from lower
hierarchical level to higher level, is called Upward Communication. The main
function of upward communication is to supply information to the upper levels
about what is happening at the lower levels. It is just the reverse of the previous
dimension
 Lateral Communication:
o When communication takes place between two or more persons who are
subordinates working under the same person, or those who are working on the
same level, it is called lateral or horizontal communication. A good example of
this kind of communication is that between functional managers. It is necessary
for the reviewing of the activities assigned to various subordinates having
identical positions
 Diagonal Communication:
o Diagonal or Crosswise communication includes flow of information among
persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. As an
example, the Communication between the Training Supervisor and Marketing
Manager, regarding the Training of a few employees of Marketing Department, is
Diagonal Communication. This kind of communication is used to speed up
information flow, to improve understanding, and to coordinate efforts for the
achievement of organizational objectives.

INFORMATION AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

Information and communication technology:
 ICT : Meaning, Advantages, Disadvantages and Uses.
 General Abbreviation and Terminology.
 Basics of Internet and E – mailing.
Information and communication technology:
 ICT : Meaning, Advantages, Disadvantages and Uses.
 General Abbreviation and Terminology.
  Basics of Internet and E – mailing.
COMPUTER AND ITS MAIN COMPONENTS

A Computer is a General purpose machine, commonly consisting of digital circuitry, that

accepts (inputs), stores, manipulates, and generates (outputs) data as numbers, text, graphics,
voice, video files, or electrical signals, in accordance with instructions called a program
 Father of the computer – Charles Babbage
 Father of the modern computer – Alan Turing
 Basic Architecture of Computer: John Von Neumann (1947-49)
 First Programmer: Lady Ada Lovelae (1880)
 First Electronic Computer: ENIAC (1946) – J.P. Eckert & J.W. Mauchly
 First computer for the home user introduced – IBM in 1981
Mains Parts of computer
Hardware – Computer hardware is what you can physically touch includes the computer case,
monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all the parts inside the computer case, such as the
hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others.
Input Devices – In computing, an input device is a peripheral (piece of computer hardware
equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system such as
a computer or information appliance.
Examples: keyboards, mice, scanners, digital cameras and joysticks.
Keyboard – A Keyboard is the most fundamental input device for any computer system. It helps
to enter data in computer.
Mouse – A mouse is used to input data by sending a signal to the computer, based on hovering
the cursor and selecting with the left mouse button. The left mouse acts as a ‘enter’ button. The
right mouse button can be selected and will often pop up a window of choices. The scrolling
wheel is used to move the view of the screen up or down. By moving your mouse to a location in
a document, on a digital photo or over a choice of music, you can click the left mouse button to
place the cursor.
Trackballs – A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other
electronic devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a movable ball on
the top, which can be rolled in any direction. Instead of moving the whole device, you simply
roll the movable ball on top of the trackball unit with your hand to generate motion input.
Barcode reader – A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an electronic device that can read
and output printed barcodes to a computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a
lens and a light sensor translating optical impulses into electrical ones.
Digital camera – a camera which produces digital images that can be stored in a computer and
displayed on screen.
Gamepad – a handheld controller for video games.
Joystick – a lever that can be moved in several directions to control the movement of an image
on a computer or similar display screen. It mainly used in playing games.
Microphone – an instrument for converting sound waves into electrical energy variations which
may then be amplified, transmitted, or recorded.
Scanner – a device that scans documents and converts them into digital data.
Webcam – a video camera connected to a computer, allowing its images to be seen by Internet
users.
Optical character recognition (OCR) – is the mechanical or electronic conversion of images of
typed, handwritten or printed text into machine-encoded text.
Digitizer – It converts analog information into digital form.
Optical Mark reading (OMR) – Optical Mark Readers reads pencil or pen marks made in pre-
defined positions on paper forms as responses to questions or tick list prompts.
Basic structure of CPU
CPU (Central processing unit)
A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the
instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.
*CPU – Heart of the Computer
*CPU Process:
1.Fetch the Instruction
2.Interpret the Instruction
3.Fetch the Data
4.Process the Data
5.Write the data
Output devices
An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user.
Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video. Examples
include monitors, projectors, speakers, headphones and printers.
Monitors – A Monitor is a TV-like display attached to the computer on which the output can be
displayed and viewed. It can either be a monochrome display or a colour display.
There are two kinds of monitors
1. CRT (Cathode ray tube) – The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one
or more electron guns, and a phosphorescent screen used to view images.
2. Thin-Film-Transistor Liquid-Crystal Display (TFT LCD) – A thin-film-transistor
liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD) is a variant of a liquid-crystal display (LCD) that uses
thin-film transistor technology to improve image qualities such as addresability and
contrast.
Printer – Printer is a output device for printing text or pictures.
1. Impact printer – An impact printer is a printer that strikes a print head against an ink
ribbon to mark the paper. Common examples include dot matrix and daisy-wheel printers.
2. Non-Impact printer – Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon.
Two common types of non-impact printers include inkjet printers, which spray small drops
of ink onto each page, and laser printers, which roll ink onto the paper using a cylindrical.
Memory

Primary Memory or Main Memory

Register:
Register is one of a small set of data holding places that are part of the computer processor. A
register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any kind of data (such as a bit sequence or
individual characters). Some instructions specify registers as part of the instruction.
1. RAM (Random access memory) – Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of data
storage used in computers that is generally located on the motherboard. This type of
memory is volatile and all information that was stored in RAM is lost when the computer is
turned off.
There are two types of Random access memory
  Dynamic RAM – dynamic indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshed
(reenergized) or it will lose its contents.
 Static Memory – A computer memory that contains fixed information and retains its
programmed state as long as the power is on.
Virtual memory is a feature of an operating system (OS) that allows a computer to compensate
for shortages of physical memory by temporarily transferring pages of data from random access
memory(RAM) to disk storage.
2. ROM (Read only memory) – Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be
removed and can only be read. Unlike main memory (RAM), ROM retains its contents even
when the computer is turned off.ROM is referred to as being nonvolatile.

There are three types of Read only memory (ROM)

 PROM – PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is
initially blank. The user or manufacturer can write data/program on it by using special
devices. However, once the program or data is written in PROM chip, it cannot be changed.
If there is an error in writing instructions or data in PROM, the error cannot be erased.
PROM chip becomes unusable.
 EPROM – EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This
form of ROM is also initially blank. The user or manufacturer can write program or data on
it by using special devices. Unlike PROM, the data written in EPROM chip can be erased
by using special devices and ultraviolet rays. So program or data written in EPROM chip
can be changed and new data can also be added. When EPROM is in use, its contents can
only be read.
  EEPROM – EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory. This kind of ROM can be written or changed with the help of electrical devices.
So data stored in this type of ROM chip can be easily modified.
3. Cache:
A cache is a place to store something temporarily in a computing environment. Cache memory,
also called CPU memory, is random access memory (RAM)
Memory units
Storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes. The data is represented as binary digist(0s and
1s)
 Hierachy – Nibble<Bit < Byte < KB < MB < GB < TB < PB < XB < ZB < YB
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the standard code the
computer industry created to represent characters(more than 64 character)

1 4 bit Nibble

2 8 bit 1 byte

3 1024 B 1 KB (210)

4 1024 KB 1 MB(220)

5 1024 MB 1 GB(230)

6 1024 GB 1 TB(240)

7 1024 TB 1 PB(250)

8 1024 PB 1 XB(260)

9 1024 XB 1 ZB(270)

10 1024 ZB 1 YB(280)

Secondary memory – Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is not directly
accessed by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer and is usually available as non-
volatile memory. One of the most common forms of this memory is the hard drive of a computer,
which is used to store the operating system (OS) and other programs. Other forms of secondary
memory include disc drives for compact discs (CDs) or digital versatile discs (DVDs), as well as
removable flash memory.
  Hard Drive – a rigid non-removable magnetic disk with a large data storage capacity.
 Floppy disk- A floppy disk, also called a diskette or just disk, is a type of disk storage
composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular
plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles. Floppy disks are read and
written by a floppy disk drive (FDD).
 Magnetic Tape – Magnetic tape used in recording sound, pictures, or computer data.
 Flash memory – a kind of memory that retains data in the absence of a power supply.
 Optical disk – an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and read using a
low-powered laser beam.
 CD-ROM: “Read Only” (used for distribution of commercial software, for example)
Standardstorage capacity is 640MB.
 CD-R (or CD-WORM): “Write Once, Read Many” times
 CD-RW: rewritable multiple times
 DVD: similar to CD, but with significantly larger storage capacity (4.7GB)
 Write once read many (WORM) describes a data storage device in which information,
once written, cannot be modified
Mother board – A motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer that connects the
different parts of a computer together. It has sockets for the CPU, RAM and expansion cards
(e.g. discrete graphics cards, sound cards, network cards, storage cards etc)… and it also hooks
up to hard drives, disc drives and front panel ports with cables and wires.Also known as
mainboard, system board.
COMPUTER GENERATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
Development of computer
Abacus – Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device. Which was used to be
performed addition and subtraction easily and speedily.Abacus is made up of wooden frame in
which rod where fitted across with rounds beads sliding on the rod.
Pascal Calculator – In the year 1642, Blaise Pascal a French scientist invented an adding
machine called Pascal’s calculator, which represents the position of digit with the help of gears in
it.
Analytical Engine – a scientist form England knows to be Charles Babbage invented such a
machine.This device was called Analytical engine and it deemed the first mechanical computer.
It included such feature which is used in today’s computer language. For this great invention of
the computer, Sir Charles Babbage is also known as the father of the computer.
Generation of computer
Classification of Computers
Classification on working system

1. Digital computer – digital computer is the most commonly used type of computer and is
used to process information with quantities using digits, usually using the binary number
system. Ex – MacBook.
2. Analog Computer – a computer that operates with numbers represented by directly
measurable quantities (as voltages or rotations) — compare digital computer, hybrid
computer.
 3. Hybrid Computer – a computer that combines the characteristics of a digital computer
and an analog computer by its capacity to accept input and provide output in either digital
or analog form and to process information digitally.
Classification on size
1. Mainframe computer – A mainframe computer is a very large computer capable of
handling and processing very large amounts of data quickly. They are used by large
institutions, such as government agencies and large corporations.
2. Mini Computer – a computer with processing and storage capabilities smaller than those
of a mainframe but larger than those of a microcomputer.
3. Micro computer – A microcomputer is a complete computer on a smaller scale and is
generally a synonym for the more common term, personal computer or PC , a computer
designed for an individual.
4. Personal computer – A personal computer (PC) is a small, relatively inexpensive
computer designed for an individual user. In price, All are based on the microprocessor
technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip.
5. Supercomputer – The fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and
are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of calculations.
NETWORKING AND INTERNET
Computer Networking : A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a
network are called nodes. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most
commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers can share
resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and others.
Components:
1.Server – a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client) computers
over a local network or the Internet.
2.Receiver – a hardware module or device used to receive signals
3.Channel – physical connection between Server & Receiver
Transmission Channel:
Simplex channels – simplex is a communications channel that operates in one direction at a
time.
Half duplex channel – A half-duplex channel can send and receive data, but not at the same
time.
Full duplex channel – Refers to the transmission of data in two directions simultaneously.
Types Data communication medium
 Standard Telephone Line
 Co-Axial Cable
 Microwave Transmission
 Satellite Communication
 Optical Fibers
Network devices
 Network adapter is a device that enables a computer to connect with other
computer/network using MAC Address
 Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers
 Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components
 Cable is one way of transmission media which can transmit communication signals.
 Repeaters is used to regenerate or replicate signals that are weakened or distorted by
transmission over long distances
 Bridge is used two connect two LANs with the same standard but using different types of
cables
 Routers is used to join multiple computer networks together via either wired or wireless
connections.
 Gateways is a key stopping point for data on its way to or from other networks.
 MODEM – Modulator-demodulator. Electronic device that allows computers to
communicate over telephone wires or cable-TV cable.
Types of Network
 Local Area Netwok(LAN) – a computer network that links devices within a building or
group of adjacent Ex – Star LAN, Ring LAN, Bus LAN
 Wide Area Network(WAN) – a computer network in which the computers connected
may be far apart.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)- A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network
that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger
than that covered by even a LAN but smaller than the area covered by WAN. Ex- Public
Networks Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN) Public Service Digital Network
(PSDN)
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data
Data transmission
 NIC-Network interface card – A network interface card (NIC) is a computer circuit
board or card that is installed in a computer so that it can be connected to a network.
 Wireless technology – Wireless communications is a type of data , a wireless signal
through wireless communication technologies and devic.
Network Related Terms
 Protocol – It is set of rules and standards which is used by computers to exchange data or
information with each other across a network.
 Nodes – It is a connect point where either data transmission ends or redistribution of data
starts.
  TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) – basic communication
language or protocol of the Internet.
IPV4 – 32 bits numeric address
IPV6 – 128 bits hexadecimal address
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer computer
files between a client and server on a computer network.
 Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for accessing
and using the Internet.
 Network Service Provider (NSP) is a company that provides backbone services to an
Internet service provider (ISP).
 Web server is a program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to serve the files
that form Web pages to users, in response to their requests, which are forwarded by their
computers’ HTTP clients.
 Website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically
identified with a common domain name
 Web Page is a hypertext document connected to the World Wide Web.
 Home page – the introductory page of a website
 Hyperlink is a word, phrase, or image that you can click on to jump to a new document
or a new section within the current document.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed,
collaborative, hypermedia information systems.
 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a technical standard for accessing information
over a mobile wireless network.
 URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a form of URI and is a standardized naming
convention for addressing documents accessible over the Internet and Intranet.
Internet
 Internet- a global computer network providing a variety of information and
communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized
communication protocols.
 Modem – a combined device for modulation and demodulation, for example, between
the digital data of a computer and the analogue signal of a telephone line.
 Web Browser – Web browser is a software application used to locate, retrieve and
display content on the World Wide Web, including Web pages, images and video.
Some important file extensions
.doc Microsoft Word Document
.ppt PowerPoint Presentation
.bmp Bitmap Image File
.jpg JPEG Image
.xls Excel Spreadsheet
.exe Windows Executable File
.bak Backup File

HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

Higher Education System:

Structure of the Institutions for Higher Learning and Research in India; Formal and Distance
Education; Professional / Technical and General Education;
HIGHER EDUCATION ARCHITECTURE
1. Curricula
2. Faculty 3. Research 4. Partnerships 5. Infrastructure
and pedagogy
HIGHER EDUCATION FOUNDATION
6. Funding 7. Governance / Leadership

OVERVIEW
The Department of Higher Education, MHRD, is responsible for the overall development
of the basic infrastructure of Higher Education sector, both in terms of policy and planning.
Under a planned development process, the Department looks after expansion of access and
qualitative improvement in the Higher Education, through world class Universities, Colleges and
other Institutions.
OBJECTIVE
1. To expand the Higher Education sector in all is modes of delivery to increase the Gross
Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Higher Education to 15% by 2011-12 to 21% by 2016-17 and
30% by the year 2020.
2. To expand institutional base of Higher Education (including technical, professional and
vocational education) by creating additional capacity in existing institutions, establishing
new institutions and incentivizing State Governments and Non-Governmental
Organizations/civil society.
3. To provide opportunities of Higher Education to socially-deprived communities and
remove disparities by promoting the inclusion of women, minorities and differently-abled
persons.
4. To remove regional imbalances in access to Higher Education by setting up of institutions
in unnerved and underserved areas.
5. To enhance plan support for infrastructure and faculty development in the institutions of
higher learning and to attract talent towards careers in teaching and research.
6. To create conditions for knowledge generation through improved research facilities in
universities and colleges.
7. To promote collaboration with International community, foreign governments,
universities/institutions and regional and international institutions, for the advancement of
universal knowledge and intellectual property rights.
8. To promote development of Indian languages.
9. To promote autonomy, innovations, academic reforms in institutions of higher learning
10. To undertake institutional restructuring for improving efficiency, relevance and creativity
in Higher Education.
FUNCTIONS
1. Enhancement of Gross Enrollment Ratio by expanding access through all modes.
2. Promoting the participation of these sections of the society whose GER is lower than the
national average.
3. To improve quality and to promote academic reforms
4. Setting up of new educational institutions and also capacity expansion and improvement of
the existing institutions.
5. Use of Technology in Higher Education.
6. Development of Vocational Education and Skill Development.
7. Development of Indian Languages.
8. International Collaboration in the field of education.
Higher Education sector has witnessed a tremendous increase in the number of
Universities/University level Institutions & Colleges since Independence. The number of
Universities has increased 34 times from 20 in 1950 to 677 in 2014. The sector boasts of 45
Central Universities of which 40 are under the purview of Ministry of Human Resource
Development, 318 State Universities, 185 State Private universities, 129 Deemed to be
Universities, 51 Institutions of National Importance (established under Acts of Parliament) under
MHRD (IITs – 16, NITs – 30 and IISERs – 5) and four Institutions (established under various
State legislations). The number of colleges has also registered manifold increase of 74 times with
just 500 in 1950 growing to 37,204, as on 31st March, 2013.
The quantum growth in the Higher Education sector is spear-headed by Universities,
which are the highest seats of learning.
In India, “University” means a University established or incorporated by or under a
Central Act, a Provincial Act or a State Act and includes any such institution as may, in
consultation with the University concerned, be recognised by the University Grants Commission
(UGC) in accordance with the regulations made in this regard under the UGC Act, 1956. Every
year, millions of students from within the country and abroad, enter these portals mainly for their
graduate, post graduate studies while millions leave these portals for the world outside.
 Higher Education is the shared responsibility of both the Centre and the States. The
coordination and determination of standards in Universities & Colleges is entrusted to the UGC
and other statutory regulatory bodies.
The Central Government provides grants to the UGC and establishes Central
Universities/Institutions of National Importance in the country. The Central Government is also
responsible for declaring an educational institution as “Deemed-to-be University” on the
recommendations of the UGC.
At present, the main categories of University/University-level Institutions are :-
 Central Universities
 State Universities
 Deemed-to-be Universities
 University-level institutions
These are described as follows:
 Central University:
A university established or incorporated by a Central Act.
 State University:
A university established or incorporated by a Provincial Act or by a State Act.
 Private University:
A university established through a State/Central Act by a sponsoring body viz. A Society
registered under the Societies Registration Act 1860, or any other corresponding law for
the time being in force in a State or a Public Trust or a Company registered under Section
25 of the Companies Act, 1956.
 Deemed-to-be University:
 An Institution Deemed to be University, commonly known as Deemed University, refers to
a high-performing institution, which has been so declared by Central Government under
Section 3 of the University Grants Commission (UGC) Act, 1956.
 Institution of National Importance:
An Institution established by Act of Parliament and declared as Institution of National
Importance.
 Institution under State Legislature Act:
An Institution established or incorporated by a State Legislature Act.
 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
Apex Body in Higher Education
1. All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE)
2. Council of Architecture (COA)
3. Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)
4. Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR)
5. Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)
6. University Grants Commission (UGC)
Statutory professional councils are:
 All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
 Distance Education Council (DEC)
 Indian Council for Agriculture Research (lCAR)
 Bar Council of India(BCI)
 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
 Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
 Medical Council of India (MCI)
 Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)
 Indian Nursing Council (INC)
 Dentist Council of India (DCI)
 Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)
 Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM)
Important Abbreviation to remember
 National Research Professorship (NRP)
 National Institute of Technical Teacher’s Training & Research(NITTTR)
 Educational Consultants of India Limited (EdCIL)
 Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR)
 National Book Trust of India(NBT)
 Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)
 All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE)
 The Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (IGNTU)
 National Assessment and Accredition Council (NAAC)
 National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF):The National Institutional Ranking
Framework (NIRF) has been approved by the MHRD and launched by Honourable Minister
of Human Resource Development on 29th September, 2015.
Institute of National Importance (INI) is a status that may be conferred to a premier
public higher education institution in India by an act of parliament, an institution which “serves
as a pivotal player in developing highly skilled personnel within the specified region of the
country/state”. INIs receive special recognition and funding. As of 23 April 2015 the Ministry of
Human Resource Development has listed 92 institutions under this category. All Indian Institutes
of Technology, Indian Institutes of Engineering Science and Technology, National Institutes of
Technology, School of Planning and Architecture, Indian Institutes of Science Education and
Research and All India Institute of Medical Sciences are considered Institutes of National
Importance.
The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) are autonomous public institutes of higher
education, located in India. They are governed by the Institutes of Technology Act, 1961 which
has declared them as institutions of national importance alongside National Institutes of
Technology
Total IIT’s= 19 functional 23 total
AIIMS=7
NIIT =31
IIEST=1 FUNCTIONAL 3 FORTHCOMING
SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE=3
IISER=7
University Grants Commission
The University Grants Commission is a statutory organization established by an Act of
Parliament in 1956 for the coordination, determination and maintenance of standards of
university education. Apart from providing grants to eligible universities and colleges, the
Commission also advises the Central and State Governments on the measures which are
necessary for the development of Higher Education. It functions from New Delhi as well as its
six Regional offices located in Bangalore, Bhopal, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Pune.
Inter University Centres (IUCs)
 The UGC establishes autonomous Inter-University Centres within the university system under
Clause 12(ccc) of the UGC Act. The objectives for setting up these centres are:
 To provide common advanced centralized facilities/services for universities which are not
able to invest heavily in infrastructure and other inputs.
 To play a vital role in offering the best expertise in each field to teachers and researchers
across the country.
 To provide access for research and teaching community to the state-of-the-art equipment
and excellent library facilities which are comparable to international standards.
The Nuclear Science Centre at New Delhi (now called Inter University Accelerator Centre) was
the first research centre established in 1994. As of today, six Inter University Centres are
functioning within the university system, which are as follows:
 Inter University Accelerator Centre (IUAC),New Delhi
 Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astro-Physics (IUCAA),Pune
 UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research (UGC-DAECSR),Indore
 Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET),Ahmedabad
 Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC), New Delhi
 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), Bangalore
 Inter University Centre for Teacher Education, Kakinada
EDUCATIONAL COUNCILS
1. Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)
The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established in 1969 for promoting
social science research, strengthening different disciplines, improving quality and quantum of
research and its utilization in national policy formulation. To realize these objectives, the ICSSR
envisaged development of institutional infrastructure, identifying research talents, formulating
research programmes, supporting professional organizations and establishing linkages with
social scientists in other countries. The ICSSR provides maintenance and development grants to
various Research Institutes and Regional Centres across the country. Regional Centres have been
set-up as extended arms of the ICSSR to support research and development of local talents and
its programmes and activities in a decentralized manner.
Since 1976, the ICSSR has been carrying out surveys of research in different disciplines of social
sciences.
2. Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR)
Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR) was set up in 1977 by the Ministry of
Education, Government of India as an autonomous organization for the promotion of research in
Philosophy and allied discipline. The ICPR was born out of the conviction that Indian
philosophy tradition deserves to have an exclusive and special agency in the country.
The Council has a broad-based membership comprising of distinguished philosophers, social
scientists, representatives of the University Grants Commission, Indian Council of Social
Science Research, Indian Council of Historic Research, Indian National Science Academy, the
 Central Government and the Government of Uttar Pradesh. The Governing Body (GB) and the
Research Project Committee (RPC) are the main authorities of the council. These bodies are
vested with well defined powers and functions.
3. Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy & Culture (PHISPC)
PHISPC was launched in the year 1990 under the aegis of Indian Council of Philosophical
Research (ICPR) with the basic objective of undertaking inter-disciplinary study so that inter-
connection between Science, Philosophy and Culture as developed in the long history of Indian
civilization, could be brought out in detail. From April 1, 1997, PHISPC was officially de-linked
from Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR) for a greater autonomy to complete the
Project by the stipulated period, and is now affiliated to Centre for Studies in Civilizations
(CSC). The major programme of PHISPC is to publish several volumes on the theme mentioned
in the ‘Introduction’.
4. Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)
Indian Council of Historical Research is an autonomous organization which was established
under Societies Registration Act (Act XXI of 1860) in 1972. The prime objectives of the Council
are to give a proper direction to historical research and to encourage and foster objective and
scientific writing of history. The broad aims of the Council are to bring historians together,
provide a forum for exchange of views between them, give a national direction to an objective
and rational presentation interpretation of history, to sponsor historical research programmes and
projects and to assist institutions and organizations engaged in historical research. It has a broad
view of history so as to include in its fold the history of Science and Technology, Economy, Art,
Literature, Philosophy, Epigraphy, Numismatics, Archaeology, Socio-Economic formation
processes and allied subjects containing strong historical bias and contents.
5. National Council of Rural Institutes (NCRI)
The National Council of Rural Institute is a registered autonomous society fully funded by the
Central Government. It was established on October 19, 1995 with its Headquarters at Hyderabad.
Its main objectives are to promote rural higher education on the lines of Mahatma Gandhi’s
vision for education so as to take up challenges of micro planning for transformation of rural
areas as envisaged in National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986. In order to achieve its
objectives, the NCRI has been identifying various programmes for providing support and
financial assistance, to be taken up by suitable institutions including voluntary organizations.
PROGRAMS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
National Assessment and Accredition Council (NAAC)
National Assessment and Accreditation Council, an autonomous body, has been
established by the University Grants Commission in 1994 in pursuance of the recommendations
made by the National Policy of Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992
which lay special emphasis on evaluating the quality of higher education in India. The prime
mandate of NAAC, as envisaged in its Memorandum of Association (MoA), is to assess and
accredit institutions of higher learning, universities and colleges or one or more of their units,
i.e., departments, schools, institutions, programmes, etc. The NAAC functions through its
General Council and Executive Committee where educational administrators, policy makers and
senior academicians from a cross-section of system of higher education are represented.
Under the new methodology introduced by NAAC w.e.f. 1st April, 2007, the higher education
institutions are assessed and accredited by a two-step approach. In the first step, the institution is
required to seek ‘Institutional Eligibility for Quality Assessment (IEQA)’ and the second step is
the assessment and accreditation of the institute under the grades ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’ for accredited
institutions; and ‘D’ for those which are not accredited. NAAC has identified seven criteria- i.
Curricular aspects, ii. Teaching-learning and evaluation, iii. Research, Consultancy and
extension, iv. Infrastructure and learning resources, v. Student support and progression, vi.
Governance and leadership and vii. Innovative practices as the basis for its assessment
procedure.
Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS),
launched in 2013 aims at providing strategic funding to eligible state higher educational
institutions. The central funding (in the ratio of 60:40 for general category States, 90:10 for
special category states and 100% for union territories) would be norm based and outcome
dependent. The funding would flow from the central ministry through the state
governments/union territories to the State Higher Education Councils before reaching the
identified institutions. The funding to states would be made on the basis of critical appraisal of
State Higher Education Plans, which would describe each state’s strategy to address issues of
equity, access and excellence in higher education.
IMPRINT is the first of its kind MHRD supported Pan-IIT + IISc joint initiative to address the
major science and engineering challenges that India must address and champion to enable,
empower and embolden the nation for inclusive growth and self-reliance. This novel initiative
with twofold mandate is aimed at:
(a)Developing new engineering education policy
(b)Creating a road map to pursue engineering challenges
IMPRINT provides the overarching vision that guides research into areas that are predominantly
socially relevant.
NIRF: The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) has been accepted by the MHRD
and launched by Honourable Minister for Human Resource development on 29th September
2015. This framework outlines a methodology to rank institutions across the country.
E-YANTRA: An initiative by IIT Bombay that aims to create the next generation of embedded
systems engineers with a practical outlook to help provide practical solutions to some of the real
world problems.
GIAN: Govt. of India approved a new program titled Global Initiative of Academic Networks
(GIAN) in Higher Education aimed at tapping the talent pool of scientists and entrepreneurs,
internationally to encourage their engagement with the institutes of Higher Education in India so
as to augment the country’s existing academic resources, accelerate the pace of quality reform,
and elevate India’s scientific and technological capacity to global excellence.
Know your College: With the time for admission to colleges having arrived, there is often
confusion in the minds of students regarding which colleges to join and the courses to be taken
up. To help the students make an informed decision on the choice of college and the courses, the
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India has developed a “Know Your
College” portal.
New Initiatives By GOI
  2015, Skill Loan scheme, and the National Skill.
 PMKVY is the flagship program under the Skill India Initiative and it includes
incentivising skill training by providing financial rewards on completion of training to the
participants. Over the next year 2.4 million Indians are believed to be benefitted from this
scheme.
 National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 is India’s first
integrated program to develop skill and promote entrepreneurship simultaneously. The
vision of this programme is to skill the Indian youth rapidly with high standards and at
the same time promote entrepreneurship thus creating wealth and gainful employment for
the citizens.
 Skill Loan Scheme is designed to disburse loans of Rs 5,000 (US$ 75.3) to Rs 150,000
(US$ 2,260) to 3.4 million Indians planning to develop their skills in the next five years.
 The National Skill Development Mission is developed to expedite the implementation of
skilling activities in India by providing robust institutional framework at the centre and
the state.
The National Skill Development Corporation of India (NSDC) under a Public Private Partnership
promoted by the Ministry of Finance, Government of India signed a Memorandum of
Understanding with Center for Research & Industrial Staff Performance (CRISP), India to
explore national and international opportunities for strengthening skills development in India.
[Source Courtesy An initiative of the Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India]
The Union budget 2016-17 has made the following provisions for the education sector:
 10 public and 10 private educational institutions to be made world-class
 62 new Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNV) to provide quality education
 Digital literacy scheme to be launched for covering six crore additional rural households
 National Web Portal for promotion of National Apprenticeship Scheme for Graduates,
Diploma holders and 10+2 pass-outs vocational certificate holders.
 The Human Resource Development (HRD) Ministry has entered into a partnership with
private companies, including Tata Motors Ltd, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd and real-
estate firm Hubtown Ltd, to open three Indian Institutes of Information Technology
(IIITs), through Public-Private Partnership (PPP), at Nagpur, Ranchi, and Pune.
Major Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) inflow into the education sector in India
 The total amount of Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) inflow into the education sector in
India stood at US$ 1,256 million from April 2000 to March 2016, according to data
released by Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP).
 Cisco Systems plans to invest US$ 100 million in India over the next 2 years, will be
used to fund early-stage and growth-stage companies in the country, open six new
innovation labs, three centres of expertise and train around 250,000 students by 2020.
 Byju’s, an education technology start-up, has raised US$ 75 million from US-based
venture capital firm Sequoia Capital and Belgium-based investment firm Sofina, which
 will be used to improve content delivery, expand product pipeline, launch in new markets
and continue to build its talent pool.
 The World Bank has extended US$ 50 million loan to support Indian government’s Nai
Manzil scheme which aims to address educational and livelihood needs of minority
communities through its educational and skill development programmes.
 The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has mandated the appointment of a
special educator for children with learning disabilities so that they could be assimilated
with other students. This directive came as a part of “inclusive practices” philosophy of
CBSE and strict guidelines of ‘Right to Education” Act.
 Tata Trusts, part of the Tata Group, has entered in to a strategic partnership with web-
based free learning portal, Khan Academy, and seeks to use technology to provide free
education to anyone, anywhere in India.
DISTANCE EDUCATION
Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy,
technology, and instructional system designs that aim to deliver education to students who are
not physically “on site” in a traditional classroom or campus. It has been described as “a process
to create and provide access to learning when the source of information and the learners are
separated by time and distance, or both. In other words, distance learning is the process of
creating an educational experience of equal quality for the learner to best suit their needs outside
the classroom.
Open and Distance Learning (ODL) system is a system wherein teachers and learners need not
necessarily be present either at same place or same time and is flexible in regard to modalities
and timing of teaching and learning as also the admission criteria without compromising
necessary quality considerations. ODL system of the country consists of Indira Gandhi National
Open University(IGNOU), State Open Universities (SOUs), Institutions and Universities
offering education and includes Correspondence Course Institutes (CCIs) in conventional dual
mode universities. This is becoming more and more significant for continuing education, skill
updation of in service personnel and for quality education of relevance to learners located at
educationally disadvantageous locations.
With the dissolution of the Distance Education Council of the IGNOU, the regulatory
powers on ODL is currently vested with the University Grants Commission(UGC).
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was established in 1985 by an Act of
Parliament with the dual responsibilities of (i) enhancing access and equity to higher education
through distance mode and (ii) promoting, coordinating and determining standards in open
learning and distance education systems. Since then, the IGNOU has undergone rapid expansion
and emerged as an international institution in the field of Open and Distance Learning. As per the
provisions of the IGNOU Act, the University is to:
 offer of degree, diploma and certificate programmes related to the needs of employment
as necessary for building the economy of the country;
 provide opportunities for higher education to a large cross-section of people, in particular
the disadvantaged segments of society;
  promote acquisition and up-gradation of knowledge and offer opportunities for training
retraining in the contests of innovation and research;
 encourage an innovative system of university level education, flexible and open with
regard to methods and pace of learning, combination of courses, eligibility for enrolment,
age of entry, conduct of examination and delivery of the programmes to encourage
excellence; and
 coordinate, promote, assess and accredit institutions and programmes offered by open and
distance learning system as also to prevent through such measures as are considered
appropriate, institutions from offering sub-standard courses and programmes.
IGNOU practices a flexible and open system of education in regard to methods and place of
learning, combination of courses and eligibility for enrolment, age for entry and methods of
evaluation etc. The University has adopted an integrated strategy for imparting instruction. This
consists of providing print materials, audio-video, tapes, broadcast on radio and educational TV
Channels, teleconferencing, video conferencing as also the face to face counselling, at its study
centers located throughout the country. The University has adopted the method of continuous
assessment and term-end examination for evaluation of the performance of its students enrolled
in various subjects.
Educational development of North-East Region (NER) is another focus area and 10% of
the Annual Plan Budget used to be extensively earmarked to the development of this region. The
University has established 8 Regional Centres in the North-East Region. One of the significant
focuses of IGNOU is to pay special attention to disadvantaged sections of the society and
regions. The university has developed a number of programmes for women and special study
centers were established in the backward areas and districts with low female literacy rate.
IGNOU makes use the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) extensively
for imparting education. In addition to self-instructional printed materials, the university utilizes
Audi/Video programme tapes, tele-conferencing, Gyan Vani (FM Radio), Gyan Darshan
(educational TV Channels), computer networks for imparting instructions. With the launce of
“One Stop Education Portal SAKSHAT’; in October 2006 by the then President of India, Dr.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, IGNOU developed plan to use this platform, extensively to provide
knowledge resources and impart education to its students.
State Open Universities (SOUs)
There are at present 13 State Open Universities set up by the respective state grants (as
per details below), are single mode institutions, which means they provide education only in the
distance mode. These universities cater to people who are unable to pursue regular courses due to
various reasons. These Universities are also instrumental in shaping the career growth of learner
who are already employed.

S.No. Name of the SOU Address Phone No.s Email/Website

1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Prof. G. Ram Reddy Tel: 91-40-23544910 open[at]braou[dot]ac[dot]in

Open University Marg Road No.46, Fax: 91-40-23544830
(BRAOU), Jubilee Hills,
Hyderabad, A.P. – Hyderabad – 500033
S.No. Name of the SOU Address Phone No.s Email/Website

(1982)

Vardhman
Mahaveer Open Rawatbhata Road,
Tel: 91-744-2471254
2. University Akhelgarh, Kota- http://www.vmou.ac.in/
Fax: 91-744-2470451
(VMOU), Kota, 324010, Rajasthan
Rajasthan – (1987)

Nalanda Open IIIrd Floor, Biscomaun

University (NOU). Bhawan, West Gandhi Tel: 91-612-2201013
3. nalopuni[at]bih[dot]nic[dot]in
Patna, Bihar – Maidan, Patna – Fax: 0612 2201001
(1987) 800001, Bihar

Yashwantrao
Chavan
Dnyanagangotri, Near
Maharashtra Open Tel: 91-253-2231714,
Gangapur Dam,
4. University 2231715 openuniv[at]vsnl[dot]com
Nashik-422222,
(YCMOU), Nashik, Fax: 91-253-2231716
Maharashtra
Maharashtra –
(1989)

Madhya Pradesh
Bhoj Open I.T.I (Gas Rahat), Tel: 0755 2784102,
5. University Building Govindpura, 5272017 vc[at]rbuphop[dot]mp[dot]nic[dot]in
(MPBOU), Bhopal, Bhopal – 462 023 Fax: 91-755- 2600704
M.P. – (1991)

Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar Open Govt. Bungalow No.9,
Tel: 91-79-
University Dafnala, Shahi Baug,
6. 22869690/91 baou[at]sancharnet[dot]in
(BAOU), Ahmedabad-380003,
Fax: 91-79-22869691
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Gujarat – (1994)

Karnataka State
Manasagangotri,
Open University Tel: 91-821-2515149
7. Mysore – 570006, vcksou[at]eth[dot]net
(KSOU), Mysore, Fax: 91-821-2500846
Karnataka
Karnataka – (1996)

Netaji Subhas Open

1, Woodburn Park,
University (NSOU), Tel: 91-33-22835157
8. Kolkata -700020, West nsou[at]cal2[dot]vsnl[dot]net[dot]in
Kolkata, W.B. – Fax: 91-33-22835052
Bengal
(1997)
S.No. Name of the SOU Address Phone No.s Email/Website

U.P. Rajarshi
17, Maharshi
Tandon Open
Dayanand Marg Tel: 91-532-2621840,
University
9. (Thornhill Road), 2623250 uprtou_alld[at]hclinfinet[dot]com
(UPRTOU),
Allahabad, Uttar Fax: 91-532-2624368
Allahabad, U.P. –
Pradesh
(1998)

Tamil Nadu Open Directorate of

University (TNOU), Technical Education Phone: 044-22351414
10. http://www.tnou.ac.in/
Chennai, Tamil Campus, Guindy, Fax: 044 2220 0601
Nadu – (2002) Chennai-600 025

Pt. Sunderlal
Near Pandit Deen
Sharma Open Phone No: 07752 –
Dayal Upadhayay Park,
University 514255
11. Vayapar Vihar, http://www.pssou.ac.in/
(PSSOU), Bilaspur, Telefax : (0771)
Bilaspur (Chattisgarh)
Chhattisgarh – 2221259
-495001
(2005)

Uttarakhand Open Teenpani Bypass Road, Tel: +91 5946 261122,

University, Transport Nagar, +91 5946 261123
12. Haldwani, Distt. Haldwani-263139, Fax: +91 5946 264232 http://uou.ac.in/
Nainitall, Distt. Nainital, Toll Free
Uttarakhand Uttarakhand No.18001804025

Krishna Kanta Housefed Complex,

Ph. No: (0361)
Handique State Last Gate, Dispur,
13. 2235971, 2235642 http://www.kkhsou.in/web/
Open University, Guwahati – 781006,
Fax: (0361) 2235398
Guwahati, Assam

Commonwealth of Learning (COL)

Commonwealth of Learning (COL) was established through a Memorandum of
Understanding between Governments of Commonwealth countries in the year 1988. The
Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by
Commonwealth Heads of Government to encourage the development and sharing of open
learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing
nations to improve access to quality education and training.
Headquartered in Vancouver, Canada, COL is the world’s only intergovernmental
organisation dedicated solely to promoting and delivering distance education and open learning,
and is the only official Commonwealth agency located outside Britain.
COL is voluntarily funded by the Commonwealth countries and India is third major
donor after United Kingdom and Canada. India is represented on the Board of Governors and
Executive Committee of COL through Secretary, in-Charge of Higher Education.
Recognition of Academic Qualifications and Degrees
The Distance Learning Division in the Ministry of Human Resource Development receives a
number of queries from the general public seeking clarifications in respect of recognition of
academic qualifications acquired through distance mode and their acceptance for the purpose of
employment in Central/State Government service. The position in this regard is clarified as
under:
 It is up to the concerned academic institution/university to recognize the qualification
including certificate diploma, degree, etc. for the purpose of academic pursuit, i.e.
continuing education for acquiring another academic qualification, with it. As regards
recognition of academic qualifications for the purpose of employment, it is the
prerogative of the concerned employer to take a view on the recognition of the degree,
diploma, etc.
 Central Government, as an Employer, had made its position clear in respect of academic
qualifications; acquired through distance mode of education, for the purpose of
employment under it, vide Gazette Notification No.44 dated March 1, 1995.
The Gazette Notification referred to above is equally applicable to the qualifications acquired
from private as well as public institutions/universities.
SAKSHAT: A One Stop Education Portal
The pilot project SAKSHAT: A One Stop Education Portal launched on October 30, 2006
by His Excellency, the then President of India to facilitate lifelong learning for students, teachers
and those in employment or in pursuit of knowledge free of cost to them. The content
development task for ‘SAKSHAT’ was looked after by the Content Advisory Committee (CAC)
for the respective subject, which consisted of representatives from educational institutions like
IGNOU, Delhi University, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangthan (KVS), Navodyaya Vidyalaya
Sangthan (NVS), National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and National Council for
Educational Research and Training (NCERT) and prominent academicians in the field. In
addition, some NGOs had also provided the contents developed by them free of cost for this
portal.

VALUE EDUCATION

What are Values?

  Values are principles, fundamental convictions, and ideals, standards of life which act as
general guide to behaviour or as a reference point in decision making. Values are beliefs
about what is right and what is wrong and what is important in life. Value literally means
something that has a price, precious, dear and worthwhile, one is ready to sacrifice for.
Types of Values
Values however are either innate or acquired.
Innate values are our inborn divine virtues such as love, peace, happiness, mercy and
compassion as well as the positive moral qualities such as respect, humility, tolerance,
responsibility, cooperation, honesty and simplicity.
Acquired values are those external values adopted at your “place of birth” or “place of growth”
and are influenced by the immediate environment. Examples of acquired values are one’s mode
of dress, cultural customs, traditions, habits and tendencies.
Categorization of Values
There are a number of different categories into which values can be placed.
 Personal values: Personal values are those you take for yourself and which constitute a
critical part of your values and are apparent in attitudes, beliefs, and actions. Personal
values may be prioritized, such as honesty then responsibility then loyalty and so on.
 Social values: Social values are those which put the rights of wider groups of people
first. This may include equality, justice, liberty, freedom, and national pride. These are
often instilled into us when we were young.
 Political values: Political values are ideological beliefs about the best way to govern a
country or organization, for example through welfare, democracy and civic responsibility.
 Economic values: Economic values are those around money, and may include beliefs
around ownership of property, contributing to the common good (taxes!), the balance of
supply and demand and so on.
 Religious values: Religious values are spiritual in nature and include beliefs in how we
should live.
Factors Influencing the Learning of Values
Hogan (1973) believes that moral behavior is determined by five factors:
(1) Socialization: becoming aware as a child of society’s and parents’ rules of conduct for being
good.
(2) Moral judgment: learning to think reasonably about our own ethics and deliberately
deciding on our own moral standards.
(3) Moral feelings: the internalization of our moral beliefs to the degree that we feel shame and
guilt when we fail to do what we “should.”
(4) Empathy: the awareness of other people’s situation, feelings, and needs so that one is
compelled to help those in need.
(5) Confidence and knowledge: knowing the steps involved in helping others and believing that
one is responsible for and capable of helping.
Implementing the above in the school systems under the Central control.
On the basis of the guidelines given in the National Curricular Framework (NCF) for Elementary
and Secondary Education, brought out by NCERT in 1988 after adoption of NPE, 1986, the
NCERT revised the entire school syllabi and brought out revised textbooks for classes I to XII.
The main focus of the revised syllabi of the NCERT for different stages of school is on the
development of knowledge, values and attitudes conducive to actualising the student’s potential,
for enabling effective participation in the national development endeavour.
Keeping in view the NCERT textbooks and curricular guidelines, the State Governments are
expected to undertake measures to revise their school syllabi/ textbooks for introduction in their
school system in a phased manner.
Initiatives from the Planning Commission
 As recommended by the Planning Commission’s Core Group on Value Orientation of
Education, a Standing Committee was set up for promotion and coordination of value
orientation of education at the school and higher education stages.
 This standing committee further constituted sub-groups, one of them for schools and
education, to formulate plans of action to implement various recommendations made in
the core group report
 The plan of action of the school sub-group broadly covers the following areas i. e.
integration of elements of value education into:
 Textbooks/textual material
 Non-textual educational materials such as audio- visual materials, posters, charts, stories,
picture books, etc.
 Extra-curricular activities.
 In-service and pre-service training of teachers
Approaches to teaching VE
Broadly there are two approaches to teaching VE:
1. Integrated approach and
2. Curricular Approach.
Integrated approach: is also known as indirect method. This is adopted by many public
schools. In this approach, values are integrated and taught through various subjects and activities.
For example, physical education imparts values of health, strength, agility, grace etc.
 Sports teach the values of courage, initiative, rapid decision, action, perseverance,
leadership, self control, acceptance of failure and victory.
 Work Experience: Manual skills, utilizing materials, avoiding wastage, creativity, live in
harmony with nature, appreciating art and music
 Social studies: lives of great men will instruct on courage, patriotism, citizenship, civic
sense, hard work, diligence etc.
  It also makes use of leisure periods, reading books on values, by organizing discussions
and debate by eminent scholars,
 Further it is expected use the incidental method of relating the life of students to various
events that take place in the surrounding.
 Further it depends on the morning assembly, celebration of festivals and other occasions
to impart values.
Curricular approach: It is also known as the direct method or formal method. It is adopted by
many private schools. In this approach, text books are identified for various levels for teaching
the values. It is carried out by teachers through specified number of periods and specified
syllabus.
The role of Teachers
In teaching and inculcating values, the teachers have a great role to play. The following roles are
significant:
1. A teacher has to function as an agent who stimulates, provokes, informs and sensitizes the
learners with reference to value situations in life.
2. Through involving the learners actively in discussion, dialogue and practical activities,
the teacher should make them think and reflect on human actions and events.
3. The teacher should also expose students to works of art, beauty in nature, and in human
relationships and actions of moral worth, and develop their moral sensibilities.
4. They should help in creating an atmosphere of love, trust, cooperation and security in the
school conducive to the development of high ideals and values.
5. They should possess the right qualities of mind and heart necessary for the pursuit of
knowledge—love of knowledge, curiosity and desire to know, sincere desire to keep on
learning and update knowledge, humility and honesty to admit ignorance.
6. They should have a sound social philosophy, characterized by social sensitivity, concern
for social justice and human rights. It is essential that they carry out their professional
obligations in accordance with the highest standards and ethics of the teaching
profession.
7. The institutional processes in the training institution should help teachers acquire these
capabilities by providing concrete situations and opportunities and actively involve them
in appropriate learning experiences.
8. They should develop a nationalistic feeling among students.
9. Create an awareness about the problems of future specially those related to food, water,
energy, environment, pollution, health and population.
10. Give equal importance to all students irrespective of caste, creed, sex and money.
Conclusion: VE is an important aspect of education affecting the students and the society as a
whole. Many educators tend to take lightly the proper growth of students. Negligence will be
detrimental to the well being of our society on the whole. For adequate inculcation of values,
educational institutions need to give support as well. As values are caught more than taught, the
students need to grow up in an atmosphere of well being.
 PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT
REASONING AND DATA INTERPRETATION
READING COMPREHENSIVE