MODULE 2:

INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES
 Intermolecular Forces bind the molecules together, the more the molecules
are intact and bonded to each other, the smaller the spaces between the particles
becomes. The amount of space between molecules gets larger when a sample of
matter turns from solid to liquid. Gas have the least attractive force that is why
their molecules are moving aggressively and widely, contrast with the solid in
which their molecules are strongly bonded by the Intermolecular Forces that
makes them locked in a certain position, whether their molecules will move, it will
only make a "vibration". Intermolecular forces influence physical properties of
liquids and solids. There are types of attractive Intermolecular forces.
The dipole-dipole where the partial charges formed within one molecule is
attracted to an opposite partial charge in a nearby molecule. This is an interaction
of permanent dipoles in molecules. These kinds of attractions align the molecules
to increase the attraction. The other type of Intermolecular forces is Ion-dipole
forces. The positive ion is known as “cation” and it attracts the partially negative
end of a neutral polar molecule. The negative ion is known as “anion” and it
attracts the partially positive end of an neutral polar molecule. To be called an
ion-dipole force, it must have the attraction between an ion and a molecule that
has dipole. There is a type of dipole-dipole interactions that makes our DNA bases
paired together, it is called Hydrogen bond. It is known as strongest bond because
it helps the DNA to maintain its unique structure. To occur the Hydrogen bond, it
must pair with hydrogen and either nitrogen, fluorine or oxygen. The other type
of forces is Dispersion force. These forces are weak Intermolecular forces and
caused by temporary dipoles. When temporary dipoles induced the neighboring
molecules, it is called a London Dispersion Forces. These types of Intermolecular
forces are the ones which are responsible in the physical change and properties of
the three phases of matter.
MODULE 3:
LIQUID PROPERTIES
 Liquids can manipulate their own properties and can turn to solid or gas.
The properties of liquids can be explained through Intermolecular forces and the
kinetic energy that is present in the liquid particles. Liquid is compressible
because the distance between molecules is larger than in a solid. Liquid has a
definite volume because the intermolecular forces are strong enough to hold the
molecules intact. Liquid has no definite shape because it only acquires the shape
of the container and it can flow also because of intermolecular force is weak that
may result of slip and slide over each molecules. There are phases of water.
The Solid Phase which is known as Crystalline or ice and basically takes the
structure and properties of being hard. The Liquid Phase which is known as Water
and commonly described as amphoteric molecules because it can act as both acid
and base. The Gas Phase which is known as Water vapor and characterized as a
transparent cloud.
The mainly reason that affects the properties of liquids is intermolecular
forces. The interactions between the molecules are weak that is why they
decrease when they go from solid to liquid to gas. As the intermolecular
attraction increase, the vapor pressure decreases and the boiling point increases.
The contractive tendency of surface of a liquid that allows it to resist the external
forces is called Surface tension. The reason why insects and water do float in
water is because of surface tension. These events happen due to the unequal
molecular intermolecular forces in the surface of water. The droplets formed into
bulk shape because of surface tension and not quickly disperse because the
intermolecular is enough to hold the particles of liquid tight in short period of
time. Cohesive forces are the forces between like molecules. Adhesive forces are
the forces between unlike molecules and lead to an upward turning of meniscus.
MODULE 4:
VISCOSITY
 The Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Viscosity also
depends on intermolecular forces that are present within the particles of the
fluid. Viscosity is not only the measure of fluid’s resistance to flow but also the
gas’ resistance to flow, maybe the change of shape or movement. Fluidity is the
opposite of viscosity. It measures the ease of flow. Honey which is known as
sluggish and high in viscosity is called viscous. There are factors affecting the
viscosity of a substance. The substance’s inner molecular structure where the
tighter the molecules, the more the substance do resist deformation or dispersion
and also the external forces which act upon the substance deform it or make it
flow. The last one is the ambient conditions or the temperature and pressure that
affect the substance.
There are two types of flow condition, the laminar flow and turbulent flow.
The Laminar flow is when the fluids flow smoothly and soft through a tube or pipe
while the Turbulent flow is no recognizable layer can be see nor observed. The
intermolecular forces affect the viscosity of a substance. The strength of the
viscosity is proportional to the strength of the intermolecular forces between the
molecules. The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance
is called Capillary action. This action experience intermolecular forces which
attract or repulses forces between molecules. The factors involved in capillary
action are Cohesion and Adhesion. Cohesion is attractive forces occur between
like molecules. The Adhesion is attractive forces occur between unlike molecules.
 MODULE 1:
KINETIC MOLECULAR
MODELS OF SOLIDS
AND LIQUIDS
 Kinetic molecular theory defines pressure as the force exerted per unit area
of container walls. If the temperature remains constant the rate of molecular
collisions does not change and the total force exerted by the molecules does not
change. However, if the volume of the gas decreased, the total surface area is
decreased and this results to an increase in force per unit area. This means that at
constant temperature, decrease in volume causes and increase in pressure. This
supports the inverse relationship between pressure and volume at constant
temperature.
The average kinetic energy of a gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature. As the temperature increases, the average kinetic energy also
increases. The increase of energy also increases the force of colliding molecules
against the container walls. For the pressure to be constant, the total surface area
must increase. The increase in surface can be accomplished if the volume of the
gas is increased. Therefore, at constant pressure, if the temperature of gas
increased, its volume also increased. This means that as long as several gases are
held at the same temperature, kinetic energy will be equal.
To be able to understand the properties of different phases of matter, the
distance between molecules in gaseous phase is very large, and its intermolecular
attractive forces are very weak, the molecular motion are constant in random
motion and moves freely. In liquid state, it has a strong intermolecular attractive
forces and the distance between molecules are large while it has a restricted and
gliding motion. In solid, as we all know, it has a very strong intermolecular force
but has a very small distance between molecules for it has to vibrate about fixed
position. The intermolecular distance accounts for the difference in
compressibility and density of the different states while intermolecular attractive
forces and molecular motion account for shape and volume. The differences in
macroscopic properties of gases from those of solid and liquid states can also be
the basis of the kinetic molecular theory.
MODULE 5:
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF
SOLUTION
 In all solutions, whether gaseous, liquid, or solid, the substance present in
the greatest amount is the solvent, and the substance or substances present in
lesser amounts are the solute. The solute does not have to be in the same
physical state as the solvent, but the physical state of the solvent usually
determines the state of the solution.as long as the solute and solvent combine to
give a homogeneous solution, the solute is said to be soluble in the solvent.
Substances that form a single homogeneous phase in all proportions are said to
be completely miscible in one another. If two substances are essentially insoluble
in each other, such as oil and water, they are immiscible.
There are also units of concentration to be considered such as mole
fraction, it is the mole fraction of a substance is the fraction of all of its molecules
out of the total number of molecules or atoms. Mass percent is the mass or mole
of substance in percent form. There’s also a molarity of a solution that is used to
represent the amount of moles of solute per liter of the solution. The other one is
the molality of a solution that is used to represent the amount of moles of solute
per kilogram of the solvent. The molarity and molality equations differ only from
their denominators. However, this is a huge difference. As you may remember,
volume varies with different temperatures. At higher temperatures, volumes of
liquids increase, while at lower temperatures, volumes of liquids decrease.
Therefore, molarities of solutions also vary at different temperatures. This creates
an advantage for using molality over molarity.