TECHNICAL BULLETIN

Development and Testing of

A Forced Air Dryer
For Fiber Flax
(Linum usitatissimum)

Norman R. Brandenburg
Jesse E. Harmond

LAgricultural Experiment Station

Oregon State College
`-Co-Mll is
 Contents

3
S ummary ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5
I ntroduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5
Flax and its processing ------------------------------------------------------------

Scope of this investigation ..... 6

The mechanism of drying 7

10
Equipment ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10
Dryer ----------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------
11
Squeeze-rolls ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Furnace and heat distribution system ------------------------------------ 11

Process controls and measuring instruments ------------------------ 12

13
Scutcher ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

13
Fiber tensile strength testing apparatus --------------------------------
13
Procedure ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

13
Maximum production trial ------------------------------------------------

14
Controlled exposure study ------------------------------------------------------

15
Results and Discussion --------------------------------------------------------------------

15
Drying performance ---------------------- -----------------------------------------

19
Fiber analysis ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Engineering evaluation of dryer --------------------------------------------

21

25
Conclusions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

27
Literature Cited --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

AUTHORS : Norman R. Brandenburg, associate agricultural engineer, and

Jesse E. Harmond, senior agricultural engineer, Mechanical Preparation and
Conditioning Section, Agricultural Engineering Research Branch, Agricultural
Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Acknowledgment is made to the Oregon Flax and Linen Board and the State
Flax Industry, Salem, Oregon, for their participation in the drying program.

2
 Development and Testing of
A Forced Air Dryer for Fiber Flax
(Linum usitatissimum)

Summary
In an effort to assist the domestic fiber flax industry, the United
States Department of Agriculture and the Oregon Agricultural Ex-
periment Station cooperated in a program of engineering and agro-
nomic research. This paper discusses one of the engineering investiga-
tions concerning the design, construction, and test operation of a
semicommercial size dryer for retted fiber Ilax straw.
The dryer is a continuous, conveyor-type structure with three
exposure zones. It uses diluted combustion products from an oil-fired
furnace as the drying medium. A squeeze-roll unit is employed to
remove some moisture mechanically before flax enters the dryer.
Specific objectives of the study were to:
1. Determine maximum production of dried straw;
2. Study the effects of various drying exposures upon straw
yields, fiber yields, and fiber quality ; and
3. Evaluate dryer operation from an engineering standpoint.
In a commercial production trial, the maximum dried straw rate
was found to be 730 pounds per hour obtained with a loose flax bed 6
to 10 inches thick, and the average rate for a 35-hour run was 520
pounds per hour.
In a study of drying exposures, the highest drying rates were
obtained with squeeze-rolling, thick beds, and the test's highest drying
temperatures. Temperatures of circulating air entering the flax bed
varied from about 180° F. to 270° F. for zone 1, and about 140° F. to
190° F. for zone 2. Typical flax moisture contents were 350%. enter-
ing the squeeze-rolls, 245%, entering the dryer, and 10 %'c leaving the
dryer-all expressed on the dry basis. On the wet basis, these mois-
ture contents would be 77.8, 71.0, and 9.1°Jo respectively. Because of a
modulating control system, the supply of heated air to the dryer was
variable and, for a selected run, ranged from 2,050 to 4,160 c.f.m. at
650° F. (zone 1), and from 2,380 to 3,000 c.f.m. at 250° F. (zone 2).
Firing rates for most of the tests varied between 12 and 18 g.p.h.
when using diesel oil. Total measured power requirement for the
operation was approximately 26 hp.

-.
 In comparing fiber from force-drying exposures with fiber from
control lots, average line fiber yields and wax contents appeared simi-
lar, but force-dried material showed greater fiber strength and higher
grade. Type of force-drying exposure had little effect upon fiber
quality.
In evaluating this drying operation, dryer efficiency was found
,M

to range between 49% and 81% for a test run with modulated heat
supplies. Overall efficiencies, considering furnace and dryer opera-
tions together, varied from 39% to 65%, where highest efficiencies
were found related to highest evaporation rates. An Orsat analysis of
the combustion gas-air mixture as it entered the dryer revealed il'
4

the CO2 content was only about -jfo, and that for this direct-fired
system the "excess air" was appro:cimately 1,000%. Limited compari-
son of this dryer's production with[ published results of several Euro-
pean units-all on the same basis of pounds of dry straw per hour per'
square foot of conveyor area-showed a favorable liPrformance, for-
the USDA dryer.
From results of one year's study, it appears that forced-air dry-
ing of retted fiber flax straw is entirely feasible and offers
.',
great pos-
sibilities in the mechanized production of good quality flax fiber.

ti

11

II IT ML -Lffi

FIGURE 1. Setting up ratted flax bundles to dry in the field.

4
 Introduction
Flax and its processing
Flax-one of man's oldest crops-is grown and processed to
provide fiber for linen products, seed for linseed oil, and pulp for
paper. As a textile source, there has been a small fiber flax industry
in the United States since colonial clays, and during recent years this
activity has centered in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. Although
now small, the industry has a potentially large market since annual
imports to this country include raw fiber and manufactured flax prod-
ucts worth many millions of dollars.
In an effort to assist the domestic fiber flax industry, the United
States Department of Agriculture and the Oregon Agricultural Ex-
periment Station have cooperated in engineering and agronomic
research investigations. This paper treats one of the engineering devel-
opments stemming from the research-a forced-air dryer for retted
fiber flax straw.
Fiber flax processing,as now performed, consists of harvesting,
deseeding, retting, drying, and scutching. During retting, bundles of
flax straw are immersed in warm water for 3 to 7 days after which
the stalks are dried to prepare the material for storage or further
processing. Although field or sun-drying (figure 1) has been prac-
ticed for thousands of years, certain advantages result from a satis-
factory forced-air drying operation. It will
1. Provide control of the drying process.
2. Permit year-round retting and drying independent of weather.
3. Help establish a continuous, straight-line, factory type of pro-
duction.
4. Improve subsequent processing by delivering straight, untan-
gled straw conditioned to the optimum moisture content for
scutching.
5. Reduce the straw-to-fiber processing cycle from the current 18
months to a few weeks.
Little information is available concerning forced-air drying of
retted straw, even though some dryers are now operating in flax re-
gions of Europe. Generally, heated air is forced through or across a
flax layer that is conveyed through a tunnel-type chamber. Air move-
ment within the tunnel may be counter-flow, parallel-flow, or a modi-
fication of either.
In considering heat supply for a forced-air flax dryer, several
factors favor a direct application of furnace gases. A relatively high
efficiency is possible in the utilization of heat available in the fuel,

5
and the maintenance associated with steam boilers may be eliminated.
Also, the initial cost of a direct heating system willgenerally be lower.
Loose skives and other waste material from flax processing may be
used to tire a direct heat unit, but some means should be provided for
entrapping embers from the gases. Canadian investigators compressed
flax chive into briquettes and determined a heat content of 7,554 B.t.u.
per pound as contrasted to about 8,500 for wood refuse (1 P. Coin-
pared with shive as a fuel, oil produces cleaner gases, requires less
storage space, and demands less attention. Although representing an
added cost, the use of oil makes available quantities of shive which
have potential value in the manufacture of pressed hardboard or in-
sulating hoard. Sample boards prepared from Oregon flax shine have
demonstrated good structural properties, an interesting surface tex-
;tore, and a thermal conductivity of 0.462 )3.t.u.-in./ft.2-hr.-CIF .2
There is considerable disagreement among research workers as
to the effect of forced-air drying on fiber strength of flax. Conflict-
ing opinions are illustrated by fiber studies in the Netherlands where
mechanically dried flax was reported superior to field-dried flax in
some cases, and inferior in others (2). In an American study flax
was dried at atmospheric temperatures, 120° F., 180° F., and 220° F.,
and tensile strength tests were performed on the fiber. A statistical
analysis of results found no significant differences attributable to
forced-air drying (3).
Scope of this investigation
This investigation consisted of the design, construction, and test
operation of a semiconunercial size dryer for retied flax straw. The
primary aim, in general, was to demonstrate the feasibility of forced-
air drying in processing fiber flax. Specific objectives included deter-
mining maximum production of dried straw, studying the effect of
various drying exposures upon straw yield, fiber yield, and fiber qual-
ity, and evaluating dryer operation from an engineering standpoint.
Preliminary studies were made to gain basic knowledge concern-
ing forced-air drying of retied flax straw. Factors investigated were:
relation of drying temperatures and fiber quality; influence of air
volume and temperature on drying rates: and equilibrium moisture
contents and moisture regain rates of straw in various air conditions
(3). This pertinent information was used to design a continuous, con-
veyor-type dryer which was constructed in prefabricated form. It was
assembled with a direct heat, oil-fired furnace for pilot plant test
operation at a commercial processing mill.
1 Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited. Oregon State
2 Value determined by Measurements Section, Physics Department,
College.

6
 Although planned primarily for flax processing, the dryer was
designed as a flexible research tool suitable for other agricultural
products.
Maximum capacity figures were obtained by drying a commercial
tank load of retted flax to provide a substantial run of approximately
10 tons (dry weight) of typical, mill-run straw. Studies of drying
exposures and the dryer evaluation were carried out in a series of
controlled tests which employed various temperatures, humidities,
flax-bed thicknesses, conveyor speeds, and combinations of washing
and squeeze-rolling. These variables were recorded, together with
dried straw capacities, moisture evaporated, moisture removed by
squeezing, oil consumption, electrical power, static pressures, and air
volumes. Dried straw from each test was scutched to determine fiber
yields, to compare forced-dried fiber with air-dried controls, and to
permit a fiber quality analysis consisting of tensile strength, strength
uniformity, wax content, and fiber grade determination.

The mechanism of drying

The characteristic drying cycle for most hygroscopic materials
can be divided into three basic parts: the constant rate period, the
uniform falling rate period, and the varying falling rate period. One
or more of the components may be missing under certain conditions.
During the constant rate period, evaporation takes place at a rate
comparable to that of a free-water surface, and moisture is supplied
by diffusion or capillarity at a rate equal to or greater than the evapo-
ration rate. In the uniform falling rate period, moisture is still evapo-
rating from the surface, but the area of wetted surface is steadily
diminishing. During the varying falling rate period, all surface mois-
ture is gone, and evaporation is dependent upon rate of moisture flow
inside the material to the surface. According to Van Arsdel, this rate
of moisture diffusion is only imperfectly understood but, more than
any other single factor, determines the ease or difficulty of drying
products to a low moisture content (4).
In the constant rate part of the cycle, most wet material theoret-
ically assumes the wet-bulb temperature of the air, acting much the
same as wicking of a wet-bulb thermometer. As the material dries,
temperatures rise and approach the dry-bulb temperature of the air.
This typical action was investigated for flax straw by inserting ther-
mocouples in the stalk centers and observing temperatures during dry-
ing. Figure 2 shows temperatures at the top and bottom of a flax bed
when air flow was up through the bed. Straw temperatures at bed
top exhibit the previously mentioned characteristic, while bottom tem-
 Dry bulb temp. I" r.
y straw in kiln bottol"
Ic 17 o._- Straw in kiln lop
W
Air Velocity 403 It per min
¢ 16 Air flow up through kiln
Botch process-3 inch bed
U)
W
W
It
N
W
a
z
W
U)

W
a
W
F

¢
48 64 80 96 //2 /2$
N /6 32
TIME OF EXPOSURE IN MINUTES

FIGURE 2. Flax straw temperature during drying. (Air velocity based on flow through
total kiln area.)

peratures indicate a more rapid drying and a faster approach to the

dry-bulb temperature of the air.
As the moisture content of an organic material decreases, the
remaining moisture becomes increasingly difficult to remove, and dif-
fusion rates and evaporation rates therefore decrease. Small amounts
of moisture are very firmly adsorbed in the molecular structure of the
substance. This firmness of binding is reflected not only by the low
diffusivity of the remaining moisture, but also by a lower vapor pres-
sure than would be exerted by pure water at the same temperature
(4). Reduced evaporation rate, associated with low moisture content,
is characteristic of flax, as shown in figure 3. The 1800 curve, for
example, indicates about half the total drying time is required for the
final 10o%o of evaporation.
Drying rates may be influence cl by several different factors. Dur-
ing the first two periods of the di ying cycle, when surface evapora-
tion is taking place, drying rates in av be increased with an increase of
air velocity. Air flow directed per pendicularly to the drying surface
exhibits the best efficiency in dispe rsing a dead air film (5). Increased
air velocities have little effect in tlis third period of the drying cycle,
since moisture diffusion rates are t he main factors controlling drying.
Higher temperatures are beneficial here by increasing diffusion rates
and, therefore, subsurface drying (4) (6).

A
 Generally speaking, the driving force for evaporation is propor- 1-1

tional to the difference between vapor pressure of the liquid being

removed and partial pressure of vapor in the air. This differential
may be increased in several ways: by a temperature rise, since vapor
pressure of the liquid will then increase; by lowering specific humid-
ity of the drying medium, since this decreases partial pressure of the
vapor; or by a combination of these methods. Another factor helpful
in drying is an increase in the surface area-volume ratio for the ma-
terial being dried. This expedites heat transfer to the center of the
mass, shortens the diffusing path, and provides more evaporating
surface.
Moisture content of a material may be expressed as a percentage
of total weight or dry-material weight. Use of the latter "dry basis"
facilitates computations in drying work since the base (weight of dry
matter) remains constant throughout the process. All expressions of
moisture percentage in this study are on the dry basis; for example,
250% moisture represents 2.5 pounds of water per pound of bone
dry material. This would be 71.4% moisture on the wet or total basis.

220° E Dry Bulb Temp.

I80° F. Dry Bulb Temp
-F----+ 120° F. Dry Bulb Temp.
Batch process - 3 inch bed

.4
0 2

U O t

8 Time Of Exposure In Minutes

64 do %2
FIGURE 3. Moisture content of retted flax straw during drying.

9
FIGURE 4. General view showing line shaft drives for circulating fans and hot air
supply system on top of dryer.

Equipment
Dryer
+1'_
The dryer is a continuous, co nveyor, tunnel-type unit composed
of three exposure zones-each inde 'pendently controlled. The first two
zones are used for drying while tf le third may serve either as a con-
ditioning section or as an additio nal drying zone. When zone 3 is
used to condition freshly dried fla x, warm water is sprayed into the
circulating air to provide an atmospi sere necessary for the desired
equilibrium moisture content of the rr iaterial. Figure 4 shows a gen-
eral view of the dryer which is 74 ft. long, 12 ft. wide, and 6 ft. high.
A modular design was employed, and the dryer was prefabricated in
10-ft. panels for easy assembly and dismantling. Construction con-
sists of structural iron framework, fiber board and fiber-glass blanket
insulation, and galvanized sheet metal sheathing.
Wet flax is spread on a wire mesh belt and slowly conveyed
through the dryer while heated air is circulated up through the bed
by eight axial-flow fans housed within the dryer, but driven by out-
side line shafts and 1 turn V-belts. The 5 ft. wide conveyor belt is
driven by a canvas-lagged pulley constructed from 24 in. steel pipe

in
 A feature of the reduction drive is its overall speed ratio of about
11,000:1, provided by a combination of variable speed transmission,
worm gear reducer, V-belts, chains, and gears.
Squeeze-rolls
This unit extracts water and residual retting substances
mechanically from retted flax preliminary to forced-air drying. As
shown in figure 5, the machine employs two sets of rubber-faced rolls
with the two drums of each set tending to stay in contact by adjust-
able spring pressure. In operation, flax is squeezed in the first set of
rolls, washed in a clean water spray, and then squeezed in the second
set of rolls. The lower roll in each set is driven by use of a roller
chain, speed reducer, and electric motor. The 36 in. rolls are con-
structed of 8 in. steel pipe faced with I in. of rubber to help mini-
mize straw damage.
Furnace and heat distribution system
Heat requirements for the dryer are supplied by use of the direct
heat principle, where products of combustion are mixed with diluting
air, filtered, and distributed to several dryer inlets as the drying me-
dium (figure 6). The furnace designed and constructed to produce

FIGURE 5. Squeeze-rolls which remove some water from ratted flax before drying.
Flax is also shown entering the dryer.

II
 DRY
FLAX
2

74
FRONT VIEW

FIGURE 6. Schematic sketch of flax dryer showing direct-heat supply and air circulation.

this type of mixture is fired with a horizontal, rotary oil burner cap-
able of modulated firing from 7 to 35 gallons per hour. The burner
has automatic gas-electric ignition, an attached oil meter, and a stack
switch combustion control.
Effectively, the furnace is under induced draft since two high-
temperature centrifugal fans continuously exhaust the gas-air nix=
tune and supply it to the intake side of circulating fans within the
dryer. A large damper above the furnace hood is positioned manually
to direct gases to the stack during the fire-up period and to the dryer
when operating. Beyond the damper, the mixture passes through
fiber-glass filters to entrap any embers or burning particles as a fire
precaution, after which it divides into two ducts, passes through the
fans, and enters the dryer in both zones 1 and 2. The filter hank, hot-
gas fans, and ducts are insulated with rock wool batts.
Process controls and measuring instruments
Control is provided for temperature and humidity of the cir-
culated drying air, temperature of diluted furnace gases, oil firing
rate, and the conditioning spray of zone 3.
Furnace gas temperature is controlled by a recording tempera-
ture controller which pneumatically modulates oil flow to the burner.
h ygroneters record and control temperature and humidity of the
circulating drying air in zones I and 2. Dry-bulb control is obtained
by positioning dampers pneumatically in the two supply ducts, thus
regulating the amount of gas-air mixture the high-temperature fans
deliver to the zones. Wet-bulb measurement tends to control humidity
of the circulating air by regulating dampers in special vents which
permit atmospheric air to be drawn into the high temperature fan and

12
 supplied to the zone. The zone 3 conditioning spray is controlled- by
wet-bulb measurement made by a recording temperature controller
Deviations from the set point cause the controller to operate a dia-
phragm valve in the line which introduces moisture to the circulat-
ing air.
Temperatures are measured at various stations in the dryer sys-
tem with the instruments already mentioned plus a 12-point pyrome-
ter with iron constantan thermocouples, and mercury thermometers.
An Orsat flue gas analyzer is used to determine percentages and con-
stituents of the diluted furnace gases, and static and velocity pressures
are measured with a pitot tube and an inclined draft gage. Moisture
contents of wet and dry straw are obtained by the oven-drying
method.
Scutcher
Fiber was extracted from each test lot of dried straw using a
commercial size scutching machine developed by this project. A de-
scription of this unit is available in report form and has been pub-
lished by the U. S. Department of Agriculture (7).
Fiber tensile strength testing apparatus
Tensile strengths were determined for representative fiber sam-
pies of each test lot by using a power-driven Scott Tensile Tester,
Model U. H., pendulum type, with a 50 kilogram maximum load. This
standard test unit was verified for accuracy and was found in con-
formance with the pertinent requirements of the Standard Specifica-
tions for Textile Testing Machines, D 76-49, American Society for
Testing Materials. All samples were made up, conditioned, weighed,
and tested in a room with controlled atmosphere. Fiber moisture con-
tents were readily checked throughout the testing with a special quick-
reading moisture indicator in which a prepared fiber sample of 100
grams, bone dry weight, was exposed to the atmosphere and weighed
periodically. The weight in excess of 100 grams directly indicated
moisture percentage on the dry basis.

Procedure
The dryer test operation was conducted in two phases: one, a
maximum production trial striving for high capacities typical of
commercial operations; the other, a controlled study of drying ex-
posures.
Maximum production trial
Wet flax bundles were passed through the squeeze rolls without
washing and fed into the dryer which utilized zone 3 as a supple-

13
 mental drying zone rather than a conditioning section. Progressively
thicker layers of flax were employed throughout the run from an
overlap bed 3 inches thick: to a cross-hatched bed 10 inches thick. In
this manner, 10 tons of dry retted straw were obtained with a test
crew of 4 men. One man fed the squeeze-roll, one man removed bun-
dies at the squeeze-roll and fed the pressed flax to the dryer, one man
removed flax discharged from the dryer and bound the dry bundles,
and one man supervised and recorded test data.
Controlled exposure study
west lots were dried using various temperatures and relative hu-
midities of drying air, constructions and thicknesses of flax bed, com-
binations of squeeze-rolling and washing, and operations of the zone
3 conditioning spray. Control groups were also selected from the wet
test lots and air-dried for comparison with force-dried material from
the various exposures.
During a typical drying test, straw moisture samples were taken
before squeeze-rolling, after squeeze-rolling, and after drying. Elec-
tric power, conveyor speeds, and oil consuniptions were recorded for
the interval that each test lot was discharged from the dryer. Periodic
determinations were made of the range of supply air volumes, static
pressures, temperature drops across the flax bed, and supply air tem-
peratures at various points in the duct system.
After drying, the bundles of each test lot were hound, weighed,
and stored. Control groups for each lot were placed to dry in the con-
ventional "wigwam" or cone position in a large storage shed with open
,r, sides and concrete floor, since rain prevented normal field drying. An
additional control group that was sun-dried and fully typical of com-
mercial practice was provided by analyzing fiber samples from the
original field which supplied the test material.
Fiber was obtained from the test lots and control groups using
this project's scutcher and its auxiliaries. Each straw lot was weighed
and sampled for moisture content, and scutching intensity was ad-
justed as needed to deliver clean fiber. Line and tow fiber from each
lot was weighed as discharged, and four or more fiber hanks were
selected randomly from each lot for evaluation in the fiber quality
analysis.
Although tensile strength is one of the generally accepted meas-
ures of flax fiber quality, practically nothing has been published on -

the subject and no directly applicable standard test procedure is

known. A search of literature was made, therefore, in an attempt to
establish a sound method for determining fiber strength variations in
this study which then might be attributed to drying treatments. A pre-

14
 liminary survey was also made to study different fiber holding de-
vices. fiber bundle types, and sample preparation. The test procedure,
as finally evolved and used, is similar to that of the National Bureau
of Standards (8) and the American Society of Testing Materials (9),
ILL
and includes random selection and compositing of test samples, a con-
trolled atmosphere for weighing and testing, and samples which are
constant in length, weight, and twist.
Fiber from each drying exposure was also evaluated in the con-
n
ventional manner used in industry. This rating method involves
knowledge usually acquired by apprenticeship or long practice and
considers such fiber characteristics as fineness, color, body, length,
cleanliness, and strength as determined by hand breaking. Three fiber
experts, who have had many years of experience in flax buying and
managing of linen spinning mills, individually graded the samples
without knowing the processing history.
Wax content is another quality characteristic of fiber. When flax
fiber is being spun. the contained wax tends to accumulate on the
spindles or other equipment and cause frequent cleaning and machin-
ery stoppage. In this investigation, wax contents were determined for
all test lots to learn if there were any differences that might be as-
signed to force drying in general. or to a particular drying exposure.
The wax was extracted from weighed fiber samples with ether, after
which the ether was evaporated.

Results and Discussion

Drying performance
In the maximum production trial the output of dried straw
varied from 450 to 730 pounds per hour, and the best drying was
observed in the cross-hatched bed 6 to 10 inches thick constructed
from 6 or 8 bundles spread one above the other with adjacent layers
at right angles to each other. The total drying time for 18,450 pounds
of dry retted straw was 353 hours, which resulted in an average ca-
pacity of 522 pounds per hour. The average conditions of drying air
after passing through the flax bed of zone 1 were in the range of
165° to 185° F. dry bulb and 40% to 52% relative humidity; zone
2 conditions were 170° to 180° F. dry bulb and 20% to 28% relative
humidity; and zone 3 conditions were 150° to 170° F. dry bulb and
23% to 36% relative humidity. The moisture contents of the straw
averaged 294% before squeeze-rolling, 209% after squeeze-rolling,
and 6.7% after drying. Approximately 3/10 of the straw moisture
was, therefore, removed by squeezing.

15
 TABLE 1. RESULTS

Test Conditions2
Zone 1 air Zone 2 air I Zone 3 air Squees
Test D.E. R.H. D.B. R.R. D.B. R.H. Bed type Wash ro113

De- Per De- Per De- Per

gree cent gree cent gree cent
1A 163 44 142 26 110 70 6" Crosshatch No
113 163 44 142 26 110 70 6" Crosshatch No
2A 158 57 140 31 115 52 6" Crosshatch Yes
2B 158 57 140 31 115 52 6" Crosshatch No
3A 176 41 170 11 128 37 6" Crosshatch Yes
3B 176 41 170 11 128 37 6" Crosshatch No
4A 178 38 170 14 140 29 4" Overlap No
4B 178 38 170 14 140 29 4" Overlap No
5A 172 49 186 17 169 23 6" Overlap No
5B 172 49 186 17 169 23 9" Crosshatch No
146 53 146 29 138 32 3" Overlap No No
61
7A
.............
162 45 139 25 124 39 3" Overlap S.R.-Wash-S. R.
7B 162 45 139 25 124 39 3" Overlap S R -Wash-S.R.
S.R.-S.R.
7C ............ 162 45 139 25 124 39 6" Crosshatch (Rerun of wet 7B.;
7D ............ 162 45 139 25 124 39 3" Overlap S.R.-Wash-S.R.
S R.-Wash-S.R.
S.R.-S.R.
1 Nontypical straw. (discharge con-
2 Dry-bulb temperatures ('F) and relative humidities are average values
ditions) for time dryer was fully charged with test straw. Zone 3 used as conditioning sec-
tion in tests 1A, 1B, 3A, and 3B.

General observations during the capacity trial indicated that

much of the output was at a lower moisture content than required
while a small portion was too wet. Although undesirable, this non-
uniform drying is somewhat typical of flax (10) (11), and probably
arises since the straw is variable in shape, structure, and moisture
content, and does not lend itself to the construction of a constantly
dense layer. Because of these inequalities, some parts of the bed are
more permeable than others and thus dry at a greater rate.
In the controlled exposure study. 15 different test conditions
were employed as shown in table 1. The average relative humidity of
zone I discharge ranged from about 38% to 57%, and discharge dry-
bulb temperatures ranged from 158° to 178° F. In all runs an at-
tempt was made to maintain low relative humidity in the second zone
to decrease the partial pressure of vapor in the air and thus accelerate
drying rates by the resultant increase in vapor pressure differential
or driving force for evaporation. In this zone the average humidities
II.

16
FLAx DRYING TESTS

Moisture content4-retted straw

Oil Before After Dried straw Evaporation
consumption squeeze roll squeeze roll Out of dryer capacity rate5
gph Per cent Per cent Per cent lbs./hr. lbs. H20/hr.
12.0 330 504 230 427
9.3 330 15.6 273 742
12 9 346 257 60 474 1120
12 8 338 248 -
7.5 389 871
12.5 359 253 75 310 706
12.7 347 248 9.8 332 722
131 357 106 430 1349
14.7 348 235 49 560 1230
180 314 242 37 612 1410
13.1 335 233 70 572 1220
12 0 355 71 247 800
12.9 350 255 18.9 307 610
15.0 350 220 525 345 379

(Redrying of wet 7B 3.5

350 208 80

3 a it. is squeeze roll.

4 Dry basis-average of five bundles.
5 Determined from moisture content change in dryer and excludes moisture removed by
squeeze rolls.

varied from about 11% to 31% for all runs while dry-bulb tempera-
tures ranged from 139° to 186° F.
Straw moisture contents before the squeezing operation are
shown to be relatively uniform in the test lots; all except one fell in
the range 330% to 359%. After one pass through the squeezing unit,
'-
test lots varied in moisture content from 235% to 257%.. Approxi-
mately 3/10 of the contained water was, therefore, easily and eco-
nomically removed before the straw entered the dryer. Lot 713 passed
through the squeeze rolls two times and showed a moisture content of
220%, while 7D was squeezed three times and exhibited 208% mois-
ture. In view of this decreasing rate of moisture removal, the value
of second or third squeezings seems doubtful.
Most moisture contents of dried flax ranged from about 4% to
18%. Although this moisture range exceeds the optimum span of
about 10% to 14%, it is satisfactory from the standpoint of drying
requirements. During commercial processing operations, mill-run

17

Ire
straw has been observed to vary seasonally from about 6% to 18%.
The difficulty experienced in holding discharge moisture content
within optimum range is attributed mainly to the tendency for non-
uniform drying discussed earlier. In a continuous drying-scutching
operation, moisture content of discharged straw would be quite im-
portant because of its effect on scutching efficiency and fiber yield
( 12) (13). In a noncontinuous operation, however, it is much less
critical since flax straw is hygroscopic and tends to reach a moisture
content in equilibrium with the atmosphere.
Evaporation rate is perhaps a better measure of drying than
straw discharge rate since it reflects a precise amount of work done
and is independent of weight effects of incoming and outgoing straw
moisture contents. Evaporation rates, disregarding moisture removed
in squeezing, varied from about 400 to 1,40() pounds of water per
hour, and as might be expected, high oil-consumption rates were as-
sociated with high evaporation rates. Most of the oil rates varied be-
tween 12 and 1R gallons per hour. Diesel oil was used in these tests.
Temperatures of the supply air were measured at various posi-
tions in the system. At the filter transition near the furnace the tem-
perature was found to range from 860° to 10501 F., and in the
zone 1 duct as it entered the dryer the temperature was 600° to
690° F. Zone 2 was supplied with two ducts. In one, the temperature
ranged from 170° to 320° F., and in the other, 220° to 360° F.
Air temperatures as measured by the furnace control instrument were
quite uniform, varying from about 730° to 790° F. Temperature
drops as air passed through the flax bed in zone 1 were measured with
a probe thermocouple at several stations and ranged from about 35°
to 90° F. Zone 2 temperature drops were much smaller--on the order
of 5° to 15° F.-indicating a reduced drying rate in this zone. In
both zones the temperatures below a bed section increased as that
section progressed through the zone. This is logical since there was
increasingly less moisture available for evaporative cooling of the air.
The maximum recorded temperature of the air impinging on the bed
was 295° F. in zone 1; however, the maximum straw temperature was
in the vicinity of 145° F.-the wet-bulb temperature. As the straw
became dry in zone 2 its temperature rose and approached that of
dry-bulb. On this basis, the highest straw temperature of the study
was less than 190° F.
Conveyor speeds, which were adjusted as required to discharge
dry flax, ranged from 0.50 to 2.00 f.p.m. Maximum static pressure
drop as air passed through the zone 1 bed was about 5/10 of an inch
of water, reported on a standard air basis.
Because of the control system's modulating characteristic, the

18
 supply air volume to each zone was not constant. Volume determina-
tions were made, therefore, by measuring velocity pressure ranges
and calculating flows as the supply damper of each zone duct passed
through its cycle. For zone 1, the supply volume varied from 2,050
to 4,160 c.f.m. at 650° F., and for zone 2, 2,380 to 3,000 c.f.m. at
250" F. Air velocities through the flax bed were determined in two
ways-by direct measurement with a propeller anemometer and by
measuring static pressures in the zones (corrected for temperature)
and referring to performance curves for the circulating fans. The
anemometer showed erratic velocities as great as 900 f.p.m. through
holes and loose parts of the bed, but average velocities through typ-
ically uniform sections varied from about 240 to 295 f.p.m. for all
runs and all zones, as determined from fan curve data and gross area
of the flax bed. By measuring current usage and calculating electrical
power consumptions, it was found that the total dryer requirement
(excluding the oil burner motor) was 25.2 hp.
Fiber analysis
Analysis of fiber from this study was carried out by scutching
the flax straw to obtain fiber yields, grading the fiber as is done com-
mercially, determining fiber wax contents, and performing fiber-
strength tests. These results appear in table 2 where "X" lots indi-
cate air-dried controls used for comparison with force-dried material.
In the scutching operation, moisture contents of straw are shown
to be relatively high with most values between 15% and 23%, whereas
typical moisture contents during commercial winter scutching range
from about 10% to 16%. The average moisture content of controls
was somewhat greater than that of force-dried material. This may be
due to a changed hygroscopic character of the force-dried material,
but is more likely a result of incomplete or slow drying of controls
due to rainy weather. Of 15 force-drying exposures, those that were
squeezed exhibit lower moisture contents, but controls that were
squeezed show greater moisture than controls not squeezed. Average
line fiber yields for controls is about the same as that for force-dried
exposures, and yields from squeezed lots are greater than those from
lots not squeezed.
Table 2 indicates, generally, that high moisture contents are re-
lated to low fiber yields. Another suggested association is that of high
yield and high grade, which has been observed in other flax studies
of this project. There is no obvious relationship between strength and
yield, or strength and grade; also, no good correlation can be found
between quality factors of table 2 and any of the force-drying ex-
posures.

19
 Differences are apparent, however, when comparing force-dried
lots and air-dried controls with respect to grade and fiber strength.
Results from the three graders indicate the same trend-that force-
dried material is generally superior to controls, and the highest rating
of each judge is assigned to force-dried fiber. In 12 out of 14 cases,

TABLE 2. FIBER EVALUATION

Fiber tensile
Straw moisture strength'
Fiber
content- I Fiber Fiber wax
Test' (into scutcher) I yield' grade contents

Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent

IA _-------- 23.7 19.2 3,945 6.1 Low B 2 87
III ----...-- 19.1 22.0 4,114 7.7 High C 2.84
1x .......... 23.6 19.8 3.306 9.2 Low B 3.11

2A ........ .. 18.6 24.0 3,766 10.0 Medium B 2.65

2AX ___ 241 23 7 3,037 13.2 Medium C 2.65
2B ---------- 18.4 22.4 3,629 8.1 Medium B 2.65
2BX ______ 24.8 23.5 3,361 11.2 Medium B 2.59

3A ---------- 14.4 22.4 3,485 7.8 High B 2.50

3AX ... 23.9 21.3 3,522 10.6 High C 2.54
3B .......... 15.5 23 1 3,363 26.5 Medium B 2.50
313X ...... 31.9 23.0 3,531 11.4 Low B 2.15

4A ---------- 17.1 21.0 3,561 11.1 Medium B 2.67

4AX ___ 17.5 17.9 2,933 14.0 Low C 2.66
4B ---------- 14.9 21.1 3,664 6.8 High B 2.60
4BX ------ 22.8 20.0 3,234 12.6 Medium C 2.60

5A __________ 14.2 208 3,438 9.3 High C 2.56

17.8 244 3,129 14.2 C-1 2 47
SAX __. __
513 ---------- 20.5 20.2 3,586 5.9 High C 2.62
5BX ------ 16.3 21.3 2,653 10.1 Medium C 2.52

15.0 17.6 3,155 10.0 C-1 2.32

67

7A ---------- 202 20.5 3,321 10.8 High B 2.88

96 Medium B 2.58
7B ----------
7C ---------- 9.8
22.0
22.3
3,240
3,197
3,285
ill
11.6
High B
C-1
2 83
2.79
7D ---------- 229 17.9
7X ---------- 23.3 17.0 3,193 123 Low B 2.53

8X8 21.0 2,966 14.4 High C 2.96

1 X lots are air-dried controls.

2 Dry basis.
3 Retted straw basis.
4 x is arithmetic mean of 20 determinations (kg. per gm.-cm.), and c.v. is coefficient of
variation in per cent.
5 High B is highest, and C-1 is lowest.
6 Fiber basis.
7 Nontypical straw.
8 Commercially processed control from same field as test straw.

20
 the fiber from any particular force-drying exposure has greater
strength than its air-dried control. Overall average of force-dried
strengths is 3,542 kilograms per gram-centimeter as compared to an
average strength of 3,190 for shed-dried controls and 2.966 for sun-
dried control. Also, indicated coefficients of variation determined in a
statistical analysis of strength results strongly suggest that fiber going
through the dryer was more uniform in strength characteristics than
controls.
To summarize, most force-dried material shows greater fiber
strength and higher grade than air-dried controls, but relatively little
difference is seen as to the effect of specific force-drying exposures.
Engineering evaluation of dryer
The dryer operation was evaluated from an engineering stand-
point by calculating thermal efficiencies, analyzing the products of
combustion, and comparing performance with other existing flax
dryers.
Thermal efficiencies were calculated for the dryer alone and as
overall figures for the combined operation of furnace and dryer.
Values for the dryer represent ratios of heat for evaporation to heat
content of gas-air mixture supplied to the dryer, and overall figures
stem from heat for evaporation and heat content of the fuel. Since
the control system, supply volumes, and oil combustion rates were
modulating, dryer efficiencies were computed for a range varying
from the condition of minimum supply flow to that of maximum, as-
suming a constant evaporation load. The analysis was made of test: 5L
where the velocity pressure of zone 1 supply air cycled from about
0.10 in. to 0.42 in. H2O at 650° F., and zone 2 cycled from about
0.25 in. to 0.40 in H2O at 370° F., both determined by pitot tube
traverses in straight duct runs. Air velocities were calculated using
the formula:

V = 1096.5
where V = Velocity, f.p.m.
P, = Velocity pressure, in. HZO
w = Air density, lbs. per cu. ft.
Velocities, duct sizes, and densities were then used in arriving at
the following weight rates of hot air flow : zone 1-71.4 to 146.5 lbs.
dry air per min.; and zone 2-119.0 to 150.8 lbs. dry air per min.
Heat contents of the hot air supply, as determined from a high tem-

21
perature psychrometric table (14) that employs a datum temperature
of 32° F., were: zone 1-178.4 B.t.u. per lb. dry air; and zone 2-
106.2 B.t.u. per lb. dry air. Then, total heat supply to the dryer =
zone 1 supply + zone 2 supply.
\60 min.
Total =
71 4 to 146.5 lbs. dry air
min. X 178.4
B.t.u.
lb. dry air)
/t -4-
hr.

/1 119.0 to 150.8 lbs. dry air B.t.u. 60 min.

\ min.
X 106.2 lb. dry air hr.

Total heat supply = 1,527,000 to 2,529,000 B.t.u. per hr.

In figuring evaporation load, evaporating temperature was taken

as the average wet-bulb temperature of zone 1.

1220 lbs. H2O 1011 B.t.u.

Then, the evaporation load =
hr. lb. HZO/1

= 1,234,000 B.t.u. per hr

evaporation load
Dryer efficiency
heat supply to dryer

1,234,000 B.t.u. per hr.

1,527,000 to 2,529,000 B.t.u. per hr.

= 81% to 49%

The 49% figure represents a condition of maximum hot air flow

to both zones and the 81% that of minimum flow, but in operation
the modulated flow varied between these extremes. While not specific,
this determination gives some idea of the dryer's effectiveness. In a
study of textile drying practices in mills of five states, the Institute of
Textile Technology, Charlottesville, Virginia, found that 44 stock
dryers showed an average efficiency of 50%, and 57 tenter dryers-
46% (15).

22
 7

i
0
I
60 I

I Ig tl -
Wre
50 II

40
V 0

W li I
it

30
Is
W 1

0
20

I r

10

OL
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
EVAPORATION RATE Me of .O181 Per hour)

Figure 7. The relationship of over-all efficiency

and evaporation rate in a direct-heat
flax dryer.
r

Overall efficiency figures for combined operation of furnace and

dryer were computed by assuming an oil heating value of 145,000
B.t.u. per gallon and an evaporating temperature equal to the
average
wet-bulb temperature of zone 1. Six differentl operations showed an
efficiency range of 39% to 65% which compares favorably with fig-
ures for similar operations in Great Britain where direct-fired dryers
have been studied. A comprehensfive analysis of English drying meth-
ods and mediums showed typical efficiencies of 45% to 70% for hori- 1 n

zontal conveyor dryers with direct heating and recirculation (16). In

the USDA test program there wa: strong indication that overall effi-
ciencies were directly related to I iring rates and evaporation rates.
Figure 7 shows a substantial charige in efficiency as evaporation rate
increases.
A good measurement of furnace efficiency was not obtained but
in theory, the efficiency of a direct heat furnace may be very high.
One English study reported figures of 85% to 90% for hot gas pro-
duction by a direct system (17). In a well-insulated and properly ad-

23

i
r
IF
justed oil-fired unit, about the only significant heat loss would be that
represented by small amounts of water vapor in the gas resulting
from hydrogen in the fuel and atmospheric moisture in the combus-
tion air. Radiation heat losses, however, may be relatively great in a
noninsulated unit of this type because high air-gas temperature is in-
volved and radiation is a function of the fourth power of absolute
temperature.
A commonly used indicator of combustion efficiency is the CO2
content in stack gases. In this study, the combustion gas-air mixture
was analyzed near its entrance to the dryer by use of an Orsat appa-
ratus with the following results:

CO2 02
Per cent Per cent
Zone 1-------------------------------------------- 1.0 19.2
1.2 19.8

Zone 2. 0.1 20.1

0.1 19.9

Although low CO2 readings are usually associated with low effi-
ciencies, values shown here are not the result of poor combustion, but
indicate instead the great dilution c)f furnace gas that has taken place
with tempering air. In view of the extremely low order of C02, the
air-gas mixture may, for all practi( :al purposes, be considered air aria,
thus requires no weighted, mean specific heat figure in heat content
calculations. Another value of the readings is to give a general idea
of the amount of excess air in the mixture. Such low CO2 values as
these indicate a great deal of excess air-perhaps in the neighborhood
of 1,000% (18). It should be emphasized that in the direct-fired heat-
ing system these extremely high figures of excess air do not represent
losses inasmuch as the total mixture is used as the drying medium.
A sensible comparison of dryer performance with that of other
existing dryers is rather difficult because operation data are scarce
and dryer sizes vary. In the attempt to present a logical evaluation,
production figures of several European dryers are compared with the
USDA unit in table 3-all on the same basis of unit conveyor area.
Operations in table 3 may not be similar with respect to squeez-
ing, drying temperature, and moisture content of straw entering and
leaving the dryer-all of which influence production. In the general
comparison indicated, however, the USDA unit is shown to perform
very favorably.

24
 TABLE 3. A COMPARISON OF SEVERAL CONVEYOR FLAX DRYERS
Production of dry
Prver retted straw Conveyor area Production/area
(lbs./hr.) (sq. ft.) (lbs./hr./sq. ft.)
German, 660-1,100 665 1.0-1.6
English2 .............. 1,000 788 1.3
Irish3 -- .. 500 470 1.1
USDA ................ 450-730 370 1.2-2.0
1 German single conveyor drying chamber (2, pp. 70-71).
2 English machine using five tiers of conveyors (19, p. 19).
3 Irish single conveyor unit (11, pp. 14-16).

Conclusions
Considering the maximum production trial as well as the con-
trolled exposure study of this semicommercial size dryer, the follow-
ing conclusions may be drawn:
1. Forced-air drying of retted straw is feasible in processing
fiber flax.
2. Maximum production of dried straw was 730 pounds per
hour.
3. Squeeze-rolling of flax before drying removed about 30% of
the contained water.
4. Oil consumption varied from about 12 to 18 gallons per hour.
5. Test conditions appearing most influential in achieving high-
est production rates were squeeze-rolling, a fairly loose flax layer 6
to 10 inches thick, and drying temperatures of about 230°-280° P.
in zone 1 and 180°-195° F. in zone 2.
6. In almost every test condition, forced-dried flax was found
superior to its air-dried control with respect to fiber grade, fiber
strength, and strength uniformity.
7. In 6 out of 9 tests, line fiber yields of force-dried flax lots
were greater than yields of air-dried controls; however, average mois-
ture content of controls was relatively high and may have influenced
fiber yields.
8. Squeeze-rolling appeared to improve average fiber yields
about 2%, and 5 out of 6 force-dried lots that were squeeze-rolled and
washed received high fiber grades.
9. A direct relationship was indicated between fiber yield and
fiber grade for force-dried lots.

25
 10. No definite fiber correlation was found between strength
and yield, or strength and grade, for force-dried material.
11. No definite correlation was found between any of the force-
drying exposures and fiber strength, wax content, or grade.
12. Dryer efficiency was found to range between 49% and 81%0
for a modulating run with variable heat supply.
13. Overall efficiencies, considering furnace and dryer together,
ranged between 39% and 65% for 6 of the operations, and high effi-
ciencies were associated with high evaporation rates.
14. In a limited comparison with performances of several Euro-
pean flax dryers, the USDA unit showed greater dry straw produc-
tion per unit of conveyor area.

26
 Literature Cited
1. Mackey, E. M. Dominion pilot flax mill. Portage La Praire, Manitoba.
Experimental Farms Service, Department of Agriculture, Canada. Summary
report, 1944-1948. 26 pp.
2. Dujardin, Albert. The retting of flax. Belfast, Flax Development Commit-
tee, R. Carswell and Son, Ltd., 1948. 182 pp.
3. Branton, C. Ivan. Fiber flax drying. Agricultural Engineering Research
Branch, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1949. (Unpublished report.)
Van Arsdel, W. B. Principles of the drying process with special reference
to vegetable dehydration. Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry,
U S. Department of Agriculture, AEC-300, January 1951. 89 pp.
5. American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers. Heating ventilat-
ing air conditioning guide. 26th edition. New York, 1948. 1280 pp.
6. Perry, John H (ed). Chemical engineers' handbook. Second edition. New
York, McGraw-Hill, 1941. 3029 pp.
7. Klein, Leonard M. and Jesse E. Harmond. Scutching machine for fiber flax.
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Circular no. 975. November 1955.
8. Schiefer, Herbert F. Machines and methods for testing cordage fibers.
Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. 33:315-339. Oc-
tober 1944.
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tolerances for spun, twisted, or braided products made from flax, hemp,
ramie, or mixtures thereof. ASTM Standards, D739-46. 1946. 1290 pp.
10. Greenhill, W. L. Flax processing
the need for research. Journal of the
:

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research 18:132:140. Commonwealth

of Australia. 1945.
11 Flax straw drying plant. Davidson and Company, Ltd., Sirocco Engineering
Works, Belfast, Northern Ireland. Publication ref. no. sf 360. 18 pp.
12 Greenhill, W. L. and C. N. Pickering. The effect of moisture content on
the scutching of flax straw. Journal of the Council for Scientific Industrial
Research 14:93-96. Commonwealth of Australia. 1941.
13. Brandenburg, N. R. The relation of moisture content and fiber yield in
scutching. Agricultural Engineering Research Branch, U. S. Department of
Agriculture. 1954. (Unpublished report.)
14. Zimmerman, O. T. and Irvin Lavine. Psychrometric tables and charts.
Dover, New Hampshire, Industrial Research Service, 1945. 162 pp.
15. Thomas, P. M. Textile dryers studied by ITT. Textile World 99:116-117,
pt. 1. March 1949.
16. Saunders, S. G. Review of modern drying methods-VII. The Industrial
Heating Engineer 10:140-142. July 1948.
17. Hutt, A. C. Drying, conditioning, and storing. Fuel Efficiency Committee,
Fuel and the Future, volume 1, Great Britain Ministry of Fuel and Power.
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18. Lorenzi, Otto de. Combustion engineering. New York, Combustion Engi-
neering Superheater, Inc. 1950.
19. New flax straw dryer. Irish Textile journal 6:19. June 1940.

27