Building Maintenance - Ivor H. Seeley

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BUILDING MAINTENANCE
IVOR H. SEELEY
B.Se. (Est. Man.), M.A., Ph.D., F.R.I.C.S., C.Eng.,
F.l.C.E., F.C.l.O.B., M.l.H.
Emeritus Professor
The Nottingham Trent University
Second EdRion
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10 Ivor H.Seeley 1976. 1987
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This book is dedicated to my elder daughter
LINDA
for her kind and sympathetic help and encouragement
with my book-writing activities over many years
"Whosoever cometh to me, and heareth my sayings, and doeth them, I will
shew to you whom he is like.
He is like a man which built an house, and digged deep, and laid the
foundation on a rock; and when the flood arose, the stream beat vehemently
upon that house, and could not shake it: for it was founded upon a rock.
But he that heareth, and doeth not, is like a man that without a foundation
built an house upon the earth; against which the stream did beat
vehemently, and immediately it fell; and the ruin of that house was great."
, Luke 6. 47-49
CONTENTS
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xii
~~~w ~
Acknowledgements xviii
1 Nature and importance of building maintenance 1

Concept of building maintenance ; significance of building
maintenance; magnitude oJ building maintenance problems ;
liability for defects in buildings; maintenance needs; resources
for building maintenance; nature of maintenance; research into
maintenance; lives of buildings; technology of maintenance ;
consideration of maintenance at design stage; effect of metrica-
tion; relationship of capital, maintenance and running costs;
economics of maintenance.
2 Building maintenance problems and their solution-I 32

Site conditions; foundation problems; settlement of buildings;
shoring; waterproofing leaking basements; maintenance of
paved and grassed surfaces; maintenance of fencing.
3 Building maintenance problems and their solution-II 54

Defects in wall c1addings; brickwork; stonework ; other c1add-
ings; structural frames; timber-framed houses; dampness pene-
tration; condensation; chimney problems.
4 Building maintenance problems and their solution-III 98

Timber defects; floors; staircases; roofs; sound insulation;
thermal insulation ; vibration .
viii Contents
5 Building maintenance problems and their solution-IV 138

Joinery; corrosion of merals. :plastics ; plasterwork; external
renderings; external wall tiling; internal finishes ; decorations;
glazing.
6 Building maintenance problems and their solution-V 174

Plumbing; heating and hot water supply; air conditioning;
electrical installations; gas installations; lifts; refuse collection
from flats; drainage ; safety; security; fire-resisting construction
and fire precautions; cleaning; pest infestation; repair of flood
damage.
7 Alterations and improvements 208

Scope of alterations and improvements; modernisation of
dwellings; conversion of other buildings into dwellings; pre-
fabricated additions; sequence and management of alteration
work; meeting the needs of disabled people; grants for improve-
ments and conversions; rehabilitation or redevelopment; dilap-
idations; technical reports; proofs of evidence.
8 Specification of maintenance work 241

Sources of information; form of the specification; drafting of
specifications; typical specification clauses; specifications for
new work.
9 Measurement and pricing of maintenance work 264

Measurement of building work; principles and units of measure-
ment; building estimates; approximate estimates; preparation
of estimates by contractors ; price build-up ; pricing alteration
works; checking builders' accounts.
10 Tendering procedures and contract administration 292

Nature and form of contracts; main characteristics of building
contracts; types of building contract; public sector maintenance
contracts; tendering arrangements; contract documents; par-
ties involved in contracts; conditions of contract for minor
works; contract procedures.
11 Building control 317

Building Regulations; planning control; other statutory
requirements; control of work in progress; easements.
12 Planning and financing maintenance work 338

Planning, budgeting and controlling the cost of maintenance
work; planned maintenance ; recording and dissemination of
maintenance data; Building Maintenance Information Ltd;
Contents ix
maintenance feedback; maintenance manuals ; costs in use/life

cycle costing; effect of taxation and insurance .
13 Execution of maintenance work 369

Choice between direct and contract labour; building main-
tenance departmental structures and arrangements; mainte-
nance depots; programming of maintenance work; organisa-
tion of maintenance work; programming and progressing main-
tenance work; maintenance management of condominiums;
training for maintenance; maintenance incentive schemes.
14 Supervision of maintenance work 407

Clerk of Works; site meetings; setting out; supervision of
building work; records.
Appendix 1 Metric conversion table 426

Appendix 2 Occupancy cost analysis-laboratory 429
Appendix 3 Occupancy cost analysis-halls of residence 433
Appendix 4 Energy cost analysis of hospital 437
Appendix 5 Classification of maintenance operations and repairs 439
Index 441
UST OF FIGURES
1.1 Types of maintenance 2

1.2 Cost relationship between planned and unplanned systems 4
1.3 Origins of building faults 16
1.4 Attribution of types of faults by performance 16
2.1 .1 Cracking arising from drying action of tree roots 35
2.1.2 Cracking associated with shallow foundations on shrinkable clay 35
2.1.3 Underpinning 35
2.1.4 Shoring 35
2.2.1 Narrow strip foundation 36
2.2.2 Sketch plan showing arrangement of piles to a house 36
2.2.3 Short bored pile foundation 36
2.3.1 Dead shore 46
2.3.2 ~q~ %
2.3.3 Detail at head of raker %
2.3.4 R~q~ore %
7.1.1 Modernisation of dwellings-New Earswick 212
7.1.2 Modernisation of terrace house 212
7.2.1 Conversion of house into flats 214
7.2.2 Conversion of bedroom into bathroom 214
7.3.1 Conversion of village school into bungalow 217
7.3.2 Conversion of stable into cottage 217
12.1 Feedback in maintenance supervision 359
13.1 Component maintenance procedure 385
xi
UST OF TABLES
1.1 Breakdown of total costs 24

1.2 Breakdown of costs in use for various types of buildings 28
2.1 Classification of damage to walls and appropriate remedial
work 41
3.1 Mortar mixes (proportions by volume) 58
3.2 Selection of mortar groups 59
3.3 Defects in precast concrete cladding 75
4.1 Recognition of Serpula lacrymans (dry rot) 106
4.2 Measures for controlling an outbreak of dry rot 106
4.3 Common wood borers; recognition and significance 109
5.1 Characteristics of plaster finishes 149
5.2 Some plastering defects and their causes and remedies 150
5.3 Mixes suitable for rendering 154
5.4 Recommended mixes for external renderings in relation to
background materials, exposure conditions and finish required 155
5.5 Painting cycle costs on steelwork 163
5.6 Painting defects on woodwork 166
6.1 Frequency of window cleaning 200
7.1 Improvement grants 223
7.2 Intermediate grants 224
7.3 Quality of improved dwellings as compared with new dwellings 230
8.1 Comparison of traditional trades and work sections 248
8.2 Brick criteria 252
9.1 Dimensions paper 265
9.2 Entries on dimensions paper 266
9.3 Abstract entries 267
9.4 Billing entries 268
9.5 Floor area price rates 275
9.6 Cube price rates 275
9.7 Composite price rates 276
9.8 Estimate of alteration work 287
9.9 Price build-up for new doorway 289
11 .1 Advisory bodies for repair and preservation work 323
11.2 Planning register 329
xii
List of Tables xiii
12.1 5-year planned maintenance programme 351

12.2 Maintenance manual materials schedule 363
12.3 Maintenance manual cleaning schedule 364
13.1 Control card 382
13.2 Tenant's request card 384
13.3 Housing repair request/acknowledgement 384
13.4 Maintenance feedback report 386
13.5 Job order form 388
13.6 Housing repair instruction/order 390
13.7 Property maintenance record card 394
UST OF PLATES
1 Laminated brickwork 55
2 Stained brickwork 61
3 Spalling stonework 68
4 Defective stonework 69
5 Dilapidated stone chimney stack 69
6 Corroded steelwork 77
7 Defective precast concrete sill 82
8 Rotting door resulting from condensation 91
9 Mould growth on walls of dwelling 92
10 Dry rot to underside of floor 103
11 Dry rot mycelium 104
12 Dry rot attack behind panelling 105
13 Furniture beetle attack on roof timbers 110
14 Death watch beetle attack on floor joists 111
15 Laminated roof slating 120
16 Split roofing felt to weather kerb 126
17 Defective work around rainwater outlet to bitumen felt roof 126
18 Defective sheet lead roofing 129
19 Rotting wood window sill and mullion 139
20 Badly decayed wood window frame 140
21 Badly pitted aluminium window frame 146
22 Loss of rendering and disintegrating walling 158
23 Breakdown of paintwork and woodwork to timber facade 161
24 Loss of paint and decaying timber to pilaster base 162
25 Breakdown of paintwork and decaying timber to weatherboarding 163
xiv
PREFACE
Building Maintenance has too often been regarded as the 'Cinderella' of the
building industry. Yet in the mid 1980s Britain was spending about £10
billion per annum on the maintenance of buildings and over 50 per cent of
the building labour force was engaged on this class of work .
The maintenance of the built environment affects everyone continually,
for it is on the state of our homes, offices and factories that we depend not
only for our comfort, but for our economic survival. The building stock in
the United Kingdom had a replacement value of about £250 billion in 1987
and this alone indicates the importance of effective upkeep. There is still a
pressing need for the improvement of large numbers of older but substantial
dwellings which lack some of the basic amenities.
Maintenance starts the day the builder leaves the site . Design, materials,
workmanship, function , use and their interrelationships, will determine the
amount of maintenance required during the lifetime of the building.
Furthermore, the client's economic interests may work against the elimina-
tion of high maintenance costs in the building design. Case studies under-
taken by the DOE showed that about one-third of the maintenance work on
the buildings investigated could have been avoided if sufficient care had
been taken at the design stage and during construction. The design faults
resulted either from failure to appreciate how various constructional details
would perform in use, or because certain parts of the building that failed
through normal wear and tear could not be replaced without extensive
repairs to adjacent parts. A spokesman for the Building Research Establish-
ment has also commented on the frequent failure by designers to make use
of authoritative design guides such as British Standards and Codes of
Practice, and of the tendency to adopt a careless attitude to detail design.
The building fabric has to satisfy different user needs and occupational
factors . The designer should identify what performance is required from the
fabric in terms of weathertightness, noise reduction, durability, resistance to
heat loss and other relevant criteria, in addition to comfort and visual
requirements. Many of the design faults which result in high maintenance
expenditure could conceivably be avoided if a maintenance manager, or
someone with similar technical knowledge, joined the design team. Not
many architects or builders revisit their jobs after the expiry of the defects
xv
xvi Preface
liability period and few have a continuing responsibility for maintenance.
There is rarely an obvious end-product in building maintenance, and the
effect of neglected industrial buildings, for instance, will seldom be as
serious for the owner as the disruption caused by a breakdown in production
following neglect of plant maintenance. For this reason building mainte-
nance is often considered as one of the first items for budget cuts when
retrenchment becomes necessary. Indeed some building owners regard
maintenance costs as part of the debit side of the balance sheet and an
erosion of legitimate profits, because they fail to appreciate its true value . It
is, however, only common sense to ensure that when a decision is made on
maintenance work, account is taken of the aggravation of the defect which is
likely to occur if work is delayed, with consequent increase in cost.
The satisfactory maintenance of a dwelling makes it fit to live in, but the
occupant may have a very narrow view of what this entails . If the household
equipment works, the internal decorations are cheerful and the external
appearance respectable, he will probably be satisfied . The maintenance
manager must take a deeper view-loose roof tiles, unsound timber,
defective damp-proof courses or powdering mortar are symptoms of a state
of disrepair which cannot be cured by superficial measures. Unless basic
repairs are tarried out in time, the property will become damp or its
structure will deteriorate so that normal jobbing repairs and repainting are
no longer sufficient to restore even an appearance of well-being.
Building maintenance is assuming increasing importance which is shown
by the holding of several large national conferences on this subject, the
mounting of diploma and postgraduate courses in maintenance manage-
ment, and the considerable volume of maintenance research by government
departments, universities and polytechnics, apart from the valuable work
undertaken by the leading professional bodies connected with the building
industry. Nevertheless, a DOE Committee on Building Maintenance drew
attention to the need to give increased emphasis in appropriate degree and
professional examination curricula to building maintenance. The Committee
believed that the main subject areas that need to be covered are the
relationship between the design and performance of buildings and services;
the organisation and control of maintenance work; economics and finance;
law and liability; and technology. These subject areas form the core of
this book which it is hoped will be of value to students and practising
surveyors, builders, architects, estate, housing and maintenance managers,
and environmental control officers alike.
Effective building maintenance requires the correct diagnosis of defects,
and implementation of the correct remedial measures, all based on sound
technical knowledge, otherwise there can be additional waste of materials,
labour and money since the work will in all probability have to be done
again. We need more uniformity in the method of recording maintenance
data and greater feedback of information on the performance of materials
and running costs of buildings in particular. The increased use of main-
tenance manuals and more regular maintenance inspections and schemes of
planned maintenance will assist in producing more efficient maintenance.
Effective maintenance control requires the formulation of sound plans,
Preface xvii
recording of performance, comparison of performance with the plan and the

taking of corrective action where appropriate. Finally there is the need to
make better use of available resources.
The second edition has been updated and extended to cover the latest
techniques, procedures and research, both in the UK and overseas. In
addition, 25 plates have been incorporated to illustrate a representative
selection of major defects found in buildings.
Nottingham, Autumn 1987 IVOR H. SEELEY

ACKNOWlEDGEMENTS
Th~ author a~knowledges with gratitude the willing co-operation and

~sslstance received from many organisations and individuals, so many that it
IS not possible to mention them all individually.
Crown copyright material is reproduced from BRE Digests and other
publications by permission of the Director of the Building Research
Establishment; in this connection it should be mentioned that copies of the
digests quoted are obtainable from the Building Research Establishment,
Bucknalls Lane, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR, and Building Centres.
Building Maintenance Information Ltd, (formerly BMCIS) kindly gave
permission for the inclusion of the occupancy cost analyses (appendixes 2
and 3) and the energy cost analysis (appendix 4). Tables 13.1, 13.2 and 13.6
are based on forms prepared by Bath City Council , and tables 13.3 and 13.7
on forms prepared by Nottingham Community Housing Association Ltd.
Drawings of improvement schemes are based on the following published
articles
J. H. Cheetham, Building Trades Journal, 9, 23 and 30 September 1966
J. A. Foreman, Building Trades Journal, 3 May 1968
The Louis de Soissons Partnership, Architects' Journal, 30 January 1974
The author is indebted to Cluttons, Chartered Surveyors, 5 Great College
Street, London SWIP 3SD, and to Eric Stevens FRICS in particular, for
supplying plates 1 to 6 inclusive, 8 to 19 inclusive and 22; and to the
Paintmakers Association of Great Britain Ltd, Alembic House, 93 Albert
Embankment, London SEl 7TY, for kind permission to use plates 7,20,21,
23,24 and 25.
. Grateful thanks are due to the publisher for consent to quote from
Building Technology and Building Surveys , Reports and Dilapidations, to
the Ellis School of Building, Worcester and NALGO Education Depart-
ment to use some of the concepts contained in course material prepared by
the author in years past, and to Nottingham City Council and Nottingham
Community Housing Association Ltd for assistance with case studies.
Much friendly and helpful advice was received from Peter Murby,
Editorial Director of Macmillan Education Ltd, during the preparation and
production of the second edition, for which I am most grateful. I am also
indebted to my wife for her ever-continuing support.
xviii
1NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Building maintenance has until recently been a neglected field of tech-

nology, being regarded by many as a 'Cinderella' activity. It possesses little
glamour, is unlikely to attract very much attention and is frequently
regarded as unproductive , although many of the managerial and technical
problems are more demanding of ingenuity and skill than those of new
works. A Government Committee on Building Maintenance! described how
this class of work is accorded little or no merit and that while it remains a
neglected backwater, the morale of those involved in its management and
execution must suffer and productivity will remain low.
Property owners all too frequently endeavour to keep maintenance
expenditure to a minimum, ignoring or misunderstanding the adverse
long-term effects of such a policy. Neglect of maintenance has accumulative
results with rapidly increasing deterioration of the fabric and finishes of a
building accompanied by harmful effects on the contents and occupants.
Buildings are too valuable assets to be neglected in this way. In excess of
one-third of the total output of the construction industry is devoted to this
activity, inadequate though it is to keep the nation's buildings in a
satisfactory condition .
Concept of Building Maintenance

It is highly desirable but hardly feasible to produce buildings that are
maintenance-free, although much can be done at the design stage to reduce
the amount of subsequent maintenance work. All elements of buildings
deteriorate at a greater or lesser rate dependent on materials and methods of
construction, environmental conditions and the use of the building.?
Definition of Maintenance
BS 38113 define 'maintenance' as: "The combination of all technical and
associated administrative actions intended to retain an item in, or restore it
to, a state in which it can perform its required function ." The requirements
for maintenance must not be less than those necessary to meet the
relevant statutory requirements, and 'maintained' is defined in the Factories
1
2 Building Maintenance
Act 1961 as: "maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and
in good repair."
The Committee on Building Maintenance? defined 'acceptable standard',
as quoted in the first edition of BS 3811, as "one which sustains the utility
and value of the facility" and this is found to include some degree of
improvement over the life of a building as acceptable comfort and amenity
standards rise. Cleaning will also constitute part of building maintenance
activities. BS 3811 subdivides maintenance into 'planned' and 'unplanned'
maintenance, as illustrated in figure 1.1.
Maintenance
I
I
Planned
I
Unplanned
maintenance maintenance
I
Corrective
r'-------I
!including
Preventive emergency
maintenance maintenance)
Scheduled Condition-based
maintenance maintenance
Corrective
(including
emergency
maintenance)
Figure 1.1 Types of maintenance (source: OS 3811: 198.r)
BS 38113 categorises building maintenance by means of the following

terms and definitions.
(1) Planned maintenance: "The maintenance organised and carried out
with forethought, control and the use of records to a predetermined plan."
(2) Unplanned maintenance : "The maintenance carried out to no
predetermined plan."
(3) Preventive maintenance: "The maintenance carried out at predeter-
mined intervals or corresponding to prescribed criteria and intended to
reduce the probability of failure or the performance degradation of an
item."
Nature and Importance of Building Maintenance 3
(4) Corrective maintenance : "The maintenance carried out after a

failure has occurred and intended to restore an item to a state in which it can
perform its required function ."
(5) Emergency maintenance : "The maintenance which it is necessary
to put in hand immediately to avoid serious consequences." This is
sometimes referred to as day-to-day maintenance, resulting from such
incidents as gas leaks and gale damage .
(6) Condition-based maintenance: "The preventive maintenance initi-
ated as a result of knowledge of the condition of an item from routine or
continuous monitoring."
(7) Scheduled maintenance: "The preventive maintenance carried out
to a predetermined interval of time, number of operations, mileage, etc."
Another approach to maintenance classification has been adopted by
Speight", who subdivided maintenance into three broad categories:
(1) Major repair or restoration: such as re-roofing or rebuilding
defective walls and often incorporating an element of improvement.
(2) Periodic maintenance: a typical example being annual contracts for
decorations and the like.
(3) Routine or day-to-day maintenance : which is largely of the prevent-
ive type, such as checking rainwater gutters and servicing mechanical and
electrical installations.
Maintenance work has also been categorised as 'predictable' and 'avoid-

able' ." Predictable maintenance is regular periodic work that may be
necessary to retain the performance characteristic of a product, as well as
that required to replace or repair the product after it has achieved a useful
life span. Avoidable maintenance is the work required to rectify failures
caused by poor design, incorrect installation or the use of faulty materials.
With building services, minimal neglect can result in potential danger.
'Appropriate condition' could be interpreted as the maintenance of build-
ings in a state which allows them to be used for the purpose for which they
were provided for the minimum capital expenditure. The main problem is to
determine the standards to be applied in a particular situation, and these are
more readily assessed for services and finishings than for the fabric. The
appropriate condition .will be influenced by many factors, including the
function of the building, its public image, or even national prestige ."
Building maintenance is characterised not only by the diversity of
activities but also of the interests involved. A prime aim should be to obtain
good value for the money spent on maintenance but there are conflicting
views on this-- public/private; long/short term; and landlord/tenant.
A system which is based on planned inspections and maintenance will
have higher overhead costs than one that is not, but the planning should lead
to lower maintenance expenditure. A fully planned system is not always the
most appropriate and care is needed in devising the best system for the
particular estate. Figure 1.2 shows the cost relationship of planned and
unplanned systems.
» Costof defects of
design or construction
I·5 -,j\
:e \,
Time (yelfl)
Figure 1.2 Cost relationship between planned and unplanned systems (source:
Managing Building MaintelUlnce 5)
Significance or Building Maintenance

Repair and maintenance work, including house improvements, increased
its proportion of the total construction workload from about 25 per cent in
the 1950s to over 50 per cent in the mid 1980s, and totalled about £10 billion
per annum. Hence in 1987over one-half of the total construction work force
produced about one-third of the output in terms of the value of work done.
The labour-intensive nature of maintenance work is to some extent
inevitable; many maintenance tasks can only be performed manually and
demand is seldom other than dispersed and unco-ordinated. Firms under-
taking maintenance are rarely large and often have only two or three
employees. They are generally under-capitalised and are less subject to
market forces than those on new works. These smaller firms have neither
the means nor the incentive to invest in new and more efficient techniques
and materials. For instance, many small contractors have shown consider-
able reluctance to invest in labour-saving smallpower tools. .
The Committee on Building Maintenance-, as long ago as 1972, asserted
that building maintenance was of great significance to the economy not only
because of the scale of expenditure involved, but also because it was
important to ensure that the nation's stock of buildings, both as a factor of
production and of accommodation, was used as effectively as possible. The
committee saw no early prospect of restoring, let alone keeping, a majority
of buildings to an acceptable standard. It emphasised that more rather than

less maintenance work was necessary if the value and amenity of the nation's
building stock was to be kept at current levels.
It was calculated in 1972 that arrears of housing maintenance in Great
Britain could amount to eight or nine times the volume of work actually
carried out each year, and there was ample evidence of neglect in other
classes of building.! Since then there has been a serious deterioration in the
standard of maintenance, particularly in the public sector, mainly because of
cuts in central government funding . If further serious deterioration is
permitted, future generations could be faced with a major capital burden .
The standard of maintenance achieved has an important influence on the
quality of the built environment and there seems little doubt that society
will continue to expect higher standards in new and existing buildings.
Consequently, for many years to come, maintenance will remain a sig-
nificant and important part of the work of the construction industry.
Magnitude of Building Maintenance Problems

Housing
The 1981 English Housing Condition Survey found that 1.1 million dwellings
failed to meet the minimum standard of fitness for human habitation, and
the equivalent Welsh survey identified a further 87000 unfit dwellings.
Another 1.3 million in England and a quarter of a million in Wales were
found to be unsatisfactory in some other way; they either lacked one or
more basic amenities or needed extensive repairs. The number of dwellings
needing extensive repairs had increased by more than 17 per cent since the
previous survey in 1971.
A RICS report in 19866 emphasised that most of the dwellings classed as
unfit were built before 1919 and were predominantly privately owned.
However, substantial numbers of local authority dwellings built since World
War II, mainly high-rise system-built blocks of flats, are either structurally
unsound .or uneconomic to put into good order, although they are not
classed as unfit.
In 1985, the government's Urban Housing Renewal Unit? showed that
£18.8 billion needed to be spent on repairing council houses in England
alone, amounting to about £5()()() per house. It can reasonably be estimated
that the total backlog in housing repairs and maintenance in both the public
and private sectors in the United Kingdom in 1986 was in the order of £45
billion .
A RIBA publication in 19858 gave some typical examples of serious local
authority housing maintenance problems. For instance, the London
Borough of Newham needed to spend £5 million for each of five years in
carrying out extensive repairs to tower blocks because of the deteriorating
concrete fabric and fractured brickwork. In Leicester, chemical changes in
concrete housing caused corrosion of reinforcing bars and the necessary
replacement cost was assessed at £35 million and in the meantime the
buildings could collapse . According to a study by the Office of Population
Censuses and Surveys in 1982, in Liverpool over half the population was
living in adverse conditions. In Middlesbrough, dampness penetration and
condensation was widespread, particularly in flat-roofed blocks.
Leeds City Council" had a housing stock of 94 000 dwellings in 1984with a
high proportion of system-built houses containing features which made them
actually or potentially expensive to maintain. The essential housing repair
and improvement programme was estimated at £460 million. Condensation
problems were arising with greater frequency and it was estimated that as
many as 20 000 properties could be affected. At no time since local
government reorganisation in 1974 had the authority faced such a daunting
array of problems with its housing stock, nor had the need for capital
investment in repairs and renewals ever been so high. The City of Glasgow
City Council estimated that it needed £77 million to keep its existing housing
stock in a wind and watertight condition .
A RIBA survey'? identified a considerable repair and maintenance
backlog on local authority housing in 1985. Furthermore, unless additional
resources are found for this work the backlog will continue to increase.
Divergences between local authorities' housing investment programme bids
and actual allocations have meant that authorities have had to undertake a
higher proportion of responsive and emergency repair and maintenance
work than is desirable. This represents an inefficient allocation of resources
and in the long term adds to the burden of repair that will fall on ratepayers
and taxpayers. In the meantime, much stock remains in a poor state of
repair to the detriment of many thousands of householders' quality of life.
An Audit Commission report in 198511 concluded that current levels of local
authority capital spending were below the level necessary to maintain, let
alone improve, the state of existing local authority housing stock, schools
and roads.
Hospitals
The Davies Report of 1983 commissioned by the Department of Health and
Social Security estimated that in England alone there was a backlog of
maintenance work of £2 billion. A report by the National Economic
Development Office in 1985 12 found examples of the short-term patching of
defective flat roofs and of hardware not being replaced. Painting, a matter of
hygiene, was often regarded as a luxury. There was a generally expressed
view among health authority officials that to cope with the restricted
maintenance expenditure allocations, measures were being taken which
were neither cost-effective and/or were building up further severe difficulties
in the years ahead.
The maintenance of new hospitals was also being neglected. Because of
excessively tight cost limits and the experimental methods by which many
were constructed, hospitals built in the 1960sand 1970s can cost up to three
or four times as much to maintain as older hospitals."
Schools
In 1986 many of Britain's school buildings were in an appalling state of
repair and through continuing neglect they were getting worse. This decline
should be checked, not only to protect a national asset from premature
disintegration but also for the sake of the pupils. There is plenty of evidence
to suggest that shabby buildings reduce morale, lead to lower quality of
work and encourage antisocial behaviour. Many of the problems are rooted
in the educational building boom of the 19608 when decades of common
sense in materials and detailing were discarded in favour of non-durable and
inadequately researched materials, poor and sometimes 'unbuildable' detail-
ing, and lax supervision of construction . 13
Moreover, the mistakes of the 1960s have been compounded by two
decades of neglect. Cuts in spending, or at the very least a failure to increase
spending to match the expanding scale of the problem, have led to
prolonged delays in essential maintenance with disastrous results. As in all
types of maintenance, delay costs money. The failure to patch a leaking
asphalt roof immediately may mean a new roof is required a year later;
erecting shoring to support a weakened wall can cost many times as much as
the original repair.
Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools summed up the situation effectively
in a report published in 1985 as shown in the following extracts . "Much of
the nation's school building stock is now below an acceptable standard . In
some schools the conditions in which teaching and learning take place
adversely affect the quality of the pupils' work. In many more the decorative
state of the accommodation does little to create the decent and civilised
environment usually associated with education. Without urgent attention to
these problems the cost of putting things right may become prohibitive." In
1986 they reported a worsening of the already poor position .
In 1984 the Audit Commission stated that"Authorities have responded to
financial pressures by reducing expenditure on long term maintenance to the
point where the state of many school buildings gives legitimate cause for
concern."
A RIBA report" described how in the mid 19808, despite falling school
rolls, an enormous backlog of repair and refurbishment had to be overcome
if existing schools were to be made suitable for new teaching methods and
community uses. Though still serviceable, much school accommodation is
unsuited to modern use. In 1986, 1.5 million primary school pupils were
being taught in pre-war buildings. A million pupils lacked access to basic
facilities such as sinks and electric power points. Over a quarter of a million
pupils were taught in temporary accommodation.
Surveys by the Society of Chief Architects in Local Authorities (SCALA)
showed that maintenance of school buildings had fallen well short of the
level necessary to stabilise deterioration, let alone carry out desirable
improvements. Resources were having to be absorbed to deal with such
health and safety hazards as asbestos and the likelihood of increases in
major failures of plant and services, causing emergency closures with all the
resultant social disturbances.
Much needs to be done in reducing energy costs through energy conserva-

tion. particularly in older buildings designed when energy was relatively
cheap . The Audit Commission estimated that in 1984 heating and lighting a
typical secondary school cost around £30 ()()() per year; or perhaps as much
as £150 million for all secondary schools in England and Wales. Consider-
able savings (10 per cent or more) could be made through the introduction
of energy-saving measures such as thermal insulation.
Urban Regeneration
The country's worst building stock is in the inner cities where unemploy-
ment, deprivation and its associated problems are concentrated. A RIBA
report" describes how government cuts in construction bear with dispropor-
tionate harshness on inner city communities. who are in the greatest need of
environmental improvement. and also of the employment that more con-
struction work would bring.
HRH The Prince of Wales stated in 1985: "the desperate plight of the
inner city areas is well known, with the cycle of economic decline leading to
physical deterioration and countless social problems. It is only when you
visit these areas ... that you begin to wonder how it is possible that people
are able to live in such inhuman conditions" - a sobering thought with its
harsh realities.
Liability for Defects in Buildings

Liability for defects in buildings arises in various ways. It may emanate from
the initial building contract between the contractor and the building owner,
the scheme administered by the National House-Building Council (NHBC
scheme) , or statutory requirements. Each is now considered.
1 Liability under Building Contracts

A contractor carrying out building work, whether it be new work or repairs
or replacements. is normally under contract to undertake the work in a good
and workmanlike manner using suitable materials. Common law rights
permit the building owner to claim against the contractor up to 6 years from
completion of the work or 12 years in the case of a contract executed under
seal. The Standard Forms of Building Contract 14 restrict these common law
rights and a defects liability period of six months is common. The majority of
building defects are unlikely to become apparent in so short a period . The
extension of the liability period would result in higher tenders and the
building owner would suffer were the contractor to become insolvent.
Persons designing building work also have a duty of care to their clients in
carrying out their professional tasks. as they may be held liable for damages
where any negligent act or omission on their part prejudices the client's
interests .
2 NH Be Scheme
A substantial improvement in the standard of private housing has been
achieved by voluntary collective action with government support through
the National House-Building Council. This scheme applies to the majority
of houses built for private sale or letting, and requires participating
house-builders to build to certain minimum standards of design and work-
manship subject to inspection by NHBC inspectors, and to undertake to
make good any defect during the first two years after the agreement with the
purchaser. This latter undertaking is guaranteed by the Council itself should
a builder fail to honour his obligations. The Council also insures against any
major structural defects up to the end of the tenth year .
The NHBC Scheme is to be welcomed as, unless designers and con-
tractors are held responsible for the performance of their buildings for a
sufficient period, there is no effective sanction to influence them to take
account of the maintenance implications of their designs or to avoid the
errors of judgement and quality control.both in design and in construction,
which can lead to unnecessarily high maintenance costs early in a building's
life.
3 Statutory Obligations
One of the most important legislative measures concerning building main-
tenance is the Defective Premises Act 1973 which came into force on 1
January 1974. This Act placed additional responsibilities on contractors who
build, improve or repair dwellings, and provided an extension in law of the
practical steps formulated by the NHBC. It imposes a statutory obligation
on all who are involved in the provision of building work--eontractors,
sub-contractors, suppliers of materials and the design team. They must all do
their work properly and effectively and ensure that the dwelling will be fit for
human habitation. Furthermore, a subsequent purchaser of the building who
was not a party to any contract with the original contractor or sub-contractors
is able to sue them.
The Act provides that any person taking on work for or in connection with
the provision of a dwelling (including repairs, maintenance and improve-
ments) owes a duty to see that the work he undertakes is done in (a)
workmanlike, or as may be applicable, ina professional manner, with (b)
proper materials, and (c) so that, as regards their responsibilities in the
work, the dwelling will be fit for habitation when completed . Furthermore,
the provisions of the Act extend beyond the parties to the building
agreement to embrace any person who acquires an interest in the dwelling
such as a subsequent purchaser.
Professional men are to do their work in a professional manner, that is,
with all due care and skill. Should there by a defect in their instructions, the
Act gives the owner or purchaser a right of action in negligence for breach of
statutory duty. Sub-contractors are under the same duties as the main
contractor in so far as they take on work or provide materials or services for
a dwelling. Suppliers of purpose-built components incorporated in a dwell-
ing also owe a statutory duty to the owner or purchaser, but suppliers of
materials and mass produced components are not included in the general
liability.
Periods within which a breach of the new statutory duty may be claimed
are 12 years in the case of sealed contracts, 6 years in other cases and 3 years
where the claim is for personal injuries arising from the defect. The previous
common law implications were sometimes restricted by the use of exclusion
clauses but in future there can be no exclusion of the statutory obligations.
Some relief is however offered where a dwelling has been provided or sold
under an approved scheme such as that operated by the NHBC.IS
A contractor who built on his own lana and then sold the completed
building was until recently believed to be under no common law liability for
negligence (Dutton v. Bognor Regis Building Company, 1972). This distinc-
tion is now removed and all contractors are liable for negligence in
accordance with the principles established in Donoghue v. Stephenson, 1932
(the snail in the ginger beer bottle). A landlord withl~n obligation to repair
premises also has to ensure that no one will suffer injury or damage through
the landlord's neglect to maintain the building satisfactorily. 15
A considerable amount of building maintenance is inescapable because of
legal requirements. The Factories Act and the Offices, Shops and Railway
Premises Act impose maintenance obligations upon owners and occupiers
of these classes of buildings.. Statutory undertakings, such as Water
Authorities, make their own regulations which often include maintenance
clauses designed to prevent danger or wastage. The object of the law in
requiring maintenance is not usually to preserve amenities or to safeguard
investment, but to protect persons from risk. Public Health Acts contain
provisions-for the compulsory repair of dilapidated property, while Housing
Acts include provisions for the compulsory repair of houses unfit for human
habitation and also for financial assistance towards the cost of improvements
and conversions to dwellings. Occupiers of commercial and industrial
properties are often required to assume liability for structural maintenance
and repairs under leases, and even with residential properties, owners and
tenants may make such arrangements for maintenance as they see fit,
subject to the provisions of the Housing Acts. Employers are required to
ensure the safety of their employees at work by maintaining safe plant,
systems of work and premises, and by ensuring adequate instruction,
training and supervision, under the Health and Safety atWork Act 1974.
Maintenance Needs
A prime aim of maintenance is to preserve a building in its initial state, as far
as practicable, so that it effectively serves its purpose. Some of the main
purposes of maintaining buildings are:
(1) retaining value of investment;
(2) maintaining the building in a condition in which it continues to fulfil
its function; and
(3) presenting a good appearance.
The amount of necessary building maintenance work could be reduced by

improved methods of design, specification, construction and feedback of
maintenance data to designers . In addition, effective maintenance manage-
ment embraces many skills. These include the technical knowledge and
experience necessary to identify maintenance needs and to specify the right
remedies; an understanding of modern management techniques; a
knowledge of property and contract law; and an appreciation of the relevant
sociological and economic aspects .
The Building Conservation Trust l6 has described how its permanent
exhibition at Hampton Court Palace shows quite dramatically how.through
neglect and deterioration every building faces certain death from progress-
ive decay. The process can be accelerated by neglect or delayed by proper
care. Proper maintenance is cheaper, quicker and easier than major repairs.
Chudley'" has identified the principal criteria which could influence the
decision to carry out maintenance work, such as cost, age and condition of
property, availability of adequate resources, urgency, future use and
possibly sociological considerations.
Assessing Maintenance Priorities

It is difficult to formulate a precise order of priorities of maintenance
activities as they are so diverse and any assessment is likely to be a subjective
evaluation. Some of the principal functions of maintenance are: to ensure
the safety of occupants, visitors and the general public; to maintain services,
such as heating, lighting, escalators and fire alarm systems; to maintain
decorative surfaces and carry out adequate cleaning; and to prevent or
diminish significantly deterioration of the fabric.
Some organisations have formulated maintenance priority guidelines
which, in times of financial stringency, dictate how monies are to be spent .
Typical is the following approach, adopted by one county council.
(1) Work required for health and safety, such as emergency exits and
fire precautions.
(2) Work required to preserve the structure, such as essential roof
repairs and external painting.
(3) Work required for occupational efficiency, such as increased light-
ing.
(4) Amenity work, mainly internal, such as interior decorations. IS
The Local Government Operational Research Unit" identified three
separate categories of building maintenance work-fabric maintenance;
day-to-day repairs; and improvements and modernisation. The Unit endeav-
oured to establish techniques for determining whether a particular job
should be done immediately or deferred.
For instance to draw up a long-term maintenance programme for the
fabric of buildings, a maintenance manager must make many decisions.
First , he must decide which of the various elements of the building, such as
walls, floors, roof, windows and doors, merit detailed inspection. Upon
inspection he needs some criteria for ranking them in order of priority
coupled with a technique for assessing their condition . Finally, he must

decide in each case whether work is necessary, and if so whether patching or
replacement is more appropriate. To make these decisions he must not only
know the cost implications of the various alternatives but must also know the
minimum acceptable conditions of the elements, appearance being an
important factor in deciding what type of repair should be undertaken . Ad
hoc maintenance with an open-ended budget may seem attractive but it is
unlikely to obtain full value for monies spent or an efficient maintenance
system.
There is a need to improve the methods of managing and executing
building maintenance . Maintenance budgets should be clear and well
reasoned and supported by full information on the consequences of neglect-
ing maintenance. Decision-making in building maintenance could be
assisted by the application of operational research and computer-aided
techniques. A prime aim should be to improve efficiency and productivity.
There is a backlog of several years in the maintenance of many buildings and
the more effective use of resources will help to reduce these arrears and
assist the national economy.
Feedback from occupier to designer should be improved in order to
assemble information on both the preference of the user, and the perform-
ance of materials, components and constructional methods. There is a
general lack of essential basic data and appropriate recording systems .
Design teams all too frequently neglect consideration of maintenance
aspects and there is a great need to reduce the gulf between design and
maintenance. Occupiers of new buildings should ideally be provided with
maintenance manuals listing the materials and equipment used in buildings ,
together with precise details of the maintenance required for their most
efficient and economic use, and this aspect is investigated in more detail in
chapter 12.
Resources for Building Maintenance

It is generally recognised that the current rate of spending on building
maintenance is at a depressed level, and that many necessary tasks are
therefore being neglected. In consequence , considerably increased expendi-
ture is likely to be needed in the future to rectify defects, which will by then
be much more extensive and serious. Hence more should be spent on fabric
maintenance now to save money in the future . However, maintenance
policies of most organisations have to be tailored to their resources and
needs.
To accelerate the rate of maintenance work requires an increased quantity
of both labour and materials, both of which were in short supply in the
early nineteen seventies. Statistics published by the Department of the
Environment show that the construction labour force in Great Britain fell
from 1 023000 in 1976 to 776 000 in 1982. More serious still is the drop in
the numbers of apprentices and skilled craft operatives. The failure of
labour and material resources to match demand caused a sharp rise in
building prices and erratic and unpredictable tenders in the early 19705. This
was followed by a substantial reduction in workload in 1974/75. There is a
growing need to make employment in the construction industry more secure
and attractive and to train persons to less depth in a number of trades. This
latter proposal would certainly benefit maintenance work. Some have
suggested a reduction in the apprenticeship period for building trades, by
eliminating some of the tasks that are rarely performed, to help in
recruitment.
There are difficulties in estimating the capital resources employed in
maintenance as many contractors carry out both new and maintenance work
and make fixed and working capital available to each as required. Official
statistics show that in 1981, over 80 per cent of all contractors in Great
Britain were small firms, employing less than 8 operatives, and they
concentrated almost exclusively on repairs and maintenance. Larger firms
were involved to a significant extent in refurbishment schemes. The trades
engaged most intensively on maintenance work are painters and plumbers.
No one measure of output seems both adequate and sufficiently widely used,
be it turnover, materials used, facilities created or value of building stock
maintained.
The distribution of construction resources as between new work and
maintenance and their deployment within maintenance should ideally be
determined in the way most advantageous both to the economy as a whole
and to the needs of property owners and occupants. Unfortunately there are
at present no reliable methods for determining the optimum maintenance
cost in relation to the life or value of the building or of the value of the
activities carried on within it. Moreover, because responsibility for building
maintenance may be organised by one of a wide range of departments or
disciplines-surveyors, engineers and architects-there is a general lack of
concentrated experience of the special problems and techniques. The
establishment of a separate building surveyors division in the Royal
Institution of Chartered Surveyors has, however, helped to remedy this
deficiency .
The Committee on Building Maintenance' believed that maintenance
policies of the property owner should be eonsistent with his main objectives
and financial position, taking into account any plans for new work and the
effects of maintenance or its neglect on his operations and the morale of
employees. Ideally, the principles of planned and preventive maintenance
should be practised and reviewed periodically. These policies may well
indicate how the actual work should ideally be performed-by directly
employed labour, contractors or a combination of both . It should be borne
in mind that caretakers and porters can with suitable training be usefully
employed to carry out simple maintenance tasks such as internal decorating,
re-washering taps and other valves, and clearing gutters and drains .
Nature of Maintenance
Maintenance comprises three separate main components-servicing, rectifi-
cation and replacement.
Servicing is essentially a cleaning operation undertaken at regular intervals

of varying frequency and is sometimes termed day-to-day maintenance. As
more sophisticated equipment is introduced so more complicated service
schedules become necessary. The frequency of cleaning varies-typical
frequencies being: floors swept daily and polished weekly; windows washed
monthly; flues swept every every 6 months; painting for decoration and
protection every 4 years.
Rectification work usually occurs fairly early in the life of the building and
arises from shortcomings in design, inherent faults in or unsuitability of
components, damage of goods in transit or installation and incorrect
assembly. Rectification represents a fruitful point at which to reduce the cost
of maintenance, because it is avoidable. All that is necessary, at any rate in
theory, is to ensure that components and materials are suitable for their
purpose and are correctly installed. These seemingly simple requirements
are not always easy to achieve. Frequently, the same component must fulfil
many functions, such as weather-shield, load-bearer, thermal insulant, and
still be of good appearance. A failure to perform anyone of these functions
satisfactorily can result in maintenance work. Typical examples are the
failure of decorative floor coverings on solid concrete ground floor slabs due
to damp penetration and the failure of joints between large slabs in wall
cladding to exclude wind and rain. Rectification work could be reduced by
the development and use of performance specifications and codes of
installation.
Replacement is inevitable because service conditions cause materials to

decay at different rates. Much replacement work stems not so much from
physical breakdown of the materials or element as from deterioration of
appearance. Hence the length of acceptable life often involves a subjective
judgement of aesthetics of change. Furthermore, the measurement of the
durability or length of life of a material is a very difficult technological
problem, because of the complex nature of the environment and the difficulty
of determining how much a material may change before it is discarded. Some
indication can be obtained from observing materials in buildings, on
exposed sites and in simulated exposure or use. A long history of accelerated
tests shows the inadvisability of undertaking simulative tests without a
detailed knowledge of the conditions being simulated. The frequency of
replacement could often be reduced by the use of better quality materials
and components, but the economics of this merit careful study .
Maintenance can also embrace renovations which consist of work done to
restore a structure, service and equipment by a major overhaul to the
original design and specification, or to iimpr<We0n the original design. This
may include limited additions and extensions to the original building. An
element of improvement, or of new works, is frequently found under a
heading of maintenance costs. This is to some extent unavoidable, since in
replacing a fitting, such as a bath, the replacement will be of new design. An
analysis of the cost of modernising a typical dwelling showed that 32 per cent
was required to repair, maintain and replace to original standards, 39 per
cent on upgrading to acceptable present-day standards and 29 per cent to

improvements to above present-day standards.
One analysis of maintenance costs in buildings not more than 25 years old
showed fair wear-and tear accounting for 56 per cent, rectification of design
or specification faults at 20 per cent, repairs due to faulty materials or
workmanship at 12.5 per cent and the remaining 11.5 per cent was attributed
to sundry causes. 20 The annual cost of maintenance is likely to increase in
the future because of some new products by-passing the Agrement Board
and the fact that many traditional products, whose properties and problems
are largely known, are still misused. Finally, correct diagnosis of building
defects is essential to ensure that the cost of remedial work is not excessive
and that it is successful.
Research into Maintenance

The importance of research into various aspects of building maintenance
was recognised by a former Minister of Public Building and Works when he
established the Committee on Building Maintenance in 1965. Research and
development problems in building maintenance spring essentially from the
great diversity of the subjects . In the two decades after World War II,
research in this field was mainly directed at properties of materials and few
of the results were actually implemented. So much needs to be done
concerning the relationship between design and maintenance, execution of
maintenance, economic significance of maintenance and the actual perfor-
mance of materials and components under varying conditions. There is also
a great need for a continuing dialogue between research and development
workers on the one hand and architects, surveyors, maintenance personnel
and contractors on the other, to ensure the relevance of research to the
realities of construction and the implementation of the results of research in
practice. The Government has initiated a large amount of research in this
field and has assisted in its dissemination by conferences and publications,
primarily through the Building Research Establishment .
Concern has been growing at the -very substantial sums of money,
amounting to several hundreds of millions of pounds per annum in the
public sector alone, which are being spent on correcting design and
construction faults in housing. The Building Research Establishment
mounted a major research project with the National Building Agency, to
examine the quality of construction work in progress on a number of
low-rise traditional housing schemes in En!lland. The results of the three-
year investigation were published in 1982 . They showed that just over
one-half of the faults concerned the external envelope, with 20 per cent in
walls, 20 per cent in roofs, and 13 per cent in windows and doors.
One-quarter of all faults were infringements of the Building Regulations.
Out of the total number of faults, 50 per cent were attributed to design, 41
per cent to site, and 8 per cent to materials. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 illustrate
these aspects.
Design and specification
Site
Figure 1.3 Origins of building faults (source: Quality in Trrulitional Housing)
Maintenance
and cIur . itv VIIIathet tightness
and rislng damp
. The,..... insulation
Other
Figure 1.4 Attribution of types of faults by performance (source: BRE News 58

(1982»
In 1986, the Building Research Establishment started providing advice for

owners and their consultants on methods of inspection, maintenance and
renovation of the different steel-framed house types. About 140 000 metal-
framed houses have been built in Britain since the early 19208, based on
some thirty different proprietary systems. The BSIF system is the most
common with over 30 000 houses built in England and Wales and over 4000
in Scotland. Some cases have been reported of serious deterioration of the
main frame or failure of c1addings and fixings, and there is a history of
concern about thermal and fire performance in some of the house types;
hence authoritative advice is welcome.
The Building Research Establishment included the creation of a Building
Energy Efficiency Division in the 1986/87 programme, to give greater
emphasis to this increasingly important area. The fire research programme
was also recast to give priority to the scientific basis of fire testing, the
relationship between smoke production and control, and fire problems in
building services.
Advice on building maintenance is obtainable from a variety of different
organisations and the following provides a selected list of the more
important sources. They include the Building Conservation Trust, the
Building Research Establishment, Building Maintenance Information, the
Building Services Research and Information Association, the Construction
Industry Research and Information Association, the National
House-Building Council, the Ancient Monuments Society, the Historic
Buildings Council, the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, the
Civic Trust and the Scottish Local Authorities Special Housing Group.
More needs to be known about the effect of weather on materials and
components, criteria for visual tolerance and the cost of maintenance related
to constructional elements, together with the nature of failures and their
underlying causes. Costly items of maintenance such as condensation and
mould growth, plumbing defects and painting cycles justify closer study.
Finally, the variety of problems in maintenance management provides a
potentially fruitful area for the application of operational research.!
Lives or Buildings
The lives of existing buildings are difficult to assess as all properties have,
from the date of their erection, been the subject of varying amounts and
standards of maintenance, besides being'constructed to different standards.
Most buildings are constructed with the intention that they should last at
least 60 lJears and many exceed this period .
Stone 2 asserts that even cheaper buildings generally have a substantial
life in the order of 50 to 60 years. Their possible physical life is often much
greater but they may be demolished before the end of this period to permit a
more profitable use of the site, or because it is found more economical to
clear and rebuild rather than to adapt the building to meet changed
requirements, because of physical or technical obsolescence as many of the
building components become obsolete.
It is also possible to distinguish between 'structural life' and 'economic
life'. Structural or physical life is the period which expires when it ceases to
be an economic proposition to maintain the building, while economic life
is concerned with earn ing power and is that period of effective life
before replacement; replacement taking place when it will increase income
absolutely . It is probable that optimum life is determined primarily by the
earning power of the building, and only secondarily by the structural
durability .
Changing social and economic conditions .can have a considerable
influence on the life of a building which can become ill-suited to present-day
needs and its demise may also be accelerated by the significant ratio of land
to building costs. Wherever possible the aim should be to extend the
economic life of a building by making the structure adaptable and by careful
management and control of the surroundings. Hence the actual physical life
of a building is frequently much greater than its economic life, but the
building is often demolished before its physical life has expired in order to
permit a more profitable use of the site , or because it is found cheaper to
clear and rebuild rather than to adapt the building to the changed require-
rnents.P
Building for less than normal life saves little initial cost and, in any event,
the services are unlikely to have a life of more than a generation. As a
general rule the capital asset of a building is so valuable and is often
appreciating, so that in practice maintenance is frequently directed to
prolonging effective life. A limiting factor is the period ahead that one can
plan in detail. This is seldom more than a decade.
Technology of Maintenance
The technology of maintenance is concerned with all the factors that
influence and cause the need for maintenance work. The occurrence of
defects in the fabric of a building can result from many unrelated design
decisions--unsuitable materials , incorrect assessment of loads , inadequate
appreciation of conditions of use and inadequate assessment of exposure.
Exposure is influenced by rainfall, direction of prevailing winds, micro-
climate, atmospheric pollution, and aspect and height of building. The
durability of building materials is also influenced by frost action, crystallisa-
tion of salts, sunlight, biological agencies, abrasion and impact, chemical
action and corrosion and incompatability of modern building materials. In
addition to considering the physical and chemical properties of building
materials, the designer should ensure that wherever practicable materials
should be so used as to take full advantage of their potentialities. Where
they are unlikely to last the life of the building, attention should be directed
to convenience of replacement. Building operatives also need training in the
use of new techniques , components and materials.
Defects may also occur from faults other than structural ones, resulting in
inconvenience and discomfort to the occupant. Typical examples are
overheating and glare due to excessive areas of glass, inadequate sound
insulation, inconvenient layouts and very high operating costs.
Cracks in buildings normally result from failure or defective construction,
and are almost invariably unsightly and unacceptable to occupants. If severe
they may result in loss of stability. Furthermore, cracks frequently give rise
to air infiltration, heat loss and reduced sound insulation, all of which result
in reduced efficiency of the building. Cracking is generally caused by tensile
stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the materials, produced by
externally applied loads, or internal movements arising from temperature or
moisture changes. It is essential that the cause of the failure is correctly
diagnosed, otherwise there is the possibility of a component being reinstated
at considerable expense and incorporating the previous deficiencies. Recog-
nition of the location and extent of movements in building materials and
components is essential for the satisfactory design of joints and fixings and
the prevention of cracking.i"
Other important concepts of the technology of maintenance can be
illustrated by reference to roof construction. A good roof which is well
maintained should last the life of the building and it is false economy to save
money on the roof during construction, because , if it ever requires replace-
ment, it will cause serious dislocation of production and other activities
within the building . A leaking roof , apart from causing considerable
inconvenience to users, can lead to accelerated deterioration of other parts
of the building, such as ceilings, floors and walls, and can cause serious
damage to decorations and electrical installations. Traffic over a roof should
be kept to a minimum and, where it is essential, appropriate walkways and
access ladders .must be provided. To ensure that roofs are adequately
maintained, they should ideally be inspected every three years, or alter-
natively one-third each year .
In the wake of new building techniques and innovations, building defects
have multiplied. A partial collapse of a block of flats, a fall of a school roof ,
cladding defects on large housing estates and offices, and numerous failures
to flat roofs and window joinery have been well documented. They have
resulted in the expenditure of large sums of money to maintain the buildings
in functional condition and, in some cases, for demolition and replacement
only a few years after erection. Many of these failures resulted from the
shortcomings of new materials, components and techniques not being fully
understood. 25
The term 'terotechnology' has been used to embrace the life cycle
requirements of physical assets. It is a combination of management,
financial engineering, and other practices applied to physical assets in
pursuit of economic life cycle costs. 3 It is concerned with the specification
and design for reliability and ease of maintenance of plant, machinery,
equipment, buildings and structures with their installation, commissioning,
maintenance, modification and replacement, and with feedback of informa-
tion on design, performance and costs. It is a technology that takes into
account the marketing and observance of design-maintenance-cost practice
of all assets, the conservation of resources and the promotion of controlled

and calculated life span of assets as against built-in or unpredictable
obsolescence. Life cycle costs are defined in BS 3811 3 as "the total cost of
ownership of an item of material, taking into account all the costs of
acquisition, personnel training, operation, maintenance, modification and
disposal, for the purpose of making decisions on new or changed require-
ments and as a control mechanism in service, for existing and future items."
Consideration of Maintenance at Design Stage

The importance of considering maintenance implications at the design stage
of a building project is now generally recognised and the building main-
tenance conferences and seminars organised by the Department of the
Environment have done much to draw attention to this. It is at the design
stage that the maintenance burden can be positively influenced for
better-or for worse. Skilful design can reduce the amount of maintenance
work and also make it easier to perform-good maintenance begins on the
drawing board. Ideally the design team should aim to produce a building
which is attractive, functionally efficient and constructionally sound with a
minimum of maintenance."
The cost implications of building designs are often far wider than the
effects on initial costs. For some types of buildings the equivalent of first
costs is less than the running costs, and small changes in design have a much
larger impact on running costs than on first costs.
Cost Yardsticks
The Government introduced cost yardsticks in 1967with the aim of keeping
building costs in the public sector within reasonable bounds and ensuring
adequate cost planning of projects at the design stage. In the early 19708
opposition to these constraints increased rapidly, forcing the Government to
rethink its policy. The Royal Institute of British Architects claimed that the
yardstick system was "quite inadequate in balancing capital costs against
subsequent costs in use- economies in finishes today will undoubtedly lead
to inflated maintenance costs in future." The Association of Municipal
Corporations believed that the yardsticks resulted in lower standards of
design which led to serious maintenance problems, abortive work of the
design teams and concentration of development on high-density residential
developments with consequent lowering of environmental standards. The
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors objected in 1973 to the use of adhoc
allowances to close the financial gap between the cost limit and the lowest
tender on the grounds that this procedure was completely discretionary and
destroyed the ability to cost plan construction projects, besides making it
difficult to meet building standards, make best use of resources or reduce
approval periods. There was unfortunately nothing built into cost limits to
encourage the achievement of a satisfactory balance between initial and
future costs. It was, however, not until 1981 that cost yardsticks were finally
abolished.
Design Needs
It is important that the thread of 'building life' should flow through both
design and construction processes, with effective lines of communication
between client, designer, contractor and those charged with building
maintenance. Outdated administrative procedures often result in the various
parties to the building contract failing to appreciate the significance of other
functions in the overall concept. This sometimes causes frustration and
annoyance to maintenance personnel when taking over new buildings and
finding themselves faced with bad details, poor choice of finishes, materials
and components, and lack of basic information about the building and its
services. Unfortunately, designers rarely have a long-term interest in
the buildings they produce and hence they tend to become divorced from the
maintenance problems that flow from bad design . There is a pressing need
for maintenance surveyors and the like to be represented on design teams
and for much increased feedback of maintenance and performance informa-
tion from users and maintenance organisations to designers . When informa-
tion on building defects and failures is fed back to the designer, it
is sometimes inaccurate because the person diagnosing the fault has
insufficient expert knowledge to assess the cause of failure. Furthermore,
where manufacturers provide a good technical service, designers do not
always make full use of it. A BRE report" found that architects sometimes
had insufficient access to basic data such as British Standards and that there
was a need for improved information on drawings and specifications.
Considerable loss of time and disruption of activities can stem from the
failure of building components or alterations made necessary by poor
design. Education for the designer in the appreciation of maintenance
requirements and costs in use techniques could be most fruitful. It is
emphasised that maintenance should not be the subject for thought after the
erection of a building; it should be an integral part of the design process.l
Designers could contribute significantly to a reduction in maintenance costs
if they asked themselves four questions when designing each component or
part of a building:
(1) how can it be reached?
(2) how can it be cleaned?
(3) how long will it last?
(4) how can it be replaced?
The designer requires a considerable amount of technological data to
minimise the effect of a wide range of agencies, such as moisture, thermal
and structural movement, corrosion, and insect and fungal attack, all of
which combine to reduce the life of the building. Furthermore, the building
owner has a right to obtain a building which will adequately perform the
function for which it was designed. The primary functions are to withstand
the effects of weather, to retain stability, give weather resistance, thermal

and sound insulation, and to continue to function efficiently under the worst
possible conditions, with a minimum of maintenance. The problem is
aggravated by an increasing lack of concern among people as to the quality
of the work they produce, the wider use of new and relatively untried
materials and components and the acceptance of unrealistically low tenders.
High maintenance costs sometimes result from poor detailing at the
design stage, including insufficient allowance for expansion or contraction,
absence of weatherings or throatings, lack of or incorrectly placed damp-
proof courses, unsound foundations, poor jointing between different ma-
terials or components, inadequate falls, incorrect choice or misuse of
materials, and poor access or facilities for repairs.
On .occasions, failures resulting from faults in design cannot be cured
permanently and remain a continuing nuisance throughout the life of the
building. The cause of the failure may result from insufficient consideration
to performance in use aspects, such as the effect of sea air, industrial
pollution or even the height of the building or its proximity to a number of
high buildings. The latter situation may result in the creation of air currents
which lead not only to an unpleasant environment around the building, but
also to severe strains onthe fabric at unexpected points.
It is also necessary to take account of the interdependence of the various
elements of a building. For example, the heating, ventilation and insulation
of buildings must be considered in relation to each other if excessive heat
losses and condensation are to be avoided. Similarly the ventilation system
may affect cleaning and the performance of internal finishes. The perfor-
mance of a building can also be affected by external factors; for example, the
provision or retention of trees can have an appreciable effect on the subsoil
and the performance of foundations and services such as drains.
Peacock27 has identified the principal failures of designers in minimising
maintenance costs as (1) unsatisfactory detailing; (2) incorrect selection or
specification of building materials , components and systems; (3) lack of
standardisation; and (4) failure to appreciate how a structure will be used
and maintained.
Effect of Metrication
Metrication of components and materials used in the construction industry
has affected the maintenance of buildings to some extent. Nevertheless, to
keep the changeover in perspective, it must be remembered that some
materials and components have life cycles, according to their use and visual
appeal. For example, kitchen and light fittings have changed radically in
recent years, while ironmongery is constantly changing in style, so that
fittings may become outmoded in a comparatively short time and are not
replaceable. Hence the replacement of discontinued articles is not new.
Many materials or components were initially manufactured in both
imperial and metric sizes and further changes came in a few cases with
rationalised metric dimensions. In general, metric sizes are slightly smaller
than the equivalent imperial sizes and so problems may arise in making
future replacements of some products when existing stocks in imperial units
have become exhausted.
The problems in future maintenance are likely to be comparatively small,
since the ingenuity of maintenance staff will enable most of them to be
overcome without too much difficulty . Sheet materials to determined sizes,
such as laminated boards, plasterboard, hardboard and plywood present few
problems as most used in maintenance are cut on fixing. Partition units can
be cut or adjusted to size within cover strips .
Copper pipes have changed slightly in size but connectors are available for
joining imperial and metric pipes and fittings. Lead pipes can be dressed and
soldered to accommodate any variation in the size of brasswork.
Clay facing bricks are manufactured to sufficiently wide tolerances to
avoid any problems. Tiles and paving slabs will cause some problems on
account of the smaller metric sizes. Hence where part of a ceiling has to be
renewed with discontinued size of removable tiles, it may be necessary to
renew the whole ceiling and store the serviceable existing tiles for repairs to
other ceilings . In some cases a thicker joint may suffice. In the case of wood
floor blocks, specials may be needed for small areas of renewal. The
introduction of a slightly smaller architrave or skirting as a complete length
between breaks is unlikely to worry the maintenance staff or offend the eye.
On the other hand, standard units with lapped or sliding joints such as roof
tiles and gutters, will present no problems as they can be cut or lapped to the
required dimensions.
Ready-made standard units will cause the greatest difficulty. New metric
door set dimensions produce doors 12 mm narrower than the old 2 ft 6 inch
door. Imperial doors were produced alongside metric doors for a consider-
able period while there was a significant demand, but eventually the time
will come when it will be necessary to fit purpose-made doors or adjust or
replace the frame, whichever is the more economical. Similar problems may
arise with the replacement of imperial standard windows in years ahead.
Standard joinery fittings will be wider and longer but slightly lower.
requiring careful planning on replacement.
Sanitary fittings and drainage goods are unlikely to cause problems, but
the size and threads of connections to heating equipment are changing and
so cause difficulties. For example, an obsolete pattern of radiator can be
renewed in a room with several matching radiators by taking one which is
fixed in isolation and installing the new radiator in its place. The use of
new threaded fasteners may involve re-tapping, reamering or re-drilling
to accommodate them. With electrical threaded conduit and fittings .
manufacturers produce special connectors as necessary .
A metric conversion table is provided in appendix 1.
Relationship of Capital, Maintenance and Running Costs

A building owner can reasonably expect a designer to provide a building
which will satisfactorily meet his needs and will secure a reasonable balance
between first and future costs. Hence it is important for design teams to
develop more effective methods of predicting the functional and economic
consequences of designs and so obtain best value for money. Unfortunately,
the total occupancy costs of buildings are frequently difficult to assess and
feedback of accurate information is very restricted. A variety of payments
are made from different funds at different times and in different ways. Table
1.1 shows the breakdown of total costs and the wide scope of the activities
involved.
Table 1.1 Breakdown of total costs
Total costs
(life span of building)
I
Init;},1 costs User c~sts
I
Land
Construction
I
Running costs
I
r
Occupational charges
Professional fees
Maintenance
I Rates
I
Operating services Insurance
(operating and cleaning) Modifications
Energy and alterations
Estate control
(management)
23
Source : Building Economics •
Difficulties in Assessing Total Costs

There are a number of problems in endeavouring to assess total costs or
costs in use at the design stage, and the more important ones are now listed.
(1) It is difficult to assess the probable maintenance costs of different
materials, processes and systems. There is a great scarcity of reliable
maintenance cost data tabulated in a meaningful way. It is not easy to
predict the lives of materials and components in a variety of situations. Even
the lives of commonly used materials like paint show surprising variations
and are influenced by a whole range of factors, including type of paint,
number of coats, condition of base, extent of preparation, method of
application, degree of exposure and atmospheric conditions.
(2) There are three types of payment involved-initial, annual and
periodic. All three have to be related to a common basis for comparison
purposes, and this requires a knowledge of discounted cash flow techniques
which will be considered later in this chapter.
(3) The selection of a suitable long-term interest rate is difficult; rates
rose dramatically in the 19708 and fluctuated widely in the 19808.
(4) Inflationary trends may not affect all costs in a uniform manner,
thus distorting significantly the results of costs in use calculations.
(5) Where the initial funds available to a building owner are severely
restricted, it is of little consequence telling him that he can save large sums in
the future by spending more on the initial construction.
Current and Future IPayments

As mentioned earlier, a majoJ difficulty in making costs in use calculations
is that every building project involves streams of payments over a long
period of time-usually the life of the building. The payments are of three
main types
(1) present payments covering the cost of the site, erection of the
building and architect's and surveyor's fees;
(2) annual payments relating to minor repairs, cleaning, and heating
and lighting;
(3) periodic payments such as full internal redecorations possibly every
7 years, external redecorations every 5 years, and replacement of boilers and
electrical wiring every 25 years.
All these varying types of payment -have to be converted to a common
method of expression to permit a meaningful comparison to be made
between alternative designs. The process is often described as discounting
future costs and is based on the premise that if the money were not spent on
the project in question it could be invested elsewhere and would be earning
interest. £100 invested today at 8 per cent compound interest will accu-
mulate to £215.89 after 10 years (the multiplier of 2.1589 is found from a
valuation table-the amount of £1 table) .
In the reverse direction the 'present value of £1 table' shows that it will be
necessary to invest £46.32 now at 8 per cent compound interest to accrue to
£100 in 10 years' time. The 'present value of £1 per annum' or 'years'
purchase' table shows that an expenditure of £1 per annum throughout a
sixty year period-the period often accepted as the probable life of a
building and also the central government loan period for buildingsowned by
local authorities-is equivalent to a single payment of £12.38 today, taking a
compound interest rate of 8 per cent. Expressed in another way, if £12.38
were invested today at 8 per cent compound interest it would provide
sufficient funds to be able to payout £1 per annum for each of the 60 years.
Hence it could be argued that it would be worth spending up to an extra
£12.40 today on initial construction if this will reduce the expenditure on
maintenance work by £1 per annum throughout the 60 year life of the
building.
There are two possible approaches in making costs in use calculations.
{l) Discount all future costs at an appropriate rate of interest, probably
between 5 and 8 per cent (long-term pure interest rate with no allowancefor
risk premium), and so to convert all payments to present value (PV) or
present worth, using valuation tables. Variations in the discount or interest
rate selected can have an appreciable effect on the calculations.
(2) Express all costs in the form of annual equivalents, taking into
account the interest rate and annual sinking fund. A building owner is
entitled to interest on the capital he has invested in the project and requires
a sinking fund to replace the capital when the life of the building has
expired.
An example will serve to illustrate the discounting principle. A building is
designed to last 60 years and can either be provided with a roof costing £3000
which will last 30 years and then need replacing, or be covered with a roof
costing £4500 which will last the life of the building. It is necessary to
determine which is the better proposition financially and to do this, payment
in 30 years' time has to be converted to its present value. The present value
of a payment of £3000 in 30 years' 't ime is found from the present value of £1
table and is £3000 x 0.17411 = £522.33 taking an interest rate of 6 per cent.
The calculations can be summarised as follows:
Cost Present Value

Roof A
Initial construction £3000 £3000
Replacement after 30 years £3000 £ 522.33
Total cost £6000 £3522.33

Roo/H
-- - -
Initial cost £4500 £4500
These calculations show roof A to be the better long-term proposition. It

could however be argued that this is oversimplified as, for instance, it takes
no account of the cost of demolishing the old roof or any temporary work
that may be needed to protect the occupants and contents of the building
during the reconstruction. The interest rate could also be criticised; also the
hypothesis that the effects of inflation will be cancelled out through rising
costs and values, so that the higher'cost of building work in thirty years' time
will be offset by the increased value, including rent, of the building itself,
may not find ready acceptance. A range of costs in use worked examples
covering building designs, services, external works and components are
given in Building Economics.23
The following example compares the likely total costs of provision and
maintenance of softwood painted windows and anodised aluminium win-
dows. In common with government department practice, an effective life of
50 years has been assumed and a discounting rate of interest of 10 per cent.
A total window area of 100 m2 has been taken in both cases.
Softwood Painted Windows Anodised Aluminium

Windows
Initial cost including Initial cost including
glazing, fixing and £4500 glazing, fixing and £9500
ironmongery ironmongery
Painting at 5-yearly Cleaning at 3-monthly

intervals . £600 x 1.615 intervals £150 x 9.915
(Present Value of £1 at (Present Value of £1 per
5-yearly intervals up to 45 annum for 50 years at 10
years at 10 per cent) £970 per cent) £1487
Total costs £5470 £10987
As this calculation indicates, the total cost of the anodised aluminium

windows is approximately double that of the softwood painted windows.
Even co~tly stainless steel .windows ~n rust and bronze t.urnsIreen in time.
In practice there are few If any maintenance-free materials.'
Initial and Future Cost Relationships
Most design decisions affect running costs as well as first costs, and what
appears to be a cheaper building at the design stage may in the long term be
far more expensive than one with much higher initial costs, although there
can be exceptions to this general rule. Some idea of the relationship between
initial and running costs can be obtained from an examination of table 1.2,
from which it can be seen that running costs often amount to about
one-half of the annual equivalent of first costs. The proportions do,
however, vary considerably from one building to another of the same type
and so the percentage figures listed can only form a rough guide.
Table 1.2 Breakdown of costs in use for various types of buUdings

Industrial
Type of annual cost Houses High flats buildings Schools Offices
(percentages)
Maintenance 14 12 18 16 13
Fuel and attendance for heating and
lighting 24 24 30 18 29
Initial costs (amortised)
(a) Building 48 56 47 51 47
(b) Land and development 14 8 5 15 11
Total costs in use 100 100 100 100 100

J
Source : Building Econom ici •
Land costs are relatively low with industrial buildings which are erected on
lower-priced land with a higher utilisation factor, whereas houses and
schools have high land costs, being built to a low density on relatively highly
priced land. Initial building costs represent the highest proportion of total
costs with flats, and the least with industrial buildings. Heating costs of
modern industrial buildings have been reduced by improved thermal
insulation but are still high, and schools rank low with shorter periods of use.
Lighting of offices is a relatively high cost item stemming from the high
standards of illumination that are required. On maintenance and decora-

tion, schools rank high with heavy wear and tear.
In studies of Crown office buildings28 total costs in use comprised, at an
interest rate of 10 per cent, approximately two-thirds capital or initial cost
and one-third running and maintenance costs. The one-third sector con-
sisted of three approximately equal parts: fuel, electricity and gas; cleaning;
and repairs, decorations and minor new works. It should also be borne in
mind that rates can amount to as much as two-thirds of the total running
costs. The proportion of initial cost to the remainder is influenced con-
siderably by the rate of interest used to amortise the initial cost for
conversion to annual equivalent values. High maintenance costs can result
from low first costs coupled with inadequate specifications, or through
complex services and elaborate finishes.
It is worthy of note that in the study of Crown buildings, the costs were
based on internal redecoration at eight-yearly intervals and washing down at
the third and sixth years; external redecoration at six-yearly intervals; and
replacement of bitumen felt roofing after twenty years, boilers after
twenty-five, internal pipework, thirty, storage tanks, twenty-five, electrical
installation wiring, fifteen, distribution switchgear, twenty-five, and pas-
senger lifts, twenty years. While for houses, Knight29 suggested renewal of
25 per cent of gutters after forty years, repointing of 50 per cent of
brickwork after forty years, renewing external doors after thirty years,
renewal of ironmongery after twenty to forty years, renewal of cupboards
and sanitary appliances after twenty years, and hot and cold water services
and electrical wiring every thirty years. The average annual charges for
services maintenance in air-conditioned offices were approximately 60 per
cent more expensive than heated offices.
Life cycle cost planning is concerned with examining the economics of the
life cycle of a building to ensure that there is a balance between the use of
capital resources in design and construction and the consumption of future
resources by the building in use. A valuable local authority guideJO contains
useful examples of life cycle cost plans, lives of components and energy
economics.
A useful guide to energy investment decisions in private housing"
identifies the main factors to be considered in setting an economic evalua-
tion framework as the dual impact of time horizon/discount rate and the
price of the fuel saved. Appropriate time horizons and discount rates are
largely determined by a householder'S age, access to finance, tax situation,
and whether or not he has a mortgage.
Economics of Maintenance
Economics examines the process whereby scarce resources or factors of
production, such as land, labour and capital, are allocated among the
various competing claims on their use. Because maintenance involves the
use of resources, it follows that decisions have to be made as to the level and
nature of maintenance expenditures.P
The interdependence and interrelationship of initial and user costs are of
prime importance when planning maintenance expenditure. The relation-
ship of one to the other is often in inverse proportions. A reduction in future
maintenance costs may often be obtained by increasing initial costs;
similarly, economies in initial costs may follow from the acceptance of an
increased level of maintenance costs. Wright 32 has shown how decisions as
to the ratio of initial costs to future (planned) maintenance costs are
influenced by time preferences and commercial judgement. Speculative
development with the objective of sale will generally show more regard to
economies in initial costs than in user costs, although recognising that too
high a level of user costs will jeopardise the opportunity for sale; purchasers,
however, will show more concern for user costs.
Tax payments, reliefs, grants, allowances, subsidies, rates and the like
should always be included in development and maintenance calculations .
Because initial costs mainly constitute capital expenditure and because
depreciation allowances are extremely limited, it may be worth while
incurring additional (tax-deductible) maintenance and other running costs.
Cash flow calculations are quite complicated and are more so when tax
considerations are included with the distinct possibility of future changes.F
Provision of buildings with low maintenance costs will assist in reducing
the demand for scarce building resources since such buildings often possess
higher user and even environmental benefits, when viewed against the visual
cost to society of deteriorating buildings. Surveyors, maintenance managers
and other interested parties need to identify the items generating the highest
maintenance costs, and to be constantly questioning the suitability not only
of materials and components in meeting their functional requirements but
also of the method by which they are assembled.
Property managers are concerned with the total occupancy costs of
properties over their expected lives. When the cost of maintaining the
facilities imposes an unduly heavy burden upon marginally profitable
enterprises it is time to reappraise the use of the premises. They may be
sold, demolished, let, or used for other activities for which a different
standard and cost of maintenance renders the premises of economic value
once again. 33
A great dilema facing Britain in the mid 19808 was that the built
environment was deteriorating at a rate far faster than it was being
modernised, improved or replaced. Areas of economic decline, natural
ageing, and obsolescence, ill-conceived post-war designed and constructed
buildings, combined with the increased demands that modern society places
upon its buildings, all contributed in varying ways to the total problem. The
price for this neglect will be paid in the years to come-and there must be a
day of reckoning-but it goes far beyond the cost in monetary terms. The
other costs, in terms of human happiness, in quality of life, in productive
capacity and international competitiveness will eclipse even this.
Were money to be made available, there is probably a limit of an extra
£1 billion to £2 billion per annum that the construction industry could
absorb without overheating. Unfortunately, this level of expenditure would

not keep pace with the rate of deterioration. Investment in construction
must be attractive in a time of high unemployment in that it is labour-
intensive.
Under the right-to-buy legislation created by the Housing Act 1980,
880 000 houses had been sold in 1986 by local authorities to their tenants.
Receipts exceeded £5.5 billion in initial payments and mortgage repay-
ments, and yet local authorities could only spend 20 per cent of capital
receipts on their housing programmes, which seems grossly inequitable.
There are also other problems inherent in the sale of council houses, with a
substantial number of mortgage default cases and neglect of maintenance
because of former tenants becoming over-stretched. Atwell 34 has described
how the 'cream' of local authority housing has been sold off and not
replaced, and much of what remains are the unlettable and unsaleable flats
and maisonettes.
Many families cannot be rehoused and waiting lists grow longer. There is
an unquestionable need for a new housing-built-for-rent programme to
replace some of the lost stock. There is also the moral question of selling off
so much housing at large discounts that was originally built at public
expense, and on which local authorities will be paying debt charges into the
far distant future.
The removal of V AT from repairs would encourage property owners to
maintain their buildings to a higher standard. As recommended in the RICS
report on housing", the system of mortgage tax relief needs review to
determine how best to ensure that, at the very least, only the less well off
and first-time buyers derive substantial benefit.
References
1 Department of the Environment. Research and Development Bulletin.
Practice in Property Maintenance Management-A Review HMSO
(1970)
2 Department of the Environment. Research and Development Bulletin.
Building Maintenance-The Report of the Committee. HMSO (1972)
3 British Standards Institution. BS 3811: 1984 Glossary of maintenance
management terms in terotechnology
4 E. D. Mills (Ed.). Building Maintenance and Preservation. Butter-
worths (1980)
5 Chartered Institute of Building. Managing Building Maintenance (1985)
6 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Housing-The Next Decade
(1986)
7 Department of the Environment. An Enquiry into the Condition of
Local Authority Housing Stock in England. HMSO (1985)
8 Royal Institute of British Architects. Decaying Britain (1985)
9 Leeds City Council. A Review of the State of Repair of the Leeds
Housing Stock (1984)
10 Royal Institute of British Architects. Local Authority Housing Repair
and Maintenance Needs (1985)
11 Audit Commission. Capital Expenditure Controls in Local Government

in England. HMSO (1985)
12 National Economic Development Office. Investment in the Public
Sector Built-Infrastructure. HMSO (1985)
13 Institution of Civil Engineers. Education failure. New Civil Engineer
(19 June 1986)
14 Joint Contracts Tribunal for the Standard Form of Building Contract.
Standard Forms of Building Contract (1980)
15 A. Speaight and G. Stone. The Law of Defective Premises. Pitman
(1982)
16 Building Conservation Trust. Care of Buildings (1985)
17 R. Chudley. The Maintenance and Adaptation of Buildings. Longman
(1981)
18 I. H. Seeley. Blight on Britain's Buildings. Paintmakers Association
(1984)
19 Local Government Operational Research Unit. Report C144. Hospital
Building Maintenance: Can Decision Making be Improved? HMSO
(1972) .
20 E.A. Spencer. Building Occupancy Costs. Third National Building
Maintenance Conference, 1971. Department of the Environment.
HMSO (1972)
21 Building Research Establishment. Quality in Traditional Housing. Vol.
1: An Investigation into Faults and their Avoidance (1982)
22 P. A. Stone. Building Economy. Pergamon Press (1983)
23 I. H. Seeley. Building Economics. Macmillan (1983)
24 BRE Digest 227. Estimation of thermal and moisture movements and
stresses: Part 1 (1979)
25 E. J. Gibson (Ed.). Developments in Building Maintenance-I.
Applied Science Publishers (1979)
26 Chartered Institute of Building. Maintenance Management-A Guide to
Good Practice (1982)
27 W. J. Peacock. The maintenance of buildings and structures-why
should we care? Municipal Engineer . 3 (1986)
28 Department of the Environment. Research and Development Paper.
The Relationship of Capital, Maintenance and Running Costs-A Case
Study of Two Crown Office Buildings . HMSO (1970)
29 H. Knight.. Capital cost and cost in use. The Chartered Surveyor
(February 1971)
30 Society of Chief Quantity Surveyors in Local Government. Life Cycle
Cost Planning (1984)
31 R. Wensley and J. Meikle. Cost Effectiveness Criteria for Energy
Investment in Private Housing . Surveyors Publications (1985)
32 R. H. Wright. The economics of building maintenance. The Architect
and Surveyor (JanuarylFebruary 1973)
33 J. P. Edwards. The economic significance of building.maintenance to
industry and commerce. DOE Third National Building Conference
1971. HMSO (1972)
34 D. Atwell. What future for decaying Britain? Proceedings of Building
86 Seminar, London (7 October 1986)
2BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-l
Foundations, Shoring and External Works
This chapter is concerned with building defects that arise from site condi-
tions and inadequate foundations, the various types of temporary works and
the maintenance of external works, such as pavings and fences .
Site Conditions
Site Investigations
Site investigations should take place before carrying out new building work,
including alterations and extensions. This aspect is becoming increasingly
important since land that has not been used before is now being considered
for building. Special measures may be needed to deal with difficult site
conditions.
The local authority is usually the best source of information, but older
editions of Ordnance Survey maps and old maps and records can give useful
information on features which might cause problems, such as infilled ponds,
ditches and streams, disused pipes, and sites of old buildings, services and
workings. Slopes steeper than 1 in 10 may be subject to creep and this could
result in heavy pressures on walls. In limestone or chalk areas, craters or
gentle depressions usually indicate swallow holes formed by the collapse of
sandy or loamy soils into the fissured rock below .
A polygonal pattern of cracks about 25 mm wide on the ground surface
during a dry summer indicates a shrinkable soil. Shallow depressions around
mature trees in open ground, repairs to paved surfaces close to trees in built
up areas, and broken kerbs may indicate shrinkage due to drying. Larger
cracks approximately parallel to each other normally result from deeper-
seated movements such as caused by mining, brine pumping or landslips.!
Low-lying sites may be liable to flood, particularly where they are within
the flood plain of a river, and the highest recorded flood levels should be
obtained. It is highly desirable to keep all excavation work above ground-
water level.
32
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-I 33
Some clays contain sulphates and these may cause corrosion of buried
concrete, iron and steel. Where the presence of sulphates is suspected, the
groundwater should be analysed.
Johnson/ devised a comprehensive site visit checklist for use when
inspecting a potential building site, to reduce the likelihood of missing any
possible hazards. There is considerable merit in adopting a structured
approach of this kind . Some of the more important matters to be investi-
gated are now listed.
(1) Are there signs of damage to existing buildings?
(2) Are any existing buildings supported on special foundations?
(3) Are there signs of landslip or erosion of slopes, such as surface
rippling or tension cracks on the surface (clay slopes of gradients greater
than 1:10 can be subject to creep)?
(4) Is there evidence of imported soil, tipped material or rubbish?
(5) Stickiness when wet and cracking when dry may indicate a clay with
shrinkage/swelling properties.
(6) Note the location, species, height, girth and condition of any trees.
(7) Bounciness underfoot or any evidence of past flooding can signify a
high water table.
(8) How was the site used previously?
(9) If contamination is suspected, professional advice must be sought.
(10) Is the site situated in a known area of coal or mineral extraction?
(11) Will demolition prior to development affect the stability of adjoin-
ing buildings?
(12) Is there any evidence of existing services crossing the site?
Soils
Prior to designing foundations, it is necessary to identify the soils present on
the site. Boreholes or inspection pits should be excavated on the site to
obtain samples for soil testing, noting the depths in each case. Various soil
characteristics are needed, including colour, smell and texture. Means of soil
identification are detailed in BRE Digest 64. 1
Soil conditions have an important influence on foundation design and the
subsequent behaviour of buildings. Most soils consist of solid particles of
varying shapes and sizes with the spaces between filled by water or air.
Large particles, like sand, are held together mainly by their own weight and
when loose have little strength whereas fine particles , like clay, hold more
water in films which lie between the particles and bind them together. Clays
shrink with drying coupled with an increase in strength, while on wetting
they swell and lose strength .3
A foundation load increases external pressure on the soil, squeezing out
water from between the soil particles. With larger particles , as in the case of
sand, the water movements are rapid and the soil settles fairly quickly after
the load is applied. By contrast, clays offer resistance to water expulsion,
and settlement can continue for years after construction .
Foundation Problems
Movements resulting from Loading
The extent of foundation movement depends on the nature of the soil and
the amount of imposed loads. Not even uniform ground uniformly loaded
settles evenly and the complex properties of soil make it difficult to assess
the degree of settlement of individual foundations. It has been suggested
that with large structures compression of the foundations may continue for
some 20 years after construction, although most significant movements take
place within five years. Shallow foundations, such as strip, pad and raft
foundations, subject to normal loadings increase pressure in the soil to a
depth and breadth equal to one-and-a-half times the breadth of the
foundation.' Differential patterns of loading are likely to lead to differential
settlement only where there are changes in ground support. The principal
exceptions are bays, rear additions and internal partitions, which may be
built on smaller and shallower foundations. There is often differential
movement between these features and the main enclosing walls.
Movements resulting from Other Causes

Movements of foundations can also result from seasonal weather changes,
growth or removal of vegetation, earth flows and subsidence. The problems
are accentuated with soils composed of fine particles and so different soil
conditions are considered separately.
(i) Clay soils Clays, which shrink on drying and swell again when wetted,
are commonly responsible for the movement of shallow foundations. Where
clays are firm enough to support buildings of several storeys they are known
as firm shrinkable clays.
The roots of trees and shrubs penetrate soil to considerable depths and
extract moisture when rainfall is low in summer, causing drying out of the
soil. Beneath large trees and shrubs in the United Kingdom permanent
drying has extended to about 5 m and shrinkage of 50 to 100 mm has been
measured at the ground surface (figure 2.1.1). To some extent the building
protects the clay from seasonal drying and wetting, and movement is more
likely under outer walls and comers. Shrinkage of clay occurs both
horizontally and vertically, so there is atendency for walls to be drawn
outwards in addition to settling and for cracks to open between the clay and
the sides of the foundations. These cracks permit water to-enter during the
following winter and to soften the clay against or beneath the foundations
(figure 2.1.2). Buildings should not in general be erected closer to single
trees than their height at maturity, or one-and-a-half times their height in
the case of groups or rows of trees. New trees should not be planted nearer
to existing buildings than these distances.:' BRE 2984 describes how the
minimum distance between buildings and trees varies with the species of tree
and that it can be half the height of the tree with lime, ash, elm, sycamore,
iri ...
____. " '.1
~
-
crocks_
~
I
I §:
I direction of
I wall movement ~'
I
I
I
I ~
crock against toundotlonu S·
permltling e nytofr water
r z r, i ~
::
, I
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, I I ,
::
.-J_l .... walls drawn outward i-I." '1 ~
• _ _ .1
and downward
"~
...- ~-
FIGURE 2 .1.1 CRACKING ARISING FROM FIGURE 2.12 CRACKING ASSOCIATED WITH SHALLOW ~
~
DRYING AC TlON OF TREE ROOTS FOUNDATIONS ON SHRINKABLE CLAY ~
~
eXisting wall -h;it -- eXisting foundation
s
I:l.
. ' ~ • pinning up In dry cement

So
weak concrete~' : mortar Z5 thick ::;.
"'
; ~
new brickwork \ ' .~ / /1 .~weak concrete ~
;:
FIGURE 2.1.3 .'.~.~.
new lound':!tlon
-c'
UNDERPINNING 1
w
Vl
I 0
W I ®T': I PJ I ®
FIGURE 2.1.4 SHORING
ORDER OF UNDERPINNING
~
0\
t:I:l
s::
s:
~.
d ...",;.-proof c.O\,l~rt..Pit •• on lIther ' 10::.. ~

of open lnQs S·
r.d""cd level ~
::s
, ..-ec z:»: ~ ..~:. ::.~~~.." §
'. e. ,0 ·
ffiT8 : :111@
-------
- . ...
- 1.
.... - ""-"
. -.... - ~
Ii • •t , SO blind1nQ
~-- ••_~S' _ 300 • 150 rl,n'orced rein'orum.n'
:; . . - lOO or lSO COI'Icrc'l bea'"
.... o. :'
. . - pile
•. .: :
und.r · ~
diameter short
bored p1l•• nole. for ptll"
10 dio.....ar bars M'
in head of pilt:. Cllnd
~r·····_· dug b)' aygl' bUilt into ground
r, : ' I chimn., • tolling ·.9M
o
•• beo",.
o )~ ..... al 1/ br.asl .;. at parI, wall
2 ~ ;~:
eat.rnol • 300 dlom.l.t .P\or I
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borad pili.
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• ;:';.1"' - ,)'plcal span 2\2,.".,,..
'0
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·0
222
.1..-_-: . ,•; .
SKETCH PlAN SHOWING
... • • 0 • ARRANGEMENT OF PILES ELEVATIO ..
SECTION
If--- 4 SO ~ TO.. HOUSE
2.2.3 SHORT BORED PILE FOUNDATION
2.2.1 DEEP STRIP FOUNDATION
Figure 2.2 Foundation types

Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-e-l 37
hawthorn, beech, birch and cypress. Constant pruning of growing trees is

often necessary to restrict their height and avoid risk of damage to buildings.
When trees are felled to clear a site for building, a considerable time
should be allowed for the clay to regain water previously extracted by the
tree roots. Otherwise the clay as it swells may lift the building.'
Boilers and furnaces inadequately insulated from the clay beneath may
dry and shrink the clay, resulting in the fracture of the concrete foundation
slab through lack of support.' Short-bored pile foundations are often vell
suited for .use in shrinkable clay, although narrow strip (trench fill)
foundations may provide a satisfactory alternative , as illustrated in BRE
Digest 2415 and figures 2.2.1,2.2.2 and 2.2.3.
(ii) Sandy soils Dense beds of sand form excellent foundation soils, but
underground water can wash out the finer particles, leaving coarser material
in a less stable condition.
During severe winters in the United Kingdom frost may penetrate soil to a
depth of 600 mm or more. Where the water table is close to the ground
surface, the water can become frozen and cause lifting of the ground surface,
known as 'frost heave' .
(iii) Organic soils and made-up ground Peat and other soils containing a
considerable proportion of organic matter in the form of decaying vegeta-
tion vary in volume as their water content changes, and are also readily
compressible. Made-up ground often settles for many years unless it is good
material, carefully placed and adequately compacted in thin layers. Indeed,
poorly compacted fill is unsuitable for foundations and these need to
penetrate the fill to firm strata beneath, often using a piled foundation. Steel
drums, trunking, paint tins and even car bodies have been found in
uncontrolled tips. The dangers to the structure of a building on unconsoli-
dated fill or on soft ground are very serious. Further settlement and cracking
may occur after repairs have been carried out; with settlements of this kind,
movements are often extensive and their timing unpredictable.
Large-scale Movements
Some foundation m~vements occur in good foundation soil owing to natural
or geological phenomena, artificial agencies or a combination of them. For
instance, clay soils on slopes exceeding 1 in 10 are likely to move downhill,
albeit slowly, while in chalk and limestone areas, cavities in the bedrock can
be formed by underground streams or watercourses dissolving the rock. If a
sandy overburden falls into the cavity, a vulnerable 'swallow hole' is formed
at the surface.
Large settlements occur in mining areas as the ground subsides over
workings . Normally the ground surface stretches as the front of a subsidence
approaches and buildings start to tilt towards it. Subsequently the tilt
decreases but settlement increases as the ground below is affected, which
can result in fractures to the structure, sagging of arches, collapse of beams

and fracture of pipe joints . Provided structural damage is not severe, the
building will slowly return to an essentially vertical position but at a lower
level. Small brick dwellings on comparatively thin reinforced concrete rafts
can usually resist moderate movements without undue damage."
Design of Foundations
With light traditional buildings, strip foundations, having a width equal to
about twice the thickness of the loadbearing wall, will not impose a pressure
in excess of the permissible bearing pressure on any soils, except very soft
clays and silts, peats and made-up ground. For most soils, considerations of
bearing pressure will only arise with heavier buildings where, for example,
heavy load concentrations are imposed on pier or pad foundations. Per-
missible bearing pressures for different soils are listed in CP 101.7
The depth to which foundations have to be excavated is largely dependent
on the following three factors.
(1) to secure adequate bearing capacity;
(2) in the case of clay soils to penetrate below the zone where shrinkage
and swelling due to seasonal weather changes are likely to cause appreciable
movement;
(3) in fine silts and sands, to penetrate below the zone in which trouble
may be expected from frost.
The principal types of foundation and their main functions are well
described and illustrated in Building Technology' and House Foundations.'
Concrete in Foundations
The strength of concrete is influenced by a number of factors
(1) proportion and type of cement;
(2) type, proportions, gradings and quality of aggregates;
(3) water content;
(4) method and adequacy of batching, mixing, transporting, placing,
compacting and curing concrete.
The majority of concrete foundations contain ordinary Portland cement,
although this may be varied in special circumstances. For instance, in
sulphate-bearing soils and groundwaters'" it is advisable to use a special
cement, such as sulphate-resisting Portland cement to as 402711 or supersul-
phated cement to BS 4248. 12 The customarJ minimum standard mix by
volume of concrete is 1:3:6. BRE Digest 244 1 outlines the disadvantages of
nominal mix proportions by volume. They fail to specify adequately the
cement content of the mix, as the actual cement content of a 01 3 of concrete
made to a particular nominal mix varies with different aggregates and
different water contents. There is considerable merit in specifying mixes in
terms of cement content in kglm3 of fresh concrete or compressive strength
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-s! 39
at 28 days. Typical examples are grade Cl .5 (7.5 N/mm 2) or 120 kglm3 of

cement for plain concrete or grade C20 (20 N/mm 2) or 220 kg/m3 of cement
for reinforced concrete with dense aggregate. The water content should be
kept as low as possible consistent with sufficient workability and
water-cement ratios are usually in the range of 0.40 to 0.60. To secure
satisfactory results, the concreting materials must be properly batched,
adequately mixed, carefully transported and placed, adequately compacted
and properly cured .
Premature failures of concrete foundations may arise through weak
concrete or insufficiently mixed or unsuitable materials, or through the
foundations being of inadequate cross-section or supported on a weak
formation . Hence there are many ways in which the concrete may fail and
ample precautions must be taken to ensure sound work. Concreting can
proceed in frosty weather, provided rapid-hardening cement or a richer mix
of cement is used, water heated and aggregates defrosted, and the concrete
placed quickly and formwork left in position for a longer period." Work can
often be accelerated while at the same time ensuring a good-quality material
by using ready-mixed concrete. The ready-mixed concrete suppliers also
have good arrangements for defrosting aggregates and heating mixingwater
in cold weather. Ready-mixed concrete also has advantages on restricted
sites or where large 'luantities of concrete are to be laid in a short time.
Modifications of Existing Foundations to take Increased Loads

It is often necessary, when carrying out alterations to existing buildings, to
check on the adequacy of foundations . This check is carried out by digging
down and exposing the foundations at suitable points and noting the size,
depth and general condition of the existing concrete foundations. In a few
cases it may even be found that the walls merely rest on brick footings with
no underlying concrete foundations .
Where it is found that the existing foundations are insufficient to carry the
additional loads, measures must be taken to increase the strength of the
foundations. This is usually done by constructing new foundations under the
existing foundations in lengths of 900 to 1200 mm as underpinning, and this
type of work is described later in the chapter.
If existing foundations are of adequate thickness and quality, wallscan be
underpinned by installing raked mini-piles through the footings, generally
alternating between the inside and outside of the building. The majority of
small-diameter mini-piles are formed of driven steel casings filled with
cement grout and provided with nominal reinforcement by a single central
bar. In clay soils, casings are not normally necessary and augered, cast in
grout or concrete piles can be used.
Settlement or Buildings
Causes of Settlement
Buildings may settle for a variety of reasons, including inadequate founda-
tions, low-bearing or shrinkable clay soil, presence of large trees near the
buildings, and the undertaking of extensive excavations or mining nearby. In
many parts of the country, particularly in south-east England, settlement
arises through foundations laid on shrinkable clay. This type of clay shows
large surface cracks in dry weather and becomes very sticky in wet weather.
If it can be established that the cracks appeared or that they open and
widen during dry weather in late summer and partially close in winter, and
that windows and doors which jam in late summer become easier to open in
winter, then the distortion can usually be attributed to shrinkage of. clay
below the foundations. Where there are fast-growing trees such as poplar,
elm or willow within 30 m of the building, or vigorous shrubs or creepers
within 1.50 m of it, then the drying action of the roots on the soil is likely to
be substantial and windows and doors may remain jammed even in winter.
Assessment of Damage in Low-rise Buildings

It is necessary to examine all evidence of actual past and present damage to
the building, having regard to its location, age and form of construction. The
first step is normally to inspect all cracks, both internally and externally and
any distorted doors or windows. It is generally necessary to establish
whether the damage stems from foundation movement and whether it is
likely to get progressively worse . BRE Digest 251 14 classifies damage to
walls and makes recommendations as to remedial work as shown in table
2.1.
Remedial Measures for Settled Buildings

Remedial measures are generally difficult and expensive. Each case should
be considered individually on its merits and where movements are detected
in the early stages, further damage can sometimes be prevented at little cost.
The repairs are best covered under four main headings.
(1) Movements associated with direct climatic drying (no tree

roots). Differential movements may be eliminated by underpinning all the
external walls to a depth of at least 900 mm . It is unwise to underpin a
fractured corner in isolation as this may accentuate relative movements in
the remainder of the building. It is generally necessary to underpin the
whole of the external walls, either by continuous underpinning placed in
alternate sections or by separate blocks of underpinning so placed in relation
to door and window openings as to take full advantage of the strength of the
existing brick walls.
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-e-l 41
Table :U Classification of damage to walls and appropriate remedial work

Category Degree Approximate Description of typical damage and ease
of of crack width of repair
damag« damage (mm)
Very Up to 1 Fine cracks inside the building which can be

slight remedied during normal decoration
2 Slight Up to 5 Cracks may not be visible externally; doors

and windows may stick slightly. Internal
cracks easily filled and some external
pointing may be required
3 Moderate 5 to 15 Cracks require opening up, external

(or number of brickwork repointed and possibly small
cracks up to amount of brickwork replaced . Doors and
3 wide) windows sticking; service pipes may
fracture: weathertightness often impaired
4 Severe 15 to 25 Extensive repair work involving replacing

but also sections of walls, particularly over doors and
depends on windows. Window and door frames
number of distorted, sloping floors, leaning or bulging
cracks walls, some loss of bearing in beams, and
service pipes disrupted
5 Very Usually Requires a major repair job involving

severe greater than 25 partial or complete rebuilding. Beams lose
but depends on bearing, walls lean badly and require
number of shoring. Windows broken with distortion.
cracks Danger of instability
Before any underpinning work is commenced the building should be

carefully examined and any urgent repairs carried out. 'Tell-tales' should be
fixed over existing cracks to show any further movement. In particular, the
thickness and structural condition of the walls to be underpinned should
receive special consideration, as well as the nature of the ground under the
existing foundations. The wall to be underpinned should first be supported
with flying or raking shores (figure 2.1.4), loads reduced as far as practic-
able, and holes then excavated alongside and under the existing foundations
in a suitable sequence, as illustrated in figure 2.1.3, so that the sections being
worked at anyone time will be as far distant from one another as possible.
The lengths of excavated sections are usually about 1.00 to 1.50 m, so that
the existing wall can bridge the gap satisfactorily with a minimum of support.
The sum total of unsupported lengths should not exceed one-quarter of the
wall length or one-sixth in the case of heavily loaded walls.
When excavating each hole, sufficient space is allowed in front of the wall
to provide adequate working space. No earth faces must be left unsupported
overnight and it is customary to limit the lengths of poling boards to
900 mm. In some cases chemical consolidation of the ground or pressure
grouting may be used to ensure stability of the ground. The foundations and
brickwork are constructed in each section and the back timbering removed
where possible and replaced with weak concrete. Steel dowels are often built
into the ends of the concrete foundations to key the different sections
together. The brickwork is normally constructed in English bond and
toothings are left at the end of each section for subsequent bonding to
adjacent sections. The top of the new brickwork has to be pinned up to the
underside of the existing wall or concrete foundation. The most usual
method is to ram dry cement mortar about 25 mm thick into the gap using a
piece of board and a club hammer, while another alternative is to use
manufactured keying blocks made of dense concrete. Alternatively, con-
crete 'legs' can be used in place of the lengths of brickwork.
Underpinning of foundations may prove too costly, particularly where the
damage is not severe or the building is very old. In these circumstances it
may be considered adequate to reduce further movements by surrounding
the building with a relatively impervious apron of precast slabs or in situ
concrete to a width of 1.50 m. After the laying of the apron, the ground
should be left to absorb moisture for a winter before the cracks in the
building are repaired. This does not provide a completely satisfactory
solution and is very much a compromise.
(2) Movements associatedprimarily with the drying action oftree roots. The
treatment in this case is usually more difficult. Where the trees have not
reached maturity it is good practice to cut them down and kill the stump,
probably using sodium chlorate. The ground under the fractured part of the
building will slowly swell up during wet weather and tend to lift the building
and partially close the cracks. The filling of the cracks should be delayed for
at least one wet season to permit this movement to take place.
If the trees have reached maturity and the building is fairly old, it is
unlikely that further movements will occur except in exceptionally dry
spells. In this situation it would be best to leave the trees in position and
merely fill up the cracks in the building. It is not often economical to
underpin buildings badly affected by trees 'as it is frequently necessary to
underpin to a depth approaching 3 m and the cost of this work may exceed
the value of the property.
When repairing cracks to brickwork and similar walling materials , the
horizontal gaps should first be wedged tight by driving in pieces of slate or
tile at intervals to give support to the upper parts of the structure. The
outside face of the cracks may then be filled with mortar and pointed.
Plaster cracks should be cut back to a reasonable width and filled with
gypsum plaster gauged with lime. The proportion of lime is varied to
produce a plaster of similar hardness and suction to the existing material.
(3) Mining subsidence. Ground subsidence often results from the extrac-
tion of minerals, particularly coal. A combination of horizontal movements
at the surface coupled with vertical movements can cause serious damage to
buildings. An extracted coal seam 1.30 m thick can cause subsidence at the
surface of up to 1 m deep immediately above the seam and reducing on both
sides.
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-J 43
A subsidence wave may first cause tension in buildings at the crest,

followed by compression in the trough . The worst effects are with thick
seams in shallow workings. Tensile stresses cause lengthening of structures
with fractures in walling at butt joints and at the corners of window and door
openings, followed by the fracture of pipe joints and displacement of beams.
Compressive stresses may result in buckling of walls and the arching of pipes
and paving materials. The use of flexible pipes or pipes with flexible joints,
with provision for movement where they pass through the structure, is
advisable in areas liable to subsidence. An ideal type of foundation in this
situation is a reinforced concrete slab resting on a bed of friable material
such as sand. Fibreboard, hardboard or wallboard should replace plaster as
a finish to ceilings and partitions. Steel frameworks should have flexible
joints such as pin joints, as in the Consortium of Local Authorities Special
Programme (CLASP) buildings, which also contain coiled springs on
diagonal members. All cladding units are hung free to slide against adjoining
units. The extra cost of this precautionary work has been largely offset by
the savings stemming from bulk purchases.
With dwellings, smaller units are more stable than larger ones; for
example, semi-detached houses are less vulnerable than terraced houses.
Outbuildings should ideally be independent of the main structures and
projecting bays, porches and the like are best avoided. Breaks in long
buildings should extend through the foundations. Paved surfaces should be
of flexible materials, such as tarmacadam and asphalt. Door openings
constitute points of weakness and are best located in short walls, avoiding
front and back doors opposite one another and doors in adjoining dwellings
from being placed side by side.
The traditional method of underpinning previously described is not well

suited for dealing with buildings subject to mining subsidence, as it does not
provide a solution to the problem of continued settlement after underpin-
ning nor does it return the building to a truly level and upright position. The
following methods are used in various situations, and these are well
described and illustrated in Repair and Renewal of Buildings.15
(a) Underpinning with concrete stools and ground beams. This method is
only really suitable where the settlement is small and unlikely to recur. The
stools consist of short struts or columns, often of prestressed concrete about
225 X 225 mm in section and 450 mm high, spaced at about 900 to 1200 mm
centres. A series of holes or pockets are cut into the wall to be underpinned
and the stools with top and bottom steel distributing plates are inserted in
the holes and packed around solidly with mortar. Once the mortar has set,
the intervening brickwork is cut away to accommodate in situ reinforced
concrete beams, with their tops normally two courses of brickwork below
damp-proof course. Finally the tops of beams are pinned up to the
brickwork above and their outside faces are normally rendered to give the
appearance of a plinth . Bored piles or brick piers are often taken down to a
firm base to provide support to the beams.
(b) Underpinning by jacking. Where a building needs 'relevelling and

returning to a truly vertic.a1 plane, following extensive and possibly continu-
ing settlement, jacks or rams replace the stools with the lift reproducing the
settlement in reverse, and a part of the building which has for instance
settled 200 mm must be pushed back into position at twice the speed of a
part that has settled 100 mm, with an average jacking speed of about 25 mm
per hour.
A contoured plan is prepared joining all points of equal settlement to
produce 'jacking contours'. The apparatus controlling the jacks is based on a
system of movingwater levels with manually actuated jacks in small systems
and power operated jacks in large ones. Finally the jacks are replaced by
conventional stools pinned up to existing brickwork, followed by the
insertion of ground beams and probably foundation piles or piers.
(c) Pedatified foundations. When erecting new buildings in areas where

ground movements are continuing or are to be repeated, it is advisable to
incorporate permanent jacking points often using pedatified foundations.
One method, suitable for two-storey buildings, entails the construction of
substantial foundation piers and bases which support a framework of ground
beams. At each jacking point a steel prop or pedapyn passes through a
vertical hole in the beam and rests upon a pier top. The building is levelled
by means of inverted jacks with plungers resting on pedapyns and with
casings bolted to beams. As the plunger is extended the casing of the jack
rises, lifting the ground beam and the wall above.
(4) Other forms of settlement. Buildings may settle for a variety of other
reasons and the cause of the settlement may sometimes be difficult to
establish. A poorly constructed concrete foundation might disintegrate
under load and would need replacement in short lengths, strutting the wall
above while the replacement work is in progress, to prevent it slipping.
Settlement could result from soil being washed away from beneath
foundations owing to leaking drains or water services. The first step must be
to locate and rectify the defective service. Another possible cause is the
lowering of natural groundwater level over a period of years. While the
failure of an adjoining owner of land at a lower level to provide adequate
retaining walls may result in landslips and consequent settlement of build-
ings at a higher level.
Buildings erected on unsuitable or inadequately compacted fill are likely
to settle and where there are varying depths of fill, unequal settlement may
occur unless the fill is well consolidated in layers not exceeding 300 mm
thick. On most fills, pad or strip foundations are rarely suitable and raft or
piled foundations are generally needed. Grouting of the fill would be one
method of strengthening the base material with a view to preventing further
settlement. A more expensive but sounder job could be obtained by
underpinning with the supporting stools being taken down through the fill to
a firm base below.
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 45
Shoring
Shoring may be needed to give temporary support to walls and floors during
alteration work, demolition work or underpinning, or where a structure has
become unsafe . In the absence of adequate shoring the buildings could
collapse, possibly causing death or injury to persons in or near the building.
Shoring may take a number of different forms--raking shores, flyingshores,
dead shores, window strutting and floor propping. Figure 2.1.4 illustrates
the nature and uses of the main forms of shoring.
Shoring members are generally of timber, ' often pitch pine, with all
needles, cleats and wedges preferably of hardwood . Each type of shoring is
now considered in turn .
Dead Shores
The purpose of dead,shores is to support dead and superimposed loads of a
building, mainly while alteration and repair work is in progress. At the same
time it is generally necessary to strut existing floors and roofs to relieve the
walls of their weight, and a suitable framework could comprise 225 x 50 mm
headboards and sole pieces, 225 x 75 mm dead shores and 150 x 25 mm
braces. It may be possible to reduce costs, as timber prices have increased
considerably, by using second-hand timber or combining lighter sections of
timber to make up heavier ones, such as the use of three 225 x 75 mm
members to build up one 225 x 225 mm. Another alternative is to use
adjustable steel props which are very strong, easy to fix and may be hired at
reasonable rates.
A dead shore, as illustrated in figure 2.3.1, supports a wall of a building
while an opening is being formed in it. Needles may be of timber or steel
with sizes depending on their spacing, distance apart of dead shores and the
loadings. The dead shores must be of sound material fixed in an upright
position, and in the case of timber members the minimum width should be at
least one-twenty-fourth of the height and they must be securely fixed to base
plates and needles, often by means of dogs. Clearance of 750 mm between
the wall and dead shore is needed to give adequate working space.
Needles should not be located beneath window openings and the spacing
can vary from 900 mm to 1.80 m, depending on the condition of the
brickwork. Bracings are often of 225 x 25 mm timber on both faces of dead
shores, fixed at an angle of about 45°. Sole plates must be placed on a firm
base. The insertion of folding wedges between needles and dead shores
(posts) permits tightening of the shores without exerting pressure on the
structure.
Raking Shores
Raking shores may be used to provide temporary support to a wallwhich has
become defective and unsafe, or as a precautionary measure while alteration
work is being undertaken. The arrangement Of the shores willdepend on the
iri allerna lIve posItion 225.75 wall plate secured
lor folding w~u I I by wall hooks
N
~
o. cleat and hardwood needle- ~
225.225 top raker • .;..
dog 0'1
tI:l
;::
~
~.
225.225 dead 750 working space
shore
~
S·
angle
loldlng 225.225 bottom ~
wedges raker ::
cleat s~
225.225 sale plate transverse
FIGURE 2.3.1 DEAD SHORE FIGURE 2.3.2 RAKING SHORE
hOUSing lor
hardwood cl@Qt~[ 225.75 wall plate
200.100.100 cleot
200.100.100 300x100.100 needle
hardwood cl@Qt
housed Into wall 150x150 raking strut
plate and spiked 150.75 straining head
to It.
mortice for needle 225x150 hOrizontal
shore
225.75 wall plate

FIGURE 2.3.3 DETAIL AT HEAD OF RAKER FIGURE 2.3.4 FLYING SHORE
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-i-l 47
height of the building, loads to be carried, extent of openings and space

available adjacent to the building. They can consist of single rakers, or a
number of them as illustrated in figure 2.3.2, which are inclined members,
principally of timber, with the upper end terminating against the wall
requiring support and the lower end supported by a sole plate bearing upon
the ground. A wall which is out of plumb to the extent of 1 in 12 or more
requires shoring immediately .
The angle of the shores with the ground should, as far as practicable, be
between 45 and 75°. The spacing of flying shores varies between 2.50 and
5.00 m and it is advisable to position a shore at each end of the wall to be
supported. The centre line of each raker or shore intersects the ends of
suspended floor joists and centre lines of wall plates to provide maximum
support at critical points of concentrated loads. Support from shores is
spread over a larger area of wall by the use of wall plates or wall pieces,
secured with metal wall hooks at about 2.50 m centres. With tall buildings
the top shore may consist of two lengths-a 175 x 175 mm rider bearing on
folding wedges at the top of a shorter and larger section back shore.
The connection between the head of a raker and the wall plate is usually
formed with a needle and cleat (figure 2.3.3). A hole is cut in the wall and
wall plate and a hardwood shouldered needle, probably about 300 x 100 x
100 mm, inserted. This is further supported by a hardwood cleat, often
about 225 x 100 x 100 mm, which may.be housed or nailed to the wall
plate . The sole piece, which prevents the rakers from slipping, is normally
about 100 mm thick and forms an internal angle of about 85° with the top
raker. A grillage is sometimes provided below it. A crowbar can be used to
lever a raker into position after which a dog is inserted to prevent any
subsequent movement.
The usual order of erecting raking shores is as follows.

(1) Cut holes in the wall to receive needles, taking care not to disturb
the surrounding brickwork or masonry.
(2) Wall plates are prepared, morticed for needles, notched for cleats,
and then fixed to the wall with wall hooks.
(3) Where the wall is bulging badly it is necessary to place packing
pieces behind the wall plate to provide an even bearing thoughout.
(4) . The needles are prepared and inserted through the wall plate into
the holes in the wall.
(5) A bevelled cleat is inserted in each housing in the wall plates and
spiked. ...
(6) The heads of rakers are cut to the required angle and notched to
receive the needle for a width of at least 75 mm.
(7) The sole plate is fixed in position and the bottom ends of the rakers
tightened against it by levering them with a crowbar fitted into notches cut
into the feet of rakers, after which dogs are inserted to prevent any
subsequent movement.
(8) Bracing boards and/or hoop iron binding are then fixed for stiffen-
ing purposes.
Flying Shores
Flying shores are used to provide support between buildings, where an
intervening building has been demolished, or across a narrow street or alley ,
when the consent of the highway authority will be needed in addition to that
of the owner of the property from which support is required. The use'of this
type of shore is restricted to spans of 4.50 to 10.50 m at spacings of 2.50 to
4.00 m. A typical flying shore is illustrated in figure 2.3.4.
The horizontal member is termed a horizontal shore and varies from
about 150 x 100 mm to 225 x 150 mm depending on the span . With tall
buildings more than one horizontal member will be required. These
members are supported at each end by a needle and cleat as described for
raking shores. Raking struts , varying in size from 100 x 100 mm to 150 x
150 mm with the span, run from horizontal shores to the floors and ceilings
in the two buildings. A length of straining sill and head nailed to the top and
bottom of the centre part of the horizontal shore assist in stiffening the shore
and providing support for the raking struts.
Sequence of Shoring Operations

Two examples of shoring work will serve to illustrate . the sequence of
operations.
(a) Demolition of and rebuilding an intermediate three-storey terrace house.
It can be assumed that the adjoining houses are in poor condition so that
maximum care must be taken. Following inspection, raking shores are
erected to each upper floor and eaves opposite each party wall. Flying
shores are then erected inside the building between the party walls, with the
outside ones positioned close to the front and rear walls, with intermediate
ones at intervals of 2.50 to 3.50 m, cutting holes in floors as necessary. Once
the shoring is complete, demolition can proceed and the shores will remain
in position until the new building work is virtually complete.
(b) Inserting a shop front in an existing dwelling. All window openings in

the front wall are strutted to prevent deformation. Raking shores are then
erected against the party walls and at intermediate points if the brickwork is
in poor condition. Floor strutting consisting of 100 x 100 or 150 x 150 mm
posts spaced about 1.20 m apart, wedged between 225 x 75 mm horizontal
members (head and sill) at floor and ceiling level at each storey, will be
provided, to relieve the front wall of floor and roof loads. This strutting is
placed as near as possible to the wall, often 900 to 1200 mm from it, and may
be sheeted to form a screen where the building remains in occupation during
the alterations. Holes for needles are then cut and dead shores erected and
wedged. The ground floor brickwork is cut away, piers built and steel beams
inserted and wedged. After allowing about two weeks for the mortar to
harden, the shoring is removed in the reverse order to which it was erected
and needle holes in the brickwork made good.
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-/ 49
Waterproofing Leaking Basements

One of the main requirements of basements is watertightness . Basements
may be constructed in watertight concrete or in brickwork or other
materials. These two broad categories will now be examined from the
viewpoint of repairing leaks.
(1) Watertight Concrete Basements

There are difficulties in pinpointing leaks in concrete floor slabs and one
good approach is to divide the slab up with small dams of bricks-on-edgein
cement mortar (1:3) to locate leaks. Temporary steel tubes usually 20 mm
diameter are then inserted in sockets set in the concrete, first for injecting a
detergent solution to delineate the defective area and then for pressure
grouting to seal it. Holes, 45 mm diameter, are drilled through the concrete
with a portable percussion drill to take the steel sockets at a spacing of about
150 mm centres for fine cracks increasing to 600 or even 900 mm for wider
cracks and areas of honeycombed concrete. The sockets are caulked into the
holes with lead wool.
Various grouts are available including Portland cement and pulverised
fuel ash, a chemical such as calcium chloride or sodium silicate, or resin. The
grout is pumped in at a pressure of about 1.50 MN/m 2 • After the grout has
hardened satisfactorily, the tubes and sockets are removed and the holes
made good.
(2) Other Forms of Damp Basement

Waterproofing a leaking basement with or without asphalt tanking can be
both difficult and costly. The cause of the dampness must first be established
and may arise from a number of causes, such as water pressure from
waterlogged ground, damp penetration or condensation.
Porous drain pipes laid around the building to discharge into a natural
watercourse or sewer can reduce the lateral water pressure arising in
waterlogged ground. Latex-siliconate infusion by gravity orpump pressure
is useful with porous basement walls free from cracks.
Another remedial measure is to apply dry linings to basement walls fixed
on treated timber battens. Such a lining can prevent dampness and
hygroscopic salts from damaging new decorations " but it will not provide
a permanent cure . A polythene sheet vapour barrier should be fixed
immediately behind the lining and it is desirable to ventilate the airspaces
between battens to the outside air.
Bituminous dovetailed lathing (Newtonite) provides another useful alter-
native . It replaces the damp plaster and must be fixed with rust-resistant
nails. A rotten suspended wood floor needs replacement with a concrete
slab.
A waterproof rendering to the inner surface of a soundly constructed
brick wall may stop damp penetration. Such renderings are usually based on
Portland cement and sand (1:3) with or without admixtures. They must not
be excessively wet or over-trowelled and should be applied in two coats not

exceeding 50 mm total thickness. Angles and junctions in renderings should
be coved.
Asphalt tanking requires a dry background which may be difficult to
achieve in a damp or leaking basement. The cost of drying out will be very
expensive and could cost as much as the tanking. The asphalt should be in
three coats finishing not less than 30 mm thick for horizontal work and
20 mm for vertical work. Horizontal asphalt needs covering with at least
50 mm of concrete, while vertical work needs supporting by a half-brick or
block wall. This reduces the size of the basement and obscures the source of
any possible future leak. Some useful recommendations on asphalt tanking
and the feneral protection of buildings against groundwater are given in
CP 102.1
Maintenance of Paved and Grassed Surfaces

The cost and extent of maintenance work on paved surfaces varies with the
type of construction.
Gravel or hoggin needs support at the edges from precast concrete kerbs or
edgings, otherwise displacement of the material is likely to take place. This
form of surfacing is not suitable for heavy loads. It is also expensive in
maintenance as it will require periodic rolling and raking, coupled with
occasional making up of depressions and application of weed killer to retain
the surface in good condition. This is one case where low initial costs may be
more than offset by high maintenance costs.
Tarmacadam consists of graded stone coated with tar laid hot and com-
pacted by rolling. It is normally laid in two coats with an average thickness of
about 75 mm on a suitable base of hard material. Better-quality surfaces can
be obtained by using bitumen macadam, hot rolled asphalt, mastic asphalt
or fine cold asphalt. All these materials have the advantage of being easily
laid to irregular shapes and varying falls and cambers. They provide a
flexible paving which is desirable in areas liable to subsidence or where
access may subsequently be required to underground services. They do
however need support at edges, as described for gravel, and periodic surface
dressing to seal the surface, with the frequency depending on the material
and amount of wear. Some favour the use of 6 mm whinstone chippings for
surface dressing on grounds of improved appearance and better riding
qualities, but greater quality control of the binder viscosity is required to
prevent the binder creeping above the smaller chippings. Attention to local
weather forecasts determines whether an adhesive agent should be added to
prevent stripping of chippings , should rain occur.
Defects in carriageway surfaces arise from various causes--exposed
trench reinstatements, potholes and patches, crazing and cracking, edge
failure, lack of roughness (skid resistance) and excessive undulation (ride
quality). Some ranking procedure is necessary in determining maintenance
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-I 51
priorities . Crazing and cracking warrant close investigation as they may

indicate a need for strengthening or reconstruction, whereas in other cases a
surface dressing may be economic and assist in. arresting deterioration .
Excessive undulation can also result in extensive maintenance work and an
assessment of patches as a percentage of total paved surface will indicate the
scale of the problem.
~re are four main criteria for determining whether a road requires
maintenance work:
(1) structural deterioration threatening to impair its load carrying
ability;
(2) poor riding quality, when the riding comfort has deteriorated below
an acceptable standard;
(3) slipperiness, when the surface no longer provides adequate resist-
ance to skidding;
(4) other surface deterioration, such as surface ravelling, potholes and
opening of concrete joints.
Concrete can be used for both roads and footpaths, but it must be of a
suitable mix, often 1:2:4, or strength grade C7.5 (7.5 N/mm2 ) , laid on a
waterproof membrane on a suitable base, and be adequately mixed,
compacted and cured, with ample provision for expansion and contraction.
It provides a hard-wearing surface, although irregularities sometimes occur
at the joints and sun glare from the surface may be a disadvantage. It
constitutes rigid construction and is not well suited for use in areas liable to
subsidence or for subsequent service trench reinstatement. Joint fillers are
often formed of softwood, medium density chipboard or fibreboard, with a
groove at the top of the joint to take a pliable sealing material, an important
function of which is to keep out grit. Periodic re-sealing of joints forms an
important maintenance item with concrete roads.
The mean construction costs of concrete are likely to be more expensive
than flexible construction, particularly for rural secondary and housing
estate roads. When discounted maintenance costs over a 50 year period are
taken into account, the differences between these classes of road are
insignificant, although concrete roads normally have lower maintenance
costs in the first 15 to 20 years. With major roads, concrete is likelyto be the
better long-term proposition.
Precastconcretepaving flags are reasonably popular for footpaths because of

their attractive appearance and relative ease of reinstatement. The main
faults occurring with flag footpaths are trips (vertical misalignment of
adjoining flags) and cracks, mainly owing to differential settlement, result-
ing in dangerous conditions for pedestrians. Foundation faults can also cause
flags to rock. It is necessary for maintenance purposes to establish a
maximum permissible height of trip, and 20 mm is a commonly adopted
dimension .
Random events, such as vehiclesmounting footpaths, contractors' damage
and tree roots, result in broken and uneven paving. Hence frequent
inspections and repairs are often necessary and shorter relaying cycles would
not necessarily guarantee better paths.
Other pavings include cobbles, setts and bricks, and these are often laid in
small areas for decorative purposes. If laid on a suitable bed the amount of
maintenance should not be excessive .
Paved surfaces need periodic sweeping and road gullies require emptying
from time to time to prevent their becoming silted up . In urban areas it is
desirable to empty gullies six times a year and to sweep channels to town
centre roads daily and channels to other roads weekly, often using a
combination of mechanical and manual methods, with bonus schemes to
secure maximum productivity.
Grass cutting is essential for reasons of amenity. The frequency is deter-

mined by the standard of maintenance adopted and weather conditions. The
number of cuts per year could range from four to thirty, depending on the
situation and standard of maintenance. Gang mowers provide the best
equipment for mowing very large areas of grass, power mowers for medium
areas and rotary mowers for semi-rough grassed areas. Trimming edges is
labour-intensive arid expensive and the ratio of edges to grassed area should
ideally be kept to a minimum.
The provision of grass up to the face of buildings can result in damage to
claddings by grass cutting machines. Without adequate drainage, rainwater
running down the face of cladding may result in the grass adjoining the
c1addin~ becoming a strip of mud. Mud splashes up the side of the cladding
are unsightly and increase maintenance costs . A concrete apron around the
building will overcome these problems and also help window cleaners.
Maintenance or Fencing
Some types of fencing are particularly vulnerable from a maintenance
aspect.
Interwoven fences with thin slats are liable to damage and fairly rapid
deterioration, unless of oak or cedar, or of softwood which is kept regularly
treated with preservative.
Oak close boarded fencing is much more durable but feather-edged

softwood boarding is liable to warp and should be pressure-creosoted. The
pales should be kept above ground level with horizontal gravel boards below
them, which can be replaced if required without much difficulty. A capping
should be provided at the top of the fence to protect the end grain at the tops
of pales. Softwood posts are liable to rot at ground level and are better
bolted to concrete spurs let into the ground. All nails should be galvanised to
avoid rust stains on the woodwork.
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-v-I 53
Chestnut pale fences are not very attractive in appearance and maintenance
costs can be high, mainly resulting from sagging of the galvanised wire
supporting the pales.
Chain link fencing strained from concrete or steel posts is used extensively,
as it provides a good boundary division. It is not very attractive and unless
plastic-coated does rust over a period of time. It is important that
the straining posts shall be well bedded in concrete and the chain link
adequately strained.
Brickwork boundary walls sometimes become defective through loose or

split copings. It is necessary to use engineering bricks set in cement mortar
(1:3) for a brick-on-edge coping to provide adequate resistance to frost.
Ends and angles may come loose unless the coping bricks are adequately
anchored to the wall with galvanised steel brackets. When a boundary wall
also acts as a retaining wall, frost action may cause spalling and hence the
brickwork should be built in engineering bricks or be provided with a
vertical damp-proof membrane.
References
1 BRE Digest 64. Soils and foundations: Part 2 (1972)
2 R. Johnson. Foundation Problems associated with Low-rise Housing.
CIOB Technical Information Service Nr 61 (1986)
4 BRE Digest 298. The influence of trees on house foundations in clay
soils (1985)
5 BRE Digest 241 . Low-rise buildings on shrinkable clay soils: Part 2
(1980)
7 British Standards Institution. CP 101: 1972 Foundations and substruc-
tures for non-industrial buildings of not more than four storeys
8 I. H. Seeley. Building Technology. Macmillan (1986)
9 G. Barnbrook. House Foundations: for the builder and designer.
Cement and Concrete Association (1981)
10 BRE Digest 250. Concrete in sulphate-bearing soils and groundwaters
(1984)
11 British Standards Institution. BS 4027: 1980 Specification for sulphate-
resisting Portland cement
12 British Standards Institution. BS 4248: 1974 Supersulphated cement
13 BRE Digest 244. Concrete mixes: specification, design and quality
control (1980) .
14 BRE Digest 25J. Assessment of damage in low-rise buildings (1981)
15 Institution of Civil Engineers. Repairs and Renewal of Buildings.
Telford (1983)
16 British Standards Institution . CP 102: 1973 Protection of buildings
against water from the ground
3BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTlON-lI
Wall Claddings, Dampness, Condensation and Smoky Chimneys
Defects in Wall Claddings

The Building Regulations! prescribe that materials used in building work
shall normally comply with relevant British Standards or British Board of
Agrement Certificates and Quality Assurance Schemes as recommended by
the Approved Documents. Unfortunately, some modem buildings produce
greater maintenance problems than many centuries-old buildings, even
though the climaticconditions have undergone little change. There has been
an evident failure to learn from experience and to make full use of known
science and technology. When using large building units, sufficient allow-
ance has not always been made for movement due to thermal and elastic
changes and for creep in concrete under load. The effect of the rapid drying
out of new buildings by central heating does not always seem to be
appreciated . Insufficient attention to detailing and the failure to select
suitable materials for use in exposed situations can have unfortunate effects.
Wall c1addings suffer particularly from the following defects:
(1) inability to support imposed loads, resulting in differential move-
ment, distortion or cracking;
(2) inability to keep out the weather;
(3) inability to insulate from cold with resultant condensation;
(4) deterioration of cladding materials.
The external face of a building has to resist the passage of rain and wind,
since moisture penetrating to the inside can result in mildew or mould
growth, or produce conditions conducive to corrosion of metals, fungal
attack on timber, damage to decorations, and even detrimental effects on
contents and the health of occupants. We are concerned not only with the
wetting and drying of walling materials but also the chemical and physical
changes in the structure caused by the complex action of moisture, frost,
temperature changes, ultraviolet light, and formation and transference of
salts.
Cracking of wall cladding usually results from climatic, physical or
chemical changes or defective construction. It is almost invariably unsightly
and unacceptable to the occupants. If severe , it may cause loss of stability,
54
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-II 55
Plate 1 Laminated brickwork
rain penetration, air infiltration, heat loss and reduced sound insulation, all
of which cause a reduction in the efficiency of the building.? It often occurs
when the tensile stress in a material exceeds its tensile strength, through
externally applied loads or internal movements produced by temperature or
moisture changes subject to external restraint.
Water penetration can be exceptionally critical in cold weather, particu-
larly around vulnerable areas such as cornices and sills. Water expands by
about one-tenth on freezing and can exert very great pressures within the
fabric , causing it to lift and eventually break away. If water finds it way into
the fabric through cracks or bad pointing, it will cause damage on freezing.
Plate 1 shows laminated brickwork resulting mainly from frost action and
the use of underburnt bricks, and there are signs of settlement in the brick
pier.
Carbon accumulates to form soot deposits on the fabric which are both
unsightly and harbour dangerous corrosive elements. Regular cleaning will
move these deposits and prevent their build up, in addition to permitting a
check of the condition of the fabric and enabling the necessary repairs to be
undertaken.
Uncontrolled weathering and even normal use can lead to physical decay
and deterioration, resulting in the need for an excessive amount of repair
and renewal' and often a change in the appearance of the building. This
highlights the need for more detailed design at critical points ofthe structure
and a better understanding of the nature and behaviour of materials and
their use. Not only are traditional methods now being used in non-
traditional ways, but designers are continually being faced with new
materials, components and building techniques with insufficient back-up
data. The traditional details of overhangs, cornices and drips protected wall
surfaces and openings as well as enhancing the aesthetic qualities of the
building.I
Brickwork
Clay Bricks
The majority of bricks in general use are made of clay. These are classified
in BS 3921 4 according to variety-eommon, facing or engineering; quality
-internal, ordinary or special; and type-solid, perforated, hollow or
cellular. It is important to select the correct type and quality of brick for a
particular situation. For example, internal quality bricks laid in weak mortar
are .suitable for internal walls where there is no early frost hazard, whereas
ordinary bricks in medium-strength mortar are required for the outer leaf of
cavity walls. Unrendered brickwork in parapet walls should contain special
bricks laid in a strong mix of mortar, such as 1 part masonry cement: 2t-3t
parts sand.5,6
BS 39214 specifies a minimum strength of 28 N/mm 2 for bricks, and this is
sufficient for the loadings in low-rise housing and similar buildings. Higher-
strength bricks should be specified only when they are required to meet
structural needs, as strength is not necessarily an index of durability.
Similarly,water absorption does not always indicate the behaviour of a brick
in weathering. Low absorption-less than 7 per cent by weight-often
indicates a high resistance to damage by freezing, although some types of
bricks of much higher absorption may also be frost-resistant. Underfired
bricks are likely to contain larger quantities of deleterious salts and present
less resistance to surface attack by them.? Clay bricks expand slightly after
leaving the kiln.
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-i-ll 57
Other Bricks
Calcium silicate bricks of sandlime or fJintlime to BS 1878 in six acceptable
classes and concrete bricks to BS flJ73 9 can be used successfully in a wide
range of situations subject to the selction of the appropriate class of brick
and mortar. 10 To avoid shrinkage cracks, bricks should be kept dry prior to
laying and a weak to medium mortar should be used as appropriate. Long
lengths of external brickwork should be subdivided by vertical joints at
intervals of not more than 7.5 m to 9 m to permit movement. A rigid joint
filler, polythene or bituminous felt , should be inserted for the full thickness
of the brickwork but kept back about 12 mm from the outside face. The
joints must be sealed to ensure moisture exclusion and with facing work the
joints are ideally filled with mastic.
Shrinkage cracking in brickwork may take two forms-running straight
through the brick and joint in alternate courses or following a zigzag path
along the joints. The latter type of crack is more easily made good and it is
accordingly advisable to make the joint weaker in tension than the brick
itself. Furthermore, with a weak mortar joint there is a greater chance of the
bricks shrinking individually, without stressing the wall as a whole, with
minute hair cracks forming around each brick rather than wider cracks at
greater intervals.
Mortars
The principal requirements of mortars for brickwork and blockwork are
good workability and plasticity but stiffening within a reasonable period,
early attainment of strength, with a final strength adequate but not greater
than bricks, and adequate durability. An excessively strong mortar concen-
trates the effects of differential movement by producing fewer and wider
cracks and is liable to lead to increased efflorescence. Stronger mixes are
preferable in cold weather to develop strength more quickly and so resist the
effects of frost. 11 The selection of mortars is influenced by the type of
construction and condition of exposure as shown in tables 3.1 and 3.2,
extracted from BRE Digest 1f1J. 1
Cement mortar sets quickly and develops great strength, often more than
is required, and is liable to craze, whereas lime mortar is extremely workable
but is weak and slow hardening. Hence these mortars have been widely
superseded by cement:/ime (compo) mortar which is workable and suffi-
ciently strong without the risk of drying shrinkage . A plasticiser may be
added to cement mortar to produce an aerated or air-entrained mortar. The
plasticiser entrains bubbles of air in the mix, increasing workability and
permitting the use of weaker mortars in place of lime. Masonry cement
mortar usually consists of a mixture of Portland cement with a very fine
mineral filler and an air-entraining agent. It has good working properties.
Special mortars are used in certain cases, as where soil has a high sulphate
content, or high early strength or resistance to heat or chemicals is
required. 11
Table 3.1 Mortar mixes (proportions by volume)

Mortar Cement : Masonry- Cement:
group lime: sand cement : sand, with
sand plasticiser
Increasing strength i 1 : 0-1/ 4 : 3

but decreasing ability ii 1: 1/2: 4-4 J/2 1 : 21/1:-31/2 1 : 3-4
1_ _
to accommodate movements iii 1:1 :5-{j 1 : 4-5 1 : 5-{j
caused by settlement, iv 1:2 :8-9 1 : 5 1/2...6 1/2 1 : 7-8
shrinkage , etc. v 1 : 3 : 10-12 1 : 6 1/1:-7 1:8
... equivalent strengths
..
within each group
Direction of
changes increasing frost resistance
in properties
improving bond and resistance
~ . .
Where a range of sand contents is given, the larger quantity should be used for sand that is well graded
and the smaller for coarse or uniformly fine sand.
Because damp sands bulk, the volume of damp sand used may need to be increased . For cement
: lime : sand mixes, the error due to bulking is reduced if the mortar is prepared from lime : sand coarse
stuff and cement in appropriate proportions ;' in these mixes 'lime' refers to non-hydraulic or semi-
hydraulic lime and the proportions given are for lime putty . If hydrated lime is batched dry, the volume
may be increased by up to 50 per cent to get adequate workabihty.
It is important to use an appropriate mortar, properly batched and

adequately mixed, using the same mix throughout and taking adequate
precautions against frost.
Defects in Brickwork
Brickwork defects arise in a variety of ways, of which the most common are
efflorescence, stains, sulphate attack, frost action, settlement, lack of
stability, use of unsound materials or poor workmanship, corrosion of iron
and steel, drying shrinkage, growth of lichens and moulds, fumes from
cavity.insulation, and need for repointing .
Efflorescence
This consists of deposits of soluble salts formed on the surface of new
brickwork, and it usually appears as loose white powder or as feathery
crystals, or more occasionally as a hard glossy deposit penetrating the brick
faces. It can occur on internal as well as external surfaces, causing damage to
decorations where applied before the walls have dried out. Efflorescence is
generally a temporary spring-time occurrence appearing as new brickwork
dries out for the first time. It sometimes reappears in the second spring of a
Table 3.2 Selection of mortar groups

Concrete and
Type of Brick: Clay calcium silicate
Early frost hazard" no yes no yes
Internal walls (v) (iii) or (v)C (iii) or
(ivt plast(iv)b
Inner leaf of cavity walls (v) (iii) or (v)C (iii) or

(iv)b plast(iv)b
Backing to external solid walls (iv) (iii) or (iv) (iii) or

(iv)" plast(iv)b
External walls; outer leaf of

cavity walls:
-above damp-proof course (iv)" (iii)d (iv) (iii)
-below damp-proof course (iii)" (iii)b. e (iii)e (iii)e
Parapet walls; domestic chimneys;

-rendered (iii)l. I (iii)l. • (iv) (iii)
-not rendered (ii)h (i) (iii) (iii)
or (iii)
External free-standing walls (iii) (iii)b (iii) (iii)
Sills; copings (i) (i) (ii) (ii)
Earth-retaining walls (back-filled

with free-draining material) (i) (i) (ii)e (ii)e
"During construction, before mortar has hardened (say 7 days after laying) or before the waU is
~mpleted and protected against the entry of rain at the top.
If the bricks are to be laid wet, see text.
~f not plastered, use group (iv).
If to be rendered, use group (iii) mortar made with sulphate-resisting cement .
elf sulphates are present in the groundwater, use sulphate-resisting cement.
lparapet walls of clay units should not be rendered on both sides; if this is unavoidable, select mortar as
tr,ough not rendered.
Use sulphate-resisting cement.
hWith 'special' quality bricks, or with bricks that contain appreciable quantities of soluble sulphates.
building's life but on a reduced scale. It is unsightly but usually harmless and
shortlived unless water is able to percolate into the brickwork, or soluble
salts such as magnesium sulphate crystallise just inside the surface pores.
The salts may come from the brickwork, as most clay bricks contain
water-soluble salts, from soil in contact with the brickwork particularly in
the absence of an effective damp-proof course, or by contamination with
seawater or spray as with unwashed sea sand. Bricks can be tested for
efflorescence in the manner described in BS 3921.4
Efflorescence can be minimised by effective damp-proofing, avoiding the
use of facing bricks with a high soluble salts content in very exposed
positions, using suitable mortar, keeping bricks dry and covering new
brickwork at the end of each day's work.
Fortunately, surface efflorescence is normally washed away by rain and no

special treatment is needed . To accelerate removal, the brickwork can be
dry-brushed periodically until the soluble salts cease to crystallise. In
sheltered situations, jt may be necessary to remove the efflorescence by
periodic washings- with a hose with deposits of salt brushed off between
washes.
Where efflorescence persists there is likely to be abnormal water penetra-
tion of the brickwork and constructional faults, such as leaking rainwater
pipes and defective damp-proof courses, must be repaired. It is usually
destructive only in exceptional cases where the soluble salts crystallise just
below the brick surface which, if weak, may crumble," sometimes referred
to as cryptoflorescence. Individual disintegrated bricks should be cut out
and replaced with bricks having a low sulphate content. Where disintegra-
tion occurs over a wider area, the best remedy is probably to render the face
of the brickwork, after raking out joints to a depth of 10 mm and dry
brushing off the efflorescence. The rendering should be weaker than the
brickwork; for example, 1:1:6 mix of cement:lime:sand for strong bricks and
1:2:9 for weak bricks.
Efflorescence on internal plaster should be lightly brushed off before
decorations are applied. In rare cases where spalling of the plaster occurs,
the source of dampness must be remedied, the plaster removed and it is
advisable to provide a capillary break between the brickwork and the
plaster. One suitable method is to nail corrugated pitch or bitumen lathing
to the inside face of the wall; an alternative is to use impregnated timber
battens and a lining.
Stains
The worst stains appear in the absence of projecting features resulting from
rainwater carrying deposits on to the wall face, as shown in plate 2. White
stains under concrete and limestone components, such as string courses and
copings, generally result from lime being deposited on the brickwork by
rainwater. The normal remedy is as follows:
(1) thoroughly wet brickwork with clean water;
(2) carefully brush on diluted hydrochloric acid, starting with a small
area; .
(3) when stains have dissolved, thoroughly wash wall with clean water
and a bristle brush;
(4) after removal of stains, flashings should be provided to prevent
further percolation and staining.
Green stains caused by the corrosion of copper or bronze are very difficult
to remove, and it is advisable to prevent rainwater draining from these
metals discharging over the brickwork. 12
Plate 2 Stained brickwork
Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack on brickwork is the result of the reaction of tricalcium
aluminate present in all ordinary Portland cements, with sulphates in
solution. Its effect is an overall expansion of the brickwork, which can be
followed in more extreme cases by progressive disintegration of the mortar
joints. Except for earth retaining walls, where the attacking sulphates could
emanate from groundwater, the source of sulphates is usually the clay
bricks, with the sulphates transferred from bricks to mortar joints by
percolating water, usually rainwater. 13
Sulphate attack first becomes evident through horizontal cracking on the
inner face of the wall, which with cavity walls may be concentrated near the
roof. In long stretches of brickwork some oversailing of the damp-proof
course is likely. Subsequently, mortar joints become white and a narrow
crack may occur in the middle of the joints. Later still, the surface of the
mortar joint spalls off and the mortar reduces in strength, while advanced
stages of attack are accompanied by spalling of facing bricks. The expansion
due to sulphate attack can be distinguished from drying shrinkage as it
normally takes at least two years to develop .
In the past sulphate attack on unlined chimney stacks serving slow-
burning appliances, resulting from condensation from flue gases, were quite
common, but the provision of flue liners in new chimney stacks will prevent
this. An ash-blinded sub-base and failure to link damp-proof courses in walls
and floor, led to severe sulphate attack on brick walls in a Scottish
bungalow. Sulphate attack on external renderings to brick walls usually

results in a predominance of horizontal cracking associated with the
expansion of mortar joints, as distinct from the fine map cracking emanating
from the drying shrinkage of rendering. 13 .
Ideally, bricks of low sulphate content should be used but this is rarely
practicable. Alternatively, steps should be taken either to increase the
resistance to sulphate attack or to limit the extent to which the brickwork
becomes and .remains wet. The sulphate resistance of mortars can be
increased by using either richer mixes (1:5-6, cement:sand with plasticiser is
excellent) or sulphate-resisting or supersulphate cements . Excessive wetting
of the brickwork can be avoided by improving design details and ensuring a
generous overhang at eaves and verges, adequate flashings, and damp-proof
courses and special precautions at parapets and free-standing walls (low
sulphate bricks, good copings with adequate overhangs and drips, damp-
proof courses under copings and at base of walls, expansion joints not more
than 12 m apart and suitable mortar mixes). Brick earth retaining walls
should only be built of special quality bricks laid in a sulphate resisting
mortar. 13
Affected brickwork should be dried out and moisture excluded as far as
practicable, as well as remedying poor design features, such as correcting the
detailing on parapets and forming one or two expansion joints . Where
attack is rather more severe but without visible damage to mortar, surface
waterproofer may be applied when the brickwork is reasonably dry and , if
successful, repeated at intervals of a few years. In cases of advanced attack,
with brickwork expansion and severe damage to mortar, some form of
cladding should be applied. Weatherboarding or tile hanging both form
suitable treatments, which are equally applicable to failed renderings. When
rebuilding parts of the structure it is essential to use materials suited to the
prevailing conditions. 13
Frost Action
In Great Britain, frost failures are usually confined to partly built unpro-
tected brickwork or to brickwork subject to conditions of severe exposure,
such as free-standing walls, parapets and retaining walls and, occasionally,
brickwork below damp-proof course. Bricks in these positions should have
good frost resistance and the work should be adequately protected from
frost during construction by taking all necessary precautions and particularly
laying loose bricks on top of the wall, overhanging 50 mm on each side, and
covering the wall with polythene sheeting or other covering.
Frost can cause spalling of the face of bricks and disintegration of mortar.
On occasions bricks may become detached from the mortar. Brick-on-edge
copings often split if they are not frost-resistant and require replacing by
engineering bricks laid in cement mortar (1:3). Stronger mortar mixes are
needed when there is a danger of frost. While weak mortars are susceptible
to frost attack, the stronger less-flexible mortars, containing a high propor-
tion of cement, are vulnerable to shrinkage and movement-induced crack-
ing, which allows water to penetrate into the cracks which, in turn, can
freeze and cause disruption if it is unable to drain away freely."
Settlement
The normal slight overall settlement of a building should not disturb the
brickwork but differential settlement, often resulting in cracked walls, may
occur where there are abrupt changes in ground conditions over the site, or
where there is inadequately consolidated fill under foundations. Another
common occurrence is the differential settlement of bay windows caused by
the foundations being taken to a shallower depth than the house. IS The
effect of shrinkable clay, fast-growing trees and mining subsidence on
foundations has been described in chapter 2. Repairs to cracked brickwork
are examined later in the chapter.
Stability of Brick Walls

BS 562816 makes recommendations for the design of loadbearing walls
consisting of bricks or blocks. To utilise the full capacity of high-strength
bricks (70 N/mm2 or more), cement mortar (1:3) is needed . For lower-
strength bricks or blocks, mortars with an increased proportion of lime can
be used without any great loss in masonry strength . Walls of a given
thickness and material strength tend to fail at lower loads as their height
increases . In design, the slenderness ratio of effective height to effective
thickness is important. BS 562816 recommends that for walls set in Portland
cement mortars the slenderness ratio should not exceed 20, for walls less
than 90 mm thick in buildings of more than two storeys, and 27 in all other
cases. The strength of a 260 mm cavity wall with both leaves loaded is
approximately 16 per cent less than that of a 215 mm solid wall. 17 Approval
Document A1/2 of the Building Regulations 19851 prescribes minimum
thicknesses of external, compartment and separating walls.
Where floors and roofs span parallel to a wall, it is essential to provide
straps or ties if the floor is to act as a lateral support . If the straps are not
positioned or fixed correctly or are of inadequate design, this can result in
instability of the walls. The Building Research Establishment investigated
the collapse of gable end walls of large buildings and found the causes to be
under-design , high wind pressures and lack of intermediate support .l"
Cracked brickwork may not always be unstable. Tests at the Building
Research Establishment showed that the capacity of a 215 mm brick wall to
carry vertical loads was reduced by no more than 30 per cent by a stepped or
slanting crack up to 25 mm wide, provided it was not accompanied by
considerable transverse movement. On the other hand the resistance to side
loading of a half-brick wall with sound joints but with a visible bulge could
be impaired considerably. With cavity walls the effects of leaning or bulging,
and of eccentricity of loading, are more serious than with solid walls, and
wall ties play an important part in securing stability.
Zinc-coated steel wall ties for cavity walls complying with the original
BS 1243 were found to offer inadequate resistance to corrosion, and it
became necessary to revise the standard in 1981 to require a considerable

increase in the thickness of zinc or the use of plastic coating in addition to
zinc." In some instances the use of black ash and permeable mortars has
accelerated the corrosion process.
Techniques were developed in the early 19805 for the reinstatement of
cavity walls by the insertion of new wall ties without recourse to demolition
and reconstruction, and these can be used to advantage where steel wall ties
have corroded badly. Alternative methods are described and illustrated in
BRE Digest 25720 , and they include the insertion of resin-grouted offset or
replacement ties, the installation of all-metal or metal/plastics expansion
grip fixings in staggered positions, special screw-in ties grouted to the outer
leaf, and the use of a partial tying method and filling the cavity. with
heavy-duty polyurethane foam, which will increase thermal insulation
qualities, but the long-term structural performance of the foam is unknown.
Symptoms of wall tie failure and remedies vary with the type of tie. The
substantial thickness and bulk of the vertical twist tie means that it will
increase in volume significantly as it corrodes. The resultant expansion will
cause horizontal cracking along brickwork courses in tie positions, accom-
panied by expansion of the walls. Where ties corrode within the inner leaf,
floors and roofs may lift and inner walls can be disrupted. Shear cracks are
likely to appear on walls bonded to the inner leaf.
Where there is doubt as to tie failure, a few bricks should be removed and
a tie examined. When the less bulky butterfly ties corrode there are likely to
be few, if any, external signs of disruption. The ties may be traced with a
metal detector and replaced one by one by removing a few bricks, pulling
out the ties and inserting new ones. A simpler and quicker approach is to
insert new ties close to the old ones, using one of the methods described
earlier.
The significance of a defect must be judged in relation to the whole
building-loadings, transverse support, openings and piers-c-all are impor-
tant. It is also necessary to keep a sense of proportion-a wall which is out of
plumb not more than 25 mm or bulges not more than 12 mm in a normal
storey height would not usually require repairing on structural grounds. The
following remedies could be applied to unstable walls.
(1) Insert tie rods through the building in the thickness of a floor, or at
roof level, anchoring the suspect wall to another wall or structural member
that is sound. This is generally the cheapest and most effective method.
(2) Build a buttress or buttresses keyed into and thrusting against the
unstable wall and carried to a firm base, possibly involving underpinning.
(3) Demolish wallingthat is bulged or out of plumb and replace by new
brickwork, preferably built in cement: lime: sand mortar, 1:1:6.21
Cracks
Cracks which do not impair structural stability may appear in brick walls. A
distinction may be made between cracks that run more or less diagonally,
following horizontal and vertical mortar joints alternately, and those that
pass straight down through vertical joints and the intervening bricks and
mortar beds. The latter form of cracking may involve cutting out bricks.
Fine cracks (up to 1.5 mm wide) in joints between absorbent bricks are
usually best left unfilled as they are unlikely to be harmful. With non-
absorbent bricks , it may be advisable to rake out the defective joints and
repoint with 1:1:6 cement:lime:sand mortar.
Wider cracks (1.5 to 3.5 mm wide) will need to be repaired with the
method varying according to the type of mortar in the existing wall. With
weak mortar joints, the joints are raked out deeply on both sides of the wall,
and filled and pointed with cement:lime:sand mortar not richer than 1:3:12.
With strong mortar joints it is customary to cut out the bricks adjoining the
crack and rebond using a 1:1:6, cement:lime:sand mortar. The same
procedure would be adopted where there are cracked bricks. It is important
not to use an excessively strong mortar which is likely to shrink. Where
cracks may continue to widen with further movement, the cracks are best
sealed with an oil-based mastic:
When examining cracks, care should be taken to record precisely the
direction of the cracks, whether or not they extend through the wall,
whether they taper off in any direction and whether they are progressive.
Horizontal cracks require very careful consideration particularly to deter-
mine whether the part of the building above the crack has risen or whether
the part below has fallen. Cracks of similar appearance can be due to
different causes; which need identifying, and this occurs particularly in the
case of parapet walls, where cracking may be the result of expansion due to
frost, thermal movement, sulphate attack or movement of the adjoining roof
slab. Distinction should be made where possible between tensile cracks,
compressive cracks with small pieces of brick squeezed from the surface and
localised crushing, and shear cracks identifiable by relative movement along
a crack or points on opposite sides of it. Staveley and Glove~2 advocate
accurate monitoring of crack damage, which is usually undertaken using
calibrated tell-tales, being rigid indicators fixed over cracks and showing
measured horizontal and vertical movements over a period of time.
Unsound Materials
Occasionally defective brickwork results from unsound bricks or mortar.
Bricks with a high absorption rate used in parapet or freestanding walls or
below damp-proof course are liable to spalling through periodic saturation
and frost action, entailing replacement with more durable bricks. Mortars
may be much stronger than the bricks with the likelihood of bricks cracking
rather than mortar joints in the event of movement . Imperfectly slaked
lime in a mortar can produce effects ranging from minor pitting of the
mortar to general expansion with deformation and cracking of the brick-
work . Repointing of brickwork may be required after a period of 25 to 40
years depending on exposure and type of mortar. The old mortar should be
raked out to a depth of at least 20 mm, the joints brushed and moistened,
and the mortar used for repointing should not be appreciably stronger than
the original bedding mortar. Gauged mortar (1:1:6) 'is commonly used for
this purpose.
Corrosion of Iron and Steel

Iron and steel embedded in brickwork may corrode and cause opening of
brick joints or cracking of brickwork and also rust staining. Ferrous metals
embedded in brickwork should be protected from rusting by coating with
bitumen, anti-corrosion paint or metallic zinc paint, or another suitable
method. Remedial action consists of removing brickwork to expose metal,
clean metal, prime with rust-inhibitive primer and paint with bitumen paint,
and when rebuilding take steps to reduce moisture penetranon.P
Drying Shrinkage and Expansion on Wetting

Concrete or calcium silicate brickwork may crack, especially at window and
door openings, owing to excessive drying shrinkage. The risk is minimised
by using well-matured, dry bricks and laying in a weak mortar. Conversely,
some clay bricks undergo slight expansion when first wetted and this can
cause movement and cracking of brickwork. Both of these defects occur
early in the life of the building and are unlikely to be progressive. Where
bricks are cracked, they should be cut out and replaced. Solar expansion is
unlikely to be a problem except in multi-storey structures where allowance
will need to be made for possible movement.
Lichens, Moulds and Other Growths

These organisms are rarely destructive but they do produce disfiguring stains
on brickwork and other wall surfaces. Such growths can be prevented or
destroyed by applying one of the toxic washes recommended in BRE Digest
13~, during a dry spell after partially removing any thick surface growths.
The effective life of the treatment depends on the porosity of the surface and
the extent to which it is washed by rain; periods of one to three years are
common.
Climbing and other plants growing on walls can cause damage to walls,
but much depends on the condition of the wall and the extent to which the
growth of the plants is controlled. Each case has to be decided on its merits,
balancing the effect on the appearance of the building against possible
damage. Ivy, with its aerial roots, can penetrate cracks or open joints and
cause damage. Virginia creeper will not harm a sound wall but plants like
climbing roses, jasmine and honeysuckle are usually supported on wires or
trellis and the fixings may cause damage. All plants should be trimmed to
below eaves level and be kept clear of window or door frames.
Fumes from Urea-Formaldehyde (UF) Foam in Cavities

The cavities in the hollow walls of many dwellings in the United Kingdom
have been filled with urea-formaldehyde foam to improve their thermal
insulation qualities. Where the inner leaf is vapour-permeable, particularly
when coupled with an impermeable outer leaf and a wide cavity (100 mm or
more), fumes of formaldehyde gas may penetrate the building and cause
irritation to the eyes and noses of occupants.
Stonework
Defects in Stonework
Limestone is generally one of the least durable ' of stones and offers least
resistance to weather. Sandstones are harder and more durable than
limestones and are more difficult to work and clean. In polluted atmos-
pheres they tend to blacken more readily. Granite weathers extremely well
and is extremely durable. Carved work is often of relatively soft stone.
Strength. Building stones are normally of adequate strength to carry

imposed loads and rarely need special consideration except for lintels and
civil engineering work. On the other hand fixings of stone claddingshave not
always proved satisfactory, particularly where reliance has been placed on
mortar pats.
Moisture Resistance. Slates and granites absorb very little water but
limestones and sandstones may absorb up to 20 per cent. In addition some
sandstones are subject to appreciable moisture movement. Penetration of
damp through stone is unlikely, except in situations such as windowmullions
or jambs, or from the catchment surfaces of sills, copings, cornices or string
courses. Penetration through joints is more likely to be a problem, particu-
larly with impervious stones such as granite. There is a need for cavities and
adequate damp-proof courses.
Compatibility. Damage can result from the use of different types of stone
in direct contact with one another. An acid atmosphere can attack
limestones, forming soluble salts which if washed on to the surface of
sandstones can cause decay.
Durability. The durability of a stone is influenced by its chemical com-

position and structure and the performance of stones in a particular locality
gives a good guide. For example, a calcareous stone is liable to attack in a
polluted atmosphere containing sulphur dioxide. The principal form of
decay is the formation of a skin of soluble salts often accompanied by
blisters. The salts can result from decomposition of stone by atmospheric
pollutants, materials in contact with stone, or from groundwater. Most
mortars contain alkali salts and need care in selection. Brickwork containing
soluble salts is a possible hazard where natural stone is backed by brickwork

and it should be separated by a suitable waterproof membrane. Stone may
occasionally be damaged by frost action in exposed situations, such as
cornices, string courses and copings.
Plates 3 and 4 show how stonework can spall and laminate in aggressive
conditions, while plate 5 illustrates a stone chimney stack with badly
weathered stones and open joints, which permit the entry of rainwater and
can result in further decay.
Plate 3 Spalllng stonework

Plate 4 Defective stonework
Plate 5 Dilapidated stone chimney stack

69
Repairs to Stonework
In some cases a soft stone in decayed condition can be cut back to expose a
new, sound face. This method cannot easily be adopted where there are
elaborate mouldings and difficulty is experienced in dealing with door and
window openings arid slender columns. With plain wall surfaces in soft stone
it does however provide a relatively simple method of restoring a stone
facade at reasonable cost.
The choice between replacement of damaged blocks with new stone and
the execution of 'plastic' repairs depends on the extent of the damage and
the character of the building. Plastic repairs skilfully undertaken may permit
the original appearance of the stonework to be secured more quickly and
completely, and this method avoids the disturbance of surrounding stone-
work. Stone used for replacement purposes should be similar in colour, type
and texture to the original. Where only a limited amount of the original
stone is sound it will probably be advisable to replace all the old stone with
new. On occasionsit is possible to use similar sound stone from old buildings
that are being demolished.
Plastic repairs are usually less costly than replacement with new stone, but
workmanship and supervision needs to be of the highest standard. The
principal materials used for this purpose are
(1) mortars based on Portland cement, lime and sand possibly 1:2:9
and often containing pigments or 1:8 cement:sand with a vinsol resin
plasticiser;"
(2) mortars based on zinc or magnesium oxychloride cement with sand
or crushed stone aggregate;
(3) crushed stone or sand with an organic binder, often based on
cellulose.
Various precautions need to be taken, such as cutting the stone back to a
sound surface, using an adequate thickness of plastic material, obtaining
sufficient key and building up large areas gradually.
Colourless Treatments for Stonework

These treatments are of two main categories--water repellents and preser-
vative treatments.
Colourless water-repellent liquids are intended to improve the resistance
to rain penetration of stonework without markedly changing its appearance.
They line the pores and inhibit capillary absorption, but may in the process
increase the degree of penetration through cracks or defective joints.
Hence, pointing should be examined and cracks made good prior to
treatment. Soluble salts in a stone wall could be trapped and cause spalling
of the treated surface. Most water repellents are silicone-based in accord-
ance with BS 382625 and there are various classes for different types of
stone. They should be applied to dry surfaces by brush or spray during dry
spells, and they require renewal from time to time.26
The indiscriminate application of colourless stone-preservatives often

results in disappointment. Some powdering often takes place on the surface
of the stone and the treatment requires periodic renewal. The most common
application is silicone-based masonry water repellents. It is advisable to
investigate the performance of preservatives on similar stones exposed
under similar conditions before arranging treatment. Stone decay usually
takes place very slowly, so even after some years an untreated building may
look no worse than a treated building.j"
Cleaning of Stonework
Deposits of dirt spoil the appearance of stonework, retain harmful chemicals
and hide decay. The choice of cleaning method is important as an unsuitable
one can result in damage. Consideration should be given to the type and
condition of surface to be cleaned, and the cost, speed and convenience of
the cleaning method . Before letting a contract, it is advisable to test the
proposed cleaning method on typical parts of the building."
Water washing with a fine mist spray softens the deposits of dirt, beginningat
the top of the building so that surplus water runs down and pre-softens dirt
below. It is often necessary to assist the removal of dirt with brushes of
bristle and non-ferrous or stainless steel wire. Abrasive stones may be
needed to clean projecting features. It is one of the cheaper, least harmful
but slower methods, well suited for cleaning limestones and marbles.
Poultices of wet powdered clay are sometimes applied.
Dry-grit blasting uses abrasive non-siliceous grit blown under pressure to

scour away dirt. Various sizes of nozzle are used according to the nature of
the stonework and the delicacy of the work. Protection must be provided
against dust and re-bounding grit by close sheeting. It is particularly suitable
for sandstones, granites, slates and harder stones generally, is a fast method
but high in cost, and there is a risk of damage to surfaces being cleaned.
Noise may be a serious problem .
Wet-grit blasting is similar to the previous method except that water is
introduced into the air/grit stream, thereby reducing the visible dust. The
uses, merits and demerits are similar to dry-grit blasting.
Mechanical cleaning makes use of conical-shaped carborundum heads of

various sizes and textures, grinding and buffing discs, and rotary brushes, all
used with power tools. They spin off the dirt and weathered face in one
operation. Operatives need to take special precautions and exercise great
skill to avoid causing damage. It is a fast method, useful with hard stones,
but the cost is also high. Hand tools may be used to supplement power tools
for cleaning intricate carved work.
Chemical cleaning generally makes use of hydrofluoric acid as it leaves no

soluble salts in the stonework, but it is dangerous in inexperienced hands
and every precaution must be taken to prevent contamination. Any pro-

prietary chemical cleaner should desirably be supported by an appropriate
Agrement certificate. It is a moderately fast method at relatively low cost for
use with harder stones.
Steam cleaning uses mains water pumped to a flash boiler and the steam
generated is fed to a lance and played on to the stone surface assisted by
brushes and abrasive stones. It has however little to commend it compared
with the other methods, apart from moderate cost, and is seldom used .27
Other Claddings
Light claddings
Light c1addings have been used extensively in the last three decades to form
continuous envelopes or 'curtain walls' suspended from the loadbearing
structure or as panel infillingsin the spaces between members of a structural
frame. These components save weight, space and building time, extend the
range of architectural expression and exploit new materials. A danger with
new materials is the absence of adequate experience on which to assess
performance accurately.
A light cladding does not require high compressive strength, but must be
able to resist wind loads. Provision must be made for diverting heavy
rainwater runoff from joints, windows and doors. Thermal movement can
be extensive and there may be differential movement between panels and
frames, and compressible horizontal joints should be used in the cladding .28
It is desirable to separate the external waterproof skin from the inner
insulating layer, and an intervening ventilated air space helps to lower the
temperature of the external skin in summer and to exclude water and reduce
condensation . Joints between panels need to be flexible as well as water-
tight; they may be formed of plastic compounds or mastics, mechanical
joints or those combining a mechanical outer barrier with an internal airtight
seal. Unfortunately , all too often excessive reliance was placed on new
jointing techniques which could not accommodate the diverse movements of
the components which occurred in practice.
Limited aesthetic scope and performance failures led to the reduced
popularity of curtain walling in the early 19708. Also the horizontal emphasis
of buildings made other constructional methods more popular, such as
ribbon walling on dwarf brick walls built within slabs. The scope for using
alternative construction methods was also on the increase.
In the late 1970sdesigners had a better understanding of the problems of
water ingress caused by pressure differentials and produced pressure-
equalised and self-draining walls-systems no longer dependent on the then
fallible mastics for sealing the structure. Glass and spandrel panels became
more attractive; the solar control bronzes were just not more efficient, they
looked better and encouraged improved specifications. Panel systems were
introduced using much larger panels to accept part of the loading. These
panels were usually flat with minimal mullion and transom intrusions."
By the mid 19808, slopes, angles, and curves on plan and elevation
became available to the specifier. Finishes in polyester powder coat
aluminium neoprene or stainless steel provided a variety of colour and
vision. Well engineered and well insulated panels were available to comple-
ment the ever-increasing choice of tinted and mirror glass. Many systems
accepted triple glazing in addition to sealed-unit double glazing.
The material used for curtain walling had traditionally been aluminium,
with its very favourable strength/weight ratio. A uPVC system was intro-
duced in the mid 19808 specifically for the refurbishment of two-storey
modular schools, hospitals and offices built in the 1960s. This had the
advantage of excellent grid thermal insulation and reduced structure-borne
sound with little maintenance. Hence curtain walling can provide cost-
effective and visually attractive ways of upgrading buildings to the comfort
and low-maintenance cost requirements of-the 19808.29
Concrete Panels
Precast concrete cladding may be subject to cracking and crazing which
besides being unsightly may permit water to penetrate to the reinforcement
and cause corrosion. Fixings must be of adequate strength and durability
and be adjustable to accommodate the dimensional deviations arising from
the building and manufacturing processes.P Problems arise from variations
in dimensions of panels and the need to obtain jointing which will success-
fully withstand varying conditions of temperature and moisture. The range
of sealants available enables the designer to specify the most appropriate
product for a given set of conditions, with adequate regard to cost-
effectiveness." There is also a need for adequate water shedding drips and
projections to prevent unsightly surface staining.
Concrete has been subject to two major forms of chemical failure, namely
carbonation and alkali-silica reaction. Carbonation is a form of deteriora-
tion which attacks exposed concrete. All Portland cement contains a
proportion of calcium hydroxide (free lime). The hydration, or hardening of
the cement in concrete, does not change the state of the free lime.
Subsequently, concrete is in contact with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
This reacts with the free lime to form calcium carbonate, thereby reducing
the alkalinity of the concrete. The alkalinity is necessary to protect mild steel
reinforcement in concrete from oxidation or rusting. If the alkalinity of the
concrete is destroyed by carbonation, the steel is liable to rust in the
presence of moisture and air. The same concrete which is vulnerable to
carbonation is the type of concrete which is inclined to be porous and
therefore most likely to expose the reinforcement to these two elements.
The resulting rust can cause progressive cracking and spalling of the
concrete.
Carbonation starts at the surface of the concrete and proceeds inwards at
a decreasing rate determined by the type of concrete, its quality and its
density. It was originally thought that there was little risk of carbonation
becoming a problem if the reinforcement had sufficient cover of concrete . In
practice, the cover has often proved to be inadequate and the concrete too
permeable, producing a fatal combination. This adverse condition was
sometimes aggravated by the addition of chloride additives to the concrete
mixes.
Where the carbonation has not reached the steel reinforcement,
overcladding the structure to prevent extensive rain penetration or treat-
ment with a coating which is resistant to water ingress and carbon dioxide
diffusion, can reinstate its life expectancy. If carbonation has reached the
steel, the area of carbonated concrete requires cutting out, then the rusting
steel should be cleaned and treated and the wall reinstated with a water-
repellent mix before the whole wall surface is overclad or resurfaced.F'
The other concrete problem is alkali-silica reaction, which has been
termed 'concrete cancer' . This defect is caused by a chemical reaction
between the alkalis normally present in concrete and certain forms of
aggregate quarried in various parts of the United Kingdom. For this defect
to occur, moisture has to be present . Alkali-silicate reaction is most likely to
occur in exposed concrete and the best means of protection is to shield it
from excessive wetting by rain or condensation.j"
Table 3.3 outlines the more common defects occurring in precast concrete
claddings and the likely causes and recommended remedial action .
Generally accepted methods of repairing concrete are now described. The
use of polymer-modified cementitious materials is generally considered to
be the most suitable method of patch repair after removing rust from the
steel. However, recasting or sprayed concrete, possibly with polymer
additives in the mix, is likely to be used for large volume repairs. Epoxy and
polyester resins are also used in some specialised areas, such as crack
injection. Methods for dealing with efflorescence, and the removal of stains
and growths from concrete are detailed in Cement and Concrete Association
publications.32 ,33
Aluminium Sheeting
The appearance of aluminium as manufactured is satisfactory for many
situations, although dulling of the surface and subsequent pitting is likely to
occur. The original condition can be preserved by regular washing or
abrasive cleaning. The frequency of this treatment varies from once every
few months to once a year, depending on the composition of the alloy and
local atmospheric conditions. Surfaces sheltered from rain need more
frequent cleaning than rain-washed areas to maintain the same appearance.
Various treatments can be adopted for decorative purposes or to give
protection against aggressive conditions, including conversion coatings,
painting and lacquering, stove enamelling, vitreous enamelling and anodis-
ing,
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-ell 75
Table 3.3 Defects In precast concrete cladding

Defects Causes and remedial action
Cracks, uniform in width or closed; at a Cladding units under compression owing

later stage, spalling especially at comers to inadequate allowance for differential
or edges of cladding units, possibly also movement between cladding and supporting
misalignment of faces structure . Check provision and effectivenessof
horizontal 'soft' compression joints and any
corrosion of reinforcement
2 Cracking or spalling of cladding units in Possible corrosion of ferrous fixings; check

a regular pattern which seems to indicate drawings or specification. If serious, remove
position of fixings; no evidence of com- unit, otherwise keep under observation
pression
3 Misalignment between faces of adjoining If excessive, suspect either potential compres-

units sion failure or fixings absent or defective
4 Iron stains on surface of precast concrete If units unreinforced likely to be iron-bearing

units, random occurrence aggregate. If reinforced, see 5
5 Iron stains on surface of precast concrete If units reinforced, likely to be corrosion of

units , occurrence suggests a pattern reinforcement. If adequate cover, suspect also
possible use of excessive calcium chloride in
manufacture, especially if cracking or spal1ing
6 Sealant extruding considerably from joint Insufficient allowance for movements, risk of
and edges of cladding units in contact future displacement, cracking or spalling of
cladding. If apparent within first 5 years, keep
under annual observation
7 Sealant not deformed, suggesting no com- Compression joint may be inoperative owing,
pression occurring at joint for example, to concealed presence in it of
mortar or other incompressible material
8 Sealant wrinkled at an angle to the line of Sign of differential movement between clad-
the joint ding units in the direction of the line of joint;
seek cause and assess consequences
9 Sealant split or adhesion lost. Greater movement at joint than can be accom-
modated, especially by aged sealants ; likely to
lead to rain penetration
Source: BRE Digest 21728•
Plastics
A variety of plastics are used for wall cladding and their main disadvantage
is that of combustibility. Phenolic resin laminates are used extensively for
curtain walling and can be expected to remain structurally sound under
normal weathering conditions for upwards of twenty years. The natural
surface gloss soon disappears but they can be painted . Others have a
decorative melamine formaldehyde face with good weathering qualities.
With glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GRP) cladding panels, even slight
distortion of a nominally flat surface is noticeable. A textured surface will
help to mask it but at the cost of increased dirt retention. Bright colours are
less stable; darker colours such as greys, browns and near-blacks fade less
but have higher surface temperatures. Damaged portions can be patched on
site but they stand out and it is better to replace a complete panel. Badly
exposed glass fibres must be scrubbed off before any new surface treatment
is applied . Acrylic and polyurethane paints can be applied to surfaces that
have deteriorated.P'
Glass-fibre reinforced cement (GRC) is a composite material consisting of
a cement matrix reinforced by a small proportion of glass fibres. One of the
first applications was for cladding, providing a lightweight construction
combined with freedom of design of panel shape and the choice of a wide
range of durable finishes. The panels may be either single skin or of
sandwich construction with an insulating core. The fibre reinforcement
enhances the ultimate tensile and flexural strength of the matrix and greatly
increases its toughness, although these properties change with time, depend-
ing on the environment: GRC undergoes drying shrinkage on exposure to
low humiditylhigh temperature conditions.35
Timber
The most satisfactory form of weatherboarding is rebated shiplap boarding,
preferably treated with preservative and backed with bitumen felt. Cedar
boarding, even where heartwood, tends to weather very badly if left
untreated, resulting in a streaky appearance. It is advisable to apply a
suitable preservative regularly; medium to high build exterior-quality wood
stain applied every 2 to 3 years provides an effective treatment. Timber
weatherboarding fixed vertically is most vulnerable to rot in the end grain of
its lower edges, and water should be allowed to drain freely from them.
BRE Digest 28636 gives guidance on natural finishes for exterior timber.
Structural Frames
All large buildings are subject to movement due to compression of founda-
tions, shrinkage of concrete, thermal movement, variable loadings and wind
pressure. Cracking of reinforced concrete columns or beams can take the
form of surface cracks, which are influenced by the effective concrete cover
to the steel reinforcement, and internal cracking where the member is
subject to bending.The latter case is more serious and may result in a
breakdown of the adhesion bond around reinforcing bars .
The roof to the assembly hall of the Camden Girls' School collapsed in
June 1973. It consisted of prestressed concrete roof beams with insufficient
bearing, insufficient structural cross-tying of the building, inadequacies in
prestressing wires, conversion of high alumina cement and corrosion of
continuity reinforcement. This incident has highlighted the need for greater
Plate 6 Corroded steelwork
care in design and execution of structural work, periodic inspection of

existing structures and the strengthening of weak points.
All buildings incorporating high alumina cement in their structures must
now be regarded as suspect following building failures, reports of the
Building Research Establishment, and circulars issued by the Department of
the Environment which required local authorities to check every roof or
floor member over 5 m in length containing this cement. Conversion or
degradation of the cement hydrate can occur as a result of the penetration of
heat and water, high water/cement ratio, unsuitable aggregate or high
setting temperature. As described earlier, failures can result from carbona-
tion and alkali-silica reaction . The method of repair of defective concrete
will be influenced br the nature of the distress, environment, cost and
desired appearance.!
Steel frames can have defects resulting from a variety of factors such as
faulty material, faulty design, overloading of the structure, bad workman-
ship, bad erection and corrosion . Faults resulting from poor workmanship or
erection often cause excessive stresses and could in extreme cases result in
failure of the structure. Typical examples are (1) stanchions that are erected
slightly out of position on their foundations and then subsequently pulled
over by floor beams at first floor level, and (2) grouting under stanchion
bases where the full bed of cement mortar only occurs around the edge of
the stanchion base. Periodic inspections and the carrying out of remedial
works are important. Badly corroded steel members, as shown in plate 6,
can result in serious structural conditions.
Weathering steels such as 'Cor-ten' as used on the Wills factory at

Hartcliffe, Bristol, are low alloy steels which, although not rustless, are
designed to form protective corrosion when exposed to the wet and dry
cycles of normal weather . They are available in thin metal sheets, plate,
rolled and hollow sections. The uncertain finish, varying from earthy brown
to purple-grey depending on conditions and length of exposure, can be very
attractive. The run-off rainwater from the steel during the initial weathering
period will cause rust-coloured stains on other materials, such as concrete,
and must be taken into account. Provided the design problems are success-
fully overcome, weathering steels should outlast exposed painted galva-
nised steel. 38
Timber-framed Housing
Gordon'? has described how timber frame has changed from the early
100 x 50 mm uninsulated studding without a vapour barrier, to insulated
studding without vapour barriers, to insulated studding with vapour bar-
riers, brick-clad with unventilated cavities, through to engineered sheathed
structures with non-permeable sheathing to brick-clad ventilated cavities
with permeable sheathing. In 1986it was being suggested that the insulation
should be on the outside of the studs to create a warm frame, and the inside
of the studs covered with internal vapour barriers, now called vapour
checks. The frame itself progressed from non-preserved, partially pre-
served, mainly preserved and finally totally preserved.
A BRE report in 198340 advocated that a more radical approach to
timber-frame construction should be adopted, which would reduce the
inherent potential for interstitial condensation. The permeability of the
sheathing materials was considered and the need for an upper limit for
vapour resistance established. In its summary of potential workmanship
errors, it cited sixteen major areas that required particular attention by site
operatives and supervisors, ranging from insufficient anchorage at the base,
resulting in structural weaknesses, inadequate glueing which could cause
failure in stressed skin floors, insufficient fixing between components
causing structural weakness and the incorrect 'placing of fire stopping and
vapour barriers. The latter could result in severe interstitial condensation.
The BRE subsequently surveyed ten housing sites and issued a further
report in 198541• The faults identified by BRE related to the four main areas
of fire, strength and stability, durability, and differential shrinkage. Overall,
almost two-thirds of the 433 faults were found to be either universal or
common. Because of their importance, each of these areas is now considered
in some detail.
1. Fire. One in six of all the faults found on timber-framed building sites
related to fire. There was an alarming "universal inability to provide
effective barriers against fire." Surveyors and other professionals should
look out for cavity barriers made of polythene-wrapped mineral wool,
timber battens, or both, which fail to close cavities and are not fitted around
openings such as those for balanced boiler flues.
2. Strength and stability. Design problems became apparent, as well as site

incompetence. The anchoring of the framework to foundations was "often
poor and sometimes inadequate." Plasterboard, used to provide racking
resistance, was often inadequately nailed; wall ties were found nailed to no
more than the sheathing, and poorly fixed into the outer brick skin.
Surveyors should consider how such defective workmanship would affect a
house's performance over a period of years, and look for tell-tale defects.
3. Durability accounted for over a quarter of all faults, and needs particular
attention when second -hand timber-framed houses are being surveyed.
Untreated timber was found in vulnerable locations. Too often, breather
p~pers were torn or missing altogether, and in general were considered too
vulnerable and susceptible to damage. Repairs to damaged papers were
mostly inadequate, with no lapping to cloak cavity trays and damp-proof
courses . A major problem with timber frame in the United Kingdom results
from the mild but wet conditions which prevail. It is, therefore, very
disturbing for BRE to have found "widespread inadequate provision for the
exclusion of rainwater." Surveyors should be on the alert for signs of rot.
4. Differential shrinkage. Site practice indicates that builders often appear

oblivious of the critical need to allow for relative movement in timber-frame
construction. On one 1S0-house site, the feet of the trussed rafters were built
into the top of the brick cladding. This means that both brickwork and
rafters "would be stressed in a way for which they were certainly not
designed." More widespread was the absence of clearance, or sufficient
clearance, at critical points, such as near sills. Lack of provision for vertical
relative movement between frame and cladding was "very common."
Surveyors will, however, experience problems in establishing the type and

position of moisture and vapour barriers, and the adequacy of fire stopping
in existing timber-framed dwellings.42 Faults will normally be investigated
by optic probe or.by opening up. As to the scale of the problem, it was
estimated that more than half-a-million timber-framed houses had been
built by 1985.43 .
The BRE subsequently issued a statement concerning the 1985 report.'!
of which the following is an extract . "Faults were defined in the report as
departures from good practice, of a kind which are commonly found in all
forms of house construction and it is clearly desirable that they are avoided;
but they only rarely lead to significant failures in service. Whilst design and
construction practice needs to be improved, the evidence available to BRE
indicates that the performance in service of timber-framed housing is no less
satisfactory than that of traditional construction ." This can probably be
substantiated in the light of the numerous constructional faults that occur in
cavity wall construction daily.
It appears that the National House-Building Council accepted timber-

framed houses in large quantities prematurely, before the necessary vital
research was carried out to adapt the system to the United Kingdom climate
and changing social attitudes. In the public sector, the design and build
contractors convinced local authorities that the speed of erection and high
insulation values were to their advantage. The tragedy is that public
confidence in timber-framed housing suffered badly just at the time
when most of the answers for sound construction were becoming known.
Gordon'? highlights the lesson learned-that all major innovation should be
thoroughly researched and approved before being implemented on a large
scale.
Dampness Penetration
Causes of Dampness
Damp penetration is one of the most serious defects in buildings. Apart
from causing deterioration of the structure, it can also result in damage to
furnishings and contents and can in severe cases adversely affect the health
of occupants. The main sources of dampness in buildings have . been
identified by Oxley and Gobert'" as direct penetration through the structure,
faulty rainwater disposal, faulty plumbing, rising damp and dampness in
solid floors. These aspects are now examined in some detail.
Water Introduced during Construction

In building a traditional three-bedroomed house, about 7000 litres of water
are introduced into the walls during bricklaying and plastering. The walls
often remain damp until a summer season has passed. As the moisture dries
out from inner and outer surfaces it is liable to leave a deposit of soluble salts
or translucent crystals . A porous wall with an impervious coating on one
surface will cause drying out on the other surface . Typical moisture contents
of some of the more common building materials are plaster: 0.2 to 1.0 per
cent, lightweight concrete: up to 5 per cent; and timber: 10 to 20 per cent.
Penetration through Roofs, Parapets and Chimneys

Tiled roofs may admit fine blown snow and fine rain, particularly in exposed
situations. Both tiles and slates must be laid to an adequate pitch and be
securely fixed. It is wise to provide a generous overhang at eaves. Parapets
and chimneys can collect and deliver water to parts of the building below
roof level, unless they have adequate damp-proof courses and flashings.
Leakage through flat roofs is more difficult to trace and needs to be
distinguished from condensation.
Faulty Plumbing or Rainwater Goods

Dampness may result from leaks in a plumbing system, although this must
not be confused with condensation on cold pipes. Rainwater goods which
are cracked or have defective joints over long periods can cause damp
penetration and deterioration of the structure.
Penetration through Walls

Penetration occurs most commonly through walls exposed to the prevailing
wet wind or where evaporation is retarded as in light wells. On occasions the
fault stems from excessive wetting from a leaking gutter or downpipe. There
must be a limit to the amount of rain that a solid wall can exclude. In the
wetter parts of the country (for example , south-west , western and north-
west England, rising to a maximum in north-west Scotland) and on exposed
sites, one-brick thick solid walls may permit penetration of water. In this
connection Lacy has devised indices' of exposure to driving rain. 45 The
greatest penetration is likely to occur through the capillaries between the
mortar joints and the walling units. The more impervious the mortar and the
denser the bricks or blocks, the more serious is the penetration likely to be.
Dense renderings can prevent moisture drying out more effectively than
preventing its entry, and this tendency is accentuated in cracked renderings
with moisture penetrating the cracks by capillary action, becoming trapped
behind the rendering and subsequently drying out on the inner face of the
wall.
Cavity walls when properly detailed and soundly constructed will not
permit penetration of rain . Penetration when it occurs is usually the direct
result of faulty detailing at openings or mortar droppings on wall ties.
Finally, disintegration of brickwork may be caused by the action of sulphates
or frost when the bricks are saturated.
Plate 7 shows the rapid and extensive deterioration of a reinforced precast
concrete sill, where rainwater has penetrated a joint causing rusting of the
steel reinforcement and spalling of the precast concrete.
Rising Damp
In older buildings damp may rise up walls to heights in excess of 1 m because
of the lack of damp-proof courses. The height of damp penetration depends
on several factors, such as the pore structure of the wall, degree of
saturation of soil, rate of evaporation from wall surfaces and presence of
salts in the wall. In newer buildings rising damp may occur through a
defective damp-proof course, the bridging of the damp-proof course by a
floor screed internally or by an external rendering or pointing, path or earth
outside the building, or mortar droppings in the cavity. Damp may also
penetrate a solid floor in the absence of ·a da'2!'-proof membrane. These
sources are well illustrated in BRE Digest 245.
Plate 7 Defective precast concrete sill
BRE Digest 24546 describes how measurements of surface moisture are in

themselves no positive indication that a genuine rising damp problem exists.
The electric meters commonly used by surveyors are responsive to both the
amount of moisture present and to the salt concentration, and cannot
distinguish between the two. Such meters often given high readings on the
walls of old properties where an accumulation of salts inevitably appears on
internal surfaces. This does not mean that the property necessarily has a
dampness problem , as high readings can be obtained from a wall where the
concentration of salts is high, even if the wall is virtually dry. Nevertheless,
as preliminary surveying instruments, these meters have a valuable role to
play and will identify areas where further investigation is necessary.
To obtain more conclusive proof of the presence of rising damp the most
satisfactory approach currently available is to obtain samples of the bricks,
blocks or mortar at some depth in the wall. From these samples an accurate
measurement of the moisture content of the wall can be obtained, together
with an indication of the influence of any hygroscopic salts that may be
present. The sampling technique creates a certain amount of dust and slight
damage to decorations. The testing of the samples can be undertaken using
the direct weighing and drying method or a carbide meter. A wrong
diagnosis could, however, lead to considerable unnecessary expenditure.
It is unusual for walls with moisture contents less than 5 per cent at their
base to be severely affected by rising damp, though hygroscopicity caused by
salts which may have accumulated over many years can cause damage to the
plaster and decorations. Comparing the hygroscopic moisture content
(HMe) with the registered moisture content (Me) indicates which factor is
determining the dampness at any position . An HMC higher than the MC
indicates that the dampness results from moisture from the air rather than
from the ground or some other source, while an MC higher than the HMC
indicates that water is coming from some source other than the air, such as
rising damp or rain penetration."
Some building materials possess an HMC of up to 5 per cent even without
the presence of salts from external sources. Although only a rough indicator,
the BRE believes that the 5 per cent threshold does represent a reasonable
general guide as to whether or not some kind of remedial treatment is
needed. Rising damp is a seasonal phenomenon, increasing in winter with
rising water tables and falling in summer. This seasonal effect must be taken
into account in any diagnosis since the problem could disappear in the
summer months and return in the winter.
Curing Rising Damp Penetration

Some causes of rising damp can be dealt with quite cheaply and easily. For
instance, it may be possible to lower earth, rockeries or pavings which
extend above the damp-proof course, or to remove rendering or pointing
which bridges the damp-proof course. The erection of porches, sun lounges
and other additions, often by do-it-yourself enthusiasts with little construc-
tional knowledge, can also result in the damp-proof course being bridged
and damp penetrating the main building. Where there is no damp-proof
course or where it is defective, more expensive measures are required and
these are now described.
Where the wall is of stable brickwork or coursed stonework and not
unusually thick, the best method is to saw a slot in a mortar bed joint with a
tungsten-carbide tipped chainsaw, normally' just below the level of an
existing suspended wooden floor or as close as possible to the top screed of
an existing solid floor. A damp-proof membrane is then inserted in the slot,
wedged with temporary wedges and varying the type of mortar filling to the
remaining gap according to the strength of the wall. The membrane is
normally inserted in 1 m lengths and usually consists of flexible black
polythene. The membrane can be extended internally to form a vertical
damp-proof course between the solid floor and the horizontal damp course.
It is, however, difficult to apply this method to party walls and it is costly,
time-consuming and causes considerable disturbance .
BRE Digest 24546 recommends that any new plastering which follows the
damp-proofing work should act as a barrier to residual salts and moisture in
a wall. Ideally it should have as high a vapour permeability as Possible to
help the evaporation of residual moisture and should be weaker than the
background to which it is applied. Some tests by BRE on a 1:3 cement! sand
undercoat finished with class C gypsum plaster gave satisfactory results.
BRE46 have recommended that non-traditional methods of damp-

proofing should be considered only if they have been awarded an Agrement
certificate. The only method satisfying this requirement in 1986 was
chemical injection, which was also covered by a British Standard code
of practice." Chemical injection systems involve the use of silicone or
aluminium stearate water repellents, either injected at high pressure or
transfused into the wall under gravity or at low pressure. The high-pressure
systems are the more commonly used.
BRE 46 point out that water repellents are pore liners rather than pore
blockers and hence allow the passage of some water vapour while preventing
the rise of liquid moisture. The repellents are not intended to provide a
damp-proof barrier against a ~ubstantial positive pressure of water and
should not be used in basements subject to high water tables and penetrating
damp. Another limitation is that repellents in common use for damp-
proofing work are not durable over long periods in highly alkaline con-
ditions, although this is not usually a problem in older buildings with
well-weathered lime/sand mortar joints, unless the walls are exceptionally
thick.
The repellents are injected or transfused into closely spaced holes in brick
or mortar courses at dpc level and the treatment must be carried out at
different depths in construction other than a single leaf wall, to ensure
penetration through the entire thickness of the structure. As rising damp is a
seasonal occurrence, injections are best carried out in late summer when
water tables are at their lowest and the walls are relatively dry.
Another damp-proofing technique is electro-osmosis, which is of two
types; passive and active. A continuous copper strip is inserted into drilled
holes at an appropriate level and, in the case of the passive system connected
to deep sunken earthing rods, and is designed to reverse the electrical
potential of the masonry and thus stop the upward movement of water from
the ground. The active system is connected to a power source, usually from
within the property, and suitably stepped down to the necessary low voltage .
There have been some reported failures with this technique and it does have
inherent weaknesses such as the possible corrosion of the metal strip and the
accidental breaking of the circuit. It was not recommended by the BRE in
1986.
Another approach would be to reduce the amount of moisture in the wall
by diverting groundwater through land drains or French drains, and possibly
to increase evaporation from the wall such as by removing dense external
renderings and defective plaster. These measures would not however
remedy a severe case of rising damp .
Where treatment of the source is virtually impossible or a building subject
to rising damp has only a limited life, a relatively cheap remedial method is
to conceal the rising damp in the walls by battening out or lining the inside
face of the wall to prevent dampness and salts affecting decorations. The
lining may consist of wallboard on pressure-impregnated battens or a
proprietary system. The main disadvantage is that these remedies will
reduce the evaporation rate from a wall and cause the dampness to rise
further.
Vegetation on the external faces of walls can cause problems. For

example, creeping plants can damage masonry, lichens are useful for dating
old stone but emit acid which corrodes metal flashings and gutters, while
moss although picturesque, encourages insects, reduces evaporation from
porous masonry and may block gutters. All plants should be trimmed to
below eaves level and kept clear of window and door frames. 42
Damp-proofing Solid Floors and Dry Rot in Suspended Timber Floors

Dampness may penetrate ground floors and the various remedial measures
are described in chapter 4.
Treatment of Damp Walls due to Rainwater Penetration

The treatment of cavity walls may entail clearing mortar droppings from wall
ties or above the damp-proof course by cutting out bricks in the outer leaf.
Alternatively it may be necessary to rectify defective damp-proof courses
around window or door openings.
A one-brick thick solid wall is unlikely to withstand severe weather
conditions satisfactorily and it may therefore be necessary to apply a suitable
external finish. The main disadvantage is that the attractive colour and
texture of good brickwork will be lost.
The most common external finish is rendering or roughcast. Rendering
may consist of two coats of Portland cement and sand (1:3 or 1:4), possibly
incorporating a waterproofing compound, finished with a float to a smooth
finish and often painted with two coats of emulsion or stone paint. This
produces a rather dense coat which is liable to develop hair cracks. Moisture
enters the cracks, becomes trapped behind the rendering and evaporates
from the inner surface. Hence it is advisable to use a rendering of
cement:lime:sand in the proportions of 1:1:6 or 1:2:9. These produce porous
finishes which absorb water in wet weather and permit free evaporation
when the weather improves.f It will be necessary to rake out the brickjoints
to form a key for the rendering, which should comply with BS 5262. 9
With roughcast or pebbledashing there is less risk of the external coat
cracking or breaking away from the wall. In roughcast the coarse aggregate,
usually gravel, is mixed into the second coat which is applied to the wall,
whereas in pebbledashing, the chippings are thrown on to the second coat
while it is still 'green'. In both cases the appearance is rather unattractive but
the need for periodic decoration is eliminated.
Common brick surfaces can be decorated in a variety of different ways to
make them watertight. Masonry paints have good water shedding properties
and are available in a wide range of colours. In more recent times,
chlorinated rubber paints have been applied to external brick and block walls
with satisfactory results. Bituminous paints give an almost impervious
surface coating but their use restricts future treatment owing to the bitumen
bleeding through other applications. Silicones and other colourless water
repellents are useful on exterior wall surfaces in good condition, when
the appearance of the brickwork or stonework is to be retained. The

permanence of this protection is variable, depending on the type of
treatment selected and the condition of the masonry and the degree of
exposure. Thick, textured sprayed coatings, often based on alkyd resins with
mica, perlite and sometimes fibres, are widely used and can have a life of up
to ten years. so
Vertical tile hanging on the external elevations of buildings can be very
attractive if skilfully fixed, but it is expensive. It is extremely durable
provided the fixing battens are pressure-impregnated with preservative.
With plain tiling all tiles must be nailed but a 40 mm lap is sufficient. Angles
may be formed with purpose -made tiles or be close cut and mitred with
soakers, while vertical stePfJedflashings are usually introduced at abutments
to form a watertight joint. 1
Weatherboarding provides a most attractive finish and may be either of
painted softwood, or of cedar boarding treated periodically with a suitable
preservative such as high solids exterior wood stain. 36 Feather-edge board-
ing is used extensively but probably the best results are obtained with
ship-lap boarding. The boarding is usually nailed through a felt backing to
vertical impregnated batterns. A variety of sheet claddings is also available in
steel, aluminium, asbestos cement and plastics.
Condensation
Nature of Condensation
In years past the major causes of dampness in buildings were rain penetra-
tion and rising ground moisture, but condensation has become an even
greater cause in post-war dwellings. Warm air can hold more water vapour
than cold air and when warm moist air meets a cold surface it is cooled and
gives up some of its moisture as condensation. Air containing a large amount
of water vapour has a higher vapour pressure than drier air and hence
moisture from the wetter air disperses towards drier air . This has special
significance since (1) a concentration of moist air as in a kitchen or bathroom
readily disperses throughout a dwelling, and (2) moist air at higher pressures
inside buildings tries to escape by all available routes to the outside, not only
by normal ventilation -exits but also through the structure when it may
condense within it. 52
Condensation takes two main forms-( 1) surface condensation arising
when the inner surface of the structure is cooler than room air, and (2)
interstitial condensation where vapour pressure drives water vapour through
slightly porous materials, which then condenses when it reaches colder
conditions.
The term relative humidity (rh) expresses as a percentage the ratio
between the actual vapour pressure of an air sample and the total vapour
pressure it could sustain at the same temperature (per cent rh at "C), Air is
described as saturated when it contains as much water vapour as it can hold.
It is then at 100 per cent rh o If moist air is cooled, a temperature will be

reached at which it will become saturated and below which it can no longer
hold all of its moisture. This temperature is the dew point. 52
The occurrence, persistence, extent and level of condensation are
influenced by a number of factors, of which the most important are
probably:
(1) number of occupants of the property;
(2) type of dwelling and construction;
(3) heat levels maintained in the property;
(4) type of heating;
(5) length of time the property remains unheated;
(6) degree of insulation;
(7) amount of ventilation; and
(8) prevailing weather conditions.53
A BRE report'? estimated that 1.5 million dwellings in the United
Kingdom are seriously affected by dampness caused by condensation, and a
further 2 million have slight condensation problems.
Causes of Condensation
There are two main reasons for the increase in the frequency and severity of
condensation-(l) changes in living habits,and (2) changes in building
techniques. More housewives now go out to work, often resulting in
dwellings often being left unoccupied, unventilated and unheated for much
of the day. Moisture-producing activities such as cooking and clothes
washing tend to be concentrated into shorter periods of time. Furthermore,
washing and drying of clothes are often carried out within the main dwelling
area instead of in a separate washhouse or fairly isolated scullery. Unflued
paraffin and bottled gas heaters are still used quite extensively for
background heating and they emit considerable quantities of water vapour.
Furthermore, occupants have become more sensitive to slight dampness in
their dwellings and endeavour to maintain a high standard of decoration, so
that local deterioration assumes greater importance. 55
Structurally, probably the most significant change is the disappearance of
open fires and air vents which provided valuable ventilation routes. Modern
windows reduce ventilation rates and this may be further accentuated by
draught-proofing by occupants. Solid floors without an insulating floor finish
or screed are slow to warm up, and modem wall plasters and paints are less
absorptive. Flat roofs and newer forms of wall construction also need careful
design if they .are not to lead to increased condensation.
Surface condensation can lead to unsightly and unpleasant blue, green
and black mould growth on walls, ceilings, fabrics and furnishings, which
produces many complaints from occupants. On paint it may show as pink or
purple staining. 56 Condensation within the fabric is slower to show but may
be much more serious in the long term.
Diagnosis
Rising damp can be distinguished from condensation by the pattern and
positioning of staining, while moisture penetration through cavity brickwork
across wall ties also shows pattern staining. Gutters and downpipes must be
checked for cracks, defective joints, blockages and the resultant water
penetration. Roofs can also be checked for defects and here again the type
and position of staining is often a useful guide. Less obvious causes of
dampness are slight weeping at pipe joints and wastes, and pinhole leaks in
pipes, where the pipes and fittings are concealed .
Drying out of construction moisture can lead to defects similar to those
resulting from condensation and it is desirable to allow drying out to finish
before carrying out remedial measures. As this can take up to three years,
occupants are only likely to accept this advice with reluctance.
Condensation frequently occurs as occasional damp patches in cold
weather, although a sudden change from cold to warm humid weather may
also cause condensation. Apart from investigating the damp conditions,
attention should also be directed to the heating arrangements, possible use
of portable oil or gas-fired appliances, ventilation, arrangements for drying
clothes, means of dispersal of moisture from the kitchen, form of construc-
tion of floors, walls and roof, and whether there is any uninsulated
pipework. Measurement of temperatures and humidities will show whether
conditions favourable to condensation exist at the time of measurement.
Suitable charts and useful calculations are contained in the DOE publication
Condensation in Dwellings-Part 1.S2 A sling or whirling hygrometer is
useful for this purpose and consists of both wet and dry bulb thermo-
meters.ss Protimeters can also help in indicating the amount of moisture
held beneath the surface of any material, subject to the limitations described
earlier in respect of electric meters. An investigator also needs the capacity
to assess the reliability of information supplied by occupants .
Condensation problems will lead to damp patches that are more diffuse
and without the definite edges that occur with other causes. Impermeable
surfaces, such as glosspaint or vinyl wallpaper, can be covered with a film or
droplets of water. Trouble starts in areas that are usually cold, such as inside
exposed corners, wall to floor junctions or solid lintels, or poorly ventilated,
such as kitchen cupboards, wardrobes or behind furniture. Spores from
moulds and other fungi can germinate over a whole range of temperatures (0
to 20De) given suitable conditions (supply of food, oxygen and liquid water);
resulting in deterioration of decorations, a musty smell and possible health
hazards.s7
Remedial Measures
The principal remedial measures consist of improved ventilation, insulation
or heating, or a combination of them. If the relative humidity is excessive,
the amount of moisture must be reduced or temperatures raised. Alterna-
tively the moisture vapour should be removed at source, preferably by
mechanical means.
Ventilation is normally the cheapest solution and can be very effective

provided it does not result in unpleasant draughts, otherwise it is likely to be
rendered ineffective by occupants. This is particularly important in kitchens.
A limited amount of ventilation is essential to keep relative humidities
below 70 per cent. This can be achieved by the installation of trickle
ventilators in bedrooms and extractor fans in kitchens and bathrooms.
Automatic controls, such as humidistats, can improve the effectiveness of
fans at little extra cost. Care should be taken to make the fans as unobtrusive
as possible, both in visual and acoustic terma" Ventilated hoods above
cookers are valuable in quickly trapping and removing the steam generated
by cooking.
Insulation is generally more expensive than ventilation but more acceptable

to the occupier. The main aims are to keep surface temperatures above dew
point, improve V-values and secure better value for money from heating and
improved comfort conditions. (V-value is the rate of transfer of heat through
an element of abuilding.) This is normally done by filling cavities with
suitable insulant or fixing a plasterboard-insulation composite board with an
integral vapour check internally. 56
Heating is the most effective measure of all but also the most expensive, and
may be opposed by occupants faced with increased running costs. The aim is
to raise air and surface temperatures and so reduce the relative humidity.
Living rooms, even if heated only during evenings, seldom suffer from
surface condensation, while bedrooms, which are often very poorly heated,
often present problems. 52
Condensation should not be a problem in bedrooms if the structure has a

V-value of not greater than 0.60 W/m 2 DC, with reasonable ventilation-c-one
to two air changes per hour-and where the room temperature is at least 5°C
above outside air for most of the time. In the case of poor ventilation,
heating should be improved to give 8 to lOoC above outside air in very cold
weather. The prevalence of condensation in bedrooms is due mainly to lack
of adequate heating and ventilation , and the best remedy is to provide
reasonable heating with some night ventilation. 57 Casual heat gain from
other rooms can be important, such as, for example, a bedroom over a
well-heated living room. Conversely, a bedroom at one end of a flat may
obtain little benefit from other heating and may also have a high heat loss if
it is an external corner room with two exposed walls. SimilarlYi top floor
rooms may suffer high heat loss through poorly insulated roofs. 5
Clothes drying cupboards should be heated and well ventilated. Cupboards
on external walls, especially clothes cupboards in poorly heated bedrooms,
often suffer from condensation. They will benefit from high and low level
internal vents and in extreme cases low wattage tubular heaters should be
installed .
With bathrooms, rapid ventilation provided by opening windows after
bathing is usually adequate, and particularly so if there is a heated towel rail.
Bathroom doors should be well-fitting and kept closed. Internal bathrooms
with fan ventilation rarely give trouble if the fan is functioning satisfactorily.
Separate WCs are rarely heated and condensation often occurs on cold
fittings. In extreme cases the provision of a low wattage tubular heater could
be considered. In a similar manner, condensation may drip from cold
storage cisterns located in cupboards. A drip tray or insulation at least
12.5 mm thick to the underside of the cistern should prove effective.
Condensation on cold water pipes may also cause drips and the pipes should
ideally be insulated.
There is normally sufficient air movement in halls, passages and stairways
to prevent condensation but additional heat may be needed in extreme
cases. Living rooms which are heated to above 18°C for several hours a day
rarely suffer from serious condensation. If it does occur, it may be caused by
an adjacent kitchen without a fan, very poor ventilation of the living room or
poor structural insulation value. In the latter case some background heating
for longer periods should be provided or, alternatively, a low thermal
capacity lining should be fixed to the room face of the structure. 55
The measures necessary to prevent interstitial condensation can be deter-
mined by calculation. Unless there is a vapour barrier on the room side of an
external structure, water vapour will enter and condense when it reaches
colder conditions towards the outside. With flat roofs, a vapour check at
ceiling level may be formed of gloss paint or vinyl-faced paper. With some
composite forms of walling, a vapour barrier is needed on the inside face,
often in the form of polythene sheeting on impregnated battens with a dry
lining, or an insulated lining with an integral vapour barrier. Anti -
condensation paints can be used in certain situations but their use on a wide
scale is rarely justified. Finally, occupants of dwellings should be informed
of what is and what is not reasonable so far as living patterns are concerned,
as quite trivial changes in living habits may bring a major improvement.56
Plate 8 shows the results of condensation on the interior face of a glazed
door to a school classroom, which has necessitated the replacement of the
decaying door. Plate 9 shows mould growth in a dwelling caused by
condensation on walls affected by penetrating damp.
Electric dehumidifiers that operate on a closed refrigeration cycle both
dry and heat the air. They are most effective in warmer dwellings where
condensation problems are caused by high vapour pressures but they tend to
be relatively obtrusive and noisy in operation.56
Chimney Problems
Smoky Chimneys
Causes. One of the most numerous complaints in the past, and often one
of the most difficult to cure satisfactoril~, is that of smoky chimneys. A
normal open fire requires 110 to 170 m of air per hour for it to burn
satisfactorily; air is drawn into the flue from the room and this must be
replaced by further air drawn in from outside the room . There are many
Plate 8 Rotting door resulting from condensation

Plate 9 Mould growth on walls of dweUing

factors or combinations of them which can prevent chimneys functioning

satisfactorily, and the more important ones are now described.
(1) Blockage of the flue by soot or debris .

(2) Air starvation-insufficient air to carry the smoke into the flue.
(3) Adverse flow conditions resulting from poor design of the fireplace
through which the smoke passes. For example , the throat over the fire may
be too large or badly formed, thus reducing the velocity of the smoke and
gases; the fireplace opening may be too large in relation to the flue size
(more than six times area of flue); flue pipe may project too far into flue and
'so restrict the free flow of smoke and gases; or the fireplace opening may be
too high (possibly 610 mm) , thus assisting smoke to enter the room.
(4) Unsuitable size of flue; flues larger than 230 mm square may cause
smokiness because they never really get warm.
(5) Air leaks into flue through defective brick joints and cracked
parging, cooling gases and reducing draught.
(6) Poorly constructed flue-offset too low, bend too abrupt or traver-
sing length too long-resulting in poor chimney draught and a smoky fire.
(7) Unsuitable chimney pot-possibly round base pot on a square flue
causing obstruction to flow.
(8) Steady downdraught due to chimney top being in a high-pressure
zone, such as a chimney pot lower than a nearby ridge and on the windward
side .
(9) Downdraught due to doors, windows or ventilators being in a
low-pressure zone, occurring mainly with short chimneys serving inset open
fires in bungalows and the top two storeys of blocks of flats.
(10) Intermittent downdraught caused by downward striking wind
currents near chimney tops where there are higher buildings, trees or
hillsides nearby.
Remedies
The various remedial works are now described.
(1) Ensure that the chimney has been swept-excessive quantities of
soot may result from the use of unsuitable fuel-and that the flue is free
from debris by lowering a metal coring ball down the flue. Check on the size
of throat, shape and position of lintel, and similar matters.
(2) Open the room door or window. If smoke ceases to enter the room
the trouble is probably due to air starvation and the removal of draught-
proofing and/or provision of ventilators or underfloor ducts are likely to cure
the problem.
(3) Where the throat is too large, a thin sheet of metal can be wedged
across the front of the throat, reducing the entry aperture to about 100 x
250 mm. If this produces an improvement, a variable throat restrictor can be
fitted. Where the fireplace opening is too high, place a thin piece of metal,
about 75 to 100 mm high, across the top of the opening to reduce its height
to 510 to 560 mm. If a greater depth than 100 mm is involved, this solution
would be undesirable as it could adversely affect the heating of the room. If

smoking ceases, a permanent metal canopy can be installed.
(4) Excessively large brick flues can be lined with fireclay or refractory
concrete pipes with spigot and socket or rebated joints, or other suitable
lining.
(5) A flame of a lighted candle will be drawn in by an air leak in a flue
and defects in the chimney can be located by a 'smoke bomb test' . Defective
joints are made good with asbestos rope dressed with fire cement.
(6) The run of a flue can be checked with a chimney sweep's rods. In
bad cases, the chimney breast is opened up and the faulty section rebuilt.
(7) An unsatisfactory round base pot can be replaced with a square
base pot.
(8) With steady downdraught due to the chimney pot being in a high
pressure zone, a door or window opened on the windward side will probably
balance the pressure and restore updraught. The chimney can be extended
temporarily with sheet metal pipes and, if satisfactory, the chimney stack
can then be raised.
(9) By producing sufficient smoke in the room, the movement of air
can be traced and in this instance it will show air being drawn out of the
room. Remedies include a draught-inducing cowl, a throat restrictor, or
finally an openable room heater or a free-standing convector fire.
(10) With intermittent downdraught, the usual remedy is to fit a
draught-inducing cowl or a 'dovecote', consisting of a concrete capping at
the top of the chimney supported by small piers at each corner and gaps in
between.
Domestic Boiler Chimneys

Many pre-war dwellings were built with parged brick flues serving solid fuel
boilers, and sulphates, acids and water vapour forming the products of
combustion have often attacked the parging and brick joints. This has
resulted in staining of brickwork and decorations, distortion and cracking
of brickwork in the chimney, and general expansion of the brickwork,
sometimes allowing the pot to sink into the chimney stack. Furthermore,
these chimneys were often built alongside external walls with long
lengths of exposed chimney which aggravated condensation problems.
All defective brickwork must be cut out and replaced with new materials,
and the flue needs lining, usually either with a flexible metal lining or an in
situ lightweight concrete lining. The flexible metal linings are made of
stainless steel, but their use is restricted to oil and gas-fired flues, and they
are pulled down existing flues by means of a cord attached to a temporary
tapered plug. The top of the lining is secured by a sealing plate bedded upon
the stack upon which the terminal construction is built. The air space
between the lining and the chimney fabric can be filled with loose insulation.
Lightweight concrete linings can be cast in situ using a temporary
inflatable rubber core centred by metal spacers to form the flue. The bottom
is sealed with a metal plate and the annular space around the rubber core
filled by pumping lightweight concrete through a hose. When the concrete

has set, the tube is deflated and removed .
Clay, refractory concrete and asbestos cement rigid pipe linings are only
really feasible where the existing chimneys are in straight runs .
New brickwork must be allowed to dry out before plastering. Brick joints
should be raked out to a depth of at least 15 mm, and the plaster often
consists of cement and sand (1:3) undercoat finished with a suitable gypsum
plaster. Where staining is severe, adhesive-backed metal foil or foil-backed
plasterboard coated with bitumen paint may be used to enclose the
brickwork prior to plastering.
Closing Fireplace Openings

Occupiers of dwellings sometimes request permission to block up fireplace
openings. A number of precautions need to be taken to avoid later trouble.
(1) The chimney must first be swept, as if soot is left in the flue it will
become damp and the salts and tarry matter it contains may pass through the
brickwork and cause stains and damp patches on the chimney breast.
(2) An unused flue provides an easy means of access for rainwater, and
it is advisable to provide some form of capping, such as a half-round ridge
tile, over the head of the chimney to prevent direct entry of rain.
(3) Ventilation is needed and so the flue should not be sealed at either
top or bottom, and a ventilator should be provided in the blocked up
opening.
(4) Where the opening is blocked up with bricks or blocks and
plastered over, this entails the use of a large quantity of water, and the
surface should not be decorated until it has had ample time to dry out. The
use of incombustible sheet materials will overcome this difficulty and they
should preferably be easily removable to allow for the extraction of any
debris that may accumulate behind them.
References
1 The Building Regulations 1985: SI 1985 Nr 1065. HMSO (1985)
2 BRE Digest 75. Cracking in buildings (1977)
3 E. D. Mills (Ed.). Building Maintenanceand Preservation. Butterworths
(1980)
4 British Standards Institution. BS 3921: 1985 Specification for clay bricks
5 BRE Digest 164. Clay brickwork: Part 1 (1980)
6 BRE Digest 165. Clay brickwork: Part 2 (1974)
7 W. H. Ransom. Building Failures: Diagnosis and Avoidance. Spon
(1981)
8 British Standards Institution. BS 187: 1978 Specification for calcium
silicate (sandlime and flint/ime) bricks
9 British Standards Institution. BS 6073: Part l : 1981 Specification for
precast concrete masonry units
10 BRE Digest 157. Calcium silicate brickwork (1981)

11 BRE Digest 160. Mortars for bricklaying (1973)
12 Department of the Environment/Department of Transport. Staining of
brickwork. Construction 33 (April 1980)
13 BRE Digest 89. Sulphate attack on brickwork (1971)
14 Institution of Civil Engineers. Design Life of Buildings. Telford (1985)
15 E. J. Gibson (Ed.). Developments in Building Maintenance-i-l,
16 British Standards Institution. BS 5628: Code of practice for structural
use of masonry. Part 1: 1978 Unreinforced masonry
17 BRE Digest246. Strength of brickwork and blockwork walls: design for
vertical load (1981)
18 BRE Digest 281. Safety of large masonry walls (1984)
19 British Standards Institution. BS 1243: 1978 Specification for metal ties
for cavity wall construction
20 BRE Digest257. Installation of wall ties in existing construction (1982)
21 BRE Digest 200. Repairing brickwork (1977)
22 H. S. Staveley and P. V. Glover. Surveying Buildings. Butterworths
(1983)
23 BRE Digest 139. Control of lichens, moulds and similar growths (1982)
24 BRE Digest 177. Decay and conservation of stone masonry (1984)
25 British Standards Institution. BS 3826: 1969 Silicone based water repel-
lents for masonry .
26 British Standards Institution. BS 6477: 1984 Specification for water
repellents for masonry surfaces
27 BRE Digest 280. Cleaning external surfaces of buildings (1983)
28 BRE Digest 217. Wall cladding defects and their diagnosis (1978)
29 Curtain walling/cladding choices. Building Products (Autumn 1985)
30 BRE Digest 235. Fixings for non-Ioadbearing precast concrete cladding
panels (1980)
31 M. Wheat. What's new in sealants. CIOB Technical Information
Service Paper Nr 27 (1983)
32 D. D . Higgins. Efflorescence on Concrete. Cement and Concrete
Association (1982)
33 D. D. Higgins. Removal ofStains and Growths from Concrete. Cement
and Concrete Association (1982)
34 BRE Digest 161. Reinforced plastics cladding panels (1974)
35 BRE Digest 216. GRC (1978)
36 BRE Digest 286. Natural finishes for exterior timber (1984)
37 Chartered Institute of Building. Building Maintenance Management
(1985)
38 DOE. Weathering steels. DOE Construction. HMSO (1972)
39 M. Gordon. Stopping the rot. Building Design (11 April 1986)
40 BRE. Timber Framed Housing: A Technical Appraisal (1983)
41 BRE. Quality in Timber Framed Housing (1985)
42 I. H. Seeley. Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapidations . Macmillan
(1985)
43 Timber and Brick Homes Information Council. Timber and Brick

Homes Handbook (1985)
44 T. A. Oxley and E. G. Gobert. Dampness in Buildings. Butterworths
(1983)
45 BRE Digest 127. An index of exposure to driving rain (1971)
46 BRE Digest 245. Rising damp in walls (1981)
47 British Standards Institution. BS 6576: 1985 Code of practice for
installation of chemical damp-proof courses
48 BRE Digest 196. External rendered finishes (1976)
external rendered finishes
50 BRE Digest 197. Painting walls. Part 1: Choice of paint (1982)
52 DOE. Condensation in Dwellings, Part 1: A Design Guide. HMSO
(1970)
53 A. Benster. Effective treatment of dampness in building. Public Service
and Local Government (December 1979)
54 C. H . Sanders and J. P. Cornish. BRE Report. Dampness: One Week's
Complaints in Five Local Authorities in England and Wales (1982)
55 DOE. Condensation in Dwellings, Part 2: Remedial Measures. HMSO
(1971)
56 BRE Digest 297. Surface condensation and mould growth in tra-
ditionally-built dwellings (1985)
57 BRE Digest 176. Failure patterns and implications (1975)
4BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-lII
Timbers, Floors.Boots, Sound and Thermal Insulation, and Vibration
Timber Defects
Nature of Timber
Botanically trees are grouped into two classifications
(1) Broad leaved trees (hardwoods) are generally hard, tough, dense
and dark-coloured with acid, aromatic or even poisonous secretions,
although not all hardwoods are hard. The medullary rays in hardwoods are
usually more clearly visible than in softwoods. Typical examples of hard-
woods are oak, teak, mahogany, walnut, elm, iroko and sapele.
(2) Needle leaved trees (softwoods) are coniferous with cone-shaped
seed vessels and narrow, needle-shaped leaves. They are usually elastic and
easy to work, and have resinous or sweet secretions. Some softwoods such as
pitch pine are quite hard . Typical examples of softwoods are European
redwood, yellow pine, Douglas fir, spruce, Western hemlock and Western
red cedar.
Trees are generally felled between mid-October and mid-January and are
converted into suitably sized timbers by using a variety of sawing techniques.
The 'quartering' method is the most expensive but shows the grain to best
advantage, while the 'slash' method is extremely economical. The 'through
and through' method, with all cuts parallel, reduces waste to a minimum but
some boards will twist on shrinking.
Seasoning of Timber
In 'green' timber large quantities of free water are present in the cell cavities
and the cell walls are also saturated. Seasoning consists of drying out the free
water and some of the water from the cell walls, which on withdrawal causes
the timber to shrink, with the object of reducing the moisture content to a
level consistent with the humidity of the air in which the timber will be
placed . The importance of seasoning can scarcely be exaggerated. It is vital
that timber is dried to an appropriate moisture content, and care in drying
will be wasted unless the timber is adequately protected in transit and
98
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-III 99
storage and after fixing in a wet building. There are two principal methods of
seasoning timber.
(1) Air seasoning whereby the 'green' timber is stacked with laths or
'stickers' between the timbers to allow the passage of air and to assist in the
evaporation of moisture from the timber . A suitable roof is needed to
protect the timber from sun and rain. Air seasoning is unlikely to reduce the
moisture content below 17 per cent even under ideal conditions and may
take up to 2 years. Timber used internally in centrally heated buildings
should not have a moisture content exceeding 10 per cent to prevent
shrinkage and warping.
(2) Kiln seasoning is normally carried out in a forced draught compart-
ment kiln, in which the air is heated by steam pipes and humidified by water
sprays or steam jets. The temperature, degree of humidity and rate of air
flow are all controlled from outside the kiln.
A maximum moisture content of 22 per cent should be specified for green
timber. For structural timbers the moisture content in service is likely to
vary between 12 per cent in continuously heated buildings and 20 per cent in
unheated buildings.'
Preservation of Timber
Few timbers are resistant to decay or insect attack for long periods of time,
and in many cases the length of life can be much increased by preservative
treatment. The need for preservative treatment is largely dependent on the
severity of the service environment.' The principal protective liquids are
toxic oils, such as coal tar creosote; water-borne ·inorganic salts such as
copper/chrome and copper/chrome/arsenic.i and organic solvent solutions,
such as copper and zinc naphthenate," all of which are suitable for both
exterior and interior use.4
Preservatives can be applied by non-pressure methods such as brush
application, spraying, immersion and steeping .S The double vacuum method
uses a closed cylinder. A vacuum is created, the organic solvent preservative
flows in, the vacuum is released and the preservative is taken into the wood.
Sometimes the cylinder is pressurised to increase penetration, then a second
vacuum is created to drain surplus preservative. For lasting preservation, a
pressure method is preferable. In the 'full-cell' process, the timber is placed
in a closed cylinder and a partial vacuum applied to draw out air from the
cells, hot preservative adinitted, air pressure applied for one to six hours and
a partial vacuum reapplied to remove excess liquid. The 'empty-cell' process
is cleaner and more economical and a deeper penetration can be obtained
with only limited excess preservative. The timber is subjected to air
pressure, the preservative admitted and a higher pressure applied causing
the liquid to penetrate the timber and compress air in the cells. When the
timber is extracted, the air trapped in the cells forces out excess liquid
leaving the cells empty but impregnating the cell walls."
Present-day experience contradicts the extreme view that preservation
treatment of building timber is never justified. The annual expenditure of
some £300 million on remedial treatment and consequent repair following

insect and fungal attack indicates the size of the problem, and newer and
non-traditional forms of construction generate additional maintenance
problems. Recent trends of lower timber quality, higher timber prices and
increased costs of remedial and repair work in relation to initial costs,
strengthen the economic case for timber preservation. Preservation forms a
second defence if the protection afforded by design and maintenance proves
inadequate.
Some timber components justify treatment more than others. Where
timber is exposed to a continually hazardous environment unprotected by
design,it should be treated, and where experience shows a high risk of
failure in loadbearing structures, preservation is essential, especially in such
cases as joists, firring and decking of sealed flat roofs. Furthermore,
preservation is desirable where there is a high risk of failure through faults in
design or workmanship and where remedy is difficult and expensive, where
there is a high risk of condensation, and in loadbearing concealed frames of
external walls. Preservation is clearly optional where there is a low risk of
attack or where remedial action or replacement is simple, as in the case of
timbers in normal pitched roofs and unsealed flat roofs of unoccupied
buildings, and ground floor joists. Preservation of floor boards, skirting
boards and internal joinery is not usually necessary.
Strengtt: of Timber
There are thousands of different species of timber but relatively few produce
timber for structural use. For structural use, where appearance is generally
unimportant, strength properties and durability are usually the prime
considerations when making the choice of species. t Tables of reliable
strength properties for each timber species and stress grade combination are
contained in BS 5268.6
Timber Defects and their Rectification

The strength and usefulness of timber can be affected by a wide variety of
defects, some of which can occur during natural growth, others during
seasoning or manufacture, while others result from attack by fungi or
insects. The principal defects are listed and described.
A. Defects arising from natural causes

(1) Knots. These are portions of branches enclosed in the wood by
the natural growth of the tree; they affect the strength of the timber as they
cause a deviation of the grain and may leave a hole. This is particularly
important where they occur in critical parts of structural timbers subject to
high tension, and it is sometimes helpful to turn the timber so that the defect
is on the compression edge. Large knots on edges or arrises which penetrate
deeply into structural timbers are particularly harmful. There are several
types of knot. A sound knot is one free from decay, solid across its face and
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-Ill 101
at least as hard as the surrounding wood. A dead knot has its fibres
interwoven with those of the surrounding wood to an extent of less than
one-quarter of the cross-sectional perimeter; a loose knot is a dead knot not
held firmly in place. Rind gall is a surface wound that has been enclosed by
the growth of the tree.
(2) Shakes . These consist of a separation of fibres along the grain due
to stresses developing in the standing tree, or during felling or seasoning. A
cross shake occurs in cross-grained timber following the grain; a heart shake
is a radial shake originating at the heart; a ring or cup shake follows a growth
ring; and a star shake consists of a number of heart shakes resembling a star.
(3) Bark pocket. Bark in a pocket associated with a knot which has
been partially or wholly enclosed by the growth of the tree (inbark or
ingrown bark) .
(4) Deadwood. Timber produced from dead standing trees .
(5) Resin pocket. Cavities in timber containing liquid resin (pitch
pocket or gum pocket).
B. Defects due mainly to seasoning

(1) Check. A separation of fibres along the grain forming a crack or
fissure in the timber, not extending through the piece from one surface to
another.
(2) Ribbing. A more or less regular corrugation of the surface of the
timber caused by differential shrinkage of spring wood and summer wood
(crimping).
(3) Split . A separation of fibres along the grain forming a crack or
fissure that extends through the piece from one surface to another.
(4) Warp . A distortion in converted timber causing departure from its
original plane. Cupping is a curvature occurring in the cross-section of a
piece and a bow is a curvature of a piece of timber in the direction of its
length .
C. Defects due to manufacture (including conversion)

(1) Chipped grain. The breaking away of the wood below the finished
surface by the action of a cutter or other tool.
(2) Imperfect manufacture. Any defect, blemish or imperfection inci-
dental to the conversion or machining of timber , such as a variation in
sawing, torn grain , chipped grain or cutter marks.
(3) Torn grain. Tearing of the wood below the finished surface by the
action of a cutter or other tool.
(4) Waney edge. This is the original rounded surface of a tree
remaining on a piece of converted timber .
D. Fungal attack
(1) Fungal decay . This is decomposition of timber caused by fungi
and other micro-organisms, resulting in softening, progressive loss of
strength and weight and often a change of texture or colour. Fungi are
living plants and require food supply, moisture, oxygen and a suitable
temperature. A fungus is made up of cells called hyphae and a mass of

hyphae is termed mycelium. It also contains fruit bodies within which very
fine spores are formed. When timber is infected by spores being blown on to
it, hyphae are then formed which penetrate the timber and break down the
wood as food by means of enzymes. The Building Research Establishment?
distinguishes two main forms of decay in wood according to the colour of the
decayed timber (brown rots and white rots) .
(2) Dote . The early stages of decay are characterised by bleached or
discoloured streaks or patches in wood, the general texture remaining more
or less unchanged . This defect is also known as doaty , dosy, dozy and foxy.
(3) Dry rot. This is a serious form of timber decay caused by a fungus,
Serpula lacrymans . The fungus develops from rust-coloured spores, which
can be carried by wind, animals or insects, and throw out minute hollow
white silky threads (hyphae) . The fungus also produces grey or white strands
2 to 8 mm thick which can travel considerable distances and penetrate brick
walls through mortar joints. The strands throw off hyphae whenever they
meet timber and carry the water supply for digestion of the timber, which
becomes friable, powdery and dull brown in colour, accompanied by a
distinctive mushroom-like smell. Often the timber shrinks and splits into
brick-shaped pieces formed by deep longitudinal and cross cracks ." Table 4.1
shows the main characteristics of Serpula lacrymans .
The fungus needs a source of damp timber with a moisture content above
20 per cent. Damp , still air will encourage the establishment and spread of
the fungus, particularly if these conditions are maintained for long periods.
To eradicate an outbreak of dry rot, all affected timber and timber for 300 to
450 mm beyond must be cut away and burnt, preferably on the site .
Surrounding masonry should be sterilised with a suitable fungicide such as
sodium pentachlorophenoxide or sodium 2-phenylphenoxide. All apparently
sound timber which is at risk should receive three brush coats of a suitable
preservative, such as type F in BS 5707.9 Where it is likely that damp
conditions will persist as in a damp cellar, replacement timber should be
pressure-impregnated with a copper/chromium/arsenic preservative con-
forming to BS 4072. 10 Similar treatment with creosote to BS 91311 is
effective but it emits a strong odour and stains. Where dampness is not
expected to persist, an organic solvent type of preservative can be applied b~
immersion or the double vacuum process in accordance with BS 5707.
Levels of treatment are detailed in as 52686 and as 5589.12
The cause of the outbreak must be established and rectified, usually by
preventing damp penetration and improving ventilation. The most vulner-
able locations are cellars, inadequately ventilated floors, ends of timbers
built into walls, backs of joinery fixed to walls and beneath sanitary
appliances. The design of timber floors to prevent dry rot is covered in BRE
Digest 18. 13
Dry rot frequently starts near a damp wall, behind woodwork or under a
floor. Look particularly for irregularities or waviness in the surface of
panelling, skirtings, window linings or other woodwork, as they may be
caused by dry rot. A knife blade will easily penetrate and be withdrawn from
infected timber . Attacked wood becomes light in weight, crumbles under
the fingers, has a dull brown colour and often breaks up into pieces by
splitting along and across the grain. Sometimes the silky grey or white
fruiting bodies can be seen on skirting boards , panelling and even outside
walls near ventilators. Spore dust in the form of reddish-brown powder may
penetrate between floor boards or cracks in woodwork, and the distinctive
smell may also be detected. Plates 10, 11 and 12 illustrate the nature and
serious consequences of outbreaks of dry rot in diverse situations.
The causes of dampness must be positively established and rectified.
Typical sources of dampness are buried or obstructed airbricks, flower beds
or rockeries formed against walls above damp-proof course, blocked or
defective gutters, downpipes and gullies, broken pavement lights and
windows , badly fitting cellar flaps, missing weatherboarding, damaged
flashings , soakers and valleys , dislodged pointing, cracked masonry and
Plate 10 Dry rot to underside of noor

Platge II Dry rot mycelium
plumbing leaks. Regular inspections of existing buildings should prevent

these defects occurring for more than short periods. Table 4.2 lists the
measures needed to control an outbreak of dry rot.
(4) Coniophora puteana (cellar fungus). This is a fungus which
attacks wet timber and is mainly found in badly ventilated basements and
bathrooms. The fruit bodies are in sheets, yellow to brown in colour.
(5) Wet rot. Originally this was defined as chemical decomposition
generally arising from exceptionally wet or alternate wet and dry conditions,
as occurs with timber fencing posts at ground level. The decay may be
Plate 12 Dry rot attack behind panelling
accelerated by fungus attack. More recently the term has been applied to
fungus attacks other than dry rot, for instance Coniophora puteana, Poria
vaillantii (white strands) and Paxillus panuoides (pale yellow strands and
reddish-brown wood). 7 Other fungi associated with wet rot are Phellinus
megaloporous, Letinus lepidous, Poria xanthus and Trametes serialis. Dea-
ling with wet rot is a relatively straightforward process, embracing removal
of the source of dampness and subsequently drying out. Timbers which have
become structurally unsound require replacement or strengthening.
Table 4.1 Rec:ognition of Serpuls lacrymans (dry rot)

Usual effect on Fruit-bodies
the wood Strands Mycelium and spores
Wood becomes light in Strands grey or In damp dark Fruit bodies fleshy, soft,
weight, crumbles under white, 2-8 mm places, soft white but rather tough; shaped
the fingers and has a dun thick, become cushions or silky like pancakes or
brown colour. It shrinks brittle when dried growths; in drier brackets. Spore-bearing
and splits into cubic places , thick surface rusty red with
pieces silver-grey sheets shallow pores or ridges
or skins usually and furrows; margin
showing patches white. Spores often
of lemon yellow settle on horizontal
and tinges of lilac surfaces as a layer of
rust-coloured dust
Source: BRE Digest 299'.
Table 4.2 Measures for controlUng an outbreak of dry rot

Primary measura Locate and eliminate sources of moisture
Promote rapid drying of the structure
Secondary measures Determine the full extent of the outbreak

Remove rotted wood
Contain the fungus within the wall
Treat remaining sound timbers with
preservatives
Use preservative-treated replacement timbers
Introduce support measures
Source: BRE Digest 299'.
E. Insect attack
BRE Digest 30714 describes how most of the insects which cause damage to
timber are beetles. The adults lay eggs on the surface of the wood, in splits
or in bark, and these hatch into active, grub-like larvae which eat their way
into the wood and form tunnels. The damage to timber is caused largely by
the feeding and tunnelling of the larvae . The tunnels usually become filled
with excreted wood pellets known as 'bore dust' . The size, shape and
cross-section of the tunnels, and to a lesser extent the characteristics of the
bore dust, help to identify the type of insect.
When the larvae are fully grown, which may take from one to five years,
they pass through a pupal stage to emerge from the infested wood as adult
beetles, leaving emergence holes. The beetles do not themselves cause
further damage although they can spread the infestation by egg-laying.
BRE Digest 30714 lists the damage features used in the identification of
wood-borers as:
1. type and condition of the wood (hardwood or softwood, sound or

rotted);
2. size and shape of holes on the wood surface;
3. colour, shape and texture of bore dust (this may be ejected through
holes, forming small piles on or beneath the wood); and
4. size and shape of tunnels within the wood, exposed by probing or by
wear on floorboards.
BRE Digest 30714 categorises wood-boring insects into three groups,

according to whether insecticidal treatment is usually needed; where treat-
ment is necessary only to control associated wood rot; and where no
treatment is needed, as shown in table 4.3. The characteristics of the more
common types of wood-boring insects are now described and a more
comprehensive list is contained in table 4.3.
Common furniture beetle. Commonly referred to as 'woodworm' , and can
attack hardwoods and softwoods in buildings throughout Britain. Attack is
most common in damp locations, such as timber ground floors or damp roof
voids. Problems rarely arise in very dry situations, and existing infestations
tend to die out where effective central heating is introduced. Imported
tropical hardwoods, modem plywoods, chipboards and most other wood-
based products are immune from attack.
The larvae live for two to five years and create a network of tunnels,
circular in cross-section, each up to 2 mm diameter. The tunnels are loosely
packed with cream-coloured bore dust, which is gritty in texture and consists
mainly of lemon-shaped pellets when viewed with a x 10 hand lens. The
beetles emerge during late spring and summer leaving circular emergence
holes, 1 to 2 mm in diameter'" (see plate 13). .
Ptilinus (Ptilinus pectinicornis). Closely related to the common furniture
beetle, but is encountered less frequently. It occurs in such hardwood
timbers as beech, elm and willow, and is mainly found in air-drying timber
selected for furniture manufacture . The tunnels are veer, densely packed
with a compacted bore dust which is not easily removed. 4
House longhorn beetle. Numerous infestations have been found in
pre-1950s buildings in north Surrey. Building Regulations and the former
Building Byelaws have required pre-treatment of roof timbers in new
buildings in this area since 1962. Isolated cases of house longhorn beetle
damage have been reported elsewhere. Attack occurs only in softwoods and
predominantly in roof timbers. Where damage is severe, a survey of
structural timbers may be necessary.
Larvae live for three to seven years and create oval tunnels (6 to 10 mm
wider dimensions); these usually coalesce to form a powder-like mass
beneath a thin, intact external veneer of wood which may develop a
corrugated surface. The cream-coloured bore dust, with easily visible
coarse, sausage-shaped pellets, may be emitted from cracks in the surface.
In an active attack a scratching sound may be heard as the larvae feed in
warm weather. The adult beetles emerge in the summer leavingragged, oval
emergence holes roughly the same size as the tunnels."
Powder-post beet/e. Found world-wide, this insect derives its name from
the severity of the damage it causes, often reducing the sapwood to powder.
Most tropical hardwoods are attacked as well as some coarse-pored Euro-
pean hardwoods, such as oak, elm, ash and chestnut. Timbers become less
susceptible with age and are normally immune after 10 to 15 years.
Infestation commonly occurs in plywoods manufactured from susceptible
timbers.
The life cycle is one to two years and damage occurs rapidly. The larvae
create a meandering network of tunnels of circular cross-section (about
1.5 mm diameter) coalescing to form a loose, powdered mass beneath a
thin, intact, wood veneer. The bore dust is very fine with a talc-like feel.
Adult beetles emerge throughout the year in heated buildings, leaving
circular emergence holes about 1.5 mm diameter. 14
Death-watch beet/e. Commonly found throughout southern England,less
frequently in the north and is non-existent in Scotland. Infestations are most
common in large dimension hardwood such as oak and elm, in which there is
some wood rot. It generally requires damp conditions. However, the beetle
can attack slowly in relatively dry timbers where rot has ceased. Softwoods
may be attacked if they are adjacent to infested hardwood or very
occasionally, if rotted, in damp ground floors. If damage is severe a
structural survey may be necessary. Infestations are most common in older
buildings such as churches and manor houses. Timbers in contact with damp
masonry are particularly vulnerable. Infestations may die out if effective
drying methods are introduced . 14
The larvae may live for up to ten years and excavate a series of bore
dust-filled circular tunnels (about 3 mm diameter), eventually coalescing to
give a honeycomb appearance . Where large timbers are attacked, internal
cavities may develop with few visible signs externally. The bore dust, which
is gritty, contains numerous flattened disc-like pellets and these are visible to
the naked eye. Adult beetles emerge during the early spring forming circular
emergence holes 3 mm in diameter'" (see plate 14).
Prevention and detection of insect attack . Timber can be protected against
all wood-boring insects, as well as rot, by treating with a preservative before
use. In certain districts where the house longhorn beetle is prevalent, this is
a requirement of the Building Regulations.
Early detection of insect attack can reduce both expense and incon-
venience, for once established in a building it can spread rapidly. Ideally,
timber and furniture should be inspected annually, preferably during warm
summer weather when the wood-boring insects are most likely to be active,
looking particularly for emergence holes and small piles of powdery
sawdust-like material (bore dust) emitted from workings. Particular atten-
tion should be directed to damp or inconspicuous places such as under stairs,
in roof spaces, under sanitary fitments, backs and undersides of furniture
and the like. Dampness, incipient decay and excessive sapwood all render
timber more susceptible to attack .
An extensive attack of furniture beetle in roof timbers is illustrated
in plate 13, and a severe attack of death watch beetle in floor joists in plate
14.
f(rl'Qgn,,,un UJ IfU'''U51t"
Emergenc e holt
shupr and silt
TyTW alba"' Timber (mmJ Tunnels Bore dust Prrsistrm'r Treatmen t
o...ae Calepc'y A: 1-.:tlddaI _ _I ........y ne<ded
Common furniture Sapwood of softwoods Circular 1-2 Numerous . close Cream . gra nular. Long-term except in Insecticida l
hec tle and Eu ropean lemon -shaped pellets very dry situations
hardwoods (x 10 lens)
Plilinw prrtinicomis Limiled number of Circular 1-2 Numerous. close Pink or cream. talc- Long-term except in Insecticidal, but t:x:l
E uropean hardwoods like . not easily very dry situations replacement . ma y he l::
dislodged fro m tunnels more cost effective
House longhorn beetle Sapwood of softwoods Ova' 6-10 of le n Numerous. often Cream powder. chips Can continue until Insecticidal
~
ragged coalesce 10 powdery and cylindrical pelle Is sapwood consumed
~.
mass be neath
Powder-posl beetle Sapwood of coarse - Circular 1.5 Numerous. close Cream . talc-like Can continue until Replaceme nt may he
pore d hardwoods sapwood consumed more cost effective
~
S·
Dea th-watch beetle Sap wood a nd heart- Circu lar 3 Numero us. close. Brown . disc-shaped Long-term, except in Insecticidal ~
wood of decayed eventually form a pellets very dry situations :::
hardwoods. honeycomb l:l
Occasionally softwoods appearance :::
t"')
~ Calepc'y B: Tm lmenl necessary only 10 conlJ'Ol _Ialed ..ood rot
Weevil Any. if da mp and Ragged I Numerous. close , Brown . fine Dies out on drying Dry out and replace
'"
decayed breaki ng through to lemon-shaped pellets damaged timber ~
surface in places ( x 10 lens)
Wharf borer Any, if da mp and Ova l 6 Numero us. close. Dark brown. mud-like Dies ou t on drying Replace damaged
~""
decayed often coalesc ing to substance . Bundles of umber ~
form cavit ies coarse wood fibres
l:l
Lear culler bee/solitary Any, if bad ly decayed Circu lar 6 Sparse network Brown chips . metallic May continue Ior Replace damaged :::
wasp fragme nts . ny wings. several years timber ~
barrel-shaped cocoons
of leaves
S-
~ Calepc'y C: No ImllllOnl _ _
::;.
'"
Pinhole borers Any in log form Circular 1-2 Across grain , 'darkly None Dies out on drying None ~
stained
Common bark-borer Bark of softwoods
l:
....
Circular 1.5-2 some in Network between bark Cream and brow n Dies out when hark Remove bark edges
bark . few in sapwood and unde rlying wood round pellets consumed C·
:::
Wood wasps Sapwood and Circular 4-7 Few . widely spaced Coarse. powdery Dies out after dry ing None
heartwood of I
softwoods ....:::::
Fores t longhorns A ny Oval 6-10 on bark Few. widely spread. None or rare ly. small May contin ue on None
edges on ly. May he Sections on sawn piles of coarse fibres bark edges.
larger in SOme surfaces oval 6-10 mm otherwise a few ....
hardwood s insects may survive 0
for a few months \0
after sa..ing of logs
Shipworm Any None but tunnels Circular up 10 15 None but tunnel may Dies out None
sectioned by sawing have white cha lky immediately after
lin ing removal from sea
Plate 13 Furniture beetle attack on roof timber
Treatment of infested timber. There are many proprietary preparations

available for treating infested timber, most of which contain chemicals such
as chlorinated naphthalenes, metallic naphthenates and pentachlorophenol.
Insecticides brushed over the surface and worked into all cracks and crevices
during spring and early summer will destroy eggs and newly-hatched larvae,
but may not reach larvae located deeper in the timber. A single thorough
application normally eradicates common furniture beetle in softwood, but
death-watch beetle in oak may need several applications.
In furniture, interior joinery and small timber sections, an injector should
be inserted into emergence holes at about 150 mm centres and all timber in
the vicinity not already painted, varnished or polished should be brushed
Plate 14 Death watch beetle attack on Door joists
with insecticide. Care should be taken to penetrate all open joints, splits and
shakes and to treat all inconspicuous areas. This treatment should be
repeated at least once each year during the months when insects are active
until there is no sign of continued activity.
Structural timbers under attack but not seriously weakened should be
thoroughly brushed or sprayed. Holes, 3 to 5 mm diameter, should be drilled
at vulnerable points, such as connections of members or where they are built
into walls, for the injection of insecticide, particularly in the case of
death-watch beetle attack. Structural timbers which have been seriously
weakened by infestation should be removed and immediately burnt.
Replacement timber must be suitably impregnated. Gloves should be worn
when applying insecticide and care taken not to inhale the fumes; ventilation
should be good, smoking and naked lights avoided .
Floors
Suspended Timber Floors
The most serious defect that is likely to occur in a suspended timber ground
floor is an outbreak of dry rot. As described earlier in the chapter this would
entail the removal and destruction of all infected timber and also adjoining
timber, together with the treatment of infected masonry. It may be

necessary to improve ventilation by inserting new airbricks in external walls
below floor level, preferably 215 x 140 mm terracotta at 3 m centres. Cast
iron ventilators will corrode unless painted regularly. Airbricks are needed
on all walls to avoid stagnant corners and where suspended floors adjoin
solid ones, it is advisable to lay air ducts under the solid floor. Sleeper walls
under suspended floors must be honeycombed to permit a free flow of air
under the timber floor. Internal partition walls will also need openings in
them below floor level.
Any sources of damp penetration must also be dealt with, such as the
replacement of defective damp-proof courses and lowering of outside
ground or paved levels where they adjoin or extend above damp-proof
course. All new timbers must be impregnated and it is advisable to treat
existing timbers that are being retained. Where a defective suspended
timber floor is constructed below ground level, the best remedy is probably
to replace it with a solid floor incorporating a suitable waterproof
membrane. In old buildings there may be no concrete oversite or damp-
proof courses and full remedial work could be very expensive.
A suspended timber floor should not move perceptibly when walked upon
nor should furniture or ornaments placed on them vibrate. These deficien-
cies can result from inadequately sized. joists or insufficient support to or
fixing of the joists.
Where floorboards have curled across the grain resulting in wide open
joints (1.5 mm or more gap), the fault may be due to various causes, such as:
(1) use of unsuitable, wet or insufficiently seasoned timber;
(2) boards insufficiently cramped on laying;
(3) insufficient nailing.
A large gap between the bottom edge of a skirting and floor boards
generally stems from excessive shrinkage, both in the floor and the skirting.
The squeaking of floorboards causes annoyance to occupiers and is usually
due to loose fixing or the accidental contact of nails or screws with other
metal components. Loose boards should be fixed more securely by nailing or
screwing. In industrial buildings, badly worn floorboards may be lined with
good-quality plywood.
Joists to upper floors are rarely attacked by dry rot but outbreaks can
Occur in damp cupboards or other enclosed spaces or through leaks in
rainwater, waste or service pipes. More common faults in upper timber
floors are sagging and springiness resulting from overloading, inadequate
size of joists, lack of strutting or joists badly notched for services. IS Uneven
and springy floors supporting ceilings which are uneven or cracked at edges
could result from the underlying courses of masonry not being level, use of
packing under hangers, wrong grade of hangers, hangers not fixed tight to
wall or gaps too large between joist ends and back plate.l" Herringbone
strutting should be provided to all floors with spans exceeding 3 m to stiffen
the joists. A slightly springy upper floor can be strengthened by taking up
floorboards and inserting solid strutting between joists, with each row of
strutting wedged against the wall at each end. Another approach is to bolt
new joists alongside existing ones, keeping the new joists shallower and
packing at their ends to avoid disturbing the ceiling. An old floor can be
strengthened by screwing chipboard slabs over the existing floorboards.
Chipboard is attractive as a flooring material because of its relatively
favourable cost and flat surface compared with tongued and grooved
boarding. It is, however, important that flooring grade bd to BS 5669 17 is
used. BRE has found joints between boards not nogged, tongues and
grooves in them not glued and lack of support at floor perimeters resulting in
sagging a~d breakage. Boards can spring if plain nails are used. instead of
ring-shank , nails. IS BRE Digest 23919 recommends the application of a
polyurethane type finish in kitchens and bathrooms, where there is high
relatively humidity.
Solid Floors
There is always some risk of rising damp with concrete floor slabs supported
on the ground. . It is therefore customary with new floors to insert an
effective damp-proof membrane to prevent possible damage to the floor
finish. Different floor finishes offer varying degrees of resistance to damp-
ness. For example, pitchmastic and mastic asphalt flooring both provide
effective damp-proof membranes in themselves, while concrete, terrazzo
and clay tiles transmit rising damp without dimensional, material or
adhesion failure. Thermoplastic and PVC (vinyl) asbestos tiles may suffer
dimensional and adhesion failure under severe conditions, while magnesium
oxychloride, PVA emulsion/cement, rubber, flexible PVC flooring, lino-
leum, cork carpet and tiles, wood blocks in cold adhesives, wood strip and
board flooring, and chipboard are all particularly susceptible to damage in
damp conditions.P' .
Concrete beds may also be adversely affected by soluble salts in the
ground or hardcore below. In severe cases it may be necessary to replace the
concrete slab and the fill beneath, with a sheet of polythene between them.
A settling floor slab may be underpinned with mini-piles and any voids
beneath grouted through holes at about 1 m spacing in the slab, but the
grout must not penetrate the inner skin of a cavity wall. BRE Digest 31321
recommends that mini-piles should be placed at spacings not exceeding
1.5 m, with maximum distances from slab edges of 300 mm. Where a floor
slab settles so badly that it has cracked, mini-piles should be installed each
side of the crack at a distance from it not greater than 300 mm.
Solid Floor Coverings

A granolithic finish is best laid monolithically with the concrete base, that is,
within three hours of laying the base, to avoid subsequent cracking and
lifting. In some situations, as with suspended floors, monolithic construction
is impracticable and the finish with a minimum thickness of 40 mm should be
applied to a hardened base, in bay sizes not exceeding 15 m2 The base
should be mechanically roughened, cleaned, wetted and covered with a
slurry of neat cement or of cement and sand to ensure a good bond with the
finish. Even the best granolithic concrete will wear and produce some dust,
and this can be substantially reduced by applying two or three coats of
sodium silicate solution or other surface hardener. When repairing small
patches of granolithic concrete, the defective material should be cut out in a
rectangle with clean, straight edges, the exposed concrete covered with
cement slurry and the recess filled with new granolithic. In extreme cases it
may be necessary to take up all the old granolithic and replace with new,
taking all the precautions previously described.
Terrazzo is best laid immediately after the screed has been placed and it
should not be richer than 1 part of cement to 2t parts of aggregate by
volume. To reduce the risk of shrinka¥e cracking , the flooring should be
divided into panels not exceeding 1 m , with the lengths of the sides in a
ratio not greater than 3:1. The panels are normally separated by strips of
metal, ebonite or plastics set into the screed before placing the terrazzo.
Alternatively terrazzo may be provided in the form of tiles, similar to
concrete floor tiles, usually bedded in mortar on a wetted concrete base or
screed. Occasionally the tiles lift owing to shrinkage of the base and to avoid
this the bedding mortar is best separated from the base with polythene or
building paper. Properly designed and laid terrazzo flooring has good wear
resistance and attractive appearance, and. is easily cleaned. The surface
should be kept dry and free from soap or wax. Disinfectants containing
phenols and cresols may react with iron in the cement to produce indelible
pink stains.
Stores, wash-houses, garages and external paved areas are frequently
finished in concrete. These may crack or wear unevenly. Cracks may be
undercut on each side with a cold chisel to form a key for the cement mortar
which is worked into the crack, after cleaning and wetting. Rough patches
should be cut out and the exposed surface brushed and wetted, and covered
with fine concrete to a minimum depth of 20 mm floated to a smooth finish.
Clay tiles may fail owing to arching or ridging as the tiles separate cleanly
from the bedding, when the newly laid screed shrinks but the tiles remain
constant. Where the tiles are firmly bonded by their bedding to the screed
surface, considerable stresses may develop which are eventually relieved by
areas or rows of tiles lifting. This normally occurs during the first year after
laying and thin tiles rise more readily than thick ones. This defect can be
avoided by introducing a separating layer of polythene or building paper
over the base as described for concrete tiles. If the base is subject to high
temperatures, as around boilers, bituminous bedding is recommended.
Expansion joints are needed around the perimeter of a clay tiled floor. 22 If
an old tiled floor becomes uneven or tiles are loose and cracked, the
defective tiles should be removed, the surface of the base hacked to form a
key, brushed and wetted , and covered with bedding mortar to receive the
new tiles. Treatment with linseed oil or polishes is not recommended as they
tend to make the tiles slippery.
Thermoplastic and PVC tiles need polishing, preferably with emulsion
polishes, to retain their initial appearance. Excessive use of polish should be
avoided as it leads to slipperiness and high dirt retention. Worn or dirty
coats of polish can be removed by washing with a solution of neutral

detergent and subsequently rinsing with clean water. These tiles can be
marked by black rubber in footwear, castor tyres and protective thimbles on
the legs of metal furniture . These markings are best removed by rubbing
with scouring powder and fine steel wool. 23 Thermoplastic tiles are less
resistant to oils and grease than PVC flooring.
Linoleum may be washed with warm water using mild soap or neutral
detergent. Harsh, alkaline or abrasive cleaners and scrubbing brushes
should be avoided. When the linoleum has dried a suitable polish should be
applied. The frequency of application of polish may vary between one and
six weeks depending on the amount of traffic. Linoleum has now been
largely superseded by cushion flooring.
Rubber flooring may be made from natural or synthetic rubber in varying
thicknesses and is fixed with adhesive. Oils, fats and grease may prove
harmful, but it has good wearing , resilience and sound absorption qualities.
It is best maintained by cleaning with a damp cloth and ordinary household
soap. Drying with a soft cloth will produce a natural polish.
Mastic asphalt and pitchmastic both provide dustless, jointless and imper-
vious floors, but are liable to soften if in prolonged contact with fats, greases
and oils. They are maintained by washing with warm water and suitable
detergents.
Cement rubber-latex is normally maintained with wax polish. Magnesium
oxychloride or magnesite is available in various colours to mottled or
grained finishes and requires adequate protection against damp. Main-
tenance is carried out by scrubbing with warm water and the occasional use
of mild household soap .
Timber finishes to solid floors are now quite common, but special care is
needed in their construction to prevent damp penetration and in extreme
cases outbreaks of dry rot. Boarding may be nailed to timber fillets which
are either embedded in or resting on the upper surface of the concrete slab
or screed. The fillets must be pressure-impregnated with a suitable preserv-
ative and the upper surface of the concrete or screed effectively water-
proofed. The underside of the boards should be treated as an additional
precaution. Excess water in washing such floors should be avoided.
Hardwood strip flooring provides an attractive finish and requires sealing
and polishing. Another alternative finish is wood blocks fixed with a suitable
adhesive to a screed. The most common defects are unevenness resulting
from unequal wear which is normally cured by planing or sanding, loose
blocks often caused by shrinkage or expansion with subsequent loss of key
and cured by resetting the blocks in adhesive, and dry rot caused by damp
penetration and requiring removal of the infected blocks, treatment of
adjoining flooring and renewal with suitably treated blocks on a substantial
bed of bitumen or other appropriate material. It is advisable to leave an
expansion joint between the edges of the block flooring and adjoining walls,
often with a cork strip under the skirting, to allow room for movement if the
blocks expand on absorbing moisture from the atmosphere.P'
Cork is available as tiles, mainly 300 mm square and from 5 mm upwards
in thickness, or as carpet 1.80 m wide in various thicknesses. A damp-proof
membrane is needed when laid on a solid sub-floor and an underlay of

hardboard may be provided on softwood flooring. Fixing is by adhesive and
sealing with solvent-based seals is important to prevent dirt absorption.
Water-based emulsion polishes may be used over these seals.
Carpets are becoming a popular finish in offices, educational buildings and
shops, where comfort and colour is an important consideration. This
approach has been assisted by new carpet manufacturing processes and
materials. Carpet tiles are particularly popular made up of 400, 450, 500 or
600 mm squares usually made from man-made fibres on a suitable backing
making them dimensionally stable and hard wearing, but they do result in
higher maintenance and replacement costs than most other types of finish.
For instance, in the Royal Berkshire Hospital, carpets accounted for 17 per
cent of the floor area but 43 per cent of total floor maintenance costs
excluding cleaning.P Wharton 26 has described how carpets are particularly
useful at the entrance to shops to create a pleasant atmosphere and filter off
dirt to protect more brightly coloured and delicate floor coverings further
inside the shop . He advocated cleaning by vacuum cleaner daily and
shampooing only when necessary. Care is needed. to select the right fibre,
colour, weave and backing for the particular situation.
Floor seals are needed with wood, wood composition and cork surfaced
floors in particular for protection, hygiene and decoration. A seal is a
semi-permanent material which protects the floors from dirt, absorption,
stains and foreign matter. Most floor finishes are porous to some degree and
the filling of the pores extends the life of the floor. There are various
categories of floor seal, and a knowledge of these seals and consideration of
the prevailing conditions are needed in making a choice.
Where a floor may be subject to spillage of chemicals, a chemically-
resistant floor seal should be used. Water-based seals are used on thermo-
plastic, vinyl and rubber finishes. When re-sealing, compatibility of seals is
important. In locations such as hospitals, where long life is essential to
reduce to a minimum interference with the use of the floor, a very durable
seal is desirable. All seals should be maintained with a floor wax to prolong
their life, but if waxing is a problem then a very durable seal should be used.
Staircases
The main defects found in timber staircases are worn nosings, creaking
treads, cracked balusters and handrails, and loose newel posts. On uncar-
peted stairs nosings may become worn and a suitable remedy is to cut out a
length of tread and nosing about 50 mm wide, insert a replacement piece
and nail it to the old tread and riser .
Creaking treads often result from the lack of angle blocks between treads
and risers and the insertion of two or three angle blocks to each step should
provide a cure. In the case of wide stairs, in excess of 900 mm, the insertion
of a rough carriage, usually about 100 x 75 mm, centrally under the flight
may be required. Cracked balusters and handrails are normally repaired by
splicing and joining by screws or wood dowels. Loose newel posts can
generally be stiffened by fixing angle brackets at their feet.
Every year there are about 200 000 accidents on stairs in the home. BRE
site surveys27 found many defects: newels and top nosings were dangerously
insecure; flights were not rigidly fixed; handrails were not sanded smooth;
handrail brackets presented sharp obstructions; wooden spacers between
handrail and apron lining obstructed passage of the hand; and mouldings on
the apron lining were fixed so that they wedged the hand between moulding
and handrail.
Roofs
Pitched Roof Timbers
The design and construction of timber roofs are controlled by the Building
Regulations and Supporting Documents but weaknesses still occur. In some
cases there is extravagant use of timber coupled with haphazard nailing
which is neither effective nor economical. The design of a roof is influenced
by the clear span, type of building, covering material, and situation and
shape of building.
Roof timbers may be affected by wet rot resulting from leaks in the roof
covering or condensation, normally involving the replacement of the
defective sections of timber, and splicing old to new where necessary. In
cases where the rot has not penetrated too deeply into the timber, it is
possible to treat the affected timber and to strengthen it with timber or steel
members bolted to it. Timbers should also be closely ext mined with the aid
of a powerful torch or hand lamp for possible insect attack. The most
vulnerable parts of the roof structure are those under gutters or partly
buried in masonry. .
With softwood roofs not more than 10 years old, the most likely form of
attack is Ernobius mol/is (bark borer) which can be effectively dealt with by
cutting away all timber to which bark is adhering to a depth of about 6 mm.
Where a modern softwood roof has been damaged by fire and soaked with
water, look for dry rot, particularly in wall plates. With older softwood roofs
the most common form of damage results from the common furniture
beetle. Damage by house longhorn beetle is mainly confined to a fairly
clearly defined area of north-west Surrey. Old hardwood roofs suffer many
forms of insect attack particularly under gutters, at ridges , and where
timbers are built into masonry and this can make necessary the expensive
treatment and replacement of timbers.
Where a roof has sagged or , through insufficient ties, has forced walls out
of plumb, it is not feasible to force the structure back into its original
position. In extreme cases reconstruction will be necessary. Further move-
ment c,an be prevented by inserting wood or steel ties between the ridge and
ceiling beams or joists, between wall plates or feet of rafters, or under
purlins. Roofs of semi-detached or terraced houses sometimes show a hump
over party walls and this may be caused by inadequately sized timbers,
insufficiently strutted purlins, excessive shrinkage in purlins, or raising of

upper raking surface of a party wall above upper face of rafters with tiling or
slating battens bent over the wall. Movement may occur at the eaves if
rafters are not suitably birdsmouthed over wall plates and adequately nailed
to ceiling joists. Inadequate bracing of trussed rafter roofs may be identifi-
able by verge tiles oversailing at gables. 28 Dampness and staining of ceilings
may be caused by sarking felt not fitting closely around the soil and vent
pipe, or not being properly lapped or dressed out over gutter and barge
boards. 29
The risk of condensation causing damage to roof timbers increases with
improved loft insulation. The risk can be reduced by closing gaps in the
ceiling to prevent the ingress of water vapour. Ventilation of the roof space
is vital and constitutes the usual method of removing moisture from the roof .
This can be achieved by forming ventilation openings at the eaves in the
fascia or soffit boards, or at both eaves and ridge. Roofs of more than 15°
pitch should be provided with ventilation openings equivalent to a con-
tinuous opening of not less than 10 mm wide. 3O
Pitched Roof Coverings

Often the first indication of trouble is a damp patch on a ceiling or in the top
corner of a wall. Localised leakage may occur as a result of defective
flashings, cement fillets which have shrunk or broken away from adjoining
surfaces, choked or defective gutters or slipped or broken slates or tiles.
Defective flashings need redressing, raking out the brick joint and rewedg-
ing and repointing the flashing. Zinc flashings may perish and become pitted
in industrial atmospheres and are best replaced with lead, copper or other
suitable flashings. Defective cement fillets should be replaced with metal
flashings.
Choked gutters need cleaning and checking to ensure that they are
satisfactory. Eaves gutters may need resetting to falls and rejointing, and
defective lengths replaced. Coating all internal surfaces of parapet and
valley gutters with bituminous composition may extend their useful lives.
Check on the adequacy of tilting fillets and cover at junctions of gutter
coverings with adjoining slating or tiling, and ensure that horizontal
damp-proof courses are provided under copings to parapet walls.
Slipped or broken plain tiles are fairly readily replaced as the tiles are
usually only nailed on every fourth or fifth course, and adjoining tiles can be
lifted sufficiently to permit a replacement tile to be hooked over a tiling
batten. The replacement of slates is more difficult as it entails removing the
defective slate by cutting off the nail heads with a slater's ripper and fixing
the new slate at its tail with a copper clip or tack bent over the head of the
slate in the course below.
Rain and snow may penetrate a pitched roof because the slates or tiles are
laid to too flat a pitch without increasing their lap. The problem is
aggravated on exposed sites and the use of a flatter bellcast at eaves to
improve appearance creates a vulnerable condition at the point of greatest
rainwater runoff. Plain tiles for instance should never be laid to a flatter
pitch than 40°. In severe cases it is necessary to strip the roof covering and to
replace it with one suited to the particular roof pitch, as for example to
replace plain tiles with single lap interlocking tiles on a 30°pitch roof. Where
verge tilting is absent, edge slates and tiles are more vulnerable to frost
action.
The life of slates or tiles is dependent upon a number of factors including
the physical properties of constituent materials and method of manufacture,
climatic conditions, degree of pollution and method of fixing. Poorer quality
slates may have a life of up to 70 years while some of the poorer machine
made clay tiles may be restricted to 40 years on account of their laminar
structure which is susceptible to freezing conditions. Concrete tiles may have
a longer life but their colour is often bleached over a comparatively short
period. Galvanised nails are unlikely to last the life of the slate or tile and
are a poor investment. Acceptable nails are aluminium alloy, copper,
stainless steel and silicon bronze.
When large numbers of slates or tiles are defective it is generally more
satisfactory to strip and renew rather than to carry out extensive patching.
With older buildings problems sometimes arise through manufacturers
ceasing to produce certain single lap tiles. One local authority faced with this
problem stripped off the clay pantiles from a pair of houses and recovered
with concrete interlocking tiles. All sound pantiles were taken into stock for
repairing the remaining houses. In older houses, sarking felt is rarely
provided under the tiles or slates and so rain or snow penetrating the roof
covering has access direct into the roof space with the most unfortunate
results. In extreme cases it is necessary to strip the tiles or slates and battens
in order to nail a layer of felt to the upper side of the rafters. Plate 15shows
slates which are so badly laminated that they require replacing.
Problems can arise with other coverings to pitched roofs ranging from the
failure of aluminium sheeting laid over polyurethane foam, because of
differential movement, to the splitting of battens and rafters under thatch,
where the whole of the old thatch had not been stripped on a previous
re-thatching, or the absence of galvanised steel or PVC mesh has allowed
birds or vermin to remove the straw or reeds. In addition, thatched roofs
require periodic inspection and overhaul and are subject to insect attack and
have a high fire risk.
Norfolk reed is the most durable thatch with a life in excess of 60 years,
compared with combed wheatreed at 30 to 40 years and long straw at 15 to
25 years. All require re-ridging at intervals of 10 to 15 years. The life
expectancy periods drop the further west of the British Isles the property is
situated, as the warmer climate with higher humidity encourages the
breeding of fungi, although this can be overcome by periodic chemical
treatment.
Flat Roof Construction

A flat roof may be the only practicable form of roof for many large buildings
or those of complicated shape and can be a more economical proposition
Plate 15 Laminated roof slating
than a pitched roof. It does unfortunately constitute a common area for

premature failure in modern building. Most flat roof failures could have
been avoided if the design principles now outlined had been adhered to . The
technical options are described in BRE Digest 31231•
Movement. Continuous coverings on flat roofs are much more susceptible

to the effect of movement than the small units on pitched roofs. All forms of
roof construction are liable to thermal movement and deflection under load,
and in the case of a timber roof can subject the roof finish to considerable
strain. Timber construction is subject to moisture movement, concrete to
drying shrinkage and new brickwork to expansion . Hence only those roof
finishes which are able to withstand some movement should be used on the
more flexible types of roof, and asphalt, which is ill suited to accept
movement, should not be used on timber roofs. Upstands should not be less
than 150 mm high and if movement between the vertical and horizontal
sections is possible, a separate metal or semi-rigid asbestos bitumen sheet
flashing should be provided to cap the top of the turned-up edge of the
covering. Adequate expansion joints should also be provided, consisting of
an upstand not less than 150 mm high with a metal capping.
Falls. The retention of water on most forms of roof covering is undesirable

and constitutes a common cause of failure. This often results from ponding
caused by inadequate falls. In the past the normally accepted minimum
finished fall has been 1 in 80, but after making allowance for building
inaccuracies and structural deflection, BS 622932 recommends a fall of 1 in
40.
Insulation. The standards of insulation prescribed in The Building Regula-
tions 33 should be regarded as minima. Care must be taken to keep all
insulating materials dry as they cease to be effective and may deteriorate
when wet.
Solar protection. With higher standards of insulation, solar reflective treat-

ment is a necessity for asphalt and bitumen-felt roofs. White asbestos tiles or
white spar chippings are useful, while concrete tiles may be justified if the
roof is accessible and likely to receive regular use. Upstands whichcannot be
treated with chippings should receive an applied reflective coating, such as
metal foil on a felt backing. Moreover, solar reflective finishes prolong the
life of the roof covering .
Condensation. The humidity and yapour pressure are normally higher

inside an occupied building than outside. Water vapour will usually pene-
trate most of the internal surfaces of a building and when the outside
temperature is lower, it may condense at some point in the roof structure ,
often on the surface of insulation, and this is known as interstitial condensa-
tion. 34 Where the insulation is immediately under the roof coveringit must
be placed on a vapour barrier, often consisting of bitumen-felt laid and
lapped in hot bitumen and turned past the edges of the insulation to meet
the roof covering. With timber roofs it is necessary to cross-ventilate the
spaces between joists 35 and where the roof extends over a cavity wall the
cavity should be sealed at the top to prevent moist air entering the roof.
Where cavity barriers restrict the crossflow of air in a roof structure , cowl
type ventilators penetrating through the roof surface are needed.I"
Flat Roof Design

The Bituminous Roofing Councif" has defined the following three principal
types of flat roof.
(1) Cold roof. In this type of construction the thermal insulation
material is placed below the roof deck, normally at ceiling level. Heat loss
through the ceiling is thus restricted, keeping the cavity, roof deck and
covering at low temperature during winter. If condensation problems are to
be avoided in cold roofs, adequate provision must be made for efficient
ventilation of the roof space. It is important to provide a sufficient open area
on each side of the roof cavity to ensure a free , unobstructed path for
ventilation purposes.
(2) Warm roof. In the construction of warm roofs the thermal insulant
is placed immediately below the weatherproof covering and on top of the
roof deck and vapour barrier. The deck and cavity are thus maintained at
warm temperatures during the winter. The thermal insulant is secured to the
deck by bonding or mechanical fasteners, while the weatherproof covering is

bonded to the top surface of the insulation. With this type of construction,
high levels of thermal insulation are more easily achievable and more
positive condensation control is possibly by the selective use of high
efficiency insulation material and vapour barriers.
(3) Inverted roof (protected membrane). In this type of construction,
the thermal insulation material is placed on top of the weatherproof
covering so that the complete roof construction, including roof covering, is
kept at warm temperatures during winter and at moderate temperatures
during summer. With inverted roofs, the important requirement is that the
thermal insulation material has low moisture absorption and water vapour
transmission characteristics. An important advantage is that the insulation
protects the weatherproof covering from extremes of temperature and
differential movements within the roof structure are thus reduced to a
minimum. Furthermore, the weatherproof covering is protected from
various forms of damage, but it must be able to withstand continually wet
conditions and is not immediately accessible for inspection and repair.
Vapour barriers. The Property Services Agency'" has emphasised that all
insulants must be laid on and protected by an efficient and properly laid
vapour barrier. Failure to do this in warm roof construction is likely to result
in moisture vapour from the building affecting the insulation, reducing its
thermal efficiency and starting up cyclic interstitial condensation. Feedback
reports to PSA have indicated that far too many roof defects are due to
ineffective vapour barriers . High-performance felts are most likely to
achieve the required level of performance, and these include polyester
bitumen, bitumen polymer and pitch polymer . Vapour barriers should be
fully bonded to the substrate (deck, topping or screed) with hot bitumen,
and be provided with end and side laps with a minimum width of 100 mm.
In cold roof construction, it is more difficult to ensure that the vapour
barrier will remain effective by always being above dewpoint temperature
because: (1) it is very difficult to construct an efficient vapour barrier at
ceiling level; and (2) the weatherproof covering, which is the first real
vapour barrier, is during the winter at a temperature well below dewpoint
for the internal conditions, and good roof cavity insulation is essential. 37
Elimination of Faults in Flat Roofs

Types of fault . The decision as to whether remedial action should take the
form of isolated repairs or a new covering depends on whether the fault is:
1. A system fault-where the conditions which produce the fault are

inherent in the roofing system and can occur in any part of the general roof
area; or
2. A detail fault-relatin§ to a particular construction detail, such as
perimeter, gutter or upstand.'
A DES design note 39 describes how on felted roofs , certain visual

symptoms are frequently taken to indicate system failure, whereas in fact
they represent detail faults. Two of the most common instances are splitting
of the membrane at internal gutter positions or changes of deck/roof surface
levels, and felt blistering on general roof surfaces.
Falls. The provision of falls as a design feature of flat roofs is recommended

by BS 6229.32 However" the creation of effective falls on most existing dead
flat roofs may not be feasible, because:
1. eliminating all flat areas or level intersections on any but the simplest
plan forms is very complicated; and
2. the resultant increases in height towards the apex creates consider-
able reconstruction problems at upstands to rooflights, clerestories and
related features .
Rainwater outlets. Most roofs covered by a DES survey" drained through

outlets situated within the building perimeter. These outlets are often either
positioned incorrectly or too few in number to drain the roof effectively, in
addition to sometimes being installed at too high a level in relation to the
roof surface . Additional outlets should be provided to serve inadequately
drained areas. These may not be sufficiently close to an existing surface
water drain, so that horizontal runs are required if the disruptive construc-
tion of a new underftoor branch drain is to be avoided. Such runs are best
positioned in the roof void or encased along the ceiling/wall junction.
Protection against solar degradation. The surfaces of most flat roof

membranes require protection from solar gain, radiation loss and ultraviolet
rays, if excessive exposure is not to reduce the optimum life of the covering.
The main types of protection are paints, metal and mineral facings,
chippings and overlay insulation slabs. However, paints and self-finished
felts have not proved satisfactory in the longer term.
The overlay or 'inverted roof solution is a relatively new technique on
lightweight roofs . Apart from the structural support implications, careful
attention must be paid to stability under conditions of severe wind loading,
and valuable guidance is given in BRE Digest 295.40
Chippings have good thermal storage properties and thus raise the surface
temperature of the membrane on cold nights, they offer protection against
ultraviolet radiation and minimise blistering. Controlled tests by BRE and
industry research bodies have shown that chippings subjected to foot traffic
do not puncture the membrane and cause leaks as is commonly supposed. 39
Vapour barriers. A sound vapour barrier is essential where a high level of

moisture is likely to accumulate in the roof structure during the winter and
may be retained at too high a level during the summer, with a consequent
cumulative build-up. BS 622g32 includes calculations which establish
whether the retained moisture is likely to exceed tolerable levels.
Bonding of first membrane layer. About half of the system failures on the
roofs covered by the DES survey39 resulted from over-stressing of the
membrane at joints of insulation boards which were subject to excessive
thermal movement . This problem can be avoided by:
1. specifying a more stable insulant; and/or
2. spreading any stresses which may occur over a larger membrane area
by the use of a partially bonded multi-layer felt system, and/or
3. using a high-performance membrane.
A combination of any two of these measures will provide a satisfactory
solution .
Investigation and diagnosis. A DES design note 39 identifies a prerequisite

of effective remedial work on defective flat roofs as an initial careful and
systematic investigation, leading to accurate diagnosis of faults and their
causes. The aims of a thorough investigation should be to establish:
1. the origin and extent of the leak(s);
2. whether they are due to a detail fault, when a local repair will
provide the remedy, or to a fault symptomatic of a system problem, in which
case refelting or replacement will be required; and
3. the degree of deterioration, since in the case of a system fault this
will determine the extent and cost of the required remedial action.
Remedial solutions. The DES design note39 recommends a comprehensive

fault investigation procedure assisted by reference to behaviour profiles
whereby the user can determine whether the defective roof is suffering
from a fault system and, if so, recovering or renewal will provide the
orily satisfactory and long-lasting solution. Once that necessity has been
accepted, the next step is to prepare a remedial specification appropriate to
the type of roof and its current stage of deterioration. Detailed tables
prepared by the DES provide invaluable guidelines covering a wide range of
conditions.
BMCIS (BMI) Design/Performance Data-Building Owners' Reports : 2.

FlatRoofs (1986) has illustrated the use of a fault checklist to provide a broad
guide to some of the main faults found in flat roofs, which are listed as
follows.
1. blisters;
2. ponding;
3. dents, punctures and rips;
4. splits, tears and cracks;
5. crazing;
6. ripple, creak or sag;
7. lifting of lap joints;
8. chemical damage;
9. water ingress at pipes, vents and rainwater outlets;
10. splits at joints in metal eaves trim;
11. felt skirtings coming loose;

12. embrittlement of asphalt;
13. surface corrosion and pitting of zinc and lead; and
14. lifting of sheets.
Bitumen-felt Roof Covering

The early felts were based wholly on organic fibres which were very strong
when new but dimensionally unstable, and could rot when moisture
eventually penetrated the bitumen coating. The introduction in the early
1950s of bitumen-felt based on asbestos fibre provided a more stable
alternative, but not complete freedom from the risk of rotting. The
development of polyester-based felt in the mid 19708 virtually eliminated
dimensional instability and the risk 01' rotting. Subsequent modifications to
coatings and increases in base weights have further improved performance.
The bitumen outer coating of bitumen roofing felt, if exposed to the
weather, is gradually attacked by solar radiation. This deterioration can be
postponed if the uppermost layer of felt, which is normally laid in three
layers, has a surfacing or mineral aggregate, preferably white, partially
embedded in a coat of bitumen dressing compound. Roofs over habitable
rooms should be laid to this or a higher standard .
Bitumen roofing felt is generally unable to withstand more than a slight
amount of stretching without splitting or tearing apart . This defect may be
remedied by patching with astrip of felt reinforced with hessian bedded in
bitumen. The next most common cause of failure results from differential
movement at skirtings to parapets and at other peripheral weatherings.
Sometimes blisters develop between the layers of felt as a result of
insufficient pressure being applied when rolling a layer of felt into fiot
bitumen bonding compound or the entrapping of moisture between two
layers of felt. They do not often lead to leakage and no remedial action is
usually necessary.
Upstands and skirtings should be integral with the surface felt and be
formed by turning up the second and top layers against abutments to a
minimum height of 150 mm. The felt should be turned up over an angle fillet
at the base of the upstand to prevent the felt cracking at the bend or
becoming damaged as a result of lack of support. The angle fillet should be
securely fixed to the roof to prevent distortion. Skirtings and upstands
should ideally be masked by a metal or semi-rigid asbestoslbitumen sheet
(SRABS) flashing.
Small holes in bitumen felt roofing can be sealed with a patch of felt
bedded in bitumen. More extensive repairs may make necessary the removal
of an entire sheet of felt by heating and softening a lapped joint and bedding
a new layer of felt. Where general deterioration of the felt has occurred
without fracture, a top dressing of hot bitumen and stone chippings may
suffice. A survey of maintenance work on hospital buildings25 showed that
felt roofs were replaced on average at 16 year intervals, while asphalt lasted
28 years and tiled roofs 59 years. Maintenance costs of felt roofs were also
high; they covered 45 per cent of the total hospital roof area but accounted
Plate 16 Split roofing felt to weather kerb
Plate 17 Defective work around rainwater outlet to bitumen felt roof

for 70 per cent of the total maintenance and replacement cost of all roofs.25
Regular inspections are advisable to identify and repair small leaks before
they accumulate into more widespread defects, involving higher expendi-
ture, increased disturbance and possible damage to the roof structure. Plate
16 shows split roofing felt to a weather kerb through which rainwater can
penetrate the roof, and plate 17 illustrates unsatisfactory waterproofing
work around a rainwater outlet on a chapel roof.
Asphalt Roof Covering

Two layers of asphalt are always necessary on flat roofs, with a finished
thickness of 20 mm and joints staggered with a minimum lap of 150 mm
between layers. Weak spots may occur if asphalt is reduced in thickness to
obtain an even finished surface over raised parts, such as welted joints in
flashings. Where a roof is likely to take considerable traffic, the asphalt is
best finished with asbestos cement or concrete tiles, preferably with solar
reflective properties. It should have a life of 40 years.
A survey of 130 mastic asphalt covered flat roofs to Crown buildings
showed a 28 per cent failure rate, resulting either from splitting and cracking
of the asphalt due to movement of the substrate and the absence of an
isolating membrane, or peripheral cracking due to differential movement
between a roof deck and a non-integral parapet wall to which an asphalt
skirting was fixed without any provision for movement. Slight hollows in a
roof result in ponding and this may cause crazing of the asphalt but is
unlikely to lead to water penetration. Cracked and blistered areas should be
heated, cut out and made good with new asphalt without delay." The new
asphalt should be carefully bonded to the old by stepping the edges of
the existing asphalt. Minor surface crazing is likely to result from over
trowelling.
Oxidation occurs when asphalt is exposed to light and heat, water-soluble
products are formed, slow hardening occurs and cracks may form following
a rapid decrease of temperature. The Local Government Operational
Research Unit identified five 'states' through which an asphalt roof passes as
it deteriorates, namely
(1) no visible defects
(2) not leaking but slightly worn and wrinkled
(3) some leaks due to blistering and slight cracks and crazing
(4) broken blisters, extensive cracking and leaking
(5) asphalt broken up, perished and off key.25
In practice the deterioration processes are not uniform and at any point in
time different parts of an asphalt roof will be in different states. In order to
specify the condition of a roof it is generally necessary to measure or
estimate the percentage in each of these states.
Problems have arisen through the application of white paint to the asphalt
to reduce absorption of solar heat. The shrinkage of the relatively tough
paint film is sufficient to pull the asphalt with it and cause cracking of the
asphalt with consequent loss of watertightness. Dampness in ceilings below

asphalt roofs may result from interstitial condensation rather than moisture
penetration through the asphalt.
Excellent guidance on the maintenance and re-roofing of mastic asphalt
and built-up roofing and advice on design aspects is contained in the Tarmac
Guide. 42
Polymer Roofing
Polymeric materials include polyisobutylene, butyl rubber, PVC and chloro-
sulphonated polyethylene in single layer systems, stuck to the substrate with
special adhesives and the joints between the sheets solvent or heat welded.
They are more flexible than bitumen but require a high standard of
installation and problems have occurred through inadequately bonded joints
and mechanical damage causing splits.43
Metal Flat Roof Coverings

Lead is susceptible to two forms of corrosion-in slightly acid conditions and
under alkaline conditions, as with lime or cement mortars. Acidic conditions
may occur through the discharge of rainwater on to the lead from pitched
roofs containing algae, moss or lichen, but the corrosion process is generally
very slow. A protective coat of bitumen made up of one coat of hot bitumen
or two thick coats of bituminous paint in vulnerable locations should provide
adequate protection . In general the resistance of lead to atmospheric
corrosion is very high, following the formation of a protective film of basic
lead carbonate or sulphate and may have a life in excess of 100 years, if of
adequate thickness. Lead has low strength and is very heavy in weight, but is
ductile, flexible, and easily cut and shaped. Cracks in lead sheet occurring
through movement of boards beneath are usually rectified by soldering. In
course of time lead flashings tend to work loose and curl up from the bottom
edge, and they then require rewedging, repointing and redressing. Sagging
parapet gutters need stripping and replacement of bearers and boarding.
Rippling and splitting of the lead may occur in the absence of rolls and drips
or where there are sharp arrises. Creep is only likely to be a problem on
pronounced slopes. Defective lead roofing is illustrated in plate 18 with
poorly constructed lead rolls.
Copper, like lead, forms a very effective protective film. Furthermore it is

tough and durable , readily cut and bent, is of light weight, does not creep
and acquires a pleasant protective green film patina . Copper is resistant to
alkalis but rainwater with an acid content dripping from algae covered roofs
or cedarwood shingles has been known to cause perforation of copper
roofing within 40 years, and protection with bitumen is advisable in these
situations. The majority of repairs to copper roofs are concerned with
redressing rolls, seams and welts and repointing flashings.
Plate 18 Defective sheet lead roofing
Zinc has an average life of 20 to 40 years which is much shorter than that of
lead or copper. Like lead , zinc is liable to corrode in both alkaline and acidic
conditions. It is advisable to give at least one coating of bitumen to zinc
embedded in plasters and mortars. Cracks can be repaired with bitumen and
a surface dressing will prolong the life of a zinc roof.
Sound Insulation
A full understanding of the science of sound transmrssion requires an
extensive and highly technical study. It is becoming increasingly important
as people become more noise-conscious. Insulation is required against
sound generated in two different ways:
(1) A source such as a radio may produce sound waves in air which in
their tum produce vibrations in a party wall or floor (airborne source).
(2) A wall or floor separating two dwellings may vibrate by the direct
impact of a solid object such as footsteps (impact source).
A radio or television in a ground floor room of one house can frequently
be heard in the bedroom of a neighbouring house. Vibrations induced in the
party wall at ground floor level are transmitted up the party wall and then
pass into the upper floor rooms. This is known as flanking transmission. It
can also occur when the rooms adjoin, either horizontally or vertically, and
often provides an additional path to direct passage through the common wall
or floor. 44 ,45,46
In standard tests (BS 2750)47 the insulation of airborne sound is measured
in each of sixteen one-third-octave bands, the centre frequencies of which
range from 100 to 3150 Hz. In order to determine whether a satisfactory
standard has been achieved results are expressed in terms of weighted
standardised level difference, calculated in accordance with BS 5821,48 when
checking the performance of existing walls; this is the difference in decibels
(dB) between the energy levels in the rooms corrected to allow for a
standard amount of absorption representative of normal furnished con-
ditions. For example, the sound reduction of the brick or block components
of an external wall is in the range of 45 to 50 dB (decibels), whereas the
reduction with closed single windows is about 20 to 25 dB. For party walls
between dwellings a one-brick wall plastered on both sides is considered
acceptable, although the provision of wall linings on battens or studs can
improve sound insulation. Floating floors, as described earlier, enable an
acceptable sound reduction factor to be achieved between flats. Alternative
constructional forms for use in party-floors are illustrated in BRE Digest
266. 46
The object of sound insulation is almost entirely one of reflecting energy
back into the source room; the role of absorption is limited to sUIWlementing
reflection at high frequencies in some types of wall or floor, and is of
particular benefit to the occupants of the room in which they are used. The
amplitude of wall vibrations is inversely proportional to the mass of the wall,
and so the amplitude of the sound waves radiated into the receiving room is
inversely proportional to the mass of the wall. By doubling the mass of the
wall transmission is reduced to a quarter. 44
Where a dividing element is made up of parts each of different sound
resistance, then however small the parts of lower resistance, they will reduce
the overall insulation to a value lower than that of the most highly
sound-resisting part. This is particularly significant with voids, gaps and
cracks. The subjective sound insulation between two rooms is influenced
considerably by the acoustics in the rooms, which are largely dependent on
the amount of the reverberation-how long it takes a sound to die away
after the source has stopped. This is very much affected by the amount of
sound-absorbing material such as curtains and furniture and the nature of
wall, floor and ceiling finishings. For instance, a sound-absorbent ceiling of
materials like acoustic fibreboard and perforated facings of metal, plaster,
hardboard and asbestos board backed with mineral wool, in a typing pool or
workshop, will reduce the noise level in the room by preventing sound
reflection. The relative cost and sound insulation performance of many
forms of wall and floor construction are detailed in Sound Insulation in
Buildings. 49
Good sound insulation stems from adequate weight, airtightness and
uniform resistance to sound . The following methods can be used to insulate
existing buildings.
Windows provide the most common method for entry of outside noise into
buildings. The sound insulation of a single window can be improved by
making it airtight with phosphor-bronze draught-excluding strips or seals of
plastics, rubber or felt and by fitting heavy glass; but for good insulation
double windows with heavy glass are essential. The air space should be at
least 150 mm wide and preferably 200 mm wide, with the head, reveals and
sill lined with a sound-absorbent material such as acoustic fibreboard.
Double windows should be as airtight as possible and it may be necessary to
install mechanical ventilation. The Government grants scheme administered
by the British Airports Authority for noise protection of existing dwellings
in the vicinity of London's Heathrow Airport provided for the payment of
grants for rooms fitted with a double window with a minimum width of air
space related to the glass thickness used, as follows:
3 mm glass-not less than 200 mm cavity
In addition, an approved ventilator had to be installed with an air delivery
capacity of not less than 1.84 m 3/min and a sound reduction of at least 49 dB
at 500 Hz. 50
It is rarely economical or even practicable to improve the insulation of the
walls of an existing building. Reducing direct transmission by insulating a
party wall is generally rendered valueless as by-passing by flanking transmis-
sion leaves the net insulation almost unchanged. The blocking up of
airbricks and chimneys to improve sound insulation can cause condensation.
The sound insulation of brick or block walls initially left fair faced, for
reasons of design or cost, can be improved by plastering. If there is leakage
through underfloor voids and gaps, these should be sealed.
Partitions can be improved by adding a heavy lining, such as 20 mm
plasterboard on a framework, giving a wide air space, over a sound-
absorbent material such as mineral wool quilt, with all joints between boards
and around edges effectively sealed. Demountable partitions need to be well
sealed around the edges.
To make an existing wood-joist floor more resistant to airborne noise it is
necessary to increase the weight of the floor. One method is to lay heavy
pugging such as 50 mm dry sand weighing about 90 kglm2 between the
joists, provided the ceiling and joists are strong enough to take the extra
weight, otherwise the pugging should be laid on pUffing boards fixed
between the joists, as illustrated in Building Technology. Impact noise on a
suspended floor can be reduced by covering the floor with rubber on a
sponge rubber underlay, felt backed PVC, cork tiles or carpet on a suitable
underlay. Another alternative is to provide a floating floor such as 20 mm
tongued and grooved boarding on 50 mm square battens laid on 13 mm
mineral wool resilient quilt. The resilient layer must be turned up at all
edges which abut walls , partitions and other parts of the structure. Partitions
should be built off the structural floor so that the floating raft is self-
contained within each room. Doors will need altering and thresholds or
ramps provided at door openings. Noisy machines should be isolated from
floors by resilient mountings.
Noise often emanates from plumbing systems . WCs are particularly noisy
but fittings with a double-syphonic trap and a close-coupled cistern are less
noisy. When a WC is sited next to a main room or bedroom, the dividing
partition should have a sound reduction value equal to a 100 mm brick wall
plastered both sides. The WC door should be as heavy as possible,
preferably a solid core flush door, with draught-excluding strips. Ball valves
to cisterns and water storage tanks should ideally be of the Skevington BRE
pattern to reduce noise. Internal stack pipes should be enclosed in ducts
made with a material weighing at least 15 kglm2 , such as 25 mm chipboard.
Heating and hot water pipes should be fixed with pipe clips that give some
clearance for expansion or contraction, with sleeves or resilient packing
where pipes pass through the structure and clearance over pipes where they
pass between floorboards and joists .
Thermal Insulation
There is an increasing demand for improved comfort coupled with a
reduction in heat losses from buildings. This has been accentuated by the
escalation in heating fuel costs. The economic level of insulation depends
upon the cost of providing the additional insulation as compared with the
reductions in the cost of heating plant and fuel over a period of time. The
rate at which heat is transferred through an element of a building is termed
the thermal transmittance or V-value. The lower the V-value, the better the
insulation and the lower the heat loss. The total heat loss through the
building fabric can be found by multiplying the V-values and areas of the
externally exposed parts of the building, and then multiplying the result by
the temperature difference between inside and outside.52 V-values are
expressed in W/m2 K (watts per square metre for 1° Celcius difference
between internal and external temperatures). V-values for new dwellings in
England and Wales are controlled b~ the Building Regulations 1985 and are
0.35 W/m2 K for roofs and 0.6 W/m K for exposed walls and floors. These
standards are based on windows and rooflights not exceeding 12 per cent of
the areas of external walls with a V-value of 5.7 . The procedures for
implementation of the Building Regulation requirements are detailed in
Building Technology.51
When selecting materials to achieve the required V-values, the compari-
son should include installation and maintenance costs. Where air spaces are
incorporated they should not be less than 20 mm wide. Valuable data on
thermal insulating materials is provided in Thermal Insulation of Build-
ings.53
With ground floors, concrete slabs on hardcore have generally been
considered to give adequate thermal insulation without additional treat-
ment, . but the heat loss through the floor can be reduced significantly by
inserting a' layer of material of high thermal resistance between the
waterproof membrane and the screed. When incorporating under-floor
heating systems it is advisable to include a rot-proof insulating layer
of mineral fibre or expanded plastics over the damp-proof membrane.
Suspended wooden ground floors should be provided with additional

insulation, either in the form of a continuous layer of semi-rigid or flexible
material, such as paper-backed insulation quilt (paper side downwards) over
the joists, with butted longitudinal joints to allow the floor to breathe, or
alternatively a semi-rigid material, such as expanded polystyrene boards
fixed between the joists. 54
External cavity walls with a brick outer leaf and an inner leaf of aerated
concrete insulating blocks can combine strength with good thermal insula-
tion without increasing costs significantly. The thermal insulation value of a
cavity wall can be further increased by filling the cavity with a UF foam
produced from urea formaldehyde resin, under suitable conditions and
taking adequate precautions. The foam is injected into the cavities of
existing buildings by drilling 19 mm diameter holes mainly through mortar
joints in the outer leaf at approximately 1 m staggered centres . The holes
are subsequently made good with mortar colour-matched to the existing.
Building Research Establishment investigations have indicated some cases
of damp penetration across the filled cavity where the outer leaf had a high
porosity and exposure to large amounts of driving rain, and there have been
cases of fumes penetrating the building. Other insulants are glass and rock
fibre slabs, expanded polystyrene boards, rock fibre tufts, polyurethane
granules, expanded polystyrene (EPS) loose fills, glass-fibre loose fill and
foamed polyurethane. BRE Digest 23655 describes the principal methods
used in cavity insulation and the problems that can arise in their installation.
Framed structures with sheeting rails may be lined internally with rigid
insulating boards or slabs fixed to the rails with a T-grid or clip system.
Alternatively, insulating quilts or boards can be hung behind a rigid sheet
lining which may not itself have high thermal insulating properties.
Double glazed windows can reduce the heat loss through windows by
about 50 per cent and eliminate the 'cold zone' near windows. They also
reduce the risk of condensation on windows but the cost cannot always be
justified in the British Isles. In a typical semi-detached house, only about
one-tenth of the heat loss from the house will be saved by double glazing. It
is usually more economical to improve the V-values of the walls and roof,
and to stop draughts. With existing single glazed windows there are two
possible ways of improving thermal insulation. The first method is to fix a
second line of glazing with wood or plastic faced beads, although they are
unlikely to remain airtight indefinitely. The seals may disintegrate under
movement and shrinkage, allowing water vapour to enter the airspace and to
condense on the inside of the outer glazing. The wood exposed to the air
space should be painted or varnished to prevent evaporation of moisture
from the timber into the air space and breather holes should be provided at
the rate of one 6 mm diameter hole for 0.5 m20f window, with the holes
plugged with glass fibre or nylon to exclude dust and insects. The second
method is to fix secondary windows to the existing frames or to ancillary
frames. There are proprietary secondary windows available in aluminium or
PVC, which may be either hinged or sliding to give access for cleaning. The
casement types usually have a compressible strip to provide a seal against
the existing window or the ancillary frame . The glazing joints of double
glazing units, glazing compound and beads should be checked on repainting.

With sealed in situ systems it may be necessary to remove the glass on the
room side, clean it and reseal it at intervals of two years or more depending
on the effectiveness of the seal. S6
Pitched roofs can have a rot-proof thermal insulating quilt fixed over the
ceiling joists or, alternatively, a loose fill material or quilt may be spread
between the ceiling joists. The thickness of insulation should be at least
100 mm to reduce heat loss effectively. The insulation is omitted under
cisterns in the roof space but all pipes and the sides and tops of cisterns need
lagging. Top floor ceilings can be formed of aluminium foil-backed plaster-
board, rigid polyurethane, expanded polystyrene/plasterboard laminate or
other insulating board to reduce heat loss.
Concrete flat roofs can have the thermal insulation either over or under
the structural units . Timber flat roofs having thermal insulation at ceiling
level require a vapour check below the insulation and ventilation of the roof
space. Where the insulation is placed over the roof deck immediately below
the roof covering, a vapour barrier is needed between the insulation and the
deck to prevent interstitial condensation in the insulation.
A high standard of thermal insulation can be obtained in a house by using
an external cavity wall of 102.5 mm brick and 100 mm aerated concrete
blocks with plasterboard dry lining and 50 mm foam fill or other acceptable
insulant in the cavity, double glazed windows and a roof with a vapour
barrier above the ceiling and 100 mm glass-fibre mat. On an average house
the annual energy savings are likely to amount to about 30 per cent of the
cost of the provision of the insulation work. Costs of energy are likely to
continue to rise, making lower V-values economical. Double glazing of
windows cannot usually be justified on economic grounds unless a very high
standard of heating is required, an expensive form of energy is used, or a
high percentage of the wall area is glazed. Improvements can be made in the
energy utilisation of most buildings consequent upon effective energy
auditing and management.F
Vibration
Developments in machinery, road and rail traffic and aircraft are increasing
vibration and noise .to an extent that they may become objectionable to
people and interfere .with laboratory work and some trade processes.
Wind-generated vibration also needs considering when designing structures
exceeding four storeys in height. Fears are also expressed that buildings may
be damaged by vibration, but investigations by the Building Research
Establishment show that the risk of damage to normal buildings is extremely
rare, even when the level of vibration is considered objectionable or even
intolerable by the occupants of the building. BRE Digest 27858 describes
how the response of buildings to a vibration source is governed by various
factors, such as the relationship between the natural frequencies of the
building, the damping of the resonances of the building or elements, the
stiffness of the building or elements, the magnitude of the forces acting on
the building, and the interaction of the building or elements within the
vibration source . Cracks in plaster brickwork and glass should not be
attributed to the effects of vibration until other possible causes have been
eliminated. For example, most cracks in plaster ceilings result from move-
ment of the plaster itself or of deflections of the timber joists, and such
cracking often occurs in areas known to be free from external sources of
vibration. Some of the vibration factors such as dampin~ values and stiffness
of the building will probably require specialist advice. 8
The occurrence of repetitive loading, such as that caused by machinery,
rarely creates a structural problem, unless the frequency coincides with a
natural frequency of some element of the building. However, the effect on
occupants may be unacceptable well before any structural damage occurs.
People's perceptions of levels of vibration will vary. Under certain con-
ditions the human body can detect amplitudes as small as one micron. BRE
have shown that human tolerance is dictated not only by scientific but also
by psychological factors .58
References
1 BRE Digest 287. Specifying structural timber (1984)
2 British Standards Institution. BS 3452: 1962 Copperlchrome water-
borne wood preservatives and their application
3 British Standards Institution. BS 5056: 1974 Copper naphthenate wood
preservatives
4 BRE Digest 201. Wood preservatives: application methods (1984)
5 BRE Princes Risborough Laboratory. Methods of Applying Wood
Preservatives (1974)
6 British Standards Institution. BS 5268: Code of practice for the struc-
tural use of timber. Part 2: 1984 Permissible stress design, materials and
workmanship
7 BRE Princes Risborough Laboratory. Decay of Timber and its Preven-
tion (1976)
8 BRE Digest 299. Dry rot : its recognition and control (1985)
9 British Standards Institution. BS 5707: Solutions of wood preservatives
in organic solvents. Part 1: 1979 Specification of solutions for general
purpose applications, including timber that is to be painted. Part 3: 1980
Methods of treatment
10 British Standards Institution. BS 4072: 1974 Wood preservation by
means of water-borne copper/chrome/arsenic compositions
11 British Standards Institution. BS 913: 1973 Wood preservation by
means of pressure creosoting
preservation of timber
13 BRE Digest 18. Design of timber floors to prevent decay (1975)
14 BRE Digest 307. Identifying damage by wood-boring insects (1986)
15 BRE Defect Action Sheet 47. Suspended timber floors: notching and
drilling of joists (1984)
16 BRE Defect Action Sheet 58. Suspended timber floors: joist hangers in
masonry walls-installation (1984)
17 British Standards Institution. BS 5669: 1979 Specification of wood
chipboard and methods of test for particle board
18 BRE Defect Action ,Sheet 32. Suspended timber floors: chipboard
floorings-storage and installation (1983)
19 BRE Digest 239. The use of chipboard (1980)
20 BRE Digest 54. Damp-proofing solid floors (1971)
21 BRE Digest 313. Mini-piling for low rise buildings (1986)
22 BRE Digest 79. Clay tile flooring (1976)
23 BRE Digest 33. Sheet and tile flooring made from thermoplastic binders
(1971)
24 British Standards Institution . CP 209 Care and maintenance of wood
surfaces. Part 1: 1963 Wooden flooring
25 Local Government Operational Research Unit/Royal Institute of
Public Administration. Report CI46. Aids to Management in Hospital
Building Maintenance. HMSO (1972)
26 A. Wharton . Free estimates cost you money . Building Maintenance
(July/August 1973)
27 BRE Defect Action Sheet 54. Stairways: safety of users-installation
(1984)
28 BRE Defect Action Sheet 24. Pitched roofs: trussed rafters bracing and
binders-installation (1983)
29 BRE Defect Action Sheet 10. Pitched roofs: sarking felt under-
lay-watertightness (1982)
30 BRE Digest 270. Condensation in insulated domestic roofs (1983)
31 BRE Digest 312. Flat roof design: the technical options (1986)
32 British Standards Institution. BS 6229: 1982 Code of practice for flat
roofs with continuously supported coverings
34 BRE Digest 180. Condensation in roofs (1978)
35 BRE Information Paper 35/79. Moisture in a timber-based flat roof of
cold deck construction (1979)
36 BRE Digest 218. Cavity barriers and ventilation in flat and low pitched
roofs (1978)
37 Bituminous Roofing Council. Information Sheet I : Flat roof design and
construction: types of flat roof (1983)
38 DOE , Property Services Agency. Flat Roofs Technical Guide: Vol. 1.
Design. HMSO (1981)
39 Department of Education and Science, Architects and Building Group.
Design Note 46: Maintenance and Renewal in Educational Buildings:
Flat Roofs: Criteria and methods of assessment, repair and replacement
(1985)
40 BRE Digest 295. Stability under wind load of loose-laid external roof
insulation boards (1985)
41 BRE Digest 144. Asphalt and built-up felt roofings: durability (1972)
42 Tarmac. Flat Roofing: A Guide to Good Practice (1982)
43 W. H. Ransom . Building Failures: diagnosis and advoidance. Spon
(1981)
44 BRE Digest 143. Sound insulation: basic principles (1976)
45 BRE Digest 252. Sound insulation of party walls (1981)
46 BRE Digest 266. Sound insulation of party floors (1982)
47 British Standards Institution. BS 2750 Methods of measurement of
sound insulation in buildings and of building elements. Part 4: 1980 Field
measurements of airborne sound insulation between rooms . Part 7: 1980
Field measurements of impact sound insulation of floors
48 British Standards Institution . BS 5821 British Standard method for
rating the sound insulation in buildings and building elements. Part 1:
1984 Method of rating the airborne insulation in buildings and ofinterior
building elements. Part 2: 1984 Method for rating the impact sound
insulation
49 DOE. Sound Insulation in Buildings. HMSO (1971)
50 BRE Digests 128 and 129. Insulation against external noise (1971)
52 BRE Digest 108. Standard U-vallJes (1984)
53 DOE. Thermal Insulation of Buildings. HMSO (1971)
54 BRE Digest 145. Heat losses through ground floors (1984)
55 BRE Digest 236. Cavity insulation (1984)
56 BRE Digest 140. Double glazing and double windows (1980)
57 E. D. Mills (Ed.) . Building Maintenance and Preservation. Butter-
worths (1980)
58 BRE Digest 278. Vibrations: building and human response (1983)
5BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-IV
Joinery, Corrosion of Metals, Plastics, Plasterwork, External Renderings,
Internal Finishings, Decorations and Glazing
Joinery
General Defects
Good-quality joinery should be free from cracks, large or loose knots and
rough or raised grain. The softer, lighter spring grain has a tendency to
greater shrinkage with the possibility of the darker, harder autumn grain
being raised on the surface . Careful selection and proper conversion of the
timber will assist in minimising this defect and a good standard of rubbing
down with glasspaper by the painter will also help . External joinery which
contains too much sapwood may deteriorate and shrink and cause fracture
of the paint film. In extreme cases, rotting may occur beneath the paint film.
It is now well established that external window joinery made from present-
day supplies of redwood (Pinus sylvestris) is liable to decay within a few
years, because of the presence of a large proportion of sapwood in the
timber. Sapwood offers little resistance to wood-destroying fungi, and soon
decays if it remains wet. This has resulted in the widespread adoption of
preservative treatment of redwood joinery timber since the mid 1970s. On
the other hand, Western red cedar and Douglas fir with no sapwood have
sufficient natural resistance to decay without preservative treatment.'
Water causes most of the trouble in wood-if timber with the correct
moisture content were installed in a building and if the moisture content
were kept at the right level, most of the problems of timber maintenance
would be removed. Moisture penetration causes swelling, distortion, failures
of surface finishes, and introduces risks of complete failures through decay
caused by wood-destroying fungi.? Timber should be seasoned to the correct
moisture content, be protected from moisture on the site, with joints
properly sealed ; its exposed end grain-which absorbs moisture hundreds of
times faster than side grain-should be kept to an absolute minimum, and
exposed horizontal surfaces sloped to throw off rainwater. Condensation is
another cause of moisture gaining access to timber.
138
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-IV 139
Windows
In recent years there has been a substantial increase in the number of
instances of decay in wood windows in comparatively new houses. Decay
occurs both in opening lights and in frames permanently in contact with
brickwork or blockwork. It occurs most frequently in ground floor windows
and in the lower parts of the members concerned, such as the lower rail of an
opening light, the bottoms of jambs and mullions, and the sill itself, often at
or near a joint. 3 .
Types of decay. In old buildings, decay in window joinery may be part of a

widespread attack of dry rot fungus-Serpula lacrymans. Most decay in
window woodwork exposed to the weather is of the wet rot type (both
brown rot and white rot) which will not spread to other timber in the
building . The rot is almost certain to be of this variety where the decay is
confined to relatively small localised pockets detectable only from outside
the building or if no actual fungus growth can be found . The brown rots
cause dark discoloration of the wood in its early stages and cracks along and
across the grain occur later. The white rots bleach the timber and it finishes
up in a stringy condition. The basic causes of decay are the low natural
resistance of sapwood and the presence in the wood of sufficient moisture to
permit the growth of wood-destroying fungi, usually in excess of 20 per
cent.!
Plate 19 shows a badly decayed wood sill and mullion to a window in a
modem college gymnasium, while plate 20 illustrates a wood windowsill to a
Plate 19 Rotting wood window siD and muUlon

Plate 20 Badly deatyed wood window frame

commercial building which has completely disintegrated as a result of gross

neglect.
Entry of moisture. Decay of existing joinery involves in the main prevent-

ing access of moisture to the wood and the following factors accentuate the
problem:
(1) flat surfaces on horizontal rails which do not effectively shed water;
(2) failure to seal joints and exposed end grain, resulting in capillary
entry of water;
(3) use of animal and casein glues which fail under damp conditions;
(4) failure to cover joinery in transit and on site, placing too much
reliance on pink shop primers which are of variable quality, soon become
weak or powdery and often allow some moisture to penetrate;'
(5) failure to prime rebates or careless puttying leading to putty failure;
(6) failure to provide an effective seal under wood glazing beads;
(7) overstressing of joints in opening lights, causing joints to open and
putty to come away from glass;
(8) poor paintwork maintenance leading to excessive swelling and
shrinkage with consequent opening of joints and putty lines, which new
paint fails to seal;
(9) excessive condensation, particularly in bathrooms and kitchens,
where temperatures and humidities are often high, and aggravated by
defective back putties."
Remedial measures. Early indications of conditions conducive to decay are

given by putty failures, the waterlogged condition of wood beneath defective
paint or discoloration of paintwork near joints. Discoloration is caused by
the growth of fungi through the paintwork from underlying moist sapwood.
Open or strained joints and failure of paint over back putties may giverise to
moisture penetration. Extensive swelling and jamming of opening lights
indicate that moisture has gained excess. Decay may first show as depres-
sions in the surface of the wood or there may be wrinkling, discoloration or
loss of paint. In these instances, the underlying wood should be probed with
a bluntly pointed tool such as a small screwdriver to assess the extent of the
decay.
Where there are indications of water penetration but no decay is detected,
remedial measures should be undertaken during a dry period of the year.
Paintwork should be stripped in suspect areas and extending about 100 mm
around them, and loose or cracked putty removed. Horizontal wood
surfaces should be cut to form a slope for drainage. After an adequate
drying out period, follow with generous applications of wood preservative
worked well into the joints of the woodwork. Strained joints should be
strengthened by metal brackets. Putty can then be renewed and open joints
carefully sealed.
The easiest way to preserve sound but wet wood against decay is to drill
and insert pellets at joints and other vulnerable positions. These pellets
contain a fungicide based on boron compounds which dissolve in the
moisture of the timber, diffuse into the wood and will stop any decay. An
alternative method is to inject wood preservative at the joints, using

specially designed plastic injectors. 5
Regular maintenance inspections ensure that decay is diagnosed at an
early stage when minor repairs will suffice. Relatively inexpensive repairs
will prolong the life of a window by several years adopting the following
procedure:
(1) strip paint and cut out decayed wood in late spring or early summer
and allow to dry;
(2) inject preservative, often of organic solvent type, and allow to dry;
(3) apply priming coat of paint;
(4) fill holes using a suitable proprietary hard filler-a large hole may
be filled with a piece of wood, preservative-treated and primed after
shaping, and sealed with filler;
(5) seal whole of repair area with primer;
(6) apply undercoats and finishing coat of paint.
Where the woodwork is in an advanced stage of decay, the whole part of
an affected window may have to be replaced. The sectional sizes of timber
scantlings for windows have become smaller in recent years. It is bad
practice to use flimsy sections particularly in areas subject to severe weather
conditions' Opening lights should neither be very loose nor very tight, but
should fit snugly and fasten fairly tightly. An alternative approach is to use
weathersealed joints, encompassing bold detailing with relatively open
joints between the sash and frame backed up by a weatherseal joint in the
rebate of the frame at the rear of the sash . Avoidance of excessive exposed
end grain in wood windows and frames is essential.
Wood sliding sashes are liable to decay at sills, bottoms of jambs and
angle joints of sashes which may need bracketing on fracture. Sash fasteners
sometimes break and need replacement, but the most common defect of all
is broken sash cords. Sash cords may be tested by pulling out the cord as far
as it will extend and then releasing it-a rotted cord will break under the
strain. Where one defective cord is found, it is advisable to renew both using
best flax line or gunmetal chains for heavy sashes. Dampness below windows
may be due to one of several causes-absence of water bar between wood
and stone sills, defective joints between wood sills and tile or brick subsills,
or insufficient weathering or checkthroating, or lack of throat on overhang
of sill.
A decayed portion of a wood sill can normally be cut out and replaced. In
cases of limited decay or a missing water bar, a piece of sheet lead or other
suitable waterproof material can be dressed over the sill and subsill. A
decayed stone subsill can be cut back to a sound face, hacked to provide a
key, and made good with cement and fine stone aggregate. Throatings and
grooves can be readily formed where required and inadequate ones en-
larged. Open joints between wood sills and subsills in other materials should
be raked out and filled with a suitable sealer. Where excessive condensation
runs down the inside face of a window, a small hollowed wood moulding
may be fixed to the inside of the sill to form a channel, in which condensed
water may collect and evaporate or discharge through small weep holes
drilled through the bottom rail of the sash.
BRE Digest 2626 emphasises the importance of ensuring that all opening
joints on windows are close fitting or the provision of separate weather-
stripping seals to reduce energy waste and prevent draughts, although some
ventilation is essential for the comfort of the occupants. The digest also
describes how to withstand three types of loading-forces applied to fasten or
unfasten and move an opening light, moving a jammed window, and persons
on ladders supporting themselves on windows-<:ollectively referred to as
resistance to abuse .
Doors
Doors are sometimes a high-cost maintenance feature and could desirably
receive more attention from designers. External doors are more likely to be
protected from the weather than windows by porches or balconies, but if
subject to rain-splash may receive more wetting. Garage doors in particular
are seldom protected by overhangs, and their large size and outward
opening makes them more liable to mechanical damage which can strain
joints and cause cracking to the paintwork .
Water penetration. Rainwater does not usually penetrate into flush doors
unless openings are cut into them, as for glazed areas . It is essential that
flush doors used externally shall be of exterior quality and be fitted together
with suitable glues. On the other hand, panelled doors resemble windows in
that their numerous .joints provide many possible points of entry for
moisture. A wide bottom rail is normal practice, and an equally wide middle
rail, usually 180 to 200 mm wide, is now required to accommodate a British
Standard letter box. The amount of dimensional change in such a wide rail
resulting from seasonal variations in atmospheric humidity is considerable.
If the joints between horizontal rails and vertical stiles are well glued there is
a risk that the rails will split when shrinkage occurs during a dry summer: In
practice, only limited amounts of glue are normally used so that swelling and
shrinkage take place, and the protective paint film over the joint is broken,
with the unsealed joint acting as a moisture reservoir. Risk of water
penetration into the lower rail is increased if the interface between the
weather moulding and the rail is not adequately sealed. In like manner,
external glazing bars should be undersealed with putty or mastic. Use of
unsuitable glues which are not resistant to moisture or an insufficient
application of glue can lead to early joint failure, accentuated by the
increasing tendency in small modern houses to fit doors to open outwards.
BRE recommend weather and boil proof (WBP) glues, primarily the phenol
formaldehyde (PF) and resorcinol formaldehyde (RF) types." The low
natural resistance to fungal attack of the softwoods commonly used in door
manufacture is a further factor contributing to deterioration following
moisture penetration.
Framed doors. The majority of doors used in local authority or-speculative

houses are mass-produced and some are poorly designed and constructed.
Some types of framed door with dowelled joints are liable to open up with
shrinkage, permitting the entry of moisture and possible decay. Dowels

should be made from impermeable and durable timbers or be treated with a
water-repellent preservative prior to assembly, provided the treatment is
compatible with the glue." Panels of external doors should not be of
plywood unless it is of good exterior quality and glued with water-insoluble
adhesives in accordance with as 6566,8 otherwise the panels may be subject
to blisters, cracking and peeling.
In older houses, framed doors often contain 12 mm thick panels set into
grooves in stiles and rails with mouldings planted or worked solid around the
edges of the panels. Where panels crack, the split usually follows a glued
joint and this can be repaired by soaking off the old glue and rejointing. A
panel mould parallel with the split is removed and the joint closed by
levering the panel with a chisel. Where damage is more extensive the panel
may have to be removed. A panel should not be glued into the grooves and
nails or pins fixing panel mouldings should not penetrate the panel, as they
could prevent natural shrinkage and cause the panel to split.
Door frames and thresholds. External doors need the bottom rail rebated
over a galvanised steel water bar and to have a throated weatherboard fixed
to the bottom rail, to prevent rainwater penetrating under the door,
particularly when it is in an exposed position. On occasions, weatherboards
are too narrow to shed the water satisfactorily over the timber threshold,
and thresholds are sometimes machined to weather to an excessively thin
front face which may subsequently curl up and form a channel which collects
water and may even discharge it over the threshold into the building. It may
be necessary to replace the threshold with a wider one and possibly to
replace the water bar. Door frames set within 75 mm of the outer face of
walls in exposed positions need protection by door heads . The bottoms of
external door frames may decay owing to lack of painting. Defective lengths
can be cut out and new sections spliced on with the joints put together in
white lead or thick paint to make them watertight, replacing defective
thresholds at the same time. Flexible sealants need to be applied between
frames and the adjoining masonry to secure a watertight joint. A suitable
sealant such as oil-based mastic, butyl rubber or acrylic (solvent type) should
be used, although some may not be compatible with wood stains or
preservatives. Ideally a groove or rebate should take a 10 x 10 mm section
of sealant with adequate back-up material, such as foamed polyethylene to
control the depth of sealant. In the absence of a joint gap, corner fillets may
be used which are prone to failure."
Joinery defects. Doors which shrink unduly should be taken off their
hinges and a strip fixed to the hanging stile. Other defects include damaged
arrises (external angles) and indentations. Slightly damaged arrises may be
rectified with a plane and chisel. Where the damage is more extensive the
arris could be rounded. Shallow indentations can be removed by hot water
treatment and finished with a smoothing plane. In more severe cases, the
dent can be drilled out with a centre bit and filled with a treated wood.plug
or piece of new wood, followed by redecoration. On redecoration, defective

panels can be hidden by covering the door faces with plywood or hardboard.
Warped doors can be adjusted by easing (planing the shutting stile) . A
survey by Sinnott'? of 183 new dwellings erected by 92 builders in the West
Midlands revealed a generally low standard of joinery work, mainly
resulting from poor workmanship on site and careless handling and storage
of materials rather than the quality of materials used, although the finish of
timber and timber products supplied to the builder is often poor. The
contrast between manufactured fitments and work done on site was
markedly to the disadvantage of the site work .
Ironmongery
The provision of good-quality ironmongery reduces failures and hence
maintenance costs. Bronze metal antique finish (BMA) is often polished
which results in exposure of the brass and subsequent damage to surround-
ing paintwork. Anodised aluminium is generally preferable with stainless
steel for high-class work. Aluminium ironmongery is best fixed with
aluminium screws as steel screws are apt to rust.
Corrosion of Metals
The corrosion of metals in buildings may result in one or more serious
defects, namely:
(1) the structural soundness ofthe metal may be reduced;
(2) it may cause distortion or cracking of some other building material
in which the metal is bedded;
(3) failure of the metal may result in water entering the building;
(4) unsightly surfaces may be produced.
Dissimilar metals in contact can result in bimetallic corrosion. Where they
are unavoidably in contact, they should be insulated from each other by
impervious non-conducting materials, such as bitumastic coatings to prevent
the electro-chemical process occurring.
Low-alloy steels or weathering steels have been used extensively in the

United States and are now being used increasingly in the United Kingdom .
When permitted to rust under suitable conditions, corrosion soon ceases
after the formation of a protective rust coating.
Ordinary steels, including mild steel and low steel alloys, require suitable
protective treatment to prevent corrosion. Preventing corrosion of steel-
work is necessary not only to protect the steel but also other adjoining
materials. For example, corrosion of steel embedded in concrete or masonry
may fracture the encasing material. For protective purposes, it is necessary
to exclude water, to apply sacrificial metals to protect the steel components
or provide a protective environment. Light stains from corroded steelwork

on masonry or concrete surfaces can be removed with oxalic acid solution,
while very severe staininf will require a sealing coat followed by a
pigmented masonry finish. I Corroded steel can cause degradation of certain
timbers and pronounced blue-black staining (iron stains), which can be
overcome by galvanised coatings. 12 .
Ungalvanised steel windows, mainly found in houses built before 1950,
suffered from severe rusting, distortion of the windows and cracking of the
glass. It is generally advisable to replace this type of window.
Heavy steel sections carry millscale and, if these are permitted to weather,
rusting is likely to occur under the scale. Paint adheres well to scale but the
scale itself may flake off taking the paint with it. Painting over rust , although
not so serious as painting over millscale, is undesirable as the paint is likely
to deteriorate.
Stainless steel rarely requires maintenance and if it was costed over the
probable life of the building could prove economical in a variety of
situations, possibly including cavity wall ties.
Iron is liable to severe corrosion under normal climatic conditions. The

rusting of iron requires the presence of water, oxygen and carbon dioxide
(or other acid) and is accelerated by increased acid concentration. Exposed
ironwork requires protective treatment often in the form of corrosion
resistant paint.
Plate 21 Badly pitted aluminium window frame

Corrosion of non-ferrous metals-lead, copper, zinc and aluminium-was

considered in chapter 4 under flat roof coverings. Aluminium window
frames are now used increasingly and opinions vary as to the form that
maintenance might take. Some believe that no maintenance is required with
anodised aluminium in only mildly corrosive environments. In moderately
corrosive situations, provision should be made for washing the window
frames at fairly frequent intervals to prevent accumulation of dirt and
subsequent corrosion by pitting beneath it. One arrangement is for the
frames to be washed over when the windows are cleaned, but separate
cleaning is much more effective. Plate 21 shows a badly pitted anodised
aluminium window to a hospital.
Plastics
BRE Digest 69 13 describes how sunlight, particularly in the form of ultraviolet
radiation can cause colour changes in plastics, while the mechanical and
electrical properties are significantly impaired by a rise in temperature. Most
plastics are impervious to water. In many cases mechanical action is likely to
be the ultimate cause of failure of plastic components. for example, impact
may produce indentation or brittle fracture, while continuously applied
loading can cause collapse or rupture.
Unplasticised PVC can be used in a variety of building components
including soil and vent systems, underground drains and fittings, rainwater
goods, wall cladding, skirtings and architraves, and window frames. Lack of
rigidity in this material has resulted in frames being of rather thick section
unless reinforced by timber or steel, and in the latter case perfect seals are
required at joints of the plastic frame to protect the reinforcement.l" The
most common colour for uPVC window frames is white as it is the most
durable and is likely to have a life in excess of 20 years. The main problem
will be high thermal movement, as a temperature range of 45°C can cause a
movement of up to 4.5 mm in a length of 2 m, and joints must be able to
accommodate this movement and also remain watertight.
There are now many uPVC windows and doors on the market normally
having profiles of cellular structure with a minimum wall thickness of 3 mm,
with welded T-joints and corners and the profiles reinforced with steel or
aluminium channel where necessary. They can be single or double glazed
usually fixed by snap-in glazing beads. UPVC patio doors are also being
used extensively incorporating toughened glass to BS 626215 and adequate
weather seals.
A number of local authorities were becoming very concerned at the
continual window repainting and replacement programmes in the mid 19808,
and set up fabrication units producing uPVC windows often at around 100
windows per week . Some believed this would result in maintenance-free
windows but only time will tell whether their assumption is correct. As
previously outlined, there are inherent defects in this material.
BRE Digest 22416 described how foamed and expanded plastics were
useful building materials on account of their good thermal insulating and
acoustic properties combined with low cost and weight and ease of
handling. Typical examples are extruded expanded polystyrene, expanded
polystyrene beads and granules, foamed phenol-formaldehyde resin,
foamed polyurethane and foamed polyurethane granules .
P1asterwork
The characteristics of the principal plaster finishes are given in table 5.1.
Some of the more common plastering defects with their main causes and
remedies are listed in table 5.2
Other Plastering Defects

On occasions problems of flaking and bulging of the final plaster coat have
occurred within six to nine months of plaster being applied to clinker or
breeze block walls and partitions. The usual cause is the greater drying
shrinkage of the blockwork and undercoat plaster relative to the finishing
coat. Concrete blockwork tends to shrink as it dries out, particularly if the
blocks have not been matured for a sufficiently long period, or if they are
wet when laid. Plaster undercoats, particularly of cement, lime and sand,
tend to shrink with the blockwork. Little drying shrinkage occurs in finishing
coats of gypsum plaster and hence these may break away from the
undercoats and blockwork as the latter shrinks, resulting in hollowness and
flaking. If the finish is thoroughly keyed to the undercoat, cracking only may
occur. Defects of this kind normally arise within a year of plastering.
In repairing the plasterwork, the application of a new finishing coat to the
existing undercoat is usually satisfactory, provided it is left for a sufficient
period of time. The undercoat must be thoroughly cleaned down. If the
suctionof the undercoat is very high, a finish of well soaked lime putty and
sand with a light gauging of gypsum plaster usually gives good results.
Alternatively, a PVAC emulsion bonding agent can be applied to the
undercoat prior to applying the finishing coat.
Plaster joints between structural columns and internal walls may crack
owing to differential movement between column and wall. This defect can
be avoided by forming a groove in the plaster at the juncture, or by making a
cut in the plaster and masking it with a cover strip fixed at one edge only.
External angles of plastered walls are liable to damage and the provision of a
metal or plastic angle piece will give protection. The insertion of galvanised
metal scrim containing an angle bead into the plaster at external angles is
probably the ideal arrangement.
Where plaster extends across different backgrounds, the fixing of ex-
panded metal across the junctions will reduce the risk of cracking due to
differential thermal expansion and drying shrinkage. Thus in the case of the
columns previously described, the columns could be bridged by expanded
metal over building paper or polythene sheeting fixed to the wall on either
side, to isolate the plaster from any movement of the column . Where cracks
can be anticipated, as at the junction of wall and ceiling, it is advisable to
T.ble 5.1 ClUlrllCterlstlcs or pIlISter finishes

PI...ter Surface hardneu
and resistance 10 Othu surfau Restrictionson Shrinkage or
impact damage characteristics ra,ly decortuion txpansion Remarlcs
Lime plasters
Lime Weak and very easily Open-textured Shrink on drying. but Slow hardening. Only
indented (depending on sand). shrinkage is reduced apply on dry
absorbs condensation Initially only suitable by addition 01 fine undercoats
lor permeable sand
Gauged lime Resistance to damage Similar to above. but finishes that are Only apply on dry
increases with smoother finishes unaffected by alkali Shrinkage is undercoats
proportion 01 gypsum obtainable restrained by the
piaster gypsum content
provided that
over-trowelling is
avoided
Gypsum piasters
aass 0 (Keenes) Very hard and Very level and
resist ani to damage smooth. Particularly None, except on Expand during Set slowly and so
suitable lor low-angle undercoats containing selling. Subsequent allow ample time lor
lighting conditions cement or lime , or movements usually finishing to a smooth
unless lime is added small, but too rapid surface . Should not
10 the finishing coat drying can lead to be allowed to dry 100
delayed expansion quickly
CIa ss C Hard and resistant to Slightly less smooth
(anhydrous) damage than Class 0
Class B Sufficiently hard and Sufficiently smooth Expand during Set quickly, should
(hemihydrate) resistant lor most and level lor most selling, though be allowed 10 dry as
normal purposes, bUI purposes ex tremely slighlly soon as possible
weakened by with board finish
additions 01 lime plasters. Subsequent
movements are small
Lighlweighl Surface hardness Sufficiently smooth None. but the higher Expand during Maximum lire
similar 10 Class B and level lor most water content 01 selling. Subsequent resistance .
plasters. Ease 01 purposes lighlweight movements usually Lightweight plaster
indentation varies undercoats makes small and easily surfaceswarm up
with the type 01 these somewhat restrained by more quickly than
lightweight slower 10 dry than background others and so help 10
undercoat. but sanded gypsum prevent temporary
resilience lends to plaster undercoats condensation
prevent serious
damage
Cemetl/llimrlsand
1:0-",=3 Very strong and hard Wood noal finish Initially only suitable Shrink on drying, but Suitable lor damp
lor permeable surface cracking can conditions
1:1:6 Strong and hard Wood float finish finishes that are be minimised by
unaffected by alkali avoiding
1:2:9 Moderate Wood noat finish over-working
Single-eoat finishes
Board finish gypsum Surlace hardness On suitable None ; finish dries Extremely small
plasters similar to Class B backgrounds, similar very quickly expansion on setting.
(Class B) above, but resistance to Class B above Subsequent
depends on movements small
background
Thin-wall finishes
Based on gypsum Solter than board Smooth and level on Dries very quickly . Extremely small
finishes sufficiently level No restrictions when expansion on selling.
backgrounds dry Subsequent
movements small
Based on organic Moderalely hard . Mall surface, closely Dries very quickly. The very thin coats
hinders Resistance depends lollowing the level 01 No restrictions when are restrained by the
on hackground the backgroond dry background
Gypsum projection Properties generally intermediate between Class B and Class C gypsum piasters
plasters
Snurt<': ORE Digest 213" .

Table 5.2 Some plastering defects and their causes and remedies
Defect Cause Remedy
CRACKING
Fine hair cracks on the Use of loamy sand (if work Filling of fine hair cracks is
finished plaster is in gypsum plaster through- extremely difficult; it is often
out) . Excess lime in final better to apply wallpaper-
coat. or a lining paper or polyethy-
Applying final coat before lene sheeting-if a painted
initial shrinkage of under- finish is required
coats is complete (if under-
coats are based on cement or
lime)
Clearlydefined cracksfollow- Poor treatment of joints . Cut out and fill. In some
inga definite line, particularly Shrinkage or warping of cases cracks are liable to
withplasteronbuildingboards timber studding or joists. reappear and repairs should
Settlement or thermal move- be postponed for as long as
ment possible. Reinforce plaster
with jute scrim or metal
mesh, or mask cut at joint by
cover strip fixed to one side
Loss OF ADHESION
Loss of adhesion of final coat On gypsum undercoats-s-a If the undercoat is too weak
in work of two or more coats strong final coat over a very the only cure is to strip and
or single coat work on build- weak undercoat. replaster. If the undercoat
ing board" On cement or cement:lime is sound strip the final
based undercoats-applying coat, allow the undercoat to
final coat while undercoat thoroughly dry, roughen sur-
still 'green' and/or inadequa- face, remove dust with damp
te mechanical key. brush and replaster.
Dirty surfaces. ·Strip and replaster. Check
·Wrong type of board-such suitability of board for
as plasterboard intended for plastering.
direct decoration. Treat the surface with one or
"Use of lime in plaster. two coats of a suitable PVAC
Thermal expansion maycause emulsion type of bonding
stresses between plaster and agent if there is any doubt
background about its providing a satisfac-
tory bond .
QUICK SIlTI1NG PLASTER

Plaster sets too quickly Plaster very fresh from works Open tops of bags and allow
and still hot. plaster to cool.
Dirty mixing water or par- Use clean water and keep
tially set plaster from a pre- mixing platform, buckets and
vious gauging. tools clean.
Unsuitable sand--normally Test the sand for grading and
the setting time of sanded cleanliness. As a temporary
plaster decreases as the cure reduce the proportion of
volume of sand is increased . sand.
The set will speed up if the Store in dry conditions and
plaster has been kept too do not store for more than 2
long or if bags have become months-checked from the
damp date stamped on the bag
Defee: Cause Remedy
SLOW SElTING PLASTER

Plaster sets too slowly An unsuitable sand can ex- Test the sand and change
tend the setting time of a if necessary. With sanded
sanded plaster to 12 hours, mixes the setting time will
whereas the setting time with increase as the proportion
a standard sand is about 3 of sand is decreased
hours
DRVOUT
Plaster surface soft and pow- Plaster drying before setting. Use the correct grade of
dery with very fine cracks Gypsum plaster requires as plaster applied to the correct
much water in setting as is thickness. On work already
driven off from the gypsum plastered the only remedy is
in manufacture to strip and replaster
EFFLORESCENCE
Soluble salts on plaster face Soluble salts brought forward Dry brush the surface care-
from the background to which fully and repeatedly as the
the plaster has been applied, salts appear .
to the face of the plaster as The salts should be swept up
the building dries out and thrown away. Good ven-
tilation will hasten the drying
process.
Decoration is best delayed
until the structure is tho-
roughly dry; if thus is not
practicable use a porous
paint suitable for early
decoration
SEALED IN WATER
Moisture trapped in new Much of the water used in Use permeable paints to allow
plaster construction can be retained the moisture to evaporate
in the structure for a con- and facilitate proper drying
siderable time. Wet plaster out . If impermeable paints
should not be sealed with are to be used the walls
impermeable finishes must be allowed to dry out
thoroughly
MOULD GROWTH The growth starts in minute Once the construction has
windborne spores which dried out the growth will
alight on and develop in the stop. Any existing mould and
newly applied coating. The decoration should be scraped
spores will only develop if off the surface of the plaster-
dampness is present work. When dry the affected
area should be treated with a
fungicidal wash keeping the
work dry and ventilated
FLAKING AND PEELING OF FINAL Persistent moisture penetra- Strip defective plaster and
CoAT tion through the background provide positive barrier to
dampness or substitute
cement-based mixes
Defect Cause Remedy
IRREGULARITY OF SURFACE Uneven trowelling or Lay or point in a mortar

TEXnJRE marked differences in suction similar in character to the
of backgrounds often due to bricks or blocks. or apply an
the mortar having a very dif- additional coat of plaster
ferent suction from that of
the bricks or blocks
POPPINO OR BLOWING Particles in the background Small holes may be filled by
or in the plaster. lime or sand brush treatment with thick
which expand after the slurry of plastic paint or
plaster coat has set quick setting hemihydrate
plaster. Larger holes filled by
normal patching techniques,
matching surrounding ma-
terial in porosity and colour
RECURRENT SURfACE Deliquescent salts attract Strip the plaster and provide
DAMPNESS moisture from the air. They an impervious barrier
can result from the use of
unwashed sea sand. and be
carried from the background
into the plaster by. say. con-
densation in an unlined Due
RUST STAINING Application of unsuitable Strip the plaster and re-

plaster to metal lathing or plaster with metal lathing
plaster in contact with corro- plaster or mixes containing
dible ferrous metal in per- Portland cement and/or lime.
sistently damp conditions Paint ends of galvanised
metal lathing or metal scrim.
Metallic conduit or channel-
ling need treating to prevent
rust and positioning suf-
ficiently deep below the
surface to prevent cracking
of plaster
SoFTNESS OR CHALKINESS Excessive suction of the un- Adequate wetting. use of

dercoat. undue thinness of a bonding agent, proper
the final coat. working past application of a final coat of
the setting point. or exposure adequate thickness. or use of
of final coat to excessive heat a special type of plaster
or draughts during setting
Note: Plastering defects may be due to causes other than the use of faulty plastering materials or
techniques. For instance, moisture penetrating an external wall may cause: blistering, efflorescence. naking
or complete disruption of the plaster-or a plastered ceiling may crack because the construction permits
excessivedeflection. No plaster repair can be expected to remedy these problems , and it is essential to
determine the real cause of the problem before spending money on remedial work.
make a straight cut through the entire thickness of the plaster along the line
of the junction. Plaster scrims can also be used to prevent unsightly irregular
cracking. Small movements between walls and ceilings can be covered by
plasterboard cove to pleasing effect. 17
Premixed lightweight plaster or thin-wall plasters are best suited for
plastering on dense concrete. Surfaces should not be plastered until the
concrete has dried out sufficiently. . Bonding agents must be used in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Where no bonding agent is
used, the surface of the concrete should be pre-wetted immediately before
plastering.
When it is necessary to plaster painted brickwork, good adhesion is
required. This may be obtained by hacking the surface over at least one-half
of the area and raking out the joints or by fixing wire mesh or fabric
about 6 mm from the surface of the brickwork. The choice of plaster is
important-suitable plasters being retarded hemihydrate gypsum plasters or
a proprietary concrete bonding plaster. Where used in conjunction with
metal mesh, the undercoat should contain a small proportion of lime.
External Renderings
External renderings can be used to prevent rain penetration through porous
brick walls, since the rendering not only fills the hair cracks in the mortar
joints, but a textured or dashed finish tends to throw off water from the face.
Nevertheless, renderings even when incorporating waterproofers are not
entirely waterproof and good workmanship and suitable mixes are essential
if cracking is to be prevented.
Plain renderings should ideally be porous and weak, so that the contrac-
tion occurring during setting and drying out will be widely distributed and
not cause large cracks which are characteristic of strong mortars. A porous
rendering will absorb some rainwater but will not readily transmit it to the
background and it will dry out during the next fine spell. In conditions of
severe exposure, the first coat at least of the rendering should be fairly
impervious. In exceptionally severe conditions where the wall is likely to be
subject to hard frost or continuous driving rain, pebbled ash or roughcast is
preferable to plain rendering as both shed water well and do not crack
excessively with a rich mix. Hence the selection of mix is influenced by the
type of background, degree of exposure and decorative considerations.
Mixes suitable for rendering are detailed in table 5.3, of which the most
suitable are cement:lime:sand mixes II, III and IV.
The background must be thoroughly cleaned and any fungi algae des-
troyed with a suitable fungicide and removed. Hollows should be dubbed
out using a mix that is stronger and coarser than the first undercoat but
weaker than the background. Where the thickness exceeds 16 mm it should
be applied in two or more coats. Backgrounds should be dampened to
reduce excessive suction.
The strength of the background should be adequate to restrain shrinkage
or thermal movements of the rendering . The degree of porosity and suction
.....
l.Il
oj:>.
O:l
;::
:::.:
!
~
S·
Table 5.3 Mixes suitable for rendering ~
s~
Mix type Cement : lime : sand Cement : ready-mixed lime : sand Cement : sand Masonry
(using plasticiser} cement : sand
Ready-mixed Cement : ready-
lime : sand mixed material
I 1 : 1/4: 3 1 : 12 1:3
II 1 : 112 : 4-4 112 1 : ~9 1 : 4-4 112 1: 3-4 1 : 2 1/2-3112
III 1 : 1 : 5-6 1:6 1: 5-6 1 : 5-6 1 : 4-5
IV 1: 2 : ~9 1 : 4 112 1: ~9 1 : 7-8 1 : 5 1/2-fh2
Note: In special circumstances. for example where soluble salts in the background are likely to cause problems. mixes based on sulphate-resisting Portland cement may
be employed. .
Source: BRE Digest 19618 ,
Table 5.4 Recommended mixes Cor external renderings in relation to background materials, exposure conditions and finish required
(the type of mix shown iIJ /Qlks • to be preferred)
Backgroundmaterial Type offinish Firstand subsequent undercoats Final coat
Exposure Exposure
tl::l
l::
Severe Moderate Sheltered Severe Moderate Sheltered ~
~.
(1) Dense, strong, smooth Wood float II or III II or III II or III III III or IV III or IV
Scraped or textured II or III II or III II or III III III or IV III or IV
Roughcast lor II IorB lor II II II II ~
Drydash lor II lor II lor II II II II S·
~
;::
(2) Moderately strong, Wood float II or III III or IV III or IV III III or IV III or W Q
;::
porous Scraped or textured III III or IV III or IV III III or IV III or W ~
Roughcast II II II as undercoats
Drydash II II II
c~
\:l'"
(3) Moderately weak, Wood float III III or IV III or W
porous· Scraped or textured III III or IV III or W ~
Drydash III III III as undercoats Q
;::
(4) No fines concrete t I:l...
Wood float II or III II, III or IV II, III or IV II or III III or IV III or W
Scraped or textured II or III II, /II or IV II, III or IV III III or IV III or W So
~
Roughcast lor II lor II lor II II II II :;.
Drydash lor II lor II lor II II II II t'.l
c
(5) Woodwools1abs'* Wood float III or IV III or IV III or W W W W
E"
Scraped or textured III or IV III or IV III or W W IV IV 5'
-
;::
(6) Metal lathing Wood float I, II or III I, /I or III I , II or III II or III II or III II or III 1..
Scraped or textured I, II or III I, II or III I, II or III III III III ~
Roughcast lor II lor II lor II II II II
Drydash lor II lor II lor II II II II
·Fmishes such as roughcast and drydash require strong mixes and hence are not advisable on weak backgrounds. VI
VI
'IT proprietary lightweight aggregates are used, it may be desirable to use the mix weaker than the recommended type .
l1bree-coat work is recommended, the first undercoat being thrown on like a spallerdash coat.
-
Source: BRE Digest 19618 •
affect the adhesion of the rendering and influence the choice of the type of
mix and method of application. If the background does not afford sufficient
key, it may be necessary to fix metal mesh, roughen the surface or apply a
spatter coat or bonding medium. IS
Choice of undercoats is very much affected by the type of background as
shown in table 5.4. There are six generally recognised background types:
(1) Dense, strong and smooth materials-s-verydense bricks, blocks or
concrete with low suction and smooth surfaces, requiring a mechanical key
such as bush-hammering for concrete or a bonding coat of spatterdash.
(2) Moderately strong and porous materials--most bricks and blocks
are in this category and joints are raked out to provide a key.
(3) Moderately weak and porous materials such as lightweight concrete
or bricks of low strength. The rendering must be weaker than the
background otherwise shrinkage could result in failure of the background
surface.
(4) No fines concrete with many large voids provides a good mechanical
key.
(5) Woodwool slabs afford a good mechanical key but are weak and
should be completely dry when rendered.
(6) Metal lathing is best plastered on both sides. Where fixed to
battens, self-firring nails or distance pieces should be used so that the first
coat can be forced through the lathing to encase it.
Some backgrounds contain appreciable amour's of salts, particularly
sulphates, which can in the presence of moisture attack cement in mortars
and renderings. A good rendering will normally prevent damp penetration
but in the case of rising damp metal lathing should be fixed to impregnated
timber battens, bitumen-impregnated fibre lathing used or, better still, a
.damp-proof membrane inserted.
Undercoats should be between 8 mm and 16 mm thick, with each
succeeding coat thinner and weaker than the preceding and lightly scratched
to provide a key for the next unless it is machine applied. Finishing coats
normally vary from 5 mm upwards in thickness. In conditions of severe
exposure three-coat work is recommended and two-coat work for moderate
conditions. The undercoat must be allowed to dry out thoroughly and for the
worst shrinkage to take place before the next coat is applied. Renderings
require adequate curing (at least three days).
Finishing coats may take various forms, as listed in table 5.4, and are now
described.
(1) Pebbledash or drydash is a rough finish of exposed pebbles or
crushed stone, graded from about 6 to 13 mm, thrown on to and sometimes
lightlypressed into a fresh applied coat of mortar. A pebbledash finish on an
undercoat with a spatterdash coat beneath is particularly suitable for walls
exposed for long periods to driving rain and wind, being very durable and
generally free from defects. It must be applied to fairly strong backing.
(2) Roughcast or wet dash is a rough finish thrown on as a wet mix. The
aggregate in the finishing coat consists of sand and crushed stone or gravel
graded from about 6 to 13 mm. A roughcast finish on an undercoat with a
spatterdash coat beneath is very suitable for severe conditions .
(3) Plaincoat or smooth floated finishes are subject to surface crazing
and this is accentuated with mixes that are rich in cement or which use fine
sands . Best results are obtained with wood, felt, cork or other suitably faced
floats. .
(4) Textured or scraped finishes are obtained by the use of different
tools on finishing coats . Textured and scraped finishes are suitable for all
conditions and are less susceptible to crazing than smooth finishes.
(5) Machine applied finishing coats, such as tyrolean vary in texture
with the materials used and the type of machine, and they are suitable for all
conditions. Proprietary materials are normally supplied ready for mixingbut
in the absence of a special undercoat a 1:1:6 cement-lime-sand would be
suitable. Some mixes are self-coloured.
A coloured final coat can be obtained by any of the following methods.
(1) Using a selected sand or other aggregate.
(2) Using white or coloured cement.
(3) Mixing in suitable pigments.
(4) Using proprietary finishing materials.
One of the worst problems with external renderings is shrinkage cracking.

This can be reduced by using weaker mixes containing coarse sand with a
low clay or loam cement. Rainwater trapped behind a crazed rendering may
penetrate inwards when drying out.
Spalling and lack of adhesion of external renderings may result from poor
workmanship, frost action and/or sulphate attack. Sulphate concentrations
may occur in chimneys or where a cement and sand mortar has been used for
bedding or re~inting, where the sulphates tend to crystallise, forcing off the
render. BRE 9 have identified the main causes of cracking and detachment
of renderings and subsequent rain penetration, as inadequate bond or key to
the wall, continuous rendering over zones where relative movement occurs
in the background, the rendering is stronger than the background or
preceeding coats, is too weak to exclude rainwater adequately or too rich or
too wet to avoid cracking . Loose renderings should be cut away to a firm
edge, undercutting it a little. It is advisable to cut away from about 100 mm
around any movement cracks, wash out the gap and fill any cracks in the
backing masonry . If structural movement is continuing or the masonry
surface is friable, then it is best covered with expanded metal fixed with
non-ferrous nails. Plate 22 shows how rapid deterioration of the structure
can follow the failure of a protective rendering .
External Wall THing

Some extensive failures of external wall tiling have occurred in recent years
and defective tiling on tall buildings can cause serious problems. The wall
Plate 22 Loss of rendering and disintegrating walling
tiles can be fixed with a cement:sand bed or with adhesives and each is
considered.
When using a cement:sand bed, the tiles should preferably have a good
undercut key in their back surface. The background should also have an
adequate key by using keyed bricks, or deeply raked brick joints, or by grit
blasting or bush hammering concrete or by using some other suitable
method. Bedding and render coats should incorporate the coarser sands and
thick coats should contain galvanised reinforcement adequately tied back to
the structure but spaced out from the background to provide a key. Ample
soft joints should be provided in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions; passing through the thickness of tile, bed and render, and
coinciding where possible with any discontinuities in the background.P
When fixing tiles with adhesives, all surfaces must be clean, dry and free of
loose material. At least 14 days should elapse before fixing tiles on to new
rendering and protection from rain is necessary during fixing and from 7 to
14 days afterwards. The adhesive must form a solid bed and with thin-bed
adhesives this effect is obtained by applying an even layer of adhesive to the
wall and pressing each tile into position with a twisting action and gentle
beating immediately after the application of adhesive. With thick-bed
applications the normal method is to 'butter' adhesive on the back of each
tile before placing and beating. Flexible movement joints sealed with a
flexible sealant must be provided both horizontally and vertically at 3 to
4.5 m centres. Structural joints should extend through to the surface of the
tiling. After fixing, joints should be left open for a few days to permit
adequate drying out of the adhesive before grounng."
Internal Finishings
With the wide variety of surfacing materials and decorative finishes now
available, selection poses problems. Appearance, durability, acoustics, ease
of cleaning and cost are all important. They are also subject to the changes
of fashion and widely differing forms of usage. A choice has often to be
made between a long life surface finish and shorter life coating or decoration
with the consequent need for more frequent maintenance. The relative
merits of plastered solid partitions and 'dry' plasterboard and similar
materials require careful consideration, including regard to the incon-
venience and cost of replacing the more vulnerable material.
Ceramic wall tiles provide a very popular finish for bathrooms, toilets and
kitchens. They should be of good quality and be laid with straight joints in
both directions. Most tiles are now fixed with adhesives, a method which
permits them to be applied to hardboard and plasterboard surfaces, and
makes the replacement of cracked or loose tiles easier. After each section of
tiling is fixed it should be washed down and the joints suitably grouted.
Attractive and durable finishes to walls and fitments can be obtained by
using decorative laminates veneered to asbestos, chipboard or plywood.
This finish is hardwearing and offers good resistance to heat and liquids.
Defective wall plaster can be replaced with new plaster or with a dry lining
of plasterboard fixed to impregnated timber or plasterboard battens.P
Decorations
The importance of decorations is evident from the fact that the maintenance
costs of buildings are approximately equally divided between decoration,
services and structure. Decorations enhance the appearance of buildings and
in many cases also protect materials which would otherwise deteriorate. In
general the protective function lasts longer than the deterioration in
appearance, although there are design details which sometimes make it

difficult to renew the paint coating adequately and hence fail to ensure
continued protection. Typical examples are the difficulty of painting behind
downpipes fixed close to walls and securing an adequate thickness of paint
on angular or sharp edges of joinery.
Paintwork Qualities
The quality of paintwork can be assessed in various ways and the following
indicate some of the more important desirable features of good paintwork:
(1) attractive, bright, evenly coloured and smooth finish, with uniform
gloss, sheen or texture;
(2) absence of paint on glazing and other adjoining unpainted surfaces;
(3) satisfactory colour scheme;
(4) absence of rust marks;
(5) absence of resin exuding from knots;
(6) adequate body to paint coating, entirely obliterating any
background colours;
(7) freedom from cracks, blisters and other defects;
(8) ability to protect substrates and withstand regular cleaning.P
Defects in Paintwork
Paintwork may become defective for many reasons and the more important
ones are described later in this chapter. Defects can occur through poor
application of the paint . The most common examples are ridges in the paint
film caused by brush marks, sagging due to downward movement of the
paint film and wrinkling during drying resulting from the paint being applied
too thickly.
The Local Government Operational Research Unit has defined 'states'
through which an element passes as it deteriorates from a new condition.
With emulsion paint the states were defined as
(1) no visible defects,
(2) soiled,
(3) badly soiled but paint film intact,
(4) slightly crazed and flaking,
(5) extensively crazed, flaking or peeling .P'
In practice, deterioration processes are not uniform and at any point in
time different parts of the decoration are likely to be in different states, and
the situation is further complicated by variations in assessment by different
technical personnel.
Painting Cycles
There are three main reasons for redecoration:
(1) part of a policy of preventive or planned maintenance;

(2) part of a policy of redecoration for reasons other than maintenance;
that is, for the benefit of users who may enjoy an occasional change of
colour scheme;
(3) redecorating carried out becausethe protectivecoat has deteriorated.
Apart from the frequency of painting it is important to use a suitable
paint. It has been estimated that damage to British industrial buildings
through corrosion and neglect costs around £4 million per day and that
improved surface protection could save at least half of this amount. The
difference in capital cost between an appropriate surface protection and a
cheap paint is insignificant against the labour and disruption costs involved
in having to, say, paint one year earlier. Furthermore , the cheaper paint
may not be giving adequate protection over the shorter life span with the
possibility of consequent damage to the element concerned.
Painting costs depend on a variety of factors including the amount of
paintwork, frequency of painting, painting specification, accessibility, avai-
lability of labour and current costs of labour, materials and overheads. The
cheapest and most effective painting policy aims at obtaining a balance
between excessive painting costs and insufficient painting, leading to the
eventual replacement of expensive building elements. In general, annual
painting costs increase with more frequent applications but annual replace-
ment costs are reduced." However, a government costs in use study of
twenty-four Crown office buildmgs" found that office painting cycles were
not rigorously followed, owing to differences in climatic conditions, degree
of exposure, amount of public use, and opinion as to proper standards.
Buildings are also decorated piecemeal to avoid undue disturbance to the
occupants, and there is some deferment of redecorations if an alterations
scheme is proposed.
In times of financial stringency, painting is often deferred, sUfposedly to
save money, but it results in much higher costs in the long term.! The costly
consequences of lack of painting are illustrated in plates 23,24 and 25. Plate
Plate 13 Breakdown of palntwork and woodwork to timber facade

Plate 24 Loss of paint and decaying timber to pilaster base
23 shows the progressive decay of the entire timber facade to a modern

hospital extension, plate 24 a rotting base to an attractive pilaster to the
entrance to a well-designed bank, and plate 25 illustrates the rotting
weatherboarding to a higher educational building, about 15 years old, which
permitted the entry of rainwater, into the lecture rooms and offices beneath
and the boarding has since had to be replaced at high cost.
Investigations into factory painting highlighted the problem of scheduling
the work to avoid interference with production. This usually entails a
concentration of work during the annual shut-down period, and this is
assisted by the use of modern painting systems and techniques, including
one coat spray on paints. These are often based on high-build alkyd resin
blended with special pigments to provide adequate obliterating power and
film build in one coat and can be applied by airless or conventional spray
equipment.
The recommended intervals between paint cycles vary enormously with
different conditions from possibly 5 years in relatively mild areas to 3 years
in very aggressive locations. The cycles may not however be based on
complete repainting. A sound initial paint base may be followed by
spot-priming as necessary and one finishing coat, as preparation is more
costly than paint application. One industrialist estimated the cost of
",,", ... ' '. "., ,

>,
.~.
'",,,,~'\~'l:
:lC~:,t ...
.
"lJl~. . ,
.. .... . ,
Plate 25 Breakdown of paintwork and decaying timber to weatherboarding
repainting a large factory chimney every 2 years at £3000, while full paint
treatment every 5 years combined with disruption of production could
amount to £30,000. Table 5.5 shows possible painting cycle costs on
steelwork.
Table 5.5 Painting cycle costs on steelwork
Exposure time 1 year 3 years 5 years 6 years

Condition excellent good patchy corroded
Treatment required no cleaning , local scraping, 25% chip, 100% chip,
1 coat gloss wire brush, scrape, scrape,
paint spot prime, wire brush, wire brush,
2 coats gloss prime overall, prime overall,
finish 2 coats gloss 2 coats gloss
finish finish
Cost comparisonl
treatment 1.00 2.80 5.11 5.91
Labour/materials
ratio 1.8 to 1 3.8 to 1 3.15 to 1 3.8 to 1
Painting Processes
There have been many developments in both paint production and applica-
tion in recent years. Although some of the new paints may be less tolerant of
poorly prepared surfaces or bad weather than older materials, nevertheless
they possess important advantages and can be used beneficially under
certain conditions. Careful preparation of the surface and skilful application
are major factors determining the performance of any paintY Considerable
guidance in the selection of painting systems is given in BS 6150.23
Repainting Woodwork
Attention should be concentrated on the vulnerable, weathered areas of sills
and lower rails. Paintwork which is chalked or dirty but otherwise sound
needs thorough washing before repainting, preferably with a detergent
solution or a proprietary cleaner. Once the dirt is loosened it should be
removed with copious quantities of clean water, the surfaces rubbed down
with wet or dry abrasive paper and allowed to dry . All cracks should be
carefully sealed by using hard oil-based stoppers, which do not shrink on
setting like putty, applying any necessary preservative treatment, and
priming any bare wood before filling. Any knots or resinous wood should be
sealed with shellac knotting or leafing aluminium primer to prevent resin
exuding through the paint. Any bare wood should be primed to fill the
pores, stop the suction of the wood and form a base for the undercoat.
Primers may be low-lead alkyd based or aluminium and are best applied by
brush, paying particular attention to corners, nail holes, joints and end
grain . Bring primed areas of woodwork when dry forward with undercoat-
ing, applying filler if necessary , within 48 hours of priming. A compatible
finishing coat should be applied after the undercoating is dry by lightly
rubbing down and cleaning the surface of any loose matter, all in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions.
The moisture content of joinery should not exceed 18 per cent for exterior
joinery and 12 per cent for interior work. Exterior painting should not be
undertaken on damp surfaces and should preferably be carried out between
mid-April and mid-September.P
If the existing paint is soft, very chalky or eroded, cracked, blistered or
peeling, or shows any adhesion weakness, it should be completely removed.
Complete removal is also desirable if the paint has been affected by mould
growth or by bleeding through of stains or preservatives, or if there is
already an excessive number of coats . Decayed timber should be cut out and
replaced; both old and new timber should be treated with preservative,
particularly end grain. In situ pressure injection of preservative is possible
where existing joinery is at risk of decay. The blowlamp 'provides the
quickest and most effective way of removing paint from wood, but where it
cannot be used, as against glass, paint removers of the organic solvent type
(BS 3761) are recommended if 'care is taken to remove all traces of paint
remover. The bare wood should be rubbed smooth with abrasive paper and
the painting process continued as for new work-knotting, priming, stopp-
ing, undercoat(s) and finishing coat. Some manufacturers recommend a

four-coat system consisting of a primer, undercoat and two finishing coats.
Conventional alkyd resin paints form the major type of exterior finish on
woodwork, although their elasticity is lost on ageing. Claims were being
made in the mid 19808 for paints with greater permeability and flexibility,
but usually accompanied by reduced gloss (breathing or microporous
paints) .28
New or bare exterior woodwork should be primed as soon as possible to
protect it from the weather, but damp surfaces are best left unpainted until
dry. Where timber has been left exposed to the weather, any loose grain
must be removed by thorough sanding, scraping or planing. On one site the
prolonged period during which primed timber remained exposed to the
weather (up to 12 months) was considered a contributory factor in the early
breakdown of external paintwork on new dwellings. Paint must not be
applied on top of creosote, bitumen or tarry materials as they are likely to
bleed through the new paint and discolour it. One approach is to scrape the
surface well and to seal it with two coats of aluminium wood primer or with
one or two coats of good-quality shellac knotting before applying the new
undercoat. Another alternative is to apply one coat of thinned knotting
followed by one coat of aluminium primer.
Table 5.6 details painting defects on woodwork and possible causes.
Clear varnish can give an attractive finish to exposed external woodwork
where a natural effect is required. At least four initial coats are essential.
For maintenance thoroughly clean all surfaces, strip any brittle or flaking
areas with a solvent remover and wash down with clean white spirit, stop
cracks, holes and open joints, and brush two coats of varnish on the dry
surfaces. Varnishes become brittle by weathering and ultra-violet rays can
bleach or degrade the underlying wood surface.
Exterior wood stains, mainly high solid, are being used increasingly as
alternatives to paint. They are less durable but their renewal is easier and
cheaper. They do not, however, avoid the need for preservative treatment,
hide knots or imperfections, or protect putty, so they require bead glazing.
By permitting a greater range in moisture content, especially where dark
stains are exposed to sunlight, the~ allow greater dimensional changes and
sometimes splitting of the timber.
Repainting Metalwork
Repainting metalwork should not be delayed beyond the appearance of the
first traces of rust. This avoids the more costly work later of removing all
rust and paint. The old paint surfaces can be rubbed down and finished with
one or two suitable coats. Any very small patches of rust can be removed
and touched in .with an inhibitive primer. Complete removal of the paint
followed by suitable surface preparation is necessary if rust covers more than
0.5 per cent of the area ..Old paint is often difficult to remove. Solvent or
alkaline paint strippers are reasonably effective provided their residues are
removed with white spirit or large quantities of water. Alternatively a
Table 5.6 Painting defects on woodwork
Possible causes
Painting
defect Preparation of Application Exposure
wood
Blistering Damp or unseasoned Paint poorly applied Excessive heat

wood; liquid or vapour
beneath coating.
Knots not properly
treated
Peeling Damp or unseasoned Paint poorly applied,

Poor adhesion wood. particularly the prim-
Flaking Surfaces not properly ing coat, or omission
cleaned, powdery or of it or use of unsuit-
friable able primer.
Too long between
coats .
Irregular Damp or unseasoned Hard drying paint Excessive heat

cracks wood. applied over soft coat-
Paste or size left on ings
wood
Chalking Early coats in system Could be incorrect or Lengthy exposure,

Powdering may have failed to unsuitable formula- possibly severe
satisfy porosity of tion
substrate
Insufficiently Surface not cleaned Paint poorly applied.

opaque Undercoat too thin or
('grinning') uneven
Colour uneven
Resin coming Knots not properly Too much resin for Resin softened by heat
through treated. knotting to seal
Very resinous knots
not cut out
Delayed drying Surface not properly Finish applied before Damp, cold or frost
Uneven drying cleaned . undercoat completely
Residues of paint dry
removers. Painting on
creosote without sea-
ling
Table 5.6 (cont'd)
Possible causes
Painting
defect Preparation of Application Exposure
wood
Discoloration Painting on creosote or Possible use externally Lengthy exposure to

bitumen without sea- of colour intended for bright sunlight. Che-
ling. internal use mical attack on yel-
Surface not properly low, where direct day-
cleaned . light is excluded
Knots not properly
treated.
Stains from various
species of timber,
either as solid, ply or
veneer .
Pigment dyestuffs,
generally reds or ma-
roons, melt when
burned off, are ab-
sorbed into the wood
and discolour the paint
system, unless sealed
Poor gloss Alkaline materials left Paint poorly applied . Damp, fog or frost;
on wood Still, cold air in un- lengthyexposure
heated rooms
Bloom-hazy or white Gas or paraffin heat- Condensation

appearance on gloss ing during drying
'Sinkage'-patchy low Unsuitable undercoat.

gloss Finish applied before
undercoat sufficiently
dry
'Sheeriness'- Paint not properly

uneven gloss stirred. Failure to
maintain a wet edge.
Vigorous brushing of
matt paint in dark col-
ours
'Wrinkling'-!oss of Can also be caused by Paint dries too Excessive heat

gloss excessive retention of quickly.
preservatives or their Skin-drying of paint
solvents , owing to in- film.
sufficient drying out Mixing resin-based
paints with oil and
other paints.
Adding unsuitable sol-
vents
blowlamp, scrapers and wire brushes may be used. Angles, crevices, bolt
heads and rivets must be cleaned with special care. More efficient cleaning
processes include blast cleaning, flame cleaning and acid pickling.
Severely rusted metal window frames must have all putty and glazing
removed to allow thorough cleaning by brushing and scraping . Two coats of
zinc chromate, zinc phosphate or zinc-rich primer should be applied before
reglazing and puttying. The putty should be bevelled to shed water from the
joint and the exposed primer given undercoats and exterior quality finishing
paint, even inside buildings.
Paint Maintenance Practice

The author carried out a paint maintenance survey on a national basis in
198327 and found that standards of painting maintenance in general were
deteriorating significantly, creating serious problems. For example, it is
generally recognised that the frequency of repainting is influenced by
climatic conditions, atmospheric pollution, degree of exposure and con-
dition of substrate. Most property managers aimed for the repainting of
external gloss surfaces two to three years from the initial painting and at four
to five year intervals thereafter. In practice the period between painting
cycles had often been extended to 6 to 9 years . Local authorities suffered
from substantial budget cuts and many private property owners afforded
painting a low priority, as their primary concern was profits and product-
ivity. These delays in painting resulted in. expensive bills for joinery repairs
and replacements preparatory to painting, which in badly neglected situa-
tions amounted to as much as six to fifteen times the cost of the painting.
In many cases the failure of components at an early stage in the life of the
building, which had been attributed to paint failure, was in fact due to the
poor initial quality of the substrates and the lack of necessary protective
measures. Another major weakness was the failure to monitor and enforce
the specified painting cycles in full repairing leases of properties. To prevent
the decay of building components, it is essential that repainting takes place
before the existing paint film begins to break down. Saving on painting and
decoration is frequently false economy as it is merely storing up much
greater and more costly problems for the future .
One of the greatest weaknesses in painting work was found to be the
general lack of attention to surfaces to be painted and satisfactory applica-
tion methods . All too common were failures to remove all loose and flaking
paint, to burn off existing wood surfaces where paint had broken down, to
clean adequately the surfaces to be painted, the omission of sealing to knots,
the lack of a good coat of suitable primer on all bare surfaces, the failure to
seal all cracks and holes with an appropriate stopping material, painting in
damp conditions and on wet surfaces, the failure to lightly rub down
between coats where appropriate, the mixing of incompatible paints, the
omission of a specified undercoat or finishing coat and the excessive use of
thinners. These faults, which demonstrate an overall decline in standards,

drastically diminish the effectiveness of painting systems and result in
premature paint failures.
Repainting Plastered Walls and Ceilings

Emulsion paints have superseded oil-bound distemper as a finish to
plastered walls and ceilings with their wider range of finishes and better
resistance to washing. They dry rapidly and two or more coats can be
applied in one day. Emulsion paints can be applied to most surfaces but the
manufacturer's advice should be sought for use externally, on wood or
metal, or when condensation is present. Rollers, airless spraying and other
modern techniques should be used as far as practicable, to reduce the labour
component of maintenance work . Matt finishes reduce the reflection of light
sources and minimise the effect of surface irregularities, but they are less
suitable than gloss finishes when high wear resistance, ease of cleaning or
maximum hygiene are desired.j"
Smooth surfaces should be rubbed down to a matt surface prior to
painting. If the surface is soft or powdery or has been decorated previously,
all loose material must be removed by washing and brushing off, while soft
size-bound distemper or ceiling distemper must be washed off completely.
Dirty surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned. Before applying emulsion paint
over wallpaper it is advisable to start with a small area, in case the paper
contains colours which bleed into the paint. Emulsion paint is normally
applied in two coats with a wall brush, flat distemper brush up to 150 mm
wide, 100 mm varnish brush, roller or spraygun, and should be thinned only
with clean water.
Surfaces that have previously been painted with emulsion paint may be
redecorated with other materials provided that the emulsion paint is sound
and adhering well. It should be rubbed down wet before redecorating and
then allowed to dry before applying oil paint. A coat of size may be needed
after rubbing down and before hanging wallpaper. Emulsion paint which is
not adhering satisfactorily may be removed by scraping or wire brushing.
Surface defects most likely to affect painting will be those caused by
dampness from direct rain penetration, rising damp or condensation, and
the only really satisfactory remedy is to stop the damp penetration. A
compromise solution is to use a permeable paint which will allow salts or
moisture to escape. Slight efflorescence occurring after a first decoration can
usually be cured by applying an alkali-resistant primer . Where extensive
making good of plaster is necessary, this may result in areas which are
alkaline or of different absorption from the remainder, and it is best to coat
the whole wall with alkali-resistant primer, even when using emulsion paint,
for safety and uniformity of finish. Tarry or sooty stains on chimney walls
cannot be sealed by paints although lead foil is sometimes satisfactory. If the
staining is extensive the plaster may have to be removed and recurrence can
be prevented by installing impervious flue linings. Persistently damp con-

ditions encourage mould growth and improved ventilation is often a better
remedy than fungicidal paints. A comprehensive list of defects on painted
walls with their causes and cures is given in BRE Digest 198.30
Painting of Masonry and Asbestos Cement

It is advisable to use alkali-resistant paints for painting masonry and asbestos
cement. A less satisfactory alternative is to apply one or two coats of
alkali-resistant primer followed by a normal paint system such as oil gloss
paint. With asbestos cement, porous paints are preferable as they allow the
material to breathe with less risk of damage. Suitable paints include
emulsion paints based on alkali-resistant polymers. Alkali-resistant paints,
such as those based on chlorinated rubber, are also suitable for use on brick,
stone and concrete walls. Asbestos cement should not be painted with an
impervious finish on one side only, since differential carbonation may cause
warping or cracking; hence back-painting with the same paint or a cheaper
impermeable one is necessary.29
Pattern Staining
Pattern staining consists of dark and light patterns which appear on plaster
surfaces. The pattern on a lath and plaster ceiling forms virtually a complete
replica in light and shade of the lathing and joists . It may also occur on the
soffits of hollow tile floors, on ceilings of wallboard or plasterboard nailed to
joists, on hollow block partitions, on frame walls and on wall linings or
coverings where these are fixed to battens.
Some dirt or dust from the air is bound to accumulate on walls and
ceilings, and with pattern staining it stands out clearly and spoils the
appearance of the wall or ceiling long before the general darkening of the
surface would make redecoration necessary . It is caused by the cooler
surfaces receiving a greater amount of dust. Wood laths are poor conductors
of heat and the heat flows more slowly through the lath and plaster than
through plaster alone, and so the areas under the laths collect more dust ;
similarly with upper floor and ceiling joists .
Various methods can be used to remedy this defect.
(1) To make the surface warmer than the air by choosing a form of
heating that will keep the wall or ceiling surface warm. Radiant heating
systems are preferable to convection systems.
(2) To maintain a uniform temperature over the whole surface of the
wall or ceiling by (a) selecting a suitable type of plaster; (b) adding
insulation locally at points where heat flow is high, or (c) adding insulation
over the whole structure to obtain a general reduction in heat flow.
Insulating materials which have been used with success include 20 mm of

slag wool, 25 mm glass silk and 15 mm insulating board , each on brown
paper.
Glazing
Prior to glazing, rebates should be cleaned and primed . Glass should be cut
to allow a small clearance at all edges and then be back-puttied, by laying
putty along the entire rebates and bedding the glass solidly, sprigged for
timber rebates and pegged for metal rebates , and neatly front puttied,
taking care to ensure that putty does not appear above the sight lines.22 The
putty is designed to prevent the passage of air, dust and moisture past the
glass and consists of linseed oil putty to BS 544 for wooden frames and metal
casement putty for metal and non-absorbent hardwood frames. As linseed
oil putty sets, some absorption takes place through the primer into the wood
frame , and the putty shrinks.
The putty requires protection with a minimum of two coats of paint as
soon as it has set sufficiently to receive it. The undercoat can usually be
applied within 7 to 14 days after glazing depending on atmospheric
conditions and size of fillet, and the final gloss coat of paint should be
applied within 28 days of glazing and extend about 2 mm beyond the inside
edge of the face putty to prevent rain eroding the putty edge. Aluminium
frames should be treated with zinc chromate primer to ensure effective
adhesion of the putty . When reglazing, all old glass and putties must be
hacked out and the rebates thoroughly cleaned prior to inserting the new
glass. The majority of glass used is of ordinary glazing quality (00) to
BS 952. For panes exceeding 1 m2 clear sheet glass should be at least 4 mm
thick.
Considerable wilful damage to glass in large panes and vulnerable
positions , such as in doors to lock-up garages, has occurred on housing
estates. In some cases it would be better to use transparent plastics instead
of glass to reduce the risk of breakage.
Double Glazing
With the rising cost of heating fuels and the desire to reduce condensation,
there is an increasing demand for the double glazing of existing windows.
One common arrangement is to fix a second line of glazing with wood or
plastic face beads to existing frames. As described in chapter 4, no matter
how well the glazing seals are made, the cavities cannot be expected to
remain airtight indefinitely. Another approach is to fix separate secondary
windows."
References
1 BRE Princes Risborough Laboratory. Technical Note 24: Preservative
treatments for external softwood joinery timber (1982)
2 BRE Princes Risborough Laboratory. Technical Note 29: Ensuring
good service life for window joinery (1974)
3 BRE Digest 73. Prevention of decay in external joinery (1978)
4 BRE Digest 304. Preventing decay in external joinery (1985)
5 A. Oliver. Can paint call a halt to development of rot? Chartered
Surveyor Weekly (2 August 1984)
6 BRE Digest 262. Selection of windows by performance (1982)
7 BRE Digest 175. Choice of glues for wood (1975)
8 British Standards Institution. BS 6566: Plywood. Part 7: 1985 Specifica-
tion for classification of resistance to fungal decay and wood borer
attack. Part 8: 1985 Specification for bond performance of veneer
plywood
9 BRE Defect Action Sheet 69. External walls: joints with windows and
doors-application of sealants (1985)
10 R. Sinnott. DOE Construction 8: Quality ofsurface finish in new homes.
HMSO (December 1973)
worths (1980)
12 BRE Digest 301. Corrosion of metals by wood (1985)
13 BRE Digest 69. Durability and application of plastics (1977)
14 E. J. Gibson (Ed.) , Developments in Building Maintenance-I.
glazing for buildings
16 BRE Digest 224. Cellular plastics for building (1979)
17 BRE Digest 213. Choosing specifications for plastering (1978)
18 BRE Digest 196. External rendered finishes (1976)
19 BRE Defect Action Sheet 38. External walls: rendering-s-application
(1983)
20 DOE Construction 4: External wall tiling with cementtsand bedding .
HMSO (December 1972)
21 DOE Construction 5: External wall tiling with adhesives. HMSO (March
1973)
23 British Standards Institution. BS 6150: 1982 British Standard code of
practice for painting of buildings
24 Local Government Operational Research Unit. Report C144. Hospital
building maintenance-c-can decision making be improved? HMSO
(1972)
25 Local Government Operational Research Unit. Report D2. How often
should you paint? HMSO (1970)
26 DOE. Costs in Use: A Study of 24 Crown Office Buildings. HMSO
(1971)
27 I. H. Seeley. Blight on Britain's Buildings: A Survey of Paint and

Maintenance Practice. Paintmakers Association (1984)
28 BRE Digest 261. Painting woodwork (1982)
29 BRE Digest 197. Painting walls. Part 1: Choice of paint (1982)
30 BRE Digest 198. Painting walls. Part 2: Failures and remedies (1984)
31 BRE Digest 140. Double glazing and double windows (1980)
6BUILDING MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION-V
Plumbing, Heating and Hot Water Supply, Air Conditioning, Electrical
Installations, Gas Installations, lifts, Refuse Collection from Flats,
Drainage, Safety. Security, Fire Resisting Construction and Fire
Precautions, Cleaning, Pest Infestation and Repair of Flood Damage
Plumbing
Buildirig services are costly maintenance items and their lives are usually
much less than those of the buildings which accommodate them . Hence
particular care should be taken in the selection, design and installation of
these services, to ensure that maintenance can be carried out easily, quickly
and economically. All services should be readily accessible with adequate
access and working space provided. This becomes all the more important
with tall buildings, as was evidenced by the lack of initial consideration in
the United Nations Building in New York, with unfortunate consequences.
General Faults
The composition of water varies as between different areas of the country
and some waters tend to corrode certain metals when used alone or in
combination with other metals. It is preferable to keep to the same metal
throughout a water supply system wherever practicable. There have been
cases of premature failure of galvanised steel pipes laid In clay soils caused
by anaerobic bacteria. Suitable protective measures include a reinforced
bitumen coating or surrounding the pipes with 225 mm of sand or gravel. In
1974 the Department of the Environment warned of the dangers of cheap
lead-based solder in the joints of copper water pipes polluting drinking
water, but there was little evidence of any action being taken in respect of the
thousands of dwellings involved in the mid 19808.
Pipes need to be securely fixed at intervals not exceeding 1.2 m on
horizontal runs and 1.8 m on vertical runs to give adequate support. All
joints should be made in accordance with best practice. Many failures of
capillary joints on copper pipes have resulted from insufficient prepara-
tion-grease preventing adherence of the solder. Plastics pipes of polythene
or unplasticised PVC (uPVC) are now being used for cold water supplies
and should comply with BS 3284for high density polythene, BS 1972for low
density polythene and BS 3505 for uPVC, which are stronger and more rigid
than polythene.
174
Building Maintenance Problems and their Solution-V 175
Concern has been expressed at the high incidence of trouble with ball
valves and leaking taps and it has been suggested that a study of the number
and cause of failures would assist in determining the design improvements
that are most urgently needed. Most overflow pipes discharge in.. con-
spicuous positions so that the defect is soon noticed and remedial action
taken. On occasions however overflow pipes discharge internally into
fittings or hose pipes are taken from external overflows to take any overflow
water into the nearest gully. In high-rise buildings, there is a possibility of
winds carrying away the overflowing water so that it goes undetected.
Overflow pipes must always be of a larger diameter than inlet pipes to avoid
water overflowing into the building if the valve becomes stuck in the fully
open position.
A ball valve may fail to close for one of several reasons--perforated float,
eroded seating, defective washer or the presence of grit or lime deposit.
Copper floats , especially when soldered, may become corroded resulting in
breaking away or perforation of the float; this will not occur with plastics
floats. High velocity discharge of water from a ball valve may erode the
seating and cause leaks. The remedy is to install a new seating, preferably of
nylon, or to reseat the valve with a special tool. Worn washers require
replacement and the seating should be inspected at the same time, as it may
be the cause of the trouble. With hard water, corrosion coupled with lime
deposition may cause the valve piston to .stick in the open position; where
this is repeated, the valve should be periodically dismantled and cleaned,
and the piston greased. Grit may be a similar source of trouble, particularly
in newly built houses where the water system has not been thoroughly
flushed.
Sticking of the valve in the closed position may occur with unoccupied
houses where dirt and lime have dried out on the working parts. This can be
remedied by moving the float up and down a few times or, better still, by
dismantling the valve and cleaning it thoroughly. The splashing of ball valves
can often be reduced by fitting a silencing tube or drown pipe to the valve
provided this is permitted by the Water Authority, as there could be a risk of
back-siphonage. A number of these problems can be avoided by using a
quieter type of ball valve, such as the diaphragm variety.'
Leaking taps waste water and are a nuisance, particularly in baths, where
they cause stains . Taps leak when the washer becomes worn or when metal
seatings are used and become eroded . Black synthetic rubber washers are
suitable for either cold or hot taps and have a long life. It is important that
all stop valves shall be in good working order .
Pipes and fittings need to be accessible after installation for purposes of
examination, repair, replacement and operation. Some cold water tanks in
flat-roofed buildings are placed so close to the ceiling, to gain height, that it
is impossible to adjust the ball valve let alone change it. Some service cores
become so congested that it is not always possible to reach important
stopcocks and valves.
Exposed pipework provides maximum accessibility but is often resisted on
aesthetic grounds , although it may not be too objectionable if fixed to follow
skirtings, architraves and similar features. Concealment in cupboards pro-
vides accessibility and eliminates problems of appearance. Pipework in-

stalled in ducts in solid floors which require breaking up to reach a leaking
joint cannot be regarded as reasonably accessible. Pipes below solid floors
should preferably be laid in sinkings in the floors covered with access panels
or be encased behind skirtings set forward from the wall face. Vertical pipes
may be fixed in recesses in walls faced with removable panels.
An investigation into service installations in high-rise flats in Singapore
found that all too frequently there was inadequate space around service
installations to satisfactorily maintain pipes and associated equipment and
insufficientcontrol valves, so that large parts of the system needed to be shut
down for maintenance purposes.
Frost Precautions
Extensive damage to plumbing systems can occur in severe winters unless
adequate precautions against frost are taken. Surveys of frost damage have
shown that most frost damage is avoidable and that the greatest source of
damage is outside waterclosets and washhouses, followed by internal
plumbing and rising mains. Essential frost precautions are as follows:
(1) Run pipes in safe places wherever possible giving external pipes at
least 750 mm cover and siting them in ducts where they approach the ground
floor. Internal pipes should preferably be located on inside walls with
appliances grouped to keep pipe runs as short as possible. .
(2) Fix pipes to proper falls to permit emptying when the building is left
unoccupied and unheated, with emptying cocks at all low points.
(3) Protect all pipes in vulnerable places by suitable lagging.
Unheated out-buildings such as WCs and garages are particularly vulner-
able, and any pipes and tanks installed in them should be well lagged and
stopcocks fitted to cut off the supply in the event of a burst, while outdoor
standpipes require adequate lagging with a waterproof covering. Unheated
bathrooms can also be a source of trouble and wherever practicable some
heating should be provided by means of an adjoining domestic boiler or hot
water cylinder, radiator or heated towel rail. As far as possible, pipes and
tanks should not be located in the roof space, but where this does occur, the
storage cistern should be placed immediately above the hot water cylinder
and be suitably insulated on. all sides except the bottom, often with
expanded polystyrene panels. All pipes in the roof space, except warning or
overflow pipes, should be lagged or fixed below the ceiling installation.
Pipes fixed tightly to external walls and under boarded ground floors are
liable to frost damage unless protected.
Occupants of buildings should be advised of any frost precautions that
they need to take and the following recommendations. are applicable to
occupiers of dwellings.
(1) Know location of main stopcock and be sure that it operates easily
and closes tightly.
(2) Know location of all pipes and provide protection in draughty
places.
(3) Pipes must be lagged where the temperature cannot be kept above
freezing point.
(4) Before leaving a house unoccupied in the winter months, turn off
the water supply preferably at the main and drain off the whole system. This
may not be necessary where a heating system continues to operate on time
control and the dwelling is unoccupied for a short period only.
(5) To reduce the likelihood of we taps freezing when a dwellingis left
unoccupied and unheated, dissolve a handful of salt in half a litre of hot
water and pour into the pan . .
(6) Attend to any dripping taps or leaking ball valves at once before
they cause trouble. The water authority may rewasher cold water taps free
of charge .
(7) Ensure that windows near we cisterns and in other vulnerable
locations are kept closed and are draught-proof at nights when heavy frost is
anticipated.
(8) Where no frost precautions have been taken and the dwelling has
been unoccupied during a spell of severe frost, refrain from switchingon the
immersion heater or lighting the boiler until sure that the system is
completely free of ice.
(9) Where there is severe leakage from burst pipes, switch off the
electricity supply at the main.
Storage Tanks
Many failures of galvanised steel tanks have occurred where they have been
used in association with copper pipes. Certain types of water are capable of
dissolving minute particles of copper from the pipes of a hot water system.
When the water comes into contact with the galvanisingof the tank, some of
the copper is deposited on the zinc and an equivalent amount of zinc is
dissolved. Electrolytic action between the copper and zinc causes rapid
attack on the zinc coating and ultimate perforation. Rusting of the unpro-
tected steel then takes place and before long the tank begins to leak.
In general a hot water system is best constructed throughout of copper,
unless previous experience in the district shows it to be safe to use these
materials together. If there is any doubt about a galvanised steel cold water
tank, it is best to paint the internal surfaces with a non-toxic bituminous
composition, which will form a protective coating and so reduce the
electrolytic action. Other alternatives are to use tanks of plastics or glass
fibre or to fit a sacrificial anode consisting of an aluminium block earthed to
the steel tank which may extend its life. The tank should be adequately
lagged at to~ and sides.
The BRE have found cases where trussed rafter members have been
distorted because the tank bearers were incorrectly sized and positioned,
pipe joints disturbed and chipboard tank platforms have become wetted by
condensation and collapsed . Moisture damage has also been caused b~
overflow pipes having too small a bore, saggingor having inadequate slope.
Plumbing Noises
The avoidance of plumbing noises is often a matter of good planning and
design and the choice of quiet appliances. Sanitary accommodation should
ideally be separated from living accommodation but this may prove difficult
in blocks of flats and the conversion of existing properties to separate
dwelling units. The dividing wall between a bathroom or WC and a bedroom
should not be less than 75 mm concrete block, plastered both sides. The
door to a bathroom or WC should be as heavy as possible (solid core if flush
doors) and well fitting.
In existing dwellings where bathrooms or WCs are located over main
rooms with wood joist floors , it is advisable to introduce as much pugging as
the ceiling will take and possibly to reconstruct the floor as a floating floor to
give maximum insulation . In the latter case a flexible rubber joint will be
required between the WC and the soil stack. The flushing cistern should be
isolated from the wall by resilient pads of thick cork or rubber.
A WC flushing cistern generates noise in two ways-(l) from the flushing
mechanism, and (2) from the ball valve. The quietest form of flushing
mechanism is the siphonic type with a cistern of thick vitreous china or
plastics, but this will increase cost. A ball valve of the SkevingtonIBRE type
will reduce noise and wear." The use of low-level flushing cisterns and
insulation of internal stack pipes assist in reducing plumbing noises.
When water flowing in a pipe is suddenly stopped by the rapid closure of a
valve or tap, the pressure causes a surge or wave which rebounds from the
valve and passes back down the pipe. The loose washer plate or jumper on
the valve oscillates giving a knocking sound known as water hammer. The
resultant pressure in small rigid pipes may damage them. In cisterns fed
through 12 mm pipes, the float actuating the ball valve should have a
minimum diameter of 150 mm to avoid oscillating.
Sanitary Pipework
Most modern plumbing arrangements use the sin11e stack system which is
well described and illustrated in BRE Digest 249. In single stack plumbing
all forms of appliance discharge into multi-use discharge pipes or stack
pipes, which also have air admittance valves. A bath waste must enter the
stack above or at least 200 mm below the entry of a WC branch. Wash
basins, baths and sink wastes should have 75 mm deep seals to guard against
self-siphonage, and WCs must have a 50 mm deep seal. The maximum slope
of a 32 mm wash basin waste depends on the length of waste pipe and where
it exceeds 1.70 min length it should be provided with a 32 mm diameter trap
with a short 32 mm tail pipe discharging into a 40 or 50 mm branch pipe.
Another alternative is to ventilate the branch pipe. The length and slope of
bath and sink wastes are not critical but long wastes may become blocked by
sediment settling out of the waste water and access for cleaning should be
provided. Approved Document HI of the Building Regulations 1985
recommends maximum lengths of 3 m for 40 mm branch pipes and 4 m for
50 mm branch pipes.
The bend at the foot of a stack should be of large radius (at least 200 mm
at the centre line), or two 135° fittings should be used. Sanitary appliances
on the lowest floor are best separately connected to the drainage system,
particularly with high-rise buildings. The minimum vertical distance be-
tween the lowest branch connection and the drain invert should be 450 mm
for three-storey houses with a 100 mm stack and two-storey houses with a
75 mm stack. Ample provision should be made for access, particularly at
or near bends. Leaking pipe joints may result from cracked pipes, unsatis-
factory joints or inadequate support.
Where appliances are widely spaced, as in a hospital, it may be impractic-
able or even impossible to use a single stack method. BRE Digest 816
describes how pipe systems in older hospitals often take tortuous routes with
only limited access, stemming from lack of co-ordinated planning of
different services, both with each other and with the main structure. Most
stoppages occur where the pipework is complicated by knuckle bends, sharp
offsets and 92f junctions-clearance is expensive, can cause disruption of
the hospital and may be a possible cause of cross infection. Pipework is
sometimes blocked by disposable items, including plastic syringes and
spatulas, which should be disposed of in ward incinerators. Access is often
inadequate, badly sited and inconvenient in use. Planned maintenance is
recommended, including regular cleansing of grease traps , and this requires
adequate drawings showing the drainage layout and access points.
Appliances
All sanitary appliances should be durable, smooth, non-absorbent, non-
corroding, largely self-cleansing, of simple design and construction,
accessible, economical and of satisfactory appearance. Modern develop-
ments have seen the frequent replacement of wash basins by vanitory units,
the fitting of waste disposers to sinks, and the increased provision of bidets
and showers.
WC flushing cisterns should fill within 2 minutes and, to secure this, the
size of the valve orifice must match the supply pressure. Hence with a very
small head a 9 mm orifice may be necessary to give the required flow.
Persistent slow filling may also be due to partial blockage of the valve by
foreign matter which requires clearing. Inadequacy of flushing may result
from the cistern not being filled-to the prescribed water line. A perforated
float partially filled with water needs replacing, otherwise careful bending
upwards of the ball valve arm will remedy the defect . Corroded and
ineffective old cast iron cisterns containing a cast iron bell lifted by a chain
pull should be replaced with a modern cistern containing a piston actuated
siphon , for more efficient and quieter operation .
Inadequate flushing may also be caused by an obstruction in the flush
pipe, often of jointing material, or by the flush pipe entering the pan socket
at an angle. The trouble may arise in the pan itself where, for instance, the
flush of water is confined to one side of the pan. Pans with siphonic
discharge are more positive in their action as the contents are pulled out by
the suction created behind the trap. For maximum quietness and efficiency,
a close-coupled double trap siphonic suite fitted with a Skevington/BRE ball
valve is recommended." Modern closets may be fitted with a macerator and
pump connected to a small-bore drainage system discharging to a discharge
stack.
Wash basins of vitreous china are preferable to those made from fireclay
since they are stronger and less absorptive. Overflows are usually difficult to
clean and dirty water rising in the overflow passage, when the waste plug is
lifted, leaves behind an unpleasant scum which can produce unhealthy
conditions. For this reason some housing authorities are specifying basins,
baths and sinks without overflows.
Showers require a minimum head of 900 mm between the bottom of the
cold water cistern and the shower rose to function satisfactorily. Where this
head is not obtainable, the cold water cistern may be raised above the level
of the roof or a pump may be installed to boost the pressure. Showers should
be sited in rooms that are adequately ventilated to reduce condensation.
Heating and Hot Water Supply

Hot Water Supply
Defects in hot water supply systems may stem from one or more of the
following factors:
(1) Air locks. When there is air in the system and on heating the water the
air is released and rises to the highest point. Ideally the pipes should rise
towards a vent point at a slope of 1:120 and air then escapes through the
vent. Where pipes contain dips or fall in the reverse direction, air becomes
trapped and impedes the flow of water. Trapped air is released by draining
and refilling or by blowing through the pipework.
(2) Insufficient hot water. This can be caused by the inadequate size of
boiler or hot water cylinder, excessive length of primary flow and return
pipes, poor quality fuel, air locks, insufficient lagging of pipes and tanks, or
possibly a combination of these defects.
(3) Noises. A particularly troublesome noise is the knocking which may

occur in primary 'flow and return pipes or in the boiler, resulting from
expansion of water by freezing, furring or corrosion, and possibly involving
descaling or renewal of pipes. Knocking in cold water systems- is termed
water hammer and usually results from faulty valves as described earlier in
this chapter.
(4) Poor flow. This can stem from air locks, insufficient head of water or
air drawn into the system through a vent. The latter defect can be remedied
by inserting a larger cold feed pipe or raising the storage cistern.
Back boilers for heating water are prone to leaks at about 15 to 20 year
intervals and need checking, as do also immersion heaters and their
thermostats. The thermostat is checked by switching off everything, setting

the thermostat low and then letting the water heat up. When the meter
stops, the thermostat is turned up and a check made to determine whether it
has restarted. Feeling the water provides a crude temperature measurement.
Modernising Plumbing Systems

The modernising and conversion of old dwellings often includes the provi-
sion of or improvement of hot water services which will qualify for a grant
when funds are available. It may at the same time or at some future date be
decided to extend the system to include space heating, when it is advisable to
install an indirect system to avoid radiators running cold when domestic
water is drawn from the tank, a slower rate of circulation of heated water,
and furring of the hottest parts of the system. In severe cases lime deposits
may cause disruption of cleaning plates and gaskets on boilers and the
blocking of pipes and bends near boilers.
Heating Systems
The principal task of the building services engineer is to create a comfortable
and stimulating indoor climate . Building services have become a major item
in the cost of new buildings and are also costly to maintain and operate,
probably totalling nationally over £3000 million per annum, although there
is a lack of systematic data on maintenance and energy costs. Both
maintenance and energy costs for services are influenced by the capacity of
the plant, the extent of use, and design aspects such as floor area, amount of
glazing and quality of internal environment. The extent to which regular
cycle maintenance or even periodic replacement of some components is
justified by the avoidance of breakdowns, needs careful evaluation. Ineffi-
cient hot water heating systems may result from radiators or boilers which
are of inadequate capacity.
A common problem with solid fuel independent domestic boilers has been
down draught resulting from chimneys terminating below the ridge line.
Rigid joints between appliance flue pipes and brick or block flues often
fracture and are best remade with a more resilient material such as asbestos
rope or cord. Ashes from solid fuel boilers are not always removed as
frequently as they should be with resulting deterioration of firebars.
Continual changes in the design of heating appliances and the multiplicity of
small parts create problems in replacement. A reduction in the number and
types of appliances and standardisation of parts would reduce maintenance
costs.
The principal defects in boilers have been identified as noises resulting
from inadequate water flow or ineffective design, air entrainment through
leaks, and scale formation by fresh water inflow to replace water lost by air
displacement or leakage. The operating efficiencyof boilers has increased at
the expense of the adequacy of the materials used to cope with more
exacting conditions, requiring more frequent replacement, possibly at about

15 year intervals.
Old central heating systems often include cast iron radiators, which,
although relatively inefficient, are uneconomic to replace, since it would
take many years before the cost of removal and replacement could be
recovered out of reductions in fuel costs. Where hot water and heating are
combined in a single system, independent supply of hot water is required
outside the heating season and control of priority is useful within it.
Radiators and plpework should be protected from chemical corrosion by
an inhibitor . Most small-bore heating systems incorporate pumps, to secure
quicker circulation, and these require occasional servicing in the same way
as boilers. Self-primingcylinders can cause problems, and a separate header
tank and indirect cylinder give better performance. One-pipe heating
systems have the principal disadvantage that radiators along the system
become progressively cooler. Micro-bore systems are being increasingly
used as they occupy less space, but need careful design."
Unvented HoI Water Supply Systems

As an alternative to the direct and indirect vented hot water supply systems,
Schedule 1 to the Building Regulations 19858 (paragraph G3) covers
unvented hot water supply systems, which have been used extensively in
Germany, the United States and other countries. It requires that if hot water
is stored and the storage system does not incorporate a vent pipe to the
atmosphere, there shall be adequate precautions to: (a) prevent the
temperature of the stored water at any time exceeding 100° c; and (b) ensure
that the hot water discharged from safety devices is safely conveyed to where
it is visible but will cause no danger to persons in or about the building.
A typical unvented hot water system based on German practice embraces
the following arrangements. All cold water outlets are supplied direct from
the mains through a check valve, a meter and, if mains pressure is high, a
pressure-reducing valve. The hot water supply is directly fed, and a second
check valve is fitted in the feed pipe. Because this check valve prevents
water expanding into the cold feed pipe when a charge of water is heated, it
is necessary to provide a pressure relief valve and a drain to allow expansion
water to leak away. Similarly a temperature-operated energy cut-out is
normally used to disconnect the supply of energy. This ensures there will be
no explosion if a therinostat failure results in uncontrolled heating of the
water.?
Approved Document G3 of the Building Regulations contains the follow-
ing recommendations with regard to such systems. Any unvented hot water
storage system should be in the form of a proprietary Unit or Package which
is the subject of a current British Board of Agrement (BBA) certificate . A
unit or package comprises a system incorporating a minimum of two
temperature-activated devices operating in sequence: a non re-setting
thermal cut-out to BS 3955 and a temperature relief valve to BS 6283, in
addition to any thermostatic control which is fitted to maintain the tempera-
ture of the water. It will also include any necessary operating devices to
prevent backflow, control working pressure, relieve excess pressure and

accommodate expansion fitted on the unit by the manufacturer.
Other Aspects
Schedule 1 to the Building Regulations 19858 (paragraph LS) requires hot
water storage vessels to have adequate thermal insulation, and also hot
water pipes, unless they are intended to contribute to the heating of a part of
the building which is insulated or they give rise to no significant heat loss.
For example, insulation material should have a thermal conductivity of not
greater than 0.07 W/m K and a thickness equal to the outside diameter of
the pipe up to a maximum of 50 mm. Heat pumps, using outdoor ambient
air as their heat source and supplying hot water as the heating media have
energy and cost-saving potential as described in BRE Digest 253.10
BRE Digest 20511 describes the practical aspects of using flat plate solar
collectors for augmenting the heating of domestic water in the UK, while
Digest 254 12 analyses the reliability and performance of solar collecting
systems and gives guidance on the methods of checking system operation, in
view of the failures that have occurred in practice.
Air Conditioning
Air conditioning comprises filtration, heating , ventilation, cooling and
dehumidification by mechanical means, to provide a comfortable environ-
ment for occupants and acceptable conditions for specialised activities, such
as computer suites, hospital clean rooms and sophisticated manufacturing
processes. Air conditioning is becoming more common as some of the
accompanying advantages are more generally recognised-more uniform
temperature range, healthier environment, more alert staff, reduced clean-
ing and redecoration costs, and less external noise . The design of air
conditioning equipment is also changing and packaged equipment can be
located in corridors, above false ceilings, on the roof or even in the
conditioned space itself. Furthermore, the equipment is being designed to
permit longer periods between maintenance visits.
For instance, roller bearings have replaced sleeve bearings in most fan
drives--they are cheaper in first cost, reduce noise and do not require
attention more than once a year and with small plants may be sealed for life.
Refrigeration compressors are often in sealed hermetic units to be replaced
in the event of plant failure . A low cost sealed unit of limited life is a better
buy than a longer life slow turning open drive machine which can be
serviced. 13
With filters the rate of media replacement depends on the extent of
pollution in the environment. There are two main types of filter-the
throwaway and the cleanable. As a rough guide filter cells are changed or
cleaned once a month in heavily polluted locations , once every two months
in built-up areas and city centres and once every three months in rural or
suburban areas. The life of the cleanable filter is about 1~ to 2 years. Modern
filter developments for the more complex installations include rolltype and
electrostatic filters. In practice throwaway filters have proved the most
acceptable as they can be regularly maintained by relatively unskilled
persons. Probably the most common cause of air conditioning plant failure is
blocked filters, resulting in reduced air flow which can be followed by
freezing of refrigeration plant and reheater batteries, and breakdown of fan
bearings causing downflow of cold air with consequent occupancy discom-
fort. Condenser coils need cleaning each spring by sprayin~ with acid
solution and make-up water often requires chemical treatment. 3
A · checklist should be prepared of the items to be covered on a
maintenance visit. Resident staff can deal with matters within their capacity
and the remainder given to a reputable service company. Gosling'I drew
attention to the shortage of qualified service personnel. The .dangers
inherent in air conditioning systems which rely on wet cooling towers were
highlighted following the outbreak of legionnaires' disease at Stafford
district general hospital in 1985, and also the need for a comprehensive
operating and service manual.
There is no need to hold the temperature constant in an air conditioned
building-it is better kept within an acceptable range for comfort. Since heat
inputs in summer are intermittent in nature, energy can be saved by running
plant continuously at a fairly low rate, allowing heat to pass into storage at
peak periods and to be emitted at other times. The plant should be
monitored for efficient working and appropriate action taken, such as
shutting down coolers before the air handling equipment.
A DOE subcommittee'" recommended that manufacturers of air condi-
tioning equipment could assist maintenance by improving designs and in
some cases by reducing the complexity of the control system. Building
owners need to understand the value of properly implemented preventive
maintenance. At the other extreme some very sophisticated plant is being
used in prestige office buildings in countries with very hot, humid climates.
A typical example is the computerised air conditioning plant installed in the
main Standard Chartered Bank building in Singapore.
Some recent developments in air conditioning engineering comprise:
(1) heat recovery: extracting and using heat from vitiated room air,
that would otherwise be dissipated, in the external air; and
(2) the concept of thermal balance, involving full consideration of
thermal and other properties of a building's structure and fabric .
Electrical installations
Modem electrical installations generally incorporate ring circuits; a recog-
nised provision being one circuit for each 100 m2 of floor area. Each ring can
carry an unlimited number of 13 amp socket outlets. The ring system is
cheaper and more convenient than the earlier arrangement in which each
socket outlet required an individual sub-circuit with its own cable run from a
separate fuseway. In a ring circuit a number of outlets is served by a loop of
cable-run which forms one sub-circuit; each pair of conductors forming the
Building Maintenance Problems and their So/ution-V 185
loop starts from and returns to a single terminal on the fuse distribution
board, with each outlet receiving current from two directions. Spur connec-
tions may be taken from a ring circuit to serve outlying socket-outlets; only
two socket-outlets or one fixed appliance is fed from each spur, and not
more than one-half of all points are fed by spurs. Cookers, immersion
heaters and central heating boiler controls should be wired on separate
circuits. Cartridge fuses for ring circuit plugs are standardised at two
ratings-3 amp (blue) when the appliance has a rating of not more than
720 Wand 13 amp (brown) with appliances of 720 W to 3 kW rating. White
meter or economy 7 tariff is the most economical method of using off-peak
electricity.
Socket-outlets should be provided on a generous scale to give ample
facilities for the use of electrical appliances without the need for trailing
flexes and multiple adaptors. The following represents a minimum desirable
level of provision : kitchen-4; living area-4; dining area-4; each bed-
room-3; hall and landing-I; garage if integral with house-I; store or
workroom-I; although a larger provision is desirable. Where two or more
outlets are provided in a room they should wherever practicable be
positioned on different walls and preferably be switch-controlled, so that
each appliance can be isolated from the supply before the plug is removed.
Switch-controlled double socket-outlets are preferable in most cases to
reduce or eliminate at very little extra cost the use of adaptors and
consequent possible overload. The siting of outlets in the floor for aesthetic
reasons is not very practicable as it can result in their being covered by
carpets or, worse still, water on the floor may seep into the electrical system.
Cables or conduits should be located well below surface finishes to avoid
surface cracks. Metal conduits or channelling and fixing nails require
galvanising or other suitable treatment to prevent rust staining through wet
finishes. Some timber preservatives can attack plastics insulation and
sheathing on electric cables. High standards of workmanship are essential
for both efficiency and safety. Electrical installations deteriorate as a result
of ageing of the insulation material and cumulative mechanical damage,
hence installations should be inspected and tested in accordance with the
IE.E Wiring Regulations at least once every five years. BREIS have
identified cases of damage to cable insulation leading to risk of short circuit
and fire, with the normal heat dissipation impeded by thermal insulation and
other heat sources, with consequent cable overheating or through incorrect
choice of cable type or size. If repairs or alterations are required to electrical
wiring built in and concealed within the carcass or structure of a building,
especially in domestic properties, it becomes necessary to break open the
wall or floor surface to gain access. There is a need for detailed wiring and
location diagrams to minimise the work of disturbance . The design of
components, such as hollow detachable skirtings, to accommodate electric
wiring would also be beneficial.
Wiring normally lasts about 30 years and aged circuits, installed before the
early nineteen fifties can be identified by their round-pin plugs and
rubber-sheathed cable, which is probably perished, and a shortage of socket
outlets. It is advisable to open up sockets and switches, particularly on damp
walls, to check the cable type and to inspect for rust.
Lighting
More than half the electrical energy supplied to commercial buildings in
England and Wales is used for lighting. With the emphasis on energy
conservation it is important to obtain the best results from the energy
consumed. The main function of a lighting installation is to convert electrical
energy into useful light of suitable colour, in the required places and
transmitted from the best directions. Sodium discharge, mercury fluorescent
and white or natural fluorescent tubes may often provide economical
substitutes for ordinary tungsten (GLS) lamps. Continual progress is also
being made in the design and production of low-energy lamps.
The design of luminaires (lighting fittings) is often a compromise between
projecting the maximum light on to a working plane and achieving a balance
of brightness on other room surfaces to promote visual comfort. The
decorations of a room can have a significant effect on the illuminance-the
ceiling ideally being white in colour, whereas white walls can be trying on
the eyes, particularly in small rooms. Glazed areas must be cleaned regularly
to secure a significant daylight contribution and the relative economics merit
evaluation.
The illuminance from a lighting installation decreases from the first day
of use. All relevant factors require analysis to produce the optimum
maintenance pattern. The design and installation of luminaires should aim
for easy maintenance, as the cheapest equipment may be false economy in
the long term. The blackening of ceilings above electric lamps can be
reduced substantially by fitting light shades to diffuse the heat. There is a
fire risk from plastics light diffusers and it is advisable to use extended
aluminium or other non-combustible material. The continual redesigning of
luminaires by manufacturers causes maintenance problems in matching
existing installations . Finally, very small installations with no resident
maintenance staff are relatively more expensive to maintain than larger
installations .
Planned lighting maintenance (PLM) involves regular cleaning and replace-
ment of all the lamps in an installation. The frequency will depend on the
burning hours per year of the lighting. As a guide, tubes that are used 100
hours per week will need changing every 12 months, while those burning 25
hours per week will only need changing every 4 years. Many factories use
weekends or factory shut-downs for maintenance, so as to cause minimum
interruption of work. Lighting circuits in older properties may need replac-
ing, while in modern dwellings, more attention is now paid to the provision
of external lighting and more sophisticated switching devices and lighting
fittings.
Much of the wasted energy for lighting results from traditional switching
arrangements, with a single or multiple on/off switch/panel positioned by the
entrance to the space. BRE Digest 27216 discusses "automatic lighting
controls and gives guidance on the types of control best suited for particular
types of installation . It shows how energy savings can be predicted and
compared with traditional manual switching and suggests alternatives to the
traditional approach.
Gas Installations
The Gas Safety Regulations 1972 created a number of offences with a
maximum penalty of £400 for using gas appliances which are unsafe. There
are four main hazards which may be encountered in the use of gas:
(1) inadequate supply of oxygen;
(2) inadequate flue for the escape of products of combustion;
(3) escape of gas; and
(4) inadequate protection of hot components, flames or utensils.
Natural gas is not poisonous, but the build-up of it in a room would cause
oxygen starvation. The main danger is one of explosions, such as those
which occurred in the winter of 1976-77. Subsequently the King Committee
was established to investigate the matter. The main conclusion of the
Committee was that more action should be taken to identify gas leaks and
deal with them quickly, and to engender greater awareness by the public of
the dangers and to secure their active co-operation.
Smells of leaking gas must be reported immediately to the local office of
British Gas because of the possible dangers to occupants , and all basic
precautions taken, such as extinguishing naked lights, not operating electric
switches, opening doors and windows, checking gas tlY's and the pilot light
and turning off the supply.
Normal wear and tear on all gas appliances reduces their efficiency and
safety. Vital dimensions and adjustments change and soot builds up in
unwanted places . All appliances, therefore, require periodic servicing as
well as repairs when they cease to function satisfactorily. The Gas Safety
Regulations require installation and maintenance work to be carried out by
competent persons. It is likely that only employees of British Gas, members
of the Confederation of Registered Gas Installers, or persons with accept-
able qualifications or experience would be recognised as competent.
The products of combustion must be discharged through suitable flue
pipes or blocks into the open air. Dampness in the roof spaces of houses has,
for instance, resulted from flue pipes from gas-fired water heaters terminat-
ing in unventilated roof spaces , whereas they should have been carried up to
the ridge and fitted with a ridge terminal. Both flues and flue outlets must be
of suitable size for the appliances served and have sound joints.
A check of gas heater efficiency can be undertaken by checking the rating
from the maker's plate , running the appliance on full for a few minutes and
taking the meter readings, before and after running. Metered consumption
divided by the time taken should match the rating. However, the problem is
not usually that the appliance is inefficient but that it is of an inappropriate
type for the anticipated use.
Lifts
Lifts are provided with different types of drive (traction and hydraulic)
operating to different speeds (single, double and variable) and various forms
of control (automatic push-button, down collective, selective collective, and

group). Consideration must be given to the capacity of the lift car and the lift
speed, as well as (he floors to be served.
A limited number of firms.produce lifts to similar criteria but their parts
are not interchangeable. The best policy is to invite tenders for the
maintenance contract at the same time as tendering for the new installation,
so that a decision can be taken on the two items jointly, as this work cannot
readily be undertaken by direct maintenance staff . The best guide to lift
maintenance costs from the known costs of existing installations is on the
basis of the number of passenger-floors (the product of the passenger
capacity and the number of floors served by each lift).
The ease of maintenance is largely dependent upon the types of finishes
adopted in the lift and lift shaft, as well as the degree of accessibility to plant
and equipment. One of the most practical lift doors is that made of plastic
laminate recessed into a stainless frame and faced on both sides. In luxury
flats, stainless steel is often used for aesthetic reasons although any scratches
are easily visible. Spray-painted metal surfaces provide another alternative
but they are vulnerable to chips and scratches. Regular cleaning is necessary
in all cases.
Lift floors are usually covered with PVC sheets, although these are
subject to damage from hot. tobacco ash. Waste receptacles and cigarette
urns should be located close to lifts to reduce possible damage and
maintenance problems. Costly studded rubber sheets are often used for lift
flooring in blocks of luxury flats, and these are more difficult and more
costly to maintain. Ceilings to lifts should be kept simple, and normally
incorporate fluorescent lighting behind polycarbonate panels.
Lift control panels should be made as vandal-proof as possible. Plastics
control buttons may be burnt or prised out and so dislocate the lift service,
and are best replaced with metal anti-vandal buttons. Lift doors or the
control buttons may be damaged by being wedged open by persons
delivering goods to flats, and this is best resolved by the provision of stop
buttons, although even these are subject to abuse on occasions.
The pit floors to lift shafts should have a smooth finish for ease of
cleaning. Lift plant rooms require adequate space both to house and
maintain the plant and equipment.
After installation, a lift must be regularly inspected and properly
maintained to ensure satisfactory operation. The responsibility for the
maintenance of lifts in high-rise buildings is normally given to lift manufac-
turers, because of the technical complexities and the fact that it is the most
economical arrangement.
In a comprehensive maintenance contract, the preventive maintenance
programme comprises the maintenance of all machinery, car, hoistway and
pit. Normally, the maintenance schedule is prepared on a weekly basis,
whereas inspection and testing of safety equipment should be done at least
once a year to ensure the safe operation of the lift. Contracts usually provide
for routine lubrication and checking in accordance with an agreed schedule.
However, maintenance does not only involve periodic lubrication and
inspection, but also covers the detection and anticipation of possible
breakdowns. If a lift is operating below optimum efficiency, the lift

contractor will be called upon to carry out the necessary repairs or
replacement of parts. The cleaning of the lift pit is included in the lift
maintenance contract, whereas cleaning of the lift car will be done by the
normal cleaning staff.
A lift maintenance engineer must be able not only to plan and supervise
the maintenance work, but to be on call at all times. He has a very heavy
responsibility as an unsafe lift could put human life in jeopardy.
Refuse Collection from Flats

Most blocks of flats incorporate refuse chutes which terminate in refuse
storey chambers with the refuse frequently falling into containers with a
capacity of around 1 m3 , and a caretaker replaces the containers as they are
filled, usually on a rotating turntable. Larger containers holding up to 9 m3
are sometimes used in conjunction with a special vehicle equipped to lift and
carry them. Furthermore, machines for reducing the volume of refuse have
been developed in recent years to make better use of the space available in
storage chambers. These compress refuse into rigid containers or disposable
sacks, or burn it in incinerators designed to ensure that the flue gases are
free of dust and noxious gases.F
Incinerators reduce refuse to about one-tenth of its original volume. On
the other hand they add to the general level of atmospheric pollution, and
they need skilled maintenance and an expensive chimney. Compactors do
not reduce the volume of refuse as much as incinerators; nor do they
increase the rate of decomposition significantly. Hence at least a weekly
collection is necessary, but compactors do not cause pollution, are cheaper
than incinerators and can be readily installed in the majority of existing
buildings. 17
Refuse chutes should be designed in accordance with BS 590618 and be
constructed of non-combustible, fire-resistant and moisture-proof walls, and
often either 450 or 600 mm internal diameter. Adequate accessis needed for
inspection, cleaning and clearing of chutes after misuse and there must be
ample provision for ventilation . Refuse is deposited into chutes through
hoppers located on private balconies or in naturally or mechanically
ventilated public lobbies with self-closing fire doors, opening off open
spaces. The maintenance programme should include regular inspections and
cleansing of the chute, chamber and associated fittings to ensure a satisfac-
tory standard of hygiene.
Drainage
Drains can cause trouble in a number of different ways. Loads from
foundations of buildings or vehicles, or ground movement below drains can
cause fracture of pipe joints or, in severe cases, fracture of the pipes
themselves. Rigid cement mortar joints used extensivelyin the past with clay
pipes are particularly vulnerable, and very old drains may have clay joints
and be bedded on bare earth. Drains may also become choked through the
deposition of silt or objects such as brushes and rags, particularly where the
pipes are laid to flat gradients with restricted flows, and there may be no
provision for access at changes of direction or gradient. Intercepting traps,
now rarely installed, are another cause of blockage.
BRE19 have shown how leaking flexibly jointed clay drains may be caused
by damaged pipes, unsuitable bedding or fill, or badly made joints. Blocked
drains are cleared by rodding, water jetting or winching from manholes and
inspection chambers, and chemical cleaning is sometimes used for industrial
drains. Defective pipes require replacing and leaking joints cutting out and
making good. Drains can be repaired by pressure grouting using either
cement-based grout, which is strong and rigid, or a plastic gel, which fills
cracks and cavities and remains flexible. If leaking drains are suspected, they
should be tested by water, air or smoke.
Inspection chambers and manholes should be inspected periodically to
check that they are in sound condition, particularly the benching and
rendering, and that the drains are running freely. These chambers are liable
to cause blockages, either because of their construction or because of
disintegration resulting from age or chemical attack.j" Gully traps require
cleansing; the frequency being determined by local conditions, and checking
to see that they retain an acceptable seal and are soundly jointed to the
drain. If the gully is loose or the ground around it is sodden, further
investigation is required .
Cesspools frequently have crumbling rendering, leak and permit foul
discharges into the surrounding ground and sometimes into nearby water-
courses and even wells. The usual remedy is to waterproof the interior
surfaces of the cesspool with asphalt, waterproofed cement mortar or a
bitumen-based application such as synthaprufe. Septic tanks may on occa-
sions require similar remedial treatment. Metal covers to manholes and
other chambers may rust and require an application of bituminous paint and
bedding in grease to prevent the escape of gases. Cast iron covers cracked by
vehicles need replacing with heavier covers or possibly suitable steel covers.
Safety
Modern building regulations and techniques provide effective safeguards
and means of access during the construction process, but these are often
removed on completion rendering subsequent maintenance unnecessarily
costly or dangerous . Permanent provision should be made for access for
maintenance purposes, particularly in multi-storey buildings, otherwise
makeshift methods may be used which could lead to accidents.
With older buildings, maintenance operatives must be clearly instructed
how to reach parts of the building which are difficult of access, and the
instructions must be backed up with adequate supervision to ensure that the
men do not take dangerous short cuts. They must also be made fully aware
of the dangers and limitations of the materials and components with which
they may come into contact. A large proportion of the accidents which occur
result from falls, frequently from ladders, and these mishaps are often fatal
or very serious . Safer conditions stem from the provision of permanent
means of access, such as fixed ladders, roof walkways and handrails at places
of high risk, coupled with the use of safety nets to provide protection against
falls from high points during temporary work.
Accidents are seldom really accidental, but result from ignorance of, or
failure to carry out, safety procedures, and from failure to enforce safety
rules or carry out scheduled inspections; they are seldom due to sheer
carelessness on the part of the victim. In practice, maintenance and safety
are closely interrelated as the maintenance engineer is likely to be respon-
sible for both ensuring safe working conditions and dealing with accidents.
The appointment of a fully trained safety officer is desirable in factories to
ensure the co-ordination of safety aspects by a single person-he may also
carry out other functions such as fire prevention and security.
The Factories Act 1961 requires that "all floors, steps, stairs, passages and
gangways shall be of sound construction and properly maintained and shall,
so far as is reasonably practicable, be kept free from any obstruction and
from any substance likely to cause persons to slip." Furthermore, means of
exit shall have handrails and openings shall be protected. The Health and
Safety at Work Act 1974 states that "It shall be the duty of every employer to
ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare at
work of his employees." It is also a statutory requirement to prevent areas
around machines from becoming slippery or congested, and to provide
effective and easy means for isolating electrically operated appliances.
Lovejoy" has highlighted many essential precautions to ensure safety in
accessibility for maintenance work. For example, within a factory or storage
warehouse, entrance doors should be protected by railings and barriers so
that no one inadvertently enters a vehicular access. Sight glasses in doors,
especially rubber doors used in warehouse division walls are essential, and
their size and position must allow for all vision heights.
There are many buildings where the provision of a short flight of stairs or
a fire lobby with too small a space between two sets of doors, has precluded
the easy access required by users. There is often a conflict between the
requirements of the user and the Fire Prevention Officer; the illegal
propping open of fire doors is a typical example, which could be avoided by
using pressure-pad operated doors. 21
With services it should only be possible for trained operatives to gain
access to vulnerable or dangerous areas. Hence, doors to lift motor rooms,
transformer rooms and switchgear should be locked while in use, and when
the plant is under maintenance, inspection or repair, these rooms should not
be accessible to occupants of the building. Areas enclosing machinery or
electrical appliances should be well lit and have adequate space for carrying
out maintenance work safely. Where machinery may be in use while under
maintenance, adequate safeguards and interlocks should be installed and
used to prevent accidents. Where electrically operated overhead travelling
cranes are in use, these should be isolated when access is required in the area
of the crane rails.21
Where a manhole cover is lifted for access to a shaft, it should be placed in

a secure position and the open hole fenced by means of a portable guard.
Access into effluent tanks should not be made without prior testing of the air
in the tank to determine whether there is any harmful gas present or an
oxygen deficiency.
The provision of properly designed and constructed access to clean patent
glazing and gutters will ensure that the hazardous activity of walking along
valley gutters between two slopes of fragile roof sheeting, with the con-
sequent risk of injury or even death, will be eliminated. Warning notices
must be provided drawing attention to the fragile nature of roofing materials
where applicable. Access for external window cleaning and internal wall and
ceiling maintenance often includes the provision of appliances such as
ladders, access towers, or suspended or slung scaffolds, and these must be
soundly manufactured and properly used. Safe access must be provided to
suspended cradles and suitable training given to persons using them.
Where a ladder is used to gain access to a platform, the head of the ladder
should be at least 1 m above the level of the platform, unless an alternative
handhold is provided. Ladders should not rest against eaves gutters,
particularly those made of plastics, but should be supported from the wall by
an effective ladder stay. The maximum height of a ladder should be 9 m.
Step ladders and trestles should be regularly inspected to ensure that they
are in good working order and that the ropes are sound and secure. The use
of a roof ladder is strongly recommended on any angle of slope regardless of
the condition of the roof covering. Erection and use of scaffold structures
should comply with the requirements of BS 1139 (metal scaffolding) .
In order to carry out inspection work in dangerous situations, it may be
advisable to use safety belts or harnesses attached to anchorages by their
lanyards. The use of longer fixed lines is also a possibility. In some cases it is
possible to rig industrial safety nets beneath hazardous working areas. 21
Security
The security of an external door depends primarily on the position, type and
construction of the door and the strength and reliability of the hardware.
The strength and fixing of the door frame and type and extent of glazing are
also important.22 The ideal construction is of solid wood, but this ideal has to
be balanced against cost and appearance. If glass is fitted in a position where
its breakage will give access to the lock or latch , it should be reinforced.
Hinges should be of adequate length and positioned so that the pin is inside
and the screws are concealed when the door is closed. Letter plates should
conform to BS 2911 and be positioned at least 400 mm from the door
locking device, and an internal cover plate offers additional security. All
exterior doors should ideally be fitted with a mortice thief-resistant lock
conforming to BS 3621, but doors less than 45 mm thick are weakened by
such locks and should be fitted with an automatically deadlocking rim lock.
BS 3621 requires locks complying with the standard to provide a minimum
of 1000 effective differs. Other doors should be reinforced with securely
fitted shoot bolts, top and bottom. The final exit door, which has to be
locked from the outside, is obviously more vulnerable than those secured
from the inside, and should be normally the one most overlooked by
neighbours and passers-by. Safety chains provides an additional and effect-
ive security device . The glass can be strengthened by replacement with wired
glass, or by polycarbonate sheeting . If a very high standard of security is
required, as in a wages office, then bandit glass is recommended . Grilles or
shutters can afford good protection, but willonly be as strong as the frame to
which they are attached or the means by which they are attached to the
surround of the window.:h A variety of intruder alarms are available for use
with windows.
Metal windows appear to offer slightly better security than wood; some
manufacturers are offering security locks. A high standard of security for
windows is only possible by the use of expensive glazing materials and
techniques, and special fittings . A thief will normally try other means of
gaining entry if it entails breaking glass. If panes of glass are to be small
enough to prevent entry they must be not more than 0.05 m2, but if this
minimum is to be exceeded, then the larger the better. Some side-hung
casements have external hinges from which the pin can be removed and the
casement lifted out, in which case the pin should be made secure by welding
or other means. Sliding sashes may need protecting with a locking device
and louvres in windows should be checked to ensure that it is not possible to
bend or remove the glass seating, clips or glazing beads and that the locking
mechanism is adequate. The placing of small ventilating lights should be
carefully considered to avoid external access to fasteners on larger opening
lights. Plastic domed roof lights are often easily removable.
Balconies are a security risk and should be restricted to individual
dwellings. Shelters and porches to doors should not obscure view or provide
cover.for a thief to work on the door . Careful attention should be paid to the
siting of external pipework as it may provide 'convenient access to upper
windows. Coin-operated gas and electricity meters are a security risk and
where installed should be accessible only from inside the dwelling. Suitable
fencing, such as chain link not less than 1.2 m high, around and between
gardens will retard a thief. Lighting is a crime deterrent and a useful back-up
aid to other security measures.
The annual cost of vandalism to buildings in England and Wales has been
estimated at £30 million. There are probably two principal ways of combat-
ing it: (1) to discourage vandalism by avoiding features in the design which
appear to attract damage and by using materials which are not easily
disfigured; (2) to persist in the repair and replacement of damaged and
defaced work .
Insurers often specify the types of locks, barriers and levels of alarm
response according to the degree of risk. There are many types of intruder
alarm system and they should all comply with BS 4737. Because it is difficult
to find neat and secure routes for wiring, more equipment is now 'wirefree'
and sends signals to the control panel by infra-red light, high-frequency
sound or radio. Major alarm installations are wired through to the security
services either; (1) by automatic dialling to the police; (2) to several
telephone numbers including the police; or (3) to a commercially run central

station, which monitors plant and keeps records of movements around the
building. Film cameras and TV can be directed at vulnerable points and be
activated by infra-red light or very low lighting levels. Telephones, fire
alarms and intruder alarms can be linked.
Fire-resisting Construction and Fire Precautions

Internal Fire Spread (Surfaces)
The spread of fire over a surface can be restricted by provisions for the
surface material to have low rates of surface spread of flame, and in some
cases to restrict the rate of heat produced (paragraph B2 of Schedule 1 to the
Building Regulations 1985).8 The provisions in Approved Document B/113/4
prescribe class 1 materials for walls of dwellinghouses and these include
plasterboard, and class 3 materials for ceilings, which include plywood and
treated or painted hardboard.
Internal Fire Spread (Structure)

Premature failure of the structure can be prevented, and the spread of fire
inside a building can be restricted, by provisions for elements of the
structure to have a specified minimum period of fire resistance (paragraph
B3(1) of Schedule 1 to the Building Regulations). The minimum periods of
fire resistance for all loadbearing elements of the structures of dwelling-
houses, including separating walls, are prescribed in table 1.1. of Approved
t
Document B/113/4 as hour or 1 hour for basements of more than 50 m2
floor area and houses of four storeys or more. Higher periods apply to some
other buildings, ranging from 1 to 4 hours.
A BRE report23 gives guidance on the notional periods of fire resistance
for a wide range of constructions . For example, loadbearing timber framing
members at least 44 mm wide and spaced at not more than 600 mm apart,
with lining both sides of 12.5 mm plasterboard with all joints taped and
filled; and 100 mm reinforced concrete wall with 25 mm minimum cover to
reinforcement, both provide half-hour fire resistance . A solid masonry
loadbearing wall, with or without plaster 'finish, at least 90 mm thick,
will provide one hour fire resistance. For masonry cavity walls, the fire
resistance may be taken as that for a single wall of the same construction,
whichever leaf is exposed to fire.
In general, domestic loadbearing external walls of normal materials
satisfying the conditions of strength, stability and weather resistance will
usually provide sufficient resistance to fire. Methods of upgrading existing
partitions are described in BRE Digest 230.24
Compartmentation
The spread of fire can also be restricted by provisions for subdividing the
building into compartments of restricted floor area and cubic capacity, by
means of compartment walls and compartment floors (paragraph B3(2) of
Schedule 1 to the Building Regulations). This provision applies to flats and
maisonettes.
Other forms of compartmentation apply in the case of a division between
adjoining buildings by means of a separating wall, such as walls between
terraced and semi-detached houses carried above roof level or suitably fire
stopped or between a house and an attached garage (paragraphs B3(4) and
(5) of Schedule 1 to the Building Regulations). The wall and any floor
between a garage and a house are to have half-hour fire 'resistance and any
opening in the wall is to be at least 100 mm above garage floor level and be
fitted with a half-hour fire resisting door (Approved Document B/2/3/4).
Concealed Spaces and Fire Stopping

Hidden voids in the construction of a building provide a ready route for
smoke and flame spread; this is particularly so in the case of voids above
spaces in a building as, for example, above a suspended ceiling or in a roof
space . As any spread is concealed it presents a greater danger than would a
more obvious fire weakness in the building structure. Provision is therefore
made in paragraph B3(3) of Schedule 1 to the Building Regulations to
restrict the hidden spread of fire in concealed spaces by closing the edges of
cavities, interrupting cavities which could form a pathway around a barrier
to fire, and subdividing extensive cavities. It is also necessary to effectively
seal the openings around all penetrating pipes, cables and other services.
Constructional techniques are illustrated in Appendixes G and H of
Approved Document B/2/3/4. Ends of cavities should be effectively sealed
to provide fire stops as described in BRE Digests 214 and 215.25
Stairways
An internal stairway in a house which has more than two storeys, excluding
a basement, may need to be enclosed and protected to meet the provisions
of Section 1 of the Mandatory rules for means of escape in case of fire
(HMSO, 1985) in support of the requirements of Bl of Schedule 1 to the
Building Regulations. BS 5588 gives recommendations for means of escape
for flats and maisonettes, shops and offices.
Fire Hazards
BRE Digest 26&6 outlines the design principles for systems which provide
safe escape routes from buildings, including the use of .smoke doors to
isolate lengths of corridor or stairway, ventilated lobbies, smoke ventilation
and powered smoke extraction from large undivided buildings such as
shopping malls and warehouses.
Sound management, adequate fire protection equipment and effective fire

prevention systems will reduce the likelihood of a serious fire, but they
cannot eliminate it. Precautions to limit the spread of smoke normally
include the provision of smoke-stop doors in corridors, at entrances to
staircases and lobbies and in other suitable locations. Staircases should be
ventilated by opening windows and/or skylights. Automatic dampers should
be provided at strategic points on conveyors and in air-conditioned ducts. In
large single-storey premises roof ventilators assist smoke dispersal. Base-
ments present a difficult ventilation problem and smoke outlets should be
provided with fitted covers that can be removed or broken to permit the
escape of smoke. 27 Lofts create a special hazard with their traditional use as
storage areas for paper, cardboard boxes, timber and other combustible
materials, and the surrounding structural timbers ensure a ready supply of
fuel once a fire is started. In 1982 it was reported that well over half the
domestic fires in the UK involved furniture and beds, with more than half
the fatalities occurring in fires started by smokers' materials.P Many of the
deaths were caused by the combined effects of smoke and toxic gases. 29
Fires Emanating from Electrical Apparatus

Electrical appliances and installations account for nearly one-quarter of the
known causes of fires, and approximately two-thirds of these start on the
fixed part of the installation. The most likely initiating cause is a high tension
resistance joint or a partially severed cable producing a local hot spot for
which there is seldom complete electrical protection. Other contributory
factors include leakage and short circuits as a result of old or damaged
insulation, especially if coupled with over-fusing and overloading. Extensive
temporary wiring of substandard quality and inadequate maintenance
provide further causes of fires.
Faults on flexible leads are responsible for about one-third of the fires in
the wire and cable category, and there is no doubt that flexes generally are a
serious hazard. Hot spots can develop so easily if there is a taped joint, loose
terminal connection or damaged insulation on a lead to a heating appliance.
In industrial buildings, apparatus running unattended for long periods can
introduce a serious fire risk. Much benefit would accrue were occupiers of
buildings, and particularly maintenance personnel, to carry out simple
megger tests and visual inspections of installations, especially of flexible
loads, at least at the frequencies prescribed by the Institution of Electrical
Engineers Regulations. This would result in many faults being rectified
before they developed into breakdowns and fires.
Fire-fighting Equipment
The provision of adequate escape routes and fire alarms in the majority of
buildings frequented by the public is required under various Acts of
Parliament, but there is no statutory requirement for the installation of
automatic fire detection or automatic extinguishing equipment whose main
function is to restrict the damage to the building and its contents. Legislation
in general provides for : (1) provision and, where necessary , the enclosure of
escape routes in suitable materials; (2) aids to escape comprising fire alarms,
hand extinguishers and emergency lighting; (3) display of escape instructions
and training of staff. The legislation is framed to give local fire authorities a
measure of flexibility in securing adequate escape arrangements and equip -
ment at minimum cost and disturbance and to the mutual satisfaction of the
persons responsible for the building and the fire authority.
Apart from the provision of adequate escape routes, legislation requires
warning systems for buildings frequented by the public and adequate
lighting of escape routes even in the event of failure of the public electricity
supply. There are three recognised alarm systems-multi-zone, single zone
and single point.
The multi-zone installation is suitable for complex industrial and commer-
cial premises, including the larger hotels. It generally consists of a series of
sounders (bells, klaxons and warblers) coupled with manual call points
(break glass units) all powered from a central battery unit continuously
charged from the a.c. mains. The more expensive systems incorporate
detectors and automatic fire brigade call-out facilities. The single-zone is
particularly suitable for smaller premises such as small hotels and guest
houses. It consists of sounders and manual call points, and may be powered
from mains or standby batteries. Single point units or self-contained alarms
form the most economical way of protecting a small property.
Smoke detectors are available in several forms but for general fire
protection in buildings one of two types are usually selected-(I) optical
smoke detectors which are activated by the absorption or scattering of
visible or near visible light by products of combustion, (2) ionisation
chamber detectors in which combustion products entering the ionised
chamber alter the conductivity to initiate the alarm circuit. The first category
respond well to smoke particles and visible combustion products, while the
second type are better suited to detect invisible gases from clear burning
fires.
Portable fire extinguishers can be carried and operated by hand . Where all
or most of the occupants of a room are women, the extinguishing equipment
should desirably be made up of 4.5 litres water buckets and 3 kg dry powder
or 7 kg carbon dioxide extinguishers. Extinguishers need regular main-
tenance and there should be adequate personnel with knowledge of and
confidence in their use. Ideally extinguishers should be safe for the user,
efficient and durable; they should discharge and reload rapidly, and be easy
to maintain and of reasonable appearance. The extinguisher selected should
be on the list of approved portable fire extinguishing appliances issued by
the Fire Office's Committee.
Four classes of fire are recognised by BS 4547: Class A fires involving
solid materials, usually of an organic nature in which combustion normally
takes place with the formation of glowing embers. These are best extin-
guished by water type extinguishers. Class B fires involve liquids or
liquefiable solids and are best extinguished by smothering to prevent oxygen
from combining with the flammable liquid vapours or gas and this may be
done by using a dry powder, carbon dioxide or a vaporising liquid

extinguisher. Class C fires involve gases and are extinguished in the same
way as Class B. Class D fires involve metals, and special powders have been
developed for the extinguishing of various metal fires.
The simplest form of fire-fighting equipment is the fire bucket, usually of
red-painted metal or plastics and of around 10 litres capacity, containing
water or sand. They should be hung or stood on a shelf not more than 1 m
above floor level in a prominent position and be covered to reduce
evaporation of water. A typical provision is three buckets per 210 m2 of
floor area with not less than six buckets per floor. Hand pumps (stirrup
pumps) for use with buckets of water are extremely useful.
Building controls normally rely on passive fire protection, and make little
or no allowance for the beneficial action of sprinklers and other active
measures. However, sprinklers reduce fire severity and hence the risk of
large fire losses, and it is possible to make a case for relaxation of passive
protection in favour of active protection.
Sprinklers are usually associated with commercial, industrial and storage
buildings, where benefits include substantially reduced insurance premiums.
There are wet systems for heated buildings, dry systems for unheated
buildings, and combined wet and dry systems to provide flexibility of use in
different climatic conditions. A deluge system is also available for special
buildings to provide total coverage from all the sprinkler heads acting
together. The coverage of sprinkler heads varies from 7.5 m2 in high hazard
buildings to 21 m2 in low hazard. Some sprinkler heads are activated by the
expansion of special liquids in glass bulbs, while others rely on the melting of
solder, and those on deluge systems have open heads with the water flow
controlled by special detectors.
Hoses of 19 or 25 mm diameter on reels , with adjacent stopcocks, placed
about 1.5 m from the floor, can be used by untrained operatives and are
normally located on escape routes and common walkways. Risers of either
the wet or dry varieties, with a minimum diameter of 100 mm carrying water
to each floor level of high-rise buildings, may be installed to permit the
connection of fire br!gade hoses.
Fire-fighting Arrangements
Clear and unambiguous fire instructions, clearly audible alarms and regular
fire drills give the occupants of a building a feeling of security and a sense of
involvement. They ensure that emergency equipment is tested at regular
intervals and that fire exits are kept clear and in usable condition. Where
there is insufficient staff available to regularly check and service fire
equipment, a maintenance contract should be negotiated. In the majority of
industrial premises fire fighting consists of nothing more than first aid fire
fighting to hold the outbreak in check until the fire brigade arrives, and it is
therefore advisable to have a number of staff trained to use the equipment
and to be thoroughly familiar with all the buildings.
Whether or not a company wishes to set up a works fire brigade depends
on the nature of the risk and the money available. In all cases there must be
a foolproof method of ensuring that the alarm is given to the fire brigade as
soon as the fire is discovered. Close liaison should be developed with the
local fire service and opportunities provided for local firemen to visit the
premises-this may one day prevent the loss of the buildings by fire and
possibly loss of life or injuries to firemen through unknown hazards.
Cleaning
General Background
The cleaning industry in the United Kingdom was spending over £3000
million per annum in 1987 and yet its performance has been found not to
compare favourably with the United States or Scandinavia.Y Within 30
years after erection , or even less, cleaning costs may exceed the original cost
of the building. Lack of co-operation between architects and maintenance
and cleaning organisations all too often results in inadequate consideration
of cleaning aspects at the design stage, and designers generally need to
acquire greater knowledge of cleaning facilities, methods and equipment
and to receive improved feedback of information on the performance of
buildings.
The planning of even a single window in an inaccessible position can, over
the years, generate cleaning costs many times in excess of the value of the
window. Large areas of terrazzo and other flooring can be badly damaged by
using the wrong cleaning materials. The effectiveness of maintenance and
cleaning work can be increased by the architect supplying a maintenance
manual which includes a full description of finishings, furnishings and
fittings in the building. The manual should also contain the various
manufacturers' recommendations for cleaning and maintenance. All clean-
ing and maintenance procedures should desirably be logged in the manual so
that if the building changes hands the new occupier will see what has been
done and what he should do to maintain the b.uilding to a reasonable
standard.l'
Method of Execution
The owner of a building often has the choice between carrying out cleaning
work by direct labour or letting it out to a contractor. Cleaning contractors
concentrate their energies on this class of work and inevitably develop
efficient techniques and considerable know-how. They relieve the client of
the problems involved in recruiting a workforce, and organising and
equipping it. Taking flooring as an example-each type needs its own
cleaning technique. Some of these needs for caution are fairly obvious but if
overlooked can ruin a floor, such as using spirit-based cleaning materials on
rubber or benzine-based materials on pitchmastic. Labour accounts for the
greater part of the cost of cleaning and must be effectively used and
supervised. With offices, specialist contractors are usually better suited to
deal with cleaning of carpets, rugs, curtains and venetian blinds as well as
telephone cleaning and disinfecting and cleaning of windows and roof lights.
A costs in use study of offices by DOE32 showed that direct labour cleaning
costs considerably more than contract cleaning in the cases investigated.
When engaging a cleaning contractor, it is important to employ a
reputable contractor, preferably on a three-year contract to provide incen-
tive and continuity. There should be a penalty clause to deal with unsatisfac-
tory work or non-performance in addition to provision for cancellation. The
method of payment and notice for termination must be clearly prescribed,
together with details of frequency, methods, equipment and materials,
supervision and workforce.
The DOE survey32 distinguished between daily cleaning of offices-
floors, ash trays and waste baskets-and periodic .cleaning involving a more
thorough clean every 3, 6 or 12 months, when files are taken out and dusted
or vacuum-cleaned, and it also includes the regular polishing of floors .
CP 153: Part I, specifies frequencies for the internal and external cleaning of
windows, as listed in table 6.1 .
In industrial buildings, cleaning of overhead pipework and steelwork
should be carried out at regular intervals, otherwise dust will build up until
draught and vibration cause it to fall and become both a nuisance and a
danger.
Table 6.1 Frequency of window cleaning
Type of Building Frequency
Shops Weekly
Banks and business premises Twice monthly
Offices and hotels Monthly
Hospitals Monthly
Factories (light industry) Monthly
(heavy industry) Every two months
Schools Every two months
Domest ic buildings Monthly
Preventive Devices and Storage Space

Adequate preventive devices should be provided to eliminate difficult
cleaning tasks. These include waste receptacles and cigarette urns, prefer-
ably wall-mounted to avoid creating an impediment to floor cleaning.
Plastics liners for waste receptacles and garbage cans prevent rusting and
need for cleansing, and also provide vermin and odour control.
Probably the most sadly neglected area is the adequate provision of
storage facilities for cleaning materials and equipment. One example is the
modern multi -storey teaching hospital in Nottingham where the cleaning
closets are too small and are only provided on every other floor . Hence
cleaning trolleys have to be left in corridors and cleaners have to transport
equipment from one floor to another. Ideally storage closets should be at
least 2.4 x 1.8 m to accommodate the equipment and materials for two
cleaners. They should have good lighting, easily cleaned surfaces, a sink and
hose pipe, ample shelving and fixings for hanging tools.
Windows
Windows need cleaning periodically, as illustrated in table 6.1, to secure
clarity of vision and maximum daylight penetration, maintain good appea-
rance of building, prevent accumulation of dirt which when washed off by
rain may harm wall cladding, and reduce deterioration of glass through
attack by pollutants.
Windows may be cleaned in a number of different ways. Ladders may be
used for heights up to 9 m and for reasons of safety the feet should be placed
at one-quarter the vertical height from the building. Rubber inserts or cups
are sometimes provided on the feet as a further safety precaution. Travelling
ladders and suspended systems may be used from permanent rails or tracks
fixed in front of the parapet or under the eaves, using suspended cradles on
wire ropes where the height exceeds 30 m. Other alternatives are demount-
able rails and walkways.
Some windows can be cleaned from the inside by using projecting hinges
or pivoted windows. The maximum safe reach to clean adjoining fixed
glazing is 560 mm sideways, 510 mm upwards and 610 mm downwards.
Flooring
Floors suffer from the effects of traffic and soil, and the most damaging soil
is usually that carried in by foot traffic. Soil trapping devices should be
installed to combat floor damage and reduce cleaning costs, and these
include gratings, mechanical matting and walk-off matting. Other floor
protection measures include the selection of good furniture glides and the
use of plastics strips or corners under filing and stationery cabinets.
Protection of floors against chemical damage is important-harsh alkaline
cleaners should never be used on resilient floors.
Student surveys collated by the York Institute of Advanced Architectural
Studies 33 found Iino sheet to be the cheapest floor covering investigated,
followed fairly closely by . carpet. Other floor coverings which proved
reasonably economic in cleaning costs were wood strip , rubber tile and
sheet, and wood block. The most costly were clay, composition and terrazzo
tiles, with thermoplastic tiles and PVC sheet lying between the two
extremes. The colour of floor tiles and sheets is also important since a dark
colour shows dusty footprints while a light colour shows black burn marks.
A speckled or marble pattern looks well and is easier to clean.
Easton34 identified the main types of equipment for the removal of dust
from floor surfaces as industrial suction cleaners for hard and soft floor
coverings and high risk areas, impregnated mop sweepers for large hard
floor surfaces; static mops for plastic floors; and damp mopping for removal
of surface dirt. Spray cleaning or spray burnishing effectively removes
surface dirt. Ingrained dirt removal requires a deep cleansing system
(scrubbing hard coverings and shampooing soft coverings). Modern floor-

clearing methods rely on a wide range of electrical floor maintenance
equipment, including scrubber polishers, polisher/vacuums, scrubber
dryers, wet and dry pick-ups, dry shampoo carpet cleaners, water injection!
extraction machines, and water pressure machines.
Sanitary Appliances and Kitchens

Health hazards can arise if staff restaurants, kitchens and toilets are not
properly cleaned and maintained. The vermin, likely to thrive in dirty
conditions, may also endanger building services by gnawing through electric
wiring and plugs and plastics pipes. There needs to be a close working
relationship between cleaning and maintenance staffs to secure a satisfactory
standard of cleanliness. Frequent cleaning will do little to improve the
appearance of badly stained, chipped or cracked appliances which have
served their useful life and require replacement. Similarly, continuously
dripping hot taps should be re-washered.
Kitchens need hard, smooth and non-absorbent wall, floor and ceiling
surfaces, with coved angles and rounded corners to facilitate cleaning. From
time to time it will be necessary to restore food preparation rooms and
appliances to a thoroughly clean and serviceable state compatible with age
and general condition. Deep cleaning is s~ecialised work and experienced
specialist contractors should be employed. 5
Graffiti
The action taken will depend on the reason for the graffiti, the surface on
which it has been applied and the materials used. The purpose, be it casual,
political, offensive or recreational, may determine whether other facilities
are needed. Aerosol on brick may be scrubbed off with paint remover and
water, oil paint superimposed on oil paint is best overpainted, felt pen and
emulsion on brick can be overpainted with anti-graffiti paint , felt pen on
concrete is difficult to remove and the application of paint removers,
bleaching and overpainting with anti-graffiti paint may be required, and
lipstick and chalk on brick scrubbed with detergent. Possible alternative
devices include shrub planting, anti-climb paint on downpipes, murals
or hoardings, and improved play facilities , according to the particular
circumstances.i"
Pest Infestation
Types of Infestation and Associated Risks
BRE Digest 23837 describes how pest infestations in buildings can cause risk
to health , as well as fire hazard, economic loss and sometimes deterioration
of the structure itself. Birds, rodents, insects and other invertebrate pests all
carry parasites or pathogenic bacteria.
Rodents may damage the fabric or fittings of buildings, as hard materials

are gnawed to wear down teeth and softer substances are shredded to form
nests. Rats can gnaw through plastics, lead and copper pipes causing water
damage, and gnawed electric cables can result in fires. Furthermore,
burrowing by rats can cause localised subsidence. Birds cause indirect
damage as their droppings may increase the rate of lichen growth, their nests
can block drains and gutters and they can introduce parasitic insects into the
building .
In determining what precautions should be taken to prevent pest infesta-
tion, the level of risk and the acceptability of infestations should be
considered. For example, basic risk would be unacceptable in a hospital,
restaurants and food premises would be regarded as high risk and domestic
buildings as low risk. In low-risk buildings suitable foundations, good
detailing of roofs, tight building-in round pipes and the use of closely fitting
doors and windows should prevent pest infestation.
The most important pest species are rats and cockroaches. Birds such as
pigeons and starlings may introduce insect pests such as fleas, other biting
insects and mites. Fungi can grow if conditions are damp in buildings, and
surface mould growths can support book lice, plaster beetles and silverfish.
Pests will survive only if the temperature and humidity are suitable and there
is adequate food and water together with shelter, nest sites and nesting
materials.
Prevention of Infestation
Insects can enter through minute cracks and cannot be excluded. Young
mice can pass through holes about 6 mm diameter , and young rats through a
9 mm diameter hole. Common rats can burrow extensively and gain access
to buildings in this way, while common sewer rats are good swimmers and
can enter buildings through sewers and drains, where the covers are
deficient. Birds seek nesting and roosting sites on and in buildings, will nest
in roof spaces if they gain access, or use external ledges as roosts or nest
sites. Holes to roofs should be kept small enough to prevent their entry; for
example, pigeons should be excluded by 40 mm mesh and sparrows by
20mm.
Foundations will exclude rats if they extend vertically about 900 mm.
Good building practice requires cavity closers at the head of the wall for fire
stopping, and this will prevent rodents and birds obtaining access to the
cavity. The spaces between joists and rafters should be filled at the eaves to
prevent birds or rodents from entering the roof space, but providing small
ventilation holes or gaps closed with mesh to avoid condensation.
Door should close on to a level threshold, so that there is an insufficient
gap to allow access or a gnawing edge. In high-risk areas, external doors not
made of metal should be fitted externally with metal kicking plates not less
than 300 mm high. These kicking plates should also be fixed to thejambs
and linings to prevent gnawing and entry. Internal partitioning and ceiling
cavities should be sealed sufficiently to deny access. Hollow spaces behind
skirtings, architraves and other mouldings should be filled. Pipes, ducts and
trunking should be tightly built in wherever they pass through walls, floors,
ceilings or foundations.
Rodents must be prevented from entering lift shafts , as they would have
access to all levels of the building and could damage the winding mechanism.
Refuse hoppers provide food supplies as well as harbourage for pests, and
there is a high risk of infestation in the room where collecting bins are
housed. The door should preferably be of metal with a suitably protected
frame and a self-closing device. Polythene bags for waste disposal are not
sufficiently stout to keep rodents out and may also be damaged by domestic
pets or foxes, allowing insects access to food scraps within. Wire mesh stands
to these bags should be 5 mm mesh or smaller, surround the bag with ample
enclosing space, and be fitted with well-fitting, solid lids.
Other Pests
Much unnecessary alarm is caused by the presence of insects in houses in the
mistaken belief that they may be attacking timber, although many of these
are associated with materials other than timber. New houses, particularly
those of brick and block construction, remain damp for a year or two as the
concrete and plaster dry out and some insects are attracted to these
conditions.P Details of some of the more common pests of this type are now
briefly described.
Plaster beetles are very small dark coloured beetles, varying from 1 to
3 mm in length, which feed exclusively on moulds, mildews and other fungi.
With heat and adequate ventilation these insects should die within 3 to 4
months as the house dries out. .
SilverfISh are small silvery insects about 10 mm in length with long
antennae and three long bristles at the tail . They cause little damage and are
mostly found in dark, damp corners in kitchens, larders and bathrooms, and
they dart away when disturbed. Good ventilation and heat should destroy
them within a few months of the house drying out.
Wood lice are small grey oval insects 15 to 18 mm long with a hard
segmented shell . They feed on decaying wood and other vegetation in the
garden and occasionally enter houses looking for damp areas, such as under
sinks and baths. The best remedy is to ensure that the house is dried out as
quickly as possibly and to remove any old leaves or garden refuse near the
house.
Earwigs are dark brown in colour, about 10 to 14 mm in length and have a
distinctive pair of pincers at the end of the abdomen. They are usually found
in the garden feeding on small insects but may be brought into the house in
bunches of cut flowers. They do not attack timber. Creeping plants, such as
ivy and Virginia creeper, should be kept away from windows and doors as
the insects could find shelter in them.
Sawflies have bright green larvae with a chestnut head about 12 mm long
and these bore holes approximately 3 mm in diameter. They prefer low
growing weeds but can bore a short depth into timber, but any damage is
usually superficial.
Flour beetles are dull reddish-brown in colour and 3 to 4 mm long. They

are occasionally found in houses, generally in store cupboards, feeding upon
flour, bread or other dried foodstuffs . They do not attack timber.
Bread or drug store beetles are reddish-brown in colour, 2 to 3.5 mm long
with a dense covering of short yellow hairs. They are occasionally found in
houses feeding on hard, dry products such as crispbread, pasta, cereal and
nuts. These insects can penetrate paper, cardboard and even aluminium, but
do not attack timber. The remedy is to keep cupboards thoroughly cleaned
out and to store foodstuffs in containers with tight lids.
Carpet and fur beetles produce small larvae up to 5 mm long, which are
very hairy and active, while the beetles are dark brown or black and often
mottled with yellow or white patches, and about 3 to 5 mm long. Blankets,
woollens and furs should be thoroughly cleaned and stored in sealed bags or
tightly fitting chests, and the articles shaken regularly. Crevices between
floorboards, wardrobes and carpets should also be cleaned regularly.
Larder or bacon beetles are oval in shape, black to dark brown in colour,
5.5 to 12 mm long and covered in fine hairs. They feed upon animal matter
such as skins, bones and leathers, and can sometimes be found in store
cupboards eating bacon, ham, cheese and pet foods. Occasionally they bore
into timber but damage is normally only superficial. Cupboards should be
inspected to locate the source of infestation which should be thrown away
and the cupboards thoroughly cleaned.
Ambrosia or pinworm beetles leave circular holes varying in diameter
from 0.5 to 3 mm. These insects are forest pests which attack standing trees
and wet logs, and occasionally the damage caused by them can be seen in
timbers used for joinery or structural work in new houses. The insects die in
dry converted timber.
Wood wasps are 10 to 50 mm long and black, yellow or metallic blue in
colour. They emerge from flight holes which vary from 6 to 9 mm in
diameter. These are forest pests which attack softwood but can emerge from
converted timber. They require wet timber with the bark present in which to
lay their eggs, but there is no danger of them spreading to adjoining timber
in the house.
Bark beetles are red chestnut brown to black in colour, vary from 3 to
6 mm in length and are covered by silky yellow hairs. They attack softwood
logs or sawn timber where the bark is present and are occasionally seen in
joists, rafters, fence posts and garden sheds where the bark has been
retained. They normally disappear after a few years when the bark has been
consumed, but it is good practice to remove any bark present on timbers in
use. 38
Repair or Flood Damage

Before starting work on a building that has been flooded, electricity, gas and
water services should be tested and isolated if necessary. All water trapped
in or around the building should be drained or pumped out as soon as
possible. Checks should be made for water trapped in underfloor air ducts,
service access pits, cavities in cavity walls, and areas under the building.
Mud , silt and debris that have accumulated· against external walls, under
boarded floors or in hollow wall cavities should be removed, and underfloor
spaces sprayed with disinfectant.
After cleaning, the building should be heated and ventilated as much as
possible, taking the following precautions-keep windows and doors open
as much as possible, lift floorboards near walls to increase draught under
floors, keep furniture and pictures away from affected walls and open
cupboard doors . Porous building materials such as brickwork may take
months to dry out. Where both sides of a wall have an impervious coating, it
may be necessary to remove the covering from one side. All timber must be
dried out as soon as possible to minimise the risk of fungal attack. Timbers
attached to or embedded in damp walls are very vulnerable and require
careful examination.
Structural damage "t an occur if there has been severe buffeting by flood
waters; simple immersion is unlikely to cause such damage. Damage to
foundations may occur during drying out if the subsoil is shrinkable clay.
Water trapped in electrical ducts or conduits must be removed by opening
inspection elbows and conduit boxes. The electrical installation should be
inspected and tested at monthly intervals for the first six months and at least
twice in the next six months .
Seawater flooding creates additional problems, as walls contaminated
by deliquescent salts in seawater may remain permanently damp. These
salts may also cause severe corrosion of metal fastenings and electrical
installations.P
References
2 BRE Defect Action Sheet 44. Trussed rafter roofs: tank supports-
installation (1984)
3 BRE Defect Action Sheet 61. Cold water storage cisterns: overflow
pipes (1985)
4 P. J. Davidson and C. J. D. Webster. BRE Information Paper IP
12/83: Water economy with the Skevington/BRE flush valve for WCs
(August 1983)
5 BRE Digest 249. Sanitary pipework: Part 2, Design of pipework (1981)
6 BRE Digest 81. Hospital sanitary services: some design and mainte-
nance problems (1967)
7 H. S. Staveley and P. V. Glover. Surveying Buildings. Butterworths
(1983)
9 BRE News 58. Research on water supply: unvented hot water systems
(1982)
10 BRE Digest 253. Heat pumps for domestic use (1981)
11 BRE Digest 205. Domestic water heating by solar energy (1977)
12 BRE Digest 254. Reliability and performance of solar collective systems

(1981)
13 C. T. Gosling. Design considerations for easier maintenance of air
conditioning equipment. Building Maintenance (October 1970)
14 DOE. The Relationship between Design and Maintenance. HMSO
(1970)
15 BRE Defect Action Sheet 62. Electrical services: avoiding cable over-
heating (1985)
16 BRE Digest 272 . Lighting controls and daylight use (1983)
17 D. E . Sexton. BRE Current Paper 12/73: Studies of refuse compaction
and incineration .
18 British Standards Institution. BS 5906: 1980 Code of practice for the
storage and on-site treatment of solid waste from buildings
19 BRE Defect Action Sheet 50. Flexibly jointed clayware drainage pipes:
jointing and backfilling (1984)
20 R. Payne. Drainage Maintenance: Estate Management. Construction
Press (1982)
21 E. D . Mills (Ed .). Building Maintenance and Preservation. Butter-
worths (1980)
22 D. Hughes and P. Bowler. The Security Survey. Gower (1982)
23 BRE. Guidelines for the construction offire resisting structural elements
(1982)
24 BRE Digest 230. Fire performance of walls and linings (1984)
25 BRE Digests 214 and 215 Parts 1 and 2: Cavity barriers and fire stops
(1978)
26 BRE Digest 260. Smoke control in buildings: design principles (1982)
27 British Insurance Association. The scale of the fire problem. The
Architect (October 1973)
28 BRE Digest 285. Fires in furniture (1984)
29 BRE Digest 300. Toxic effects of fires (1985)
30 E . W. F . Hill. Premises management-European attitudes. Fourth
National Building Maintenance Conference. HMSO (1973)
31 DOE Construction 9: Cleaning and design. HMSO (March 1974)
32 DOE. Costs in Use: A Study of 24 Crown office buildings. HMSO
(1971)
33 Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies, University of York . A
study of costs in use and performance of floor finishes: analysis of
student survey results (1973)
34 A. V. Easton. Achieving good standards in the cleaning of buildings.
CIOB (1982)
35 DOE Construction 7: Maintenance of hygiene. HMSO (1973)
36 H . Haverstock. Anti-graffiti measures. Building Design (29 April
1983)
37 BRE Digest 238. Reducing the risk of pest infestations: design recommen-
dations and literature review (1980)
38 Timber Research and Development Association (TRADA). Pests in
Houses (1986)
39 BRE Digest 152. Repair and renovation of flood-damaged buildings
(1973)
7ALTERATIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS
Many older buildings require alterations and improvements to meet the

changing needs of occupants. Alterations and extensions often involve
temporary supporting works of the forms described in chapter 1. Improve-
ments to dwellings normally attract improvements grants, while districts of
older dwellings pose the problem of rehabilitation or demolition and
redevelopment, with a third possible alternative involving a mixture of both.
This chapter concludes with a study of dilapidations and the preparation of
structural and similar reports and proofs of evidence .
Scope or Alterations and Improvements

Dwellings need careful consideration and skilful planning to make the fullest
use of their potential for improvement and conversion without at the same
time adversely affecting their character. Sound doors and windows should
not be replaced by inappropriate modern fittings, nor should pleasant large
rooms be divided unnecessarily nor small sunny gardens be drastically
reduced by kitchen and bathroom extensions.
Wider frontage dwellings provide scope for inserting a bathroom without
losing bedspace, incorporating an entrance hall, or providing an extension
without overshadowing rear rooms or garden. Deeper dwellings often
permit the economical provision of internal bathrooms. A second entrance
to a dwelling may be closed to provide more usable f100t space on the
ground floor. Stairs may be reconstructed to provide increased safety or a
more effective first floor layout.
After improvement, dwellings should normally possess a minimum life of
30 years and careful thought and attention should be given to the following
basic criteria.
(1) A main entrance door opening into an entrance porch or hall.
(2) Conveniently arranged bathroom, internal WC and spacious
kitchen.
(3) All rooms provided with independent access from circulation areas,
except possibly a kitchen from a dining or living room.
208
Alterations and Improvements 209
(4) Ideally two living spaces should be provided in family dwellings,

although in small houses one could be a reasonably spacious dining kitchen.
(5) Use of appropriate materials and components externally to ensure
harmony with existing elevations.
A survey of modernisation schemes for pre-1945 houses in 17 former
country boroughs in England and Wales showed the following operations to
be the most common:
(1) plastering of fair-faced brickwork;
(2) renewal of floors and laying of thermoplastic or PVC tiles;
(3) removal of old fireplaces from living room and bedrooms ;
(4) installation of central heating systems;
(5) renewal of electric wiring;
(6) installation of 13 amp power points and 30 amp cooker control unit;
(7) provision of new sink unit;
(8) removal of larder and provision of kitchen floor units and ventilated
wall cupboards;
(9) provision of new bath, wash basin and we suite;
(10) removal of small paned steel windows.'
Work completed by one local authority on the renovation of pre-war
houses is typical of the scope of improvement work which is frequently
undertaken . These houses were gutted downstairs and the interiors rebuilt
to provide a bathroom, separate we, kitchen/dining area and living room,
the latter being separated by a half-glazed partition and connecting door.
The improvements to each house cost between £6000 and £10 000 in 1987
and included newly installed central heating.
Basic Improvements
There are a number of essential basic improvements that are needed in a
large number of dwellings in this country to bring them up to an acceptable
minimum standard of provision . These basic improvements include the
provision of an internal water closet, bath , wash basin, replanning of
kitchens, roof insulation, improvement of services and provision of fittings.2
Internal water closet. In 1981 the number of dwellings without internal

water closets still approached 0.3 million.i and this was particularly serious
as many of them were occupied by elderly people. Where there is an existing
external we it should if practicable be retained to provide an additional
fitting. If the improvement results in a single internal we, this should
wherever possible be located independently of the bathroom.
Bath. In 1981 approximately 0.3 million dwellings in this country had no

bath. There are various ways of making space for a bath, including
conversion of a bedroom, extension of the dwelling or conversion of
adjoining outbuildings. In a few cases space is so restricted that a bath
cannot be provided and a shower may be installed as an alternative.
Wash basin. In the absence of a wash basin, occupants of dwellings are

obliged to wash at the kitchen sink, with consequent inconvenience and lack
of privacy. A wash basin should wherever practicable be provided close to
the we. If the bathroom is not large enough to accommodate a bath, wash
basin and we, it may be possible to provide a wash basin and we together
in another part of the dwelling, although this is almost certain to prove more
expensive. The substitution of a sliding door or an outward opening door for
an inward opening door may sometimes provide the extra space needed for
an additional fitting.
Kitchen improvements. Kitchens to many houses built prior to 1919 and

some later dwellings have unplastered brick walls. Any improvements
should include plastering or tiling the walls to give improved hygiene and
aesthetics. The floors may be of dusty , cold concrete which badly needs
covering with a more attractive and functional material. Kitchens are usually
replanned to make better use of available space and this may incorporate a
former fuel storage area which is no longer needed because of the
installation of new means of space heating. The additional space may permit
the inclusion of a dining area within the kitchen which will relieve pressure
on use of space in other parts of the dwelling. Larders may be replaced by
refrigerators and food-storage cupboards.
Roof insulation. Roofs should be insulated to an acceptable standard to

reduce heat loss significantly and provide greater comfort, accompanied by
lagging of storage tanks and service pipes .
Improvement of services. Gas and water services may require partial or

complete replacement to serve the new fittings. Most electrical installations
to older dwellings are 'inadequate and need replacement preferably with 13
amp ring mains with ample provision of three-core socket-outlets, carefully
sited to avoid breaking up valuable wall space needed by occupants for
placing furniture. The installation of a 30 amp cable with consumer unit and
cooker control unit are normally considered essential. With gas supplies, the
normal minimum provision is a cooker supply and one additional point .
Hot water supply constitutes a vital part of any modernisation scheme
with full consideration given to the relative merits and costs of the different
systems. An immersion heater ought desirably to be installed in the hot
water cylinder rather than to leave it to the occupant. More recent
modernisation schemes usually incorporate full central heating or some form
of background heating, often accompanied by the replacement of the living
room open fireplace with a gas or electric space heater and renewal of the
old fireplace surround.
Fittings. Many pre-war houses contained shallow earthenware sinks and

wood draining boards which have sometimes been replaced with deep white
sinks. Modem practice is to replace these fittings with sink units supported
by purpose-made cupboards which are more durable, hygienic and attract-
ive. There is a tendency to provide more built-in cupboard space than
hitherto and this often makes a significant improvement to living conditions.
Space Heating
There is a wide range of heating systems available for use in improvement
schemes and they are generally classified according to the type of fuel used.
Solid fuel systems can be either back boiler and radiators or central boiler
and radiators. These systems are particularly popular in coal-producing
areas. Their principal problems are provision of adequate fuel storage and
conflict with smokeless zone requirements where coal is used .
Gas-fired systems comprise five separate arrangements: boiler and radiators;

back boiler and radiators, sometimes combined with a radiant fire; fan-
assisted ,warm air; balanced flue warm air convectors; and flued gas fires.
The fan-assisted warm air systems may cause condensation problems and
balanced flue warm air convectors may prove difficult to install because of
insufficient external wall. Individual radiant gas fires are particularly
suitable for connection to existing flues where the building is being
extended.
Electric systems are of three main types: off peak radiators (sometimes
including warm air distribution mechanism); off peak warm air systems
(central heat storage with warm air distribution); and on peak warm air
systems which require a high standard of insulation to secure acceptable
running costs . Warm air systems can cause condensation problems. Off peak
radiators and on peak warm air systems are relatively easy to install.
Oil-fired systems became less popular when oil prices escalated. Further-
more, the tank can be unsightly in small gardens and requires stringent fire
precautions.
The average age of the housing stock is increasing and most of the
dwellings found to be unfit or needing extensive repairs were old and the
majority of them privately owned.'
Modernisation of Dwellings
Modernisation of older dwellings can take many forms and is obviously
influenced by the form, layout, construction, condition and anticipated life
of the dwellings themselves. Older dwellings frequently need altering to
provide a separate bathroom and a we entered from inside the dwelling. A
thoughtfully arranged house improvement is detailed in figure 7.1.1 showing
alterations to houses some seventy years old in New Earswick village,
Yorkshire, and contained within a General Improvement Area." The houses
were reduced to their basic brick shell before renovation. Ground floors
were screeded and all timberwork, including roofs, entirely replaced.
Fireplaces and fuel store were removed and central heating installed. A
more convenient living room and separate dining room were provided; also
a kitchen replacing the scullery and a food cupboard substituted for the
2 BEDROOM
._..• ' ~
BEDROOM BEDROOM
•
J -' ~
~--=-. I -
FIRST FLOOR F IRS T FLOOR L
FI RST FLOOR F IRST F LOOR
N
....
I
N
I FC;.7~ ~ L. LIVIN G
KIT CHEN
KI TCHEN
STORE ~ 1 1m:m- I r"""

STO~
PARLOUR
GROUND FLOOR GROUND F LOOR

BEFORE CONVERS ION AFTER CONVE RSI ON
FIGURE 7.1.1 MODERNISATlC.i. OF DWELLINGS- GROUND FLOOR GROUND FLOOR

NEW EARSWICK BEFORE CONVERSION AFTER CONVERS ION
10. 11. ,2 •• 3. I'. 15. 16 m ' F I GURE 7 .1.2 MODERNISATION OF TERRACE HOUSE
Figure 7.1
rather space-consuming larder. Rearrangement of the second bedroom

permitted the provision of a bathroom and separate we on the first floor.
Vehicular access has been re-routed to the backs of houses, thus restoring
the pedestrian character devised by Raymond Unwin in the original scheme.
The average cost of improvements per dwelling amounted to £12 500
compared with a likely replacement cost of £24000 (1987 prices), although
the replacement houses would have a much longer life.
Another example of a house improvement is illustrated in figure 7.1.2,
showing the conversion of a typical two-up and two-down terrace house built
before 1914. These by-law houses are often soundly constructed and with
appropriate repairs and improvements can be transformed into convenient
and useful dwellings.
Before improvement the accommodation consisted of a front parlour,
opening directly off the street, a living-kitchen behind, with access to a back
yard; and on the first floor, two bedrooms of approximately equal size.
Sanitary facilities were limited to an external we at the far end of the yard,
which had been a pail closet prior to 1938. Before conversion the house had
no hot water supply and the cold water supply was restricted to the stone
sink in the kitchen .
The improvements resulted in the provision of a bath, wash basin and new
kitchen sink all supplied with hot and cold water, an inside we and a
ventilated food cupboard in the kitchen (the standard five point improve-
ment). In this way it is possible to modernise small four-room houses
without extending the existing structure. It does, however, reduce the size of
the rear bedroom to provide space for the bathroom.l
Figure 7.2.2 shows a conversion of a small bedroom into a bathroom. The
amount of new plumbing and drainage work is restricted to a minimum by
positioning the new bathroom over the kitchen. In the example illustrated
the landing has been extended to give access to the bathroom and bedroom
1, following the division of the original larger bedroom 1 into two bedrooms.
Alternatively, the dwelling could be converted into a 2-bedroom house; An
additional we is required as the existing one is external. 6
Many of the larger houses erected 60 to 80 years ago are now too large for
the needs of present-day families. On the other hand they are often well
built and lend themselves to conversion into flats. A number of different
layouts are often possible; each of these needs considering and the advant-
ages and disadvantages of each weighed one against the other. Each flat
should ideally be as self-contained as possible, both visually and audibly.
The former requires good layout and the latter adequate sound proofing.
Adequate sound insulation is often difficult and sometimes virtually
impossible . A reasonably efficient method of sound insulating upper wood
joist floors is to 'pug' the space between the joists with sand or other heavy
filling material, which absorbs and deadens sound but will not stop the noise
from stereophonic hi-fi or even the average television set. In addition to
providing each flat with its own private approach and entrance, the aim
should be to plan the accommodation so that the noisier rooms of the
various flats are adequately separated. Thus the living room of a first floor
flat is better located over a bedroom of a ground floor flat rather than the
living room.
PORCH
GROUND FLOOR BEFORE CONVERSION GROUND AFTER CONVERSION
FIGURE 7 .2.' CONVERSION OF HOUS E INTO FLATS ,0, ,' , ,2, ,J , ,' , ,5, ,6m
N
....
~
PAR n"' I')H S TU48(A F R AME D WI TH

PLAStERBOARD ,:ol""ISH
RADIANT
HEATER
DINING BEDROOM 2 IBEDROOM
KITCHEN
ROOM J tTlINDE,A
LANDING •
BUILT IN
CU.IOARO CuPBOARD
UNDER
LOUNGE
GROUND FLOOR BEFORE CONVERSION FIRST FLOOR BEFORE CONVERSION ME W _ IHOOW TO

MA !CH EXiSTING
FIGURE 7 .2 .2 CONVERSION OF BEDROOM INTO BATHROOM FIRST FLOOR AFTER CONVERSION
Figure 7.2
In the conversion illustrated in figure 7.2.1 it was unnecessary to interfere

with the main internal walls. Furthermore, bathrooms (one to each flat)
were placed centrally one above the other on each floor with consequent
economy of drainage and plumbing services."
Good examples of rehabilitating older housing as sheltered housing and
for use by single persons are illustrated in The Housing Rehabilitation
Handbooki
Loft Conversions
Garages, sunrooms, utility rooms, and extensions to living rooms and
kitchens can often be added to a dwelling on the ground floor, but the need
for an additional bedroom may cause the family to contemplate a move to a
larger dwelling. A loft conversion can often yield the extra bedroom and
avoid the need for an expensive move.
Most loft conversions occupy little additional external space and normally
come within the permitted extra space provisions of planning legislation,
although any dormer at the front of a dwelling willneed to blend in with the
remainder of the elevation and neighbouring dwellings. Most dwellingswith
a pitched roof and a ridge height above ceiling joists in excess of 2.40 m can
provide additional habitable accommodation through the construction of
dormers.
The crucial factors are headroom and access.Wherever possible the
staircase should continue over the existing stairwell, thus utilising the dead
space over the existing stairs and avoiding taking space from a bedroom
below. Once the staircase and dormer are plotted on the drawing, the
remainder of the conversion work falls into place. In very old houses the
existing roof structure will need to be examined very carefully and if used it
may be necessary to form the walls, ceiling and floor as a box supported on
the outer walls and largely independent of the roof. The existing ceiling
joists are unlikely to be adequate as floor joists for the new room. A
suspended floor constructed over the existing ceiling joists and bearing on
either external walls, steel joists or trussed purlins is usually necessary. Any
internal loadbearing walls will assist in reducing spans and permitting
smaller section joists to be used. Rearrangement of purlins, struts, hangers
and props will often be required to give unencumbered space.
The new room can be illuminated by a dormer window or a light in the
slope of the roof, sometimes supplemented by a window in a gable wall.
Dormers are often formed by bolting collars to the existing rafters and
extending them outwards, and the dormer is often supported by a trussed
purlin or steel joist. With the collars in position the dormer can be decked
out and covered, often with built-up felt. The dormer roof can either slope
to the front with a new gutter and downpipe or fall back to the main roof and
drain into a box gutter. Once the dormer is secured the intermediate rafters
can be cut away and the windows fitted.
Internal work consists mainly of erecting studding, inserting insulation
and fixing plasterboard. The plasterboard is usually skim coated with any
brick or block walls being rendered and set. Joinery work should ideally
match the rest of the dwelling. Flooring and doors should both provide
half-hour fire resistance. Electric wiring will require repositioning or replac-
ing and the cold water tank may need relocating.
Houses in Multiple Occupation

A government report in 19811 indicated that more than 80 per cent of the
bedsits, student lets and hostels in England and Wales lacked adequate fire
escapes, and nearly half required substantial repairs costing more than
£10000.
Conversion of Other Buildings Into Dwellings

Old oasthouses, windmills and watermills can provide most attractive and
comfortable dwellings, while many barns, cowsheds, stables, blacksmiths'
forges, and disused railway stations and schools have conversion potential.
In all cases the structures must be thoroughly examined to determine its
stability and suitability for conversion, although the majority of buildings
with a good foundation and a sound roof are suitable.
Figure 7.3.1 shows a small village school converted into a two-bedroom
bungalow. This conversion required no extensions; indeed a number of
dilapidated outbuildings were demolished to provide adequate light and air.
The school consisted of two classrooms which conveniently provided a
bedroom wing and a living room wing.l" Figure 7.3.2 illustrates a stable
conversion which was carried out without major structural alterations. The
architect was able to plan a good cottage within the main external walls of
the old building. Drains and roof coverings often need replacement. II
Cantacuzino and Brandt'? have described and illustrated the conversion
to housing of warehouses in Amsterdam and Copenhagen, a tannery
complex in Massachusetts, telephone laboratories in New York, a mercan-
tile wharf in Boston, riverside granaries in Driffield, a warehouse loft in
New York and a piano factory in Boston. These provide a good illustration
of the wide range and scope for successful conversions.
Prefabricated Additions
The use of factory-produced bathrooms and other units can result in
considerable time savings and suffer fewer problems when carried out in
inclement weather. They are often constructed with treated timber stud
panel walls, insulated with glass-fibre quilt or expanded polystyrene, and
with foil-backed plasterboard internal lining. A number of external finishes
are available in a wide range of colours. Floors are often formed of 18 mm
plywood with underfloor glass fibre quilt insulation framed up on
50 x 100 mm joists and covered with vinyl asbestos tiles. Flat roofs are most
common using 12 mm plywood decking possibly covered with three-layer
felt, with suitable under-roof insulation and a foil-backed plasterboard
STORE
r- - -- I
I -
I
I
STORE CLOAK I
I YARD
ROOM
STORE I DINING KITCHEN
CLASSROOM
BEDROOM IBEDROOM
CLASSROOM I
LI VING ROOM
CONVERSION AF TER CONVERS ION
FIGURE 7. 3 .1 CONVERSION OF VILLAGE SCHOOL INTO BUNGALOW 10 , ,', 12 , 13, I', IS, 16 m
N
....--.l
LANDING
L OF T BE ROO tol
~ LOF T o BEDROOM BEDROOM
F IRST FLOOR BEFORE CONVERSION F IRST F LOOR AFTER CONVERS ION
S TABLE
COACH HARNESS = LI VI NG ROOM
HOUSE ROOM
GROUND FLOOR BEFORE CONVERSION - F IGURE 7.3 .2 CONVERSION OF STABLE INTO COTTAGE -GROUND FLOOR AF TER CONVERSION
ceiling. These units can incorporate double glazing units and central heating
radiators.
The former Greater London Council designed a prefabricated bathroom
unit for use with older dwellings with all works required after delivery of the
bathroom unit scheduled to be carried out in seven working days. Prepara-
tory work included removal of party fences and, in some cases, removal of
air-raid shelters and/or timber structures situated within 6 m of a rear wall;
boring for and forming precast concrete pile foundations; drainage work
including building a new manhole and laying branch drains ready to connect
up to the bathroom unit; cutting an opening in the rear wall of the existing
WC for access to the bathroom unit and other ancillary work.
The work schedule following delivery and positioning of the bathroom
unit on prepared foundations follows.
Day 1: Clearing out all redundant fittings in kitchen, preparing for gas
and heating engineers and commencing modernisation of kitchen by replac-
ing existing rear access door and wing light with prefabricated window board
and splash back. Repositioning rising main in concealed position behind new
kitchen units and providing temporary supply to WC.
Day 2: Gas fitters at work .
Day 3: Heating engineers installing gas-fired boiler in kitchen and
heating units in passage and living room.
Day 4: Heating engineers complete work and wall linings and plumbing
of kitchen commenced. Plumbing between kitchen and bathroom unit
connected to bring new WC into use.
Day 5: Kitchen wall lining completed and fitting of kitchen units
commenced and taps and water supply connected . A temporary sink is
provided to cause tenants as little interference as possible. The new WC is in
use and the existing WC suite is removed, branch drain sealed and a
new airing cupboard formed, walls to new passage lined and painting
commenced. .
Day 6: Joinery works in kitchen completed and painting commenced .
Decorations completed to new passage .
Day 7: Painting of kitchen completed; floor tiles laid and works
cleaned up.
During the 7 days, work will also proceed with connecting drains to waste
pipes from bathroom unit, completing rear paving and erecting new screen
fences. Many parts required for the internal works will be pre -assembled in
the contractor's yard to save time on the site.
Sequence and Management of Alteration Work

The dwelling must first be surveyed and floor plans of the existing
accommodation drawn to an appropriate scale, usually 1:100 or 1:50.
Alternative alteration schemes can then be planned and costed prior to
selection of the approved scheme (chapter 9). Full particulars can then be
prepared in the form of working drawings and specification (chapter 8), the
necessary statutory approvals obtained (chapter 11) and tenders invited

from a number of contractors (chapter 10). An improvement grant applica-
tion is normally submitted to the local authority and this is usually
accompanied by two copies of the drawings and a priced copy of the
specification. The local authority before making the grant may request the
carrying out of additional work, such as damp-proofing and the making good
of defects to the roof and/or external walls. After receipt of all approvals, a
tender will be accepted. and the successful contractor will be requested to
commence work on the site.
The order of work on the site will be determined to some extent by the
nature and scope of the work. In the case of an extension the first operation
will be to clear the site and remove the topsoil, after which foundation
trenches will be excavated and filled with concrete, which is allowed at least
48 hours to set and harden. External brickwork, usually of cavity construc-
tion, and usually incorporating an inner skin of insulating concrete blocks,
follows, adequately bonded into the existing brickwork, and with window
and door frames built in as and where required. Internal walls are usually
built of concrete blocks and from the walls will be built upper floor and
ceiling joists. The roof is then constructed followed by rainwater goods,
hanging of external doors and glazing of windows. The building is now
watertight and electrical and plumbing services and drainage work can
proceed, followed by plasterwork, other wall and ceiling finishings and floor
screeds.
Internal doors and their linings can now be fixed, followed by architraves
and skirtings. The electrician can complete the fixing of switches, pendants
and socket-outlets, while the plumber can install the sanitary fittings,
connect to the hot and cold water services from the existing building and
install waste pipes. Decorations should be carried out as soon as the walls
are dry enough, normally comprising two coats of emulsion paint. Wood-
work generally receives a priming coat, two undercoats and a gloss finishing
coat, and all external joinery should receive suitable preservative treatment.
All glazing is cleaned inside and out and floor tiles laid with suitable
adhesive. All services are duly tested .
Because of the scale of modernisation work carried out by local authori-
ties, most properties remain occupied while work is being carried out. The
main exceptions are where tenants are sick or elderly or where extensive
repairs are required, such as the provision of new floors. The primary
objective is to execute the work as quickly and efficiently as possible with
the minimum of inconvenience to tenants .
The size of a typical local authority modernisation contract varies between
100 and 200 dwellings, and handover rates of ten to fifteen per week are
quite common. The time taken for modernisation is normally between eight
and twelve weeks per house, so that a contractor can have over 120houses in
his possession at anyone time.
Banton 13 has emphasised that speed is of the essence of such projects and
that each house is a contract involving many trades. This necessitates very
detailed planning and close co-operation between the local authority,
sub-contractors, suppliers, statutory authorities and the tenant, to achieve a
constant flow of completed properties. Resource planning must implement
this aim and minimise delays between trades. Banton used a simple bar chart
to establish the average duration of the work content of each dwelling and a
second bar chart to show the possession and handover dates in relation to
the overall contract period. Tenants must be kept informed ofthe programme.
The supply of materials on site should be adequate for at least two weeks'
work. Materials and components should be stored in a central compound
affording ample cover and security, and of sufficient size to permit bulk
purchasing and deliveries. The operatives' canteen is often sited in the
compound and a nearby house used for offices. Materials are distributed to
the houses on a daily basis to reduce losses and minimise inconvenience to
tenants.
At the start of the modernisation work it is often necessary to remove the
hot water services backboiler and bathroom fittings. A common procedure
is to leave the we and install a 'temporary services unit' in the kitchen. The
latter consists of a sink unit with a hot water heater. At the end of the
working day this unit and the we, cooker and living room heating must all
be in working order. Houses are without personal washing facilities until the
plumbing and central heating have been installed, which must be completed
as quickly as possible.
Working on occupied estates requires discipline in terms of cleanliness
and safety , having full regard to the needs of occupants. Operatives must be
trained to work in a tidy manner and to minimise safety hazards. Rubbish
must not be allowed to accumulate and should be removed on a daily basis
using skips or lorries.
Crowter'" has described very effectively both the practical and contractual
problems that can arise in connection with modernisation contracts.
Meeting the Needs of Disabled People

The majority of existing buildings have been designed without any thought
for disabled people; for example, many public buildings have imposing
entrances approached by a large flight of stairs, making access by a
chairbound person impossible. Since the early 19708,designers have become
more aware of the problems faced by disabled people. Hence new public
buildings are accessible to chairbound people, specially reserved parking
places are becoming standard provision and many public lavatories include
special facilities.
There are however conflicts between the requirements of the able bodied,
the ambulant disabled and the wheelchair user. Some of the more common
conflicts are:
(1) Ramps and steps. Ramps are essential to the mobility of most
wheelchair users, while an ambulant disabled person will normally find a
flight of stairs with a handrail easier to manage. Women wearing high-
heeled shoes find ramps awkward and ramps can be more hazardous than
steps in wet and frosty weather.
(2) Floor finishes . The ambulant disabled favour non-slip, roughened

and resilient finishes, while wheelchair users require a smooth, non-resilient
and hard finish.
(3) we compartments. A WC compartment for the wheelchair user
needs to be wide and spacious, whereas the ambulant disabled person
requires a narrow compartment with support rails on both sides.
A joint government circular'! proposed that responsibility for identifying,
assessing and advising on the housing needs for individual disabled Persons,
including the need for adaptations to their homes, should remain with the
social services departments, in collaboration with health authorities. Hous-
ing authorities are responsible for work involving structural alterations to
houses owned or managed by them, while social services departments deal
with non-structural modifications and the provision of aids and equipment.
It is usually cheaper and more satisfactory to the occupant to adapt an
existing house for a chairbound person if it is structurally feasible. Social
services authorities have a duty under the Chronically Sick and Disabled
Persons Act 1970 to assist those who are handicapped, if it is demonstrated
that adaptations will make it easier for the handicapped person to manage.
The following items of work are some of the more common adaptations
that may be necessary and are normally grant aided.
(1) Substituting ramped access for steps (normally to a maximum
gradient of 1:12).
(2) Widening doorways, normally to 900 mm minimum width, and
deepening windows to 800 mm above floor level.
(3) Changing door and window ironmongery (probably to lever safety
type about 1 m above floor level).
(4) Extra handrails to staircase (usually 45 to 50 mm diameter on both
sides of staircase and extending 300 mm horizontally at top and bottom of
staircase) .
(5) Support rails to bath and WC (usually 30 to 45 mm diameter).
(6) Raising level of WC seat (often about 50 mm to about 475 mm
above floor level).
(7) Extending accommodation to provide ground floor bath, wash
basin and we.
(8) Altering kitchen fittings (worktop surfaces usually 800 mm above
floor level and no handles lower than 450 mm; sink units with shallow bowls;
and cookers of split level type."
(9) Changing taps from pillar to lever operation.
(10) Provision of ceiling track for hoist.
(11) Installation of stair lift (details of different types in Lockhart!").
(12) Moving pre-payment gas and electric meters to about 1 m above
floor level.
(13) Moving socket outlets and light switches (preferably 1 m above
floor level). Traditional light switches can be replaced by ceiling Ptull-cord
type, or by a rocker plate switch, operated by elbow or shoulder. 6
(14) Provision, if necessary, of some form of background or central
heating in all accessible rooms, with some local fires or heaters to boost
individual room temperatures as desired, complemented by adequate insula-

tion against heat loss.16
Grants for Improvements and Conversions

Types of Grant
Grants are payable by local authorities towards the cost of work required for
(a) the provision of dwellingsby conversion of houses or other buildings, (b)
the improvement of dwellings, (c) the repair of dwellings, and (d) the
improvement of houses in multiple occupation by the provision of standard
amenities, where the provision, improvement or repair is by a person other
than a housing authority.
An improvement grant, which is mandatory, can be given at the local
authority's discretion in respect of works required for the provision of a
dwelling by conversion of a building or for improvement of a dwelling
beyond the works covered by an intermediate grant or , in the case of a
registered disabled person, works required for his welfare, accommodation
or employment where the existing dwelling is inadequate or unsuitable.
An intermediate grant relates to work required for the improvement of a
dwelling by the provision of standard amenities which it lacks or which in the
case of a registered disabled person are inaccessible to him. The standard
amenities include a fixed bath or shower, hot and cold water supply at a fixed
bath or shower , a washhand basin, hot and cold water supply at a washhand
basin, a sink, hot and cold water supply at a sink, and a water closet. A
special grant is allowable for works required to improve a house in multiple
occupation by the provision of standard amenities or means of escape from
fire, together with related repairs.
A repairs grant can be given for works of substantial and structural repairs
to old dwellings (pre-1919) and is discretionary. The authority must be
satisfied that after the completion of the works, the dwelling will be in
reasonable repair, having regard to its age, character and locality.
The appropriate percentage to determine the maximum amount of any
grant is 75 per cent in a housing action area; 65 per cent in a general
improvement area; and 50 per cent in any other case.Where the local
authority approving the grant feels that the applicant will not, without undue
hardship, be able to finance the cost of works not covered by the grant, they
may increase the percentage of 50 per cent to 65 per cent and 75 per cent to
90 per cent.
Improvement Grants
Under the provisions of the Housing Act 1985, to qualify for an improve-
ment grant, the local authority must be satisfied that on completion of the
works the dwelling will be provided with all the standard amenities for the
exclusive use of its occupants; that it will be in good repair having regard to
its age and character and the locality; that it conforms to certain general
standards laid down by the Secretary of State; and that it is likely to provide
satisfactory housing accommodation for 30 years. In certain circumstances it
may be necessary to improve houses which cannot meet these requirements
and the local authority is empowered to vary the general conditions relating
to grants, and can reduce the 30 years life expectancy to not less than 10
years .
Furthermore the applicant must be a freeholder of the property for which
grant aid is required, or hold a lease with not less than five years unexpired
at the time of the application. All applicants must provide a certificate
relating to the future use of the dwelling. An improvement grant will not be
given for a dwelling erected after 2 October 1961;a second or holiday home;
an owner-occupied house which has a rateable value in excess of the
permissible limit (£400 in Greater London and £225 elsewhere in 1986); or
where work has already begun (except where the local authority accepts that
there was good reason to start) . Where the local authority approves an
application for an improvement grant, it will notify the applicant of the
amount which, in its opinion, the work should cost and the amount of the
grant it has approved.
The amount of improvement grant paid is based on a percentage of
eligible expenses, varying with the location of the dwelling, and the 1986
cost limit of £10 200 for single dwellings and £11 800 for conversion of
buildings of three or more storeys outside London . The corresponding
figures for Greater London were £13 800 and £16 000 respectively. The 1986
limits on grants are shown in Table 7.1
Table 7.1 Improvement grants
Area Normal 3 or more

storeys
Housing action areas (75%) £7650 £8850
Hardship cases (HAA) (90%) £9180 £10620
General improvement areas and hardship
cases (elsewhere) (65%) £6630 £7670
Elsewhere (50%) £5100 £5900
There is a strong case for periodic reviews of grants so that the prescribed
limits can keep 'pace with inflation .
Intermediate Grants
The intermediate grant is a mandatory grant designed to provide standard
amenities, and these are listed in table 7.2 extracted from S.508 of the
Housing Act 1985.
The grant towards the cost of these standard amenities will vary according
to the area, namely 75 per cent in a housing action area; 65 per cent in a
general improvement area; and 50 per cent elsewhere, subject to the
provisos with regard to hardship cases. In many cases, before-it is practicable
Table7.:! Intermediate grants

Description of amenity Maximum eligible amount (£)
Greater Elsewhere
London
Fixed bath or shower 450 340

Hot and cold water supply at fixed bath or shower 570 430
Wash hand basin 175 130
Hot and cold water supply at wash hand basin 300 230
Sink 450 340
Hot and cold water supply at sink 380 290
Water closet 680 515
to install an amenity, it may be necessary to carry out other relevant works

of repair or replacement. In such cases grant aid may also be approved for
works other than the installation of amenities, at rates graded according to
the type of area. Claimants of intermediate grants must satisfy the status
requirements but the rateable value restrictions do not apply.
Applicants must specify the standard amenity or amenities which it is
intended to provide, and where some only are listed must state whether the
dwelling is already provided with the remainder. In addition they must state
whether the dwelling has been without that amenity for a period of not less
than 12 months. Before approving an intermediate grant the local authority
must be satisfied:
(a) that on completion of the relevant works the dwelling(s) will be fit
for human habitation, or
(b) it seems reasonable in all the circumstances to approve the applica-
tion even though the dwelling(s) will not reach that standard on completion
of the relevant works: as observed by Arden.l" this is a curious provision.
Where an application for improvement grant is approved the local
authority will separately determine the amount of expenses to be incurred in
repair and replacement, and for the installation of standard amenities.
Except where the Secretary of State approves higher expenses, the grant for
repair and replacement will be limited to the appropriate proportion of a
sum not exceeding £800 in addition to that for the installation of standard
amenities, increased to £2000 where it appears to the authority that the
applicant could not without undue hardship finance the cost of the works
necessary to put the dwelling into reasonable repair.
Special Grants
Special grants are designed to enable a house in multiple occupation to be
improved by the provision of standard amenities or means of escape from
fire. Both standard amenities and repairs expenses are as detailed for
intermediate grants and a limit of £6750 is prescribed for provision of means
of escape from fire.
Repairs Grants
A repairs grant, which is discretionary, may only be given in connection with
a dwelling built before 1919 and S.491 of the Housing Act 1985 expressly
excludes works to improve an existing dwelling or to provide additional
dwellings. The application must be accompanied by a certificate of owner-
occupation and if not situated in a housing action area, the rateable value
must not exceed the prescribed limit. The relevant works must be of a
substantial and structural character, resulting in a standard of reasonable
repair. The limit for eligible expenses is £800.
House Insulation Grants

An occupier of a dwelling completed before 1 January 1976 can apply for a
home insulation grant under the home insulation scheme 1984" for insula-
tion installed in the loft of a pitched roof which was not previously insulated
to a depth of 30 mm or more. Grants are payable upon completion of the
works and include work done by the occupier. The grant paid to applicants
in special need is the lesser of 90 per cent of the cost or £95, and to other
applicants, the lesser of 66 per cent of the cost or £69.18
Environmental Works
Owners in housing action areas only may apply for grant aid to bring the
external appearance of their houses up to a suitable standard. The grant may
be paid after completion of the work, or part of it may be paid in instalments
as the work is executed and the balance after completion, except that the
aggregate of instalments paid shall not at any time before completion exceed
one-half of the aggregate cost of the works executed up to that time. A local
authority is empowered to provide materials, such as paint, for carrying out
environmental works.
Assistance for Owners of Defective Housing

Part XVI ofthe Housing Act 1985makes provision for reinstatement grants to
be paid to those who purchased 'system-built' housing, which has been
designated by the Secretary of State, from local or public authorities and
which is defective, but which can be reinstated to give a life of 30 years. The
percentage of the cost payable is 90 per cent or 100per cent where financial
hardship would occur . Another alternative is repurchase by the authority at
95 per cent of the defect-free value of the property and incidental expenses
in full.
Payment of Grants
A local authority may prescribe a time (not less than 12 months) within
which the relevant works must be completed. The payment of an instalment
automatically sets a time for the completion of the works-12 months from
the date of payment of the instalment-even where no .time limit was
originalIy prescribed. Such time limits can be varied by the local authority
but failure to complete within the prescribed time can result in the clients
being required to refund the instalment plus accrued interest.
A source of irritation to builders has been the fact that local authorities
pay the grant to the applicant and not to the builder. On occasions the client
not only fails to pay the builder on receipt of the grant when the works are
complete, but then proceeds to spend the grant money . It is in the builder's
interest to obtain agreement from the client before work commences that
the local authority will pay the grant directly to the builder. The most he
would then have to recover would be 25 per cent in housing action areas and
50 per cent for the average intermediate grant. Where the increased grant is
operative in cases of 'undue hardship', a prior agreement with the client is
vital as his restricted personal finances hold out little hope of recovery by
recourse to law.
Distinguishing between Improvements and Repairs

It may not always be practicable to separate improvement work from repairs
associated with the improvements and in these circumstances the repairs
would rank for grant aid. Nevertheless many other works of repair are
usually eligible for grant such as reslating or retiling roofs and renewing roof
timbers and rainwater goods; replacing defective plaster; renewing or
repairing defective walls; replacing defective floors and infected timbers;
removal of disused chimney stacks and making good roof; renewal or repair
of defective joinery; replacement of obsolete sanitary fittings and plumbing
systems; renewal of perished or obsolete electric wiring and essential repairs
to drainage systems.
Rehabilitation or Redevelopment
Advantages of Rehabilitation
A government white paper'? asserted that in the majority of cases, compre-
hensive development is no longer the answer to problems associated with
bad housing . Some of the social costs of redevelopment can be quantified
-for example, the extra houses needed to rehouse ' people elsewhere.
Others are less tangible but no less real-the personal misery and distress
suffered by people who have to abandon surroundings with which they are
familiar and friends for whom no substitute can be found . Many of the
residents are elderly with low incomes and their lack of skills makes them
least able to cope with the upheavals which folIow major redevelopment.
Research has shown that people in this situation can be very satisfied with
their houses even though they may have WCs in the backyard or be
substandard in other ways. In this situation, well-planned programmes of
rehabilitation would be a better solution than redevelopment. It takes many
years for an area of comprehensive redevelopment to mature into a
community.
The majority of older houses which are in sound basic condition are a
valuable asset to the community and can be made into good homes with
many years of useful life ahead of them at a smaller cost in money and other
resources than equivalent new houses. Where rehabilitation can be carried
out over large areas of housing, linked with environmental improvements,
considerable social advantages can be gained through the preservation of
local communities, and by preventing the distressing process of decay and
neglect by which older houses become slums. Existing houses can make a
valuable contribution to the character and variety of our cities, towns and
viIlages.
Rehabilitation has been aptly defined as "a carrying out of building work
to any property, or series of properties beyond normal routine maintenance,
thus extending its life to provide a building or buildings which are socially
desirable and economically viable . ,,20 It has, in many cases supplanted the
terms 'conversion' and 'modernisation' and implies a broader approach to
embrace the environment as well as interiors of dwellings. Hence proposals
may include car parking, open spaces, children 's play spaces and better
facilities for storage and collection of refuse .
Financing of Housing Rehabilitation

People will invest in an enterprise if they can see a reasonable return. Rent
restrictions and controls have for many years prevented the operation of
normal market forces with the consequent neglect of many private rented
dwellings as landlords were unable effectively to maintain their properties,
because of the high level of cost involved and the low return. This
constitutes the source of most of our present rehabilitation problems.
There are three principal methods of financing rehabilitation schemes in
the private sector.
(1) Schemes of a non-profit producing character normally carried out
by housing associations funded by public money through provisions in the
Housing Acts. The financial viability of a scheme is controlled by an
arbitrary upper limit to the total cost per unit of accommodation produced.
(2) Profit producing schemes executed by housing trusts, public and
private companies and some individuals. Generally the rehabilitation of
outdated houses for rack renting on completion is unattractive to the private
sector because of the low return, sometimes as low as 5 per cent.
(3) Schemes of conversion by owner-occupiers taking advantage of the
provisions of the Housing Acts and the declaration by local authorities of
general improvement areas is likely to give a considerable boost to this
activity.20,2
The financial viability of rehabilitation is influenced by a range of factors.

(1) Structural condition of property and level of accrued dilapidations.
(2) Anticipated residual life.
(3) Adaptability of existing layout.
(4) Acquisition costs-affected by pressures exerted by various agen-
cies attracted by inherent rehabilitation potential.
(5) Cost of building work, particularly as ratio of labour to material
cost is higher than in new work.
(6) Planning requirements-density limitations can result in a loss of 30
to 50 per cent on redevelopment of three and four-storey Victorian and
Edwardian houses.
(7) Effect of legislation and subsidies.
(8) Rental levels.
(9) Interest rates and funding periods-high interest rates and rela-
tively short funding periods have had an inhibiting effect on the rehabilita-
tion plans of some local authorities .
(lO)Annual maintenance costs-with simple brick buildings where reha-
bilitation work has been well down, annual maintenance should not be
significantly higher than for new buildings, whereas stucco-faced properties
with moulded cornices and similar features are likely to be considerably
more expensive to maintain.2O
In a cost appraisal it will be necessary to assess the value of rehabilitation
compared with other potential uses of the site. The economics of the
decision whether or not to proceed is usually determined in the private
sector on the basis of percentage return on capital invested, but with local
authorities and some larger property companies, a further calculation based
on the resultant capital value is often considered. With capital value,
rehabilitation would appear to be preferable if the cost of rehabilitation for a
life of x years plus the cost of redevelopment deferred x years is less than the
cost of present redevelopment. This approach however takes no account of
quality and in many cases the modernised dwelling is worth only a
percentage of the new equivalent because of poor layout, lack of modern
amenities and open space, and similar inadequacies. The assessment of
quality can often be resolved by open market prices and rents . Having
determined the viability of the scheme in capital terms, the next step is to
make a comparison of the annual income and expenditure of rehabilitation
and redevelopment.P'
Redevelopment permits amortisation over a longer period and probably
lower maintenance costs with less constraints on design. On the other hand,
financial restrictions tend to produce minimum standards of accommodation
and appearance resulting in loss of character and construction generally
takes longer. 20
On rehabilitation it is often necessary to improve the environment by a
certain amount of selective demolition to create open space and provide
garages, redirect roads to give improved traffic circulation and to eliminate
the worst property. Improvement works may include the removal of rear
additions, the conversion of three houses into two in some cases to ~ovide
three or four-bedroom houses and the removal of chimney stacks.
Cost-benefit Studies
There is increasing support for the application of cost-benefit analysis to
comprehensive redevelopment proposals with, in particular, consideration
of social costs. Cost-benefit analysis has been defined as "a technique of use
in either investment appraisal or the review of the operation of a service for
analysing and measuring costs and benefits to the community of adopting
specific courses of action and for examining the incidence of those costs and
benefits between different sections of the community." The technique
involves attributing monetary values to present and future costs and
benefits, including social costs and benefits which are not normally ex-
pressed in monetary terms . Future costs and benefits are discounted to
present-day figures by using an appropriate long-term rate of discount. The
result is either to compare the present day values of costs and benefits or to
express the net benefit as a rate of return on the capital investment involved.
This technique has not been used very extensively in comparing the
economics of redevelopment and rehabilitation. The primary reason has
been that when an area is considered for clearance, legal and technical
considerations (notably public health aspects) are uppermost and it is
frequently stated by public health or environmental control officers that no
reasonable alternative to clearance exists. A government white pape~
supported the use of cost-benefit analysis in these situations.
An interesting study was undertaken at Leeds to find the most economical
way of providing acceptable living standards (both housing and environ-
mental) in existing areas of sub-standard housing. The study concluded that
assuming that the improved property had a life of 20 years and considering
the cost to public funds as a whole, improvement was more favourable at all
discount rates over 4 per cent. This highlights one of the main criticisms of
cost-benefit analysis, that the results can be varied as desired by using
different discount rates, and that the values attached to social factors are
often quite arbitrary. In cost-benefit studies in the public sector, a discount
rate of 10 per cent is usual.
Needlemani" suggested that the test of replacement or repair is whether
the cost of replacement exceeds the cost of modernisation plus the present
worth of rebuilding at the end of the renewed life of the old asset plus the
present worth of the difference in annual maintenance expenditure. Thus in
terms of an equation, it is worth modernising where:
r
b > m+b(1 + i)-n + :- [1 - (1 + i)-n]
I
where b = cost of demolition and rebuilding

m = cost of adequate modernisation
i = rate of interest
n = useful life of modernised property in years
r = difference in annual repair costs
Kilroy25 refined this approach to incorporate:

(1) quality of rehabilitated dwelling expressed as a percentage of one

redeveloped;
(2) respective lives of development;
(3) discount rate of interest ;
(4) difference in maintenance costs;
(5) effect of changes in price levels;
(6) for publicly subsidised housing; the subsidies receivable.
The main considerations are:
(1) how much is it worth spending on improvement compared with
redevelopment?
(2) how can areas for improvement be selected to secure best value for
the resources used?
Improvement normally costs considerably less than redevelopment but,
after improvement , the standard of the accommodation is likely to be lower
than that provided by a newly-built flat or house and its useful life will be
shorter. The maximum amount worth spending on improvement, given the
cost of redevelopment, will depend interalia on the standard of accommoda-
tion after improvement, the useful life and the rate of interest. Present high
rates of interest may well sway the balance in favour of improvement which
will lead to smaller calls on capital.
MHLG (DOE) Circular 65/69 contained the data shown in table 7.3.
Table 7.3 Quality or improved dwellings as compared with new dwellings

Useful life Quality of improved dwellings as a percentage of that of a new dwelling
(years) at 8 per cent
100 90 80 70 60 50
40 0.96 0.87 0.77 0.68 0.58 0.48

30 0.91 0.82 0.73 0.64 0.55 0.45
20 0.79 0.71 0.63 0.56 0.48 0.40
15 0.69 0.62 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.35
These calculations are based on an interest rate of 8 per cent which could
be considered low. The Needleman formula provided a rough and ready
method of comparison but contained several fundamental weaknesses. It
ignored the effects of changes in price levels and excluded social costs, such
as the social effects of displacements, although these are admittedly
extremely difficult to evaluate . Two other important social factors are the
degree of satisfaction which residents express with their existing conditions
and the extent of housing choice available to them . In practice a combina-
tionof approaches will probably be desirable; as adopted in Camden, by the
gradual process of redevelopment and rehabilitation by the local authority,
linked with a certain amount of controlled improvement by private owners
in general improvement areas, the standard of housing in an area of 3 km2
was steadily raised and the traditional population was largely kept together
at rents it could afford.
Dilapidations
Liability for Repairs
The term 'dilapidations' denotes a condition of disrepair which has been
caused or allowed to develop in the property, and which will involve the
person responsible in legal liabilities. The person whose acts of omission or
commission has caused the dilapidations, is normally one with a limited
interest in the property, such as a tenant for life or a lessee under a lease,
whose neglect to keep the property in a good state of repair will have
detrimental consequences for those who are to take over possession of the
property when his interest terminates.P
A lease usually contains a number of terms and conditions agreed upon by
the parties. Certain covenants may be implied and these are often referred
to as 'the usual covenants'. Among the usual covenants are those by the
tenant that he will keep and deliver up the premises in repair, and allow the
landlord to enter and view the state of repair . The tenant may however
expressly covenant 'to repair the premises and to yield them up in good and
substantial repair and condition'. To repair implies that the structure,fixture
or installation is rendered fit to perform its proper function . Repair often
involves the replacement of a part but it cannot be extended to encompass
complete rebullding."
'Good tenantable repair' has been defined as "such repair as having
regard to the age, character and locality of the house, would make it fit for
the occupation of a reasonably minded tenant of the class who would be
likely to take it." This definition must however be qualified. It has been
contended that where a neighbourhood has seriously declined during the
period of the lease, the tenant need only repair to an extent necessary to
bring the house up to the new debased standard.
Often the tenant is made liable for repairs 'fair wear and tear excepted'
This means that the tenant will not be liable for disrepair resulting from the
normal actions of the elements (wind and rain), or to normal use by the
tenant. He would not therefore have to repair worn stair treads, replace
broken sash cords or renew slates or tiles which have slipped from the roof.
He will, however, be liable for exceptional damage caused by the elements,
such as hurricanes or floods, and for damage arising from the improper use
of the building, such as over-loading the upper floor' of a warehouse."
Under the lease the responsibility for repairs may be shared between
landlord and tenant; for example, the landlord may be made expressly liable
for external repairs and the tenant for internal repairs. Whether the tenant
will be required to repair buildings erected subsequent to the grant of the
lease wiU depend largely upon the wording of the covenant. Responsibility
for repair of fire damage will normally be covered by insurance provisions in
the lease. These will prescribe who is to insure and for what amount ,
production of receipts for premiums, and an undertaking to expend any sum
received from the insurance in rebuilding.
Painting presents a problem in classification since it can serve two
purposes. It may be undertaken to preserve woodwork and metalwork from
decay and thus be classed as repair, or it may be used solely for purposes of
decoration to improve appearance and comfort. Some painting will serve
both purposes and is termed 'decorative repair' . Leases commonly contain a
covenant requiring the tenant 'in every third year to paint all outside
woodwork and metalwork with two coats of suitable oil colours in a
workmanlike manner . . . and in every sixth year paint other outside works,
now or usually painted , all internal woodwork and metalwork .. . and also
paint with two coats of emulsion paint, such parts of the said premises as are
now plastered'. In practice it is better to state the particular years in which
the work is to be done and to provide for it to be undertaken in the last year
of the term . Where the covenant is not specific and the tenant is liable for
repairs, he must paint as necessary to preserve woodwork and metalwork
from decay.
Preparing Schedules of Dilapidations

A surveyor who is instructed to prepare a schedule of dilapidations will first
examine all the relevant documents and particularly the repairing covenants
in the lease to establish the extent of the lessee's obligations. He will then
inspect the premises and compile a list of defects and also take measure-
ments to build up an estimate of the probable cost of repairs where the lease
is about to expire. The schedule of dilapidations is then prepared and served
on the lessee by a solicitor. The schedule must contain the location of the
property, the date of inspection and the name and address of the person
preparing it. A RICS guidance note 27 describes how the schedule should
clearly and concisely list the defects and the necessary repairs .
Schedules of dilapidations are of two kinds.
(1) Interim schedules served during the currency of a lease with a
notice to repair, the object being to enforce a right of entry or forfeiture if
the tenant fails to carry out repairs.
(2) Terminal schedules prepared towards the end of a lease which form
the basis for a monetary claim against the tenant for his breach of covenant
to keep and leave in repair.
In the first case the surveyor prepares a list of defects for which the tenant
is liable under the repairing covenant and which he is required to repair and
make good. In the second case the surveyor prepares a schedule of claim,
containing the quantities and cost of each item, in addition to a list of
defects. The schedule of claim is not produced unless required by an order of
court or for some special reason. A schedule of dilapidations and a schedule
of claim are included later in the chapter under Proofs of Evidence . A Scott
schedule may be prepared for negotiation purposes as illustrated in Building
Surveys , Reports and DilapidationsI"
The inspection of the premises should be carried out in a methodical
manner to avoid the omission of items and to make it easier for other
persons to work through and check the schedule. Most surveyors start with
the interior of the building on the uppermost floor, commencing with the
rooms at the front of the building. One means of identification of the rooms
is to describe them as front room right, front room middle and front room
left, the handing taken from a position looking out of the windows. The
same procedure.. is adopted for the rear; thus the front room right is on the
same side of the house as the back room left.
In each room a logical sequence of items should be followed such as
ceiling, cornice, frieze, walls, wood trim, doors, windows, fireplace, fittings,
floor and electrical installation, with all defects carefully noted, even
down to the extent of cracks. When examining doors and windows, the
ironmongery should receive special attention, doors checked to see whether
they close properly and whether windows can be opened and closed. The
investigation of the interior is completed with the inspection of the staircase,
corridors, lobbies, porches and cupboards. The exterior then follows, taking
each elevation in turn and bearing in mind that some roof areas may be out
of sight. Finally outbuildings, fences, paved areas and drainage work are
inspected. The underlying causes of defects must be identified in all cases.
Schedules of Condition
A schedule of condition is a report on the condition of a property at a
specified date, set out in sufficient detail so that any part of the structure,
finishings or fittings which subsequently becomes defective or missingcan be
readily identified. It is good practice for both parties to a lease to.have a
professionally prepared and jointly agreed schedule of condition of the
property at the commencement of the lease to prevent subsequent disputes.
They are often prepared in the form of abridged specifications as illustrated
in Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapidations. 26
Technical Reports
Nature of Reports
Surveyors are often instructed by property owners or prospective purchasers
to. inspect and report on the condition of property. The report should
contain all the relevant technical information set out in an orderly manner in
terms that can be understood by a layman.
The basic requirements of a good report are as follows.
(1) Accuracy-a report must be accurate in all respects as errors or
vague statements will detract considerably from the value and credibility of
the report.
(2) Simplicity-freedom from technical terms as far as practicable, and
where used they need explaining.
(3) Clarity-presentation and arrangement of information should be in
a logical order with sufficient headings and sub-headings to act as signposts.
Each paragraph should be complete in itself and yet so related as to lead to
an ultimate conclusion through a series of steps.
(4) Systematic approach-reports normally comprise three component
parts: (a) introduction often containing client's brief or object of report; (b)
main body of report or recital of facts, including a full description of
conditions as they exist; (c) conclusions and recommendations, often
including an estimate of cost of remedial works.
(5) Conciseness and completeness-the report should cover all matters
coming within its scope, yet should be kept as concise as possible.
(6) Good grammar and correct spelling.
(7) Neatness-reports should be clear and legible, particularly in
examinations, and be free from abbreviations and contradictions.
(8) Certainty-advice and opinions should be definite or the reasons
for any uncertainty stated (a saving clause is advisable to cover hidden
parts).
(9) Recommendations-advice as to action to be taken.
Reports on the Structural and Sanitary Condition of Property

This type of report may be required by a prospective purchaser of a property
or by an owner to determine the extent of maintenance and repair work.
Such a report might include the following matters.
(1) Situation-situation and general details of property.
(2) Accommodation-particulars and sizes of rooms .
(3) Construct ion--details of construction and materials used.
(4) Repairs--defects and repairs needed.
(5) Services-particulars of gas, electricity and water services.
(6) Heating and hot water-form and adequacy of heating and hot
water supply.
(7) Drainage-adequacy and condition of drainage system.
(8) Estimate-probable cost of essential repairs and redecorations.
A ~ood example is contained in Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapida-
tions. 6
Report on a Building Defect

Background information. A substantially brick-built house has a parapet
supporting a lead parapet gutter to a tiled roof. The owner of the property,
who is responsible for repairs, has requested a report on the tenant's
complaint that rain has caused a damp ceiling in the front bedroom. The
report is incorporated in a letter to the client.
Report
J. P. Isaacs, Esq. 15 September 1987
Homeland
Little Rising
Lincolnshire
Dampness at 28 Willow Way, Marchby
Dear Sir
Cause of complaint
Following the complaint of dampness in the front bedroom of this house, I
examined the parapet wall, gutter and adjoining roof on 14 September 1987
and found them to be soundly constructed . Several defects have however
developed which have resulted in rainwater penetrating the front bedroom
ceiling. These defects are as follows.
(1) A length of lead flashing forming the junction between the parapet
wall and the lead gutter has come away from the wall, thus permitting
rainwater to pass down the inner face of the wall at this point.
(2) A length of lead gutter covering has been damaged by some sharp
object being forced through the lead, possibly the feet of a ladder.
(3) The gutter has become badly choked with decaying leaves and
other debris, causing water to build up in the gutter and ultimately flow over
the top edge of the lead covering to the gutter, where it passes up the tiled
roof slope. The position has been aggravated because the lead gutter
covering does not extend as far up the roof slope as is really desirable, nor is
it dressed over a tilting fillet (triangular piece of timber) below the bottom
course of tiling, which would have produced a much sounder job.
Remedial works
I recommend that the following remedial works be carried out by a selected
builder
(1) Hack out the brick joints and rewedge and repoint the loose length
of lead flashing.
(2) Replace the defective length of lead gutter covering.
(3) Clear all debris from the gutter.
It is not considered necessary to replace the lead gutter covering with
wider sheets or to fit a timber tilting fillet, provided the gutter is cleaned out
regularly, preferably annually.
The estimated cost of carrying out the repair work to the parapet gutter is
£110.
Additionally, the decorations to the ceiling of the front bedroom are badly
discoloured and need redecorating with two coats of emulsion paint, after
the external repairs have been carried out and the plasterboard ceiling has
adequately dried out.
The estimated cost of the redecorations is £45 .
C. T. Arrowsmith
Chartered Surveyor
Proofs of Evidence
Expert Witnesses
When a building dispute arises it may be settled by an action in the courts or
by arbitration. The parties in dispute may employ legal advisers (counsel)
who will prepare evidence and argue their case before the tribunal. On
matters of a technical nature, the assistance of an expert witness may be
required, and with building disputes this could be a surveyor. An expert
witness is not restricted to givingstatements of fact and can explain technical
matters and also express an opinion, if requested, based upon his special
knowledge and experience.
Counsel will need to know the technical arguments and how they are to be
presented and developed. Hence the expert witness prepares a document,
termed a proof of evidence, for the benefit and use of counsel when arguing
the case. The contents of the proof of evidence are copied into the counsel's
brief and the expert witness will subsequently be questioned and cross-
examined upon it.
Preparation of Proofs of Evidence

A proof of evidence must contain a concise statement of facts and a logical
statement of the line of argument . It is usually typed in double spacing on
A3 size paper, folded down the centre, with a margin on the left to take
notes, additions or corrections inserted by counsel. Paragraphs are usually
referenced by numbering and valuations, schedules and other exhibits are
generally inserted at the end of the proof. Words with special significance
may be underlined to catch the eye of counsel.
A proof of evidence contains a suitable title, name and qualifications of
the expert witness, subject of reference, particulars of surveyor inspection ,
evidence--giving findings of expert witness and presenting and developing
arguments, and finally the conclusions.
Specimen Proof of Evidence, incorporating a Schedule of Dilapidations

Background information. Mr P. J. Beddington was a tenant occupying
premises at 12 Norfolk Street, Haverton, Hampshire, for 21 years under a
lease dated 21 March 1966. The tenancy agreement included a covenant to
keep and leave the house and grounds in good and tenantable repair and
condition, fair wear and tear excepted. The landlord, Homeville Enterprises
Ltd, submitted to Mr Beddington a schedule of dilapidations six weeks prior
to the expiration of the lease. The tenant disputed the schedule, refused to
comply with it and instructed a solicitor to contest it. The landlord has
commenced legal proceedings and a surveyor, Mr Ronald Sharpe, has been
instructed to prepare a proof of evidence incorporating the schedule of
dilapidations and a schedule of claim for damages for breach of the repairing
covenant.
Proof of Evidence
Homeville Enterprises v. Peter John Beddington
Claim for damages for breach of repairing covenant in respect of
lease of 12 Norfolk Street, Haverton, Hampshire.
RONALD SHARPE
will say
Qualifications
(1) I am a Fellow of the Royal Institution of Chartered
Surveyors in practice on my own account at 53 High Street,
Haverton. I have had thirty-two years' experience in the profession
of a surveyor and have undertaken a large amount of work involving
dilapidations throughout this period.
Subject of appeal
EXH 1 (2) I produce the lease of 12 Norfolk Street, Haverton, granted
by the plaintiff to the defendant for a term of twenty-one years from
21 March 1966. (Note: EXH refers to exhibit)
(3) EXH 1 repairing covenant
The lessee agrees at all times during the said term to keep the
premises, including all fixtures and additions, in good and tenant-
able repair and condition and to deliver up the same in such good
and tenantable repair and condition to the lessor at the expiration or
sooner determination of the said term.
EXH 2 (4) I produce a schedule of dilapidations EXH 2 and a
EXH 3 schedule of claim EXH 3 signed by the plaintiff's agent, showing the
sum of £6888 as the cost of the items of repair therein set out and
constituting the plaintiff's claim for damages.
(5) The defendant was presented with the schedule of dilapida-
tions EXH 2 six weeks before the expiration of the lease. None of
the repairs listed in the schedule has been carried out.
(6) The plaintiff claims damages for breach of covenant to
keep the premises in repair in accordance with the terms of the lease
EXH 1. The basis of the claim is exhibit EXH 3 (schedule of claim).
Inspections
(7) I inspected the premises on 4 February 1987, 12 March
1987 and 22 April 1987.
(8) I have examined the lease of the property directing special
attention to the repairing covenant and I consider that the schedule
of dilapidations EXH 2 has been prepared in strict accordance with
the terms of the lease.
Evidence of dilapidations
(9) The repair of the property has been neglected for a
considerable time and I could find no evidence of any recent repairs

to the premises. I submit that the. want of repairs listed in the
schedule of dilapidations EXH2 is evidence that the defendant has
not carried out his obligations under the repairing covenant EXH 1.
EXH 2 (10) Schedule of dilapidations
A. No decorations have been carried out for a number of years
and certainly not within the last year of the lease as required by the
repairing covenant. The wallpaper in the hall and lounge is badly
discoloured and disfigured. The paintwork to plastered walls and
ceilings elsewhere is also badly discoloured. Paintwork to wood-
work both inside and out has deteriorated badly, with bare wood
showing in a number of places.
B. Rainwater gutters and downpipes are rusting badly with
some cracked sections and leaking joints, causing damp brickwork
and the growth of algae.
e. Putties to windowson the south and west sides of the house
have perished and there are several cracked paries of glass.
D. Twenty roofing tiles are missing from the south and west
roof slopes, permitting some rainwater penetration into the roof
space.
E. Pointing to extensive areas of brickwork on the south wall
of the house has perished.
F. The we pan in the bathroom is cracked and the flushing
mechanism is defective.
G. Two inspection chamber covers are badly cracked and
corroded.
H. The close boarded fence on the southern boundary is badly
decayed and in a state of collapse.
EXH 3 (11) EXH Schedule' of claim

A. Prepare plas'iered walls and ceilings and apply two
coats of emulsion pai'lt £
walls 550 m <p £3.90 2145.00
ceilings 160 m @ £4.80 768.00
Strip off e~isting wallpaper and replace with new
80 m @£4.70 376.00
Rub down woodwork, touch up with primer and apply
three coats of oil paint
90 m2 @ £7.«J 684.00
B. Take down defective rainwater gutters and pipes
and replace with new
gutters 30 m @ £11.80 354.00
downpipes 15 m @ £17.00 255.00
Prepare, prime and paint gutters and pipes with three coats
of oil paint 60 m @ £3.80 228.00
Remove algae growth from brickwork 6 m2 @ £2.50 15.00
C. Rake out defective putties to windows and replace
with new
40 m @ £3.80 152.00
Hack out cracked glass and reglaze

8 m l @ £19.50 156.00
D. Replace missing roofing tiles

20 @ £5.60 112.00
E. Rake out joints of brickwork and repaint
70 m2 @ £10.00 700.00
F. Replace we suite 145.00
G. Replace two inspection chamber
covers @ £80 160.00
H. Replace decayed close-boarded fence
22 m @ £29.00 638.00
£6888.00
(12) The estimate of £6888 is based on current prices.

Date: 7 May 1987 Signed Ronald Sharpe
References
1 D. A . Kirby. The maintenance of pre-war council dwellings. Housing
and Planning Review (January/February 1972)
2 English House Condition Survey. HMSO (1981)
3 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Housing: The Next Decade
(1986)
4 New Earswick General Improvement Area No. 1. The Architects'
Journal (30 January 1974)
5 J . H. Cheetham. New homes from old-some typical schemes. Build-
ing Trades Journal (9 September 1966)
6 J. A. Foreman. Conversions-bedroom into ? bathroom. Building
Trades Journal (3 May 1968)
7 J . H. Cheetham. New homes from old-houses into flats. Building
Trades Journal (23 September 1966)
8 J. Benson, B. Evans , P. Colomb and G. Jones. The Housing Rehabili-
tation Handbook. Architectural Press (1980)
9 1985 Physical and Social Survey of Houses in Multiple Occupation in
England and Wales. HMSO (1987)
10 J. H. Cheetham. New homes from old-specialised schemes. Building
Trades Journal (30 September 1966)
11 A. Edgar. Rehabilitation standards . Housing Review (July/August
1975)
12 S. Cantacuzino and S. Brandt. Saving Old Buildings. Architectural
Press (1980)
13 J. H. Banton. Management of Modernisation. CIOB Site Management
Information Service (1980)
14 H. Crowter. Housing modernisation: a trap for councils. Chartered
Quantity Surveyor (May 1984)
15 DOE, DHSS and Welsh Office. Circular 59n8. Adaptations of Housing
for People who are Physically-handicapped. HMSO (1978)
16 T. Lockhart. Housing Adaptations for Disabled People. Architectural
Press (1981)
17 A. Arden. Housing Act 1985. Sweet and Maxwell (1986)

18 C. J. Wright. Housing Improvement and Repair. Sweet and Maxwell
(1986)
19 DOE. Cmnd. 5280. Widening the Choice: The Next Steps in Housing.
HMSO (1973)
20 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Rehabilitation of Houses and
Other Buildings (1973)
21 DOE. Good Practice in Area Improvement. HMSO (1984)
22 I. H. Seeley. Building Economics. Macmillan (1983)
23 DOE. Cmnd. 5339. Better Homes: The Next Priorities. HMSO (1973)
24 L. Needleman. Rebuilding or renovation? A reply. Urban Studies 5.1
(1968)
25 B. Kilroy. Housing-the rehabilitation v. redevelopment seesaw-the
effect of high land prices. Local Government Finance (April 1973)
26 I. H. Seeley. Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapidations. Macmillan
(1985)
27 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Building Surveyors Guidance
Note: Dilapidations (1983)
8SPECIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE WORK
The specification forms an extremely important document on building

maintenance, conversion and improvement contracts, as it constitutes a
schedule of instructions to the contractor and prescribes the materials and
workmanship requirements. When read in conjunction with the contract
drawings, 'and bill of quantities where one is prepared, it provides all the
information that a contractor will need to price the work and carry it out.
In addition, if .often contains general clauses which set out the more
important rights and obligations of the parties to the contract. For larger
contracts, conditions of contract are normally used which prescribe in
considerable detail the general rights, duties and liabilities of parties to
building contracts, and these are described in more detail in chapter 10.
Sources of Information
Information for use in building specificationscan be obtained from a variety
of sources, and the principal sources are now described.
(1) Previous Specifications

In the majority of cases specifications for past contracts are used as a basis in
the preparation of a new specification for a contract of similar type. This
procedure speeds up the task of specification writing considerably, but care
must be taken to bring the specification clauses up to date by the incorpora-
tion of latest developments, techniques, materials and components. It is also
necessary to be constantly on the alert for any changes of specification
needed to cope with differences of design, construction or site conditions, as
few contracts are really identical. Care must be taken to omit details which
are not applicable and to insert information on additional features.
(2) Drawings
The contract drawings must form the basis of any specification as they show
the nature and scope of the work and frequently contain a great deal of
241
descriptive information. A close examination of the drawings will indicate

the matters that are to be covered in the specification. The drawings will also
distinguish between new and existing work.
(3) Employer's Requirements

The employer may prescribe certain requirements in connection with the
work and these will probably need to be included in the specification.
Typical requirements of this kind are programming of the works to provide
for completion of certain sections at specified dates and the taking of various
precautions to minimise interference with productive processes in the
employer's existing premises. It is essential that requirements of this kind
are brought to the notice of the contractor, as they may quite easily result in
increased costs.
(4) Site Conditions

With extensions to existing buildings, it is necessary to obtain information
on soil conditions, groundwater level and the extent of site clearance work.
With alteration work, full details of the existing construction are needed to
specify the full nature and extent of the new work . The contractor should be
supplied with the fuIlest information available , to reduce to a minimum the
risks that he must take and the number of uncertain factors for which he
must make aIlowance in his tender.
(5) British Standards

British Standards are issued by the British Standards Institution, an
organisation recognised by the government and industry as the sole body
responsible for the preparation of national standards. The institution has a
general council which controls a number of divisional councils, one of which
is concerned with building, and in addition there are many industry
standards committees. These committees are largely responsible for develop-
ing industrial standardisation as they decide the subjects of new standards
and their scope, and approve the draft standards which are prepared by the
various technical committees. The technical committees are made up of
experts on the subject of the particular standard and consist of representa-
tives of the user, producer, research and other interests.
Thousands of British Standards have now been prepared covering a wide
range of subjects. Furthermore, they are kept constantly under review in
order that they shaIl be kept up to date and abreast of progress . They have
proved to be an efficient means whereby the results of research can be made
available to industry in practical form.
These standards lay down the recognised minimum standards of quality
for materials and components and also define the dimensions and tests to
which they must conform. British Standards are of great value in the drafting
of specifications as they reduce considerably the amount of descriptive work
Specification of Maintenance Work 243
that is required. At the same time they ensure the use of a good-quality
product and generally meet the 'deemed to satisfy' requirements of the
Building Regulations. The standards incorporate the most searching require-
ments that the latest stage of technical development and knowledge can
produce.
Manufacturers and contractors are intimately involved with British Stan-
dards and thus can reasonably be expected to have a fair knowledge of the
contents of appropriate standards. They will be generally freed from the
necessity to examine carefully lengthy specification clauses relating to
materials and components. It is however often necessary to specify the class
or grade required where a British Standard incorporates classes or grades.
For instance BS 3921 recognises two classes of engineering bricks (classes A
and B).
A selection of some of the most common British Standards covering
building materials and components used in maintenance work follows.
BS 4 Structural steel sections

BS 12 Portland cement
BS 65 Vitrified clay pipes, fittings and joints
BS 402 Clay plain roofing tiles and fittings
BS 416 Cast iron spigot and socket soil, waste and ventilating pipes and
fittings
BS 417 Galvanised mild steel cisterns and covers, tanks and cylinders
BS 437 Cast iron spigot and socket drainpipes and fittings
BS 459 Doors
BS 460 Cast iron rainwater goods
BS 473 and 550 Concrete roofing tiles and fittings
BS 497 Manhole covers, road gully gratings and frames for drainage
purposes
BS 544 Linseed oil putty for use in wooden frames
BS 585 Wood stairs
BS 644 Wood windows
BS 680 Roofing slates
BS 699 Copper direct cylinders for domestic purposes
BS 743 Materials for damp-proof courses
BS 747 Roofing felts
BS 882 Aggregates from natural sources for concrete
BS 890 Building limes
BS 913 Wood preservation by means of pressure creosoting
BS 952 Glass for glazing
BS 988 Mastic asphalt for building (limestone aggregate)
BS 10tO Draw-off taps and stopvalves for water services (screwdown
pattern)
BS 1125 WC flushing cisterns
BS 1178 Milled lead sheet for building
BS 1181 Clay flue linings and flue terminals
BS 1186 Quality of timber and workmanship in joinery
BS 1188 Ceramic wash basins and pedestals
BS 1189 Cast iron baths for domestic purposes

BS 1191 Gypsum building plasters
BS 1195 Kitchen fitments
BS 1196 Clayware field drain pipes
BS 1197 Concrete flooring tiles and fittings
BS 1198-1200 Building sands
BS 1206 Fireclay sinks
BS 1230 Gypsum plasterboard
BS 1243 Metal ties for cavity wall construction
BS 1244 Metal sinks for domestic purposes
BS 1245 Metal door frames
BS 1286 Clay tiles for flooring
BS 1289 Precast concrete flue blocks for domestic gas appliances
BS 1336 Knotting
BS 1566 Copper indirect cylinders for domestic purposes
BS 1567 Wood door frames and linings
BS 1722 Fences
BS 1881 Methods of testing concrete
BS 2592 Thermoplastic flooring tiles
BS 2760 Pitch-impregnated fibre pipes and fittings
BS 2870 Rolled copper and copper alloys, sheet', strip and foil
BS 2871 Copper and copper alloys: tubes
BS 3260 PVC (vinyl) asbestos floor tiles
BS 3505 Unplasticised PVC pipe for cold water services
BS 3794 Decorative laminated plastics sheet
BS 3921 Clay bricks
BS 3958 Thermal insulating materials
BS 4092 Domestic front entrance gates
BS 4305 Baths for domestic purposes made from cast acrylic sheet
BS 4449 Hot rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete
BS 4483 Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete
BS 4514 Upvc soil and ventilating pipes, fittings and accessories
BS 4576 Upvc rainwater goods
BS 4660 Upvc underground drainpipes and fittings
BS 4756 Ready mixed aluminium priming paints for woodwork
BS 4787 Internal and external wood doorsets, door leaves and frames
BS 4873 Aluminium alloy windows
BS 5224 Masonry cement
BS 5328 Specifying concrete, including ready-mixed concrete
BS 5503 and 5504 WC pans
BS 5803 Thermal insulation for use in pitched roof spaces in dwellings
BS 5872 Locks and latches for doors in buildings
BS 5911 Precast concrete pipes and fittings for drainage and sewerage
BS 6073 Precast concrete masonry units
BS 6340 Shower units
BS 6398 Bitumen damp-proof courses
BS 6431 Ceramic floor and wall tiles
BS 6510 Steel windows, sills, window boards and doors
BS 6515 Polythylene damp-proof courses

BS 6577 Mastic asphalt for building (natural rock asphalt aggregate)
There are nearly 2000 British Standards covering building materials and
components and a number of these are constantly being revised and
amended, whilst at the same time new standards are formulated. The British
Standards Handbook 3, published annually, contains useful summaries of
British Standards for building.
(6) Codes of Practice

Codes of Practice are also issued by the British Standards Institution and
these cover workmanship requirements and methods of carrying out various
classes of work. The following Codes of Practice may be of particular value
when drafting specifications for building maintenance and alteration work.
The more recent codes of practice are given British Standard references, as
shown at the end of the following list.
CP99 Frost precautions for water services

CP 101 Foundations and substructures
CP 102 Protection of buildings against water from the ground
CP 111 Structural recommendations for loadbearing walls
CP 112 The structural use of timber
CP 114 Structural use of reinforced concrete in buildings
CP 143 Sheet roof and wall coverings
CP 144 Roof coverings
CP 151 Doors and windows, including frames and linings
CP 153 Windows and rootlights
CP 201 Flooring of wood and wood products
CP202 Tile flooring and slab flooring
CP203 Sheet and tile flooring
CP204 In-situ floor finishes
CP209 Care and maintenance of floor surfaces
CP 310 Water supply
CP 312 Plastics pipework
BS 5234 Internal non-loadbearing partitions
BS 5262 External rendered finishes
BS 5268 Structural use of timber
BS 5385 Wall tiling
BS 5395 Stairs, ladders and walkways
BS 5449 Central heating for domestic purposes
BS 5492 Internal plastering
BS 5516 Patent glazing
BS 5534 Slating and tiling
BS 5512 Sanitary pipework
BS 5589 Preservation of timber
BS 5618 Thermal insulation of cavity walls
BS 5628 Structural use of masonry
BS 6150 Painting of buildings

BS 6229 Flat roofs
BS 6262 Glazing for buildings
BS 6297 Design and installation of small sewage treatment works and
cesspools
BS 6367 Drainage of roofs and paved areas
BS 6465 Sanitary installations
BS 8110 Structural use of concrete
BS 8301 Building drainage
(7) Agrement Certificates

Since the early 1960s the building industry has become increasingly involved
in the use and development of a perplexing array of new materials, products
and associated techniques. The proliferation of unfamiliar and novel pro-
ducts makes evaluation and selection an increasingly difficult process. The
situation is further aggravated by the establishment of firms with little or no
experience of building, producing materials or products that have been
developed without a detailed knowledge of required performance standards
or guidance on actual conditions in use. Nevertheless, the pace of develop-
ment dictates that some products and processes will need to be used before
they have been proved over long periods.
To overcome this problem, the Agrement Board was established by the
government in 1966to investigate new materials, products, components and
processes and new uses of established products, and to issue certificates of
worthiness where appropriate. The Board has established a close working
relationship with the European Union and is contributing to the develop-
ment of common methods of assessment and standards of performance and
testing. At the same time, membership of the European Union offers the
valuable facility of speedy acceptance among other member countries of
products granted certificates in the United Kingdom.
Since its inception, the Board has issued many hundreds of certificates.
Each of these involvesan assessmentof the product, its performance related to
suitable usage, and devising and carrying out appropriate tests. The samples
tested are deliberately chosen as representing the lowest level. Strict quality
control has to be maintained to ensure that overall production is at least as
good as the tested samples. The certificate contains details about the
proprietary product, the design data appropriate to its use, handling on site
and subsequent maintenance. The certificates issued cover a wide range of
products.
The Department of the Environment notifies local authorities whenever a
certificate is issued and is available for consultation on the standard of the
product under the Building Regulations. Furthermore, the Approved
Documents accompanying the Building Regulations 1985 contain references
to materials and products that are likely to be suitable for the purposes
of the regulations. They mainly refer to materials or products covered by
British Standards or by Agrement certificates. Abstracts of certificates are
available on a subscription basis, together with a regular distribution of

information sheets from the Agrement Board.
The independent safety check in the Agrement system, based on satisfac-
tory performance in use requirements, minimises the risk of damage in use
and subsequent repair, and it ensures compliance with the currently
accepted comfort standards where appropriate. The assessment of durability
introduces one of the more difficult problems with new materials, especially
those for external use . It is now generally accepted that attempts to
accelerate the breakdown of products can be very misleading unless there is
an adequate background of research; the alternative of trying to improve the
accuracy of observation on short-term natural exposures is generally more
satisfying . It seems likely that the realistic prediction limit is in the range of
10 to 20 years without maintenance other than perhaps periodic washing.
The maintenance aspects of the design data on an Agrement Certificate
provide a sound guide to the kind of maintenance which may be needed and
the procedures to be adopted for this work.
(8) Trade Catalogues

Where proprietary articles are specified , reference should be made to the
manufacturers' catalogues for the extraction of the necessary particulars for
inclusion in the specification. It is often advisable to quote the catalogue
reference when an article is produced to a number of different patterns.
This procedure will reduce the length of specification clauses and will
ensure the use of a specific article with which the specification writer is
familiar and in which he has confidence. Some public bodies object to this
practice on the grounds that it restricts the contractor's freedom of choice
and in some cases prevents the use of local products. Furthermore, it may
prevent the contractor from using his regular source of supply and may thus
result in higher prices . 1
(9) Publications
Other publications can be used for reference purposes when compiling a
specification such as booklets issued by trade associations, as for example
the very useful publications of the Cement and Concrete Association. The
annual publication Speclfication' contains a wealth of useful information.
Form of the Specification

When the specification is accompanied by drawings it should amplify, not
repeat and certainly never contradict, the information given on the draw-
ings. The specification should explain the purpose and intent of the drawings
more fully and clearly, so that the two documents when taken together leave
no doubt as to the work to be executed. Most building operations require
both drawings and specification but the specification alone will be adequate
for some works, such as redecorations and repairs.
The specification is a highly technical document and should be written in
technical language using appropriate building terms. In this respect it differs
greatly from a structural or sanitary report prepared for a client, which is
kept as free from technical terms as possible. The architect or surveyor
preparing a specification must have a thorough knowledge of the materials
and forms of construction that he is specifying and must know exactly how
they will be used, in order to draft an entirely satisfactory specification.
A specification should be concise and comprehensive, and avoid duplica-
tion of particulars and the inclusion of vague or ambiguous details .
Excessively long and involved specifications are apt to produce highly priced
tenders. In these circumstances the contractor experiences :difficulty in
assimilating the document and gains the impression that the requirements of
the contract may be more far-reaching than is customary, and so tends to
increase his price accordingly. Similarly where the specification places
unreasonable risks upon the contractor, he is almost certain to increase the
price to safeguard his position.
Building specifications normally start with general clauses or preliminaries
which relate to the contract as a whole and define the contractor's general
liabilities. Typical general clauses are given later in the chapter. The
remainder of a building specification is normally subdivided into trades
or works sections, as detailed in the Standard Method of Measurement
of Building Works,3 and each subsection is frequently subdivided into
materials and workmanship. The customary trades and works sections are
listed in table 8.1 and are not entirely coincident, although significant changes
to work section classifications are anticipated in SMM7.
Table 8.1 Comparison of traditional trades and work sections
Traditional trades Work sections
Demolition
Excavator Excavation and Earthwork
Piling
Concreter Concrete work
Bricklayer Brickwork and Blockwork
Underpinning
Rubble Walling
Mason Masonry
Asphalter Asphalt work
Roofer Roofing
Carpenter and Joiner Woodwork
Steel and Iron Worker Structural Steelwork
Metalwork
Plumber Plumbing and Mechan ical Engineering Installations
Heating and Ventilating Engineer
Electrician Electrical Installations
Plasterer Floor. Wall and Ceiling Finishings
Pavior
Glazier Glazing
Painter Painting and Decorating
Drainlayer Drainage
Fencing
When preparing specifications for works of alteration, conversion and

repair, it is often advantageous to depart from the accepted format
previously described. Each contract needs to be considered separately and
the most logical format adopted . In some cases the natural sequence of work
as executed on the site offers the best approach, in others a room by room
approach or subdivision of the building(s) into specific parts on a locational
basis, or the work may be partly or entirely grouped into trades or work
sections as for new work . Some flexibility in approach is desirable to
accommodate wide variations in the character, scope and extent of the
works.
National Building Specification

The basic concept of the National Building Specification (NBS) first
published by a RIBA company in 1973is to provide a master list of concise
specification clauses from which a specification writer can make his own
choice. It aimed to provide improved documentation, with good technical
content, clarity, flexibility and better documentation in association with
other documents. It is produced in loose leaf form and is continually
updated.
In essence, NBS is a collection of coded standard specification clauses that
describe building materials and building operations. A typical NBS work
section is subdivided into two subsections-commodities and workmanship.
There are 94 work sections, including preliminaries, and within each section
there are a number of clauses which describe the alternative materials used
and others that describe the related alternative operations. Together they
cover a remarkably large number of materials and operations. A column on
the left-hand side of all clauses contains guidance notes of all kinds,
including technical explanations, cross-references to other documents and
commentary on the content of the clauses. The sections have been coded in
accordance with the CI/Sfb system but users have the choice of CIISfb or
SMM sequence. An abridged edition, known as the Small Jobs Version, is
suitable for small contracts using specifications, drawings and/or schedules
of works."
In the introduction it is suggested that NBS should be used to produce
project specifications and also a standard specification for each office. It is
also suggested that most specifiers will begin by checking their existing
specifications against NBS with a view to adopting a NBS standard clause
whenever possible, although there does not seem much evidence of this
procedure being followed in practice and NBS has certainly not been
universally adopted. Doubtless, architects and surveyors would benefit by
comparing their current specification clauses with the corresponding ones in
NBS to identify any deficiencies in the office documents.
The procedure for using NBS is described in the document:
(1) Select the relevant work section, such as bricklblock walling.
(2) Select the materials clauses required and insert additional informa-
tion where necessary.
(3) Delete materials clauses not required.

(4) Insert new materials clauses required to cover any special or
particular items.
(5) Select the relevant workmanship clauses to complement the selected
materials.
(6) Delete workmanship clauses not required; together with any alter-
native or conflicting clauses.
Performance Specifications
A performance specification is a method of defining a component, product
or system not by composition or form, but by the needs of the user which it
must satisfy. Expressed in another way, it states what is needed rather than
how the need shall be met. This concept has been used on a limited scale for
many years; for example, it is customary to specify ventilation plant tobe
operated by a fan with a capacity of x m3tmin, steel may be specified as
having a prescribed yield point and concrete a prescribed strength. Yet no
performance specification has been written for a complete building, except
of the simplest requirements, largely because of the complexity of the
process. The difficulties can be illustrated by reference to the performance
requirements of a window, which would include methods and extent of
opening, type of glazing, cleaning, compatibility of materials and jointing
with adjoining materials, strength related to size and use, long-term
maintenance and appearance. These would need backing up with suitable
means of testing, quality control and subsequent certification.
A BRE paper describes how a performance specification makes
purchasers ' needs explicit by listing essential properties required in a
systematic form-with their values or limit values-and methods of testing
or evaluation. It leaves the supplier and his designer maximum freedom to
innovate in terms of materials, form, method of manufacture and assembly.
In fact, many British Standards for building materials and components
contain a range of specified values coupled with prescribed tests designed to
measure them. Also as described earlier, in order to assess the probable
behaviour of new products in use, the Agrement Board prepares check lists
of performance requirements and methods of assessment and test
(MOATS).
In its simplest form, a performance specification constitutes a shopping
list for choosing already designed products; it is used to establish an
equitable and systematic basis for the choice between available products.
Alternatively, the more common current approach is as a tool for com-
missioning the design of productsfor a specific market.
Not all properties of a component, element or building are physically
quantifiable. Furthermore, a product meeting the basic performance require-
ments may still be unacceptable for other reasons, and these further design
constraints must be listed.
The Building Research Establishment" has shown just how complicated
the preparation of a performance specification for a building can be by
reference to a suggested procedural approach.
(1) Decide on the overall strategy for design of the building and its
parts.
(2) Decide the scope of the performance statement-the range of
contexts in which components will be used and the basic geometry of the
spaces that will be occupied . Any resulting design constraints will then be
identified.
(3) At the appropriate levels, decisions must be made on functional
requirements of the building, its spaces or the packages.
(4) A list of relevant properties should be determined, for instance with
cladding panels it will be necessary to decide whether thermal insulation is
an appropriate property to consider.
(5) The relative importance of desired properties must be assessed and,
where appropriate, weighted.
(6) A decision must be taken as to how the requisite properties are to
be measured-by inspection, calculation or test, and the units of measure-
ment. Possibly a BS test or Agrement MOAT may be appropriate.
(7) The limiting values for each quantifiable property must be con-
sidered. For example, in the case of a window, is the upper limit of air
infiltration to be nil or is some air flow needed for health reasons? At the
other extreme, what should be the greatest permissible leakage under
extreme conditions, representing the lowest quality of performance to be
endured in practice?
(8) Within a single performance specificationit may be beneficial to list
different limits (step levels) in a range of values for different use situations.
(9) A statement must be made about other criteria governing the
acceptance of a design, such as labour content for site erection, contractual
obligations, supply, delivery, storage and other administrative aspects. Cost
is a consideration running through all stages, particularly the later ones.
Drafting or Specifications
Material Descriptions
Considerable care must be exercised in drafting a specification to prepare
clauses which are concise, complete and free from ambiguity. For
instance, when drafting materials clauses it is desirable to adopt some
pre-arranged order of grouping the particulars, to avoid missing an impor-
tant detail. The formulation of a specification description for engineering
bricks in table 8.2 will serve to illustrate the approach.
In practice it would be much move convenient to make reference to
BS 3921for class B engineering bricks. The following alternative methods of
describing materials, or possibly a combination of them, can be used in a
specification .
(1) A full description of the material or component is given with details
of desirable and undesirable properties and appropriate test requirements.
(2) The relevant British Standard reference, together with details of
Table 8.2 Brick criteria

Criteria Requirements
Material Bricks
Type Southwater red Nr 2 engineering bricks
Name of manufacturer or source of supply Messrs X of Y
Prime cost £225 per thousand
Desirable characteristics Well burnt . of uniform shape. size and colour,
and sound and hard
Undesirable characteristics Freedom from cracks, stones. lime and other
deleterious substances
Tests Average compressive strength of not less than
48.5 MN/m2
Average water absorption by weight not
greater than 7 per cent
class or type where appropriate, is given . The contractor can then refer to
the British Standard for fuller information.
(3) The name of the manufacturer, proprietary brand or source of
supply is stated and the contractor can obtain further particulars from the
manufacturer or supplier.
(4) A brief description of the material is given together with the prime
cost for supply and delivery of a certain quantity of the material to the site.
Typical quantities are a thousand bricks, a cubic metre of sand, a tonne of
cement and 5 litres of paint, and these normally represent the units in which
the materials are sold. This latter method ensures that all contractors are
tendering on the same basis, without the need to obtain quotations from
manufacturers or suppliers. It also permits the client to defer the choice of
the material if he so wishes.
A voidance of Unsatisfactory Descriptions

In practice, use is often made of a number of wide and embracing terms
which are not sufficiently precise in their meaning and can be interpreted in
different ways. This leads to inconsistencies in pricing with consequent
undesirable effects. Some examples of undesirable terms follow.
(1) The word 'best' is widely used in specifications, where best-quality
materials or workmanship are obviously not required. If this term is
frequently and loosely used throughout the specification, without any real
regard to its true intent and meaning, then the contractor will be tempted to
disregard it. It is important to prevent this happening by using the term only
when materials and workmanship of the highest quality are required.
Materials are frequently produced in a number of grades and it is essential
that a clear indication is given of the particular grade required. For instance,
it would be pointless and costly to specify British Standard normal quality
vitrified clay pipes for surface water drains when an appropriate British
Standard Surface Water classification exists in BS 65.
(2) The word 'proper' is also frequently misapplied, particularly in

descriptions of constructional methods. As a general rule it is far more
satisfactory to include full instructions in the specification, and so leave the
contractor in no doubt as to the actual requirements of the contract. With
minor items of work a comprehensive description of the method of
construction may not be essential and in these circumstances the use of the
word 'proper' may be acceptable.
(3) The term 'or other approved' usually represents an undesirable
feature in any specification, as it introduces an element of uncertainty. The
contractor cannot be sure whether the materials or components which he has
in mind will subsequently prove acceptable to the architect or surveyor. All
specification requirements should be clear and certain in their meaning and
be entirely free from doubt or ambiguity.
(4) The term 'as specified' is often used without specifying anything.
Workmanship Clauses
Specification clauses covering constructional work and workmanship require-
ments are generally drafted in the imperative, for instance 'lay manhole
bases in concrete, class B, 225 mm thick', or alternatively 'The contractor
shall lay . . .'. All workmanship clauses should give a clear and concise
description .of the character and extent of the work involved .
The sequence of clauses within a section will normally follow the order of
constructional operations on the site . This procedure reduces the possibility
of omission of items from the specification and assists the contractor in
working to its requirements on the site. The specification writer must avoid
specifying standards of workmanship which are completely out of keeping
with the class of work involved . He may need to choose between repair,
replacement and cleaning.
Typical Specification Clauses (Alterations and Repairs)

Title
The title could be produced in the following format.
SPECIFICAnON
of
works to be executed and materials to be used in alterations and repairs to
Nr 24 Baxter's Close, Pendlebury for Mr P. T. Johnson under the direction
and to the reasonable satisfaction of:
J. T. Hanbury, FRICS
52, High Street
Pendlebury
Date .
Preliminaries
The materials and workmanship requirements of the specification will be
preceded by preliminaries or general clauses and some typical clauses
follow. In specifications for alteration and repair work, the materials and
workmanship requirements are often scheduled on a locational basis, for
instance room by room, and provision may be made for pricing the
preliminaries items and the works items that follow on the right-hand side of
the specification ,
Tenders 1 Tenders should be submitted not later than . . . on
the form of tender.
Drawing 2 The work consists of alterations and repairs to the
detached house, 24 Baxter's Close, Pendlebury and
the alterations are shown in Drawing Rl 62.
Visit Site 3 The contractor is advised to visit the site and
familiarise himself with working conditions, access
to and general extent of the works.
Conditions of 4 The form of contract shall be the JCf Agreement
Contract for Minor Building Works, 1985. The contractor
shall make allowance in "his tender for complying
with these conditions.
The defects liability period shall be six months
from the date of certified practical completion.
Insurance against injury to persons and property
shall provide cover for up to £30 000 for anyone
incident, the number of incidents for which cover is
provided being unlimited.
Interim certificates will be issued monthly with a
retention of 5 per cent.
The period of final measurement and valuation
shall be three months from the date of practical
completion.
The tender is to be firm price and no fluctuations
will be permitted for increased costs of labour,
materials, plant, and other components and services.
Materials and 5 Materials, components and workmanship shall be
Workmanship of good quality and in accordance with the British
Standards and Codes of Practice prescribed.
Extent of Works 6 The contractor shall do everything necessary for
the proper execution of the works, whether or not
shown on the drawing or described in the specifica-
tion, provided it may be reasonably inferred.
Figured Dimensions 7 Figured dimensions shall be followed in preference
to scaled dimensions and particulars shall be taken
from the actual work where possible.
Setting Out, Notices, 8 The contractor shall be responsible for the correct
Fees and Compliance setting out of the works. He shall give all necessary
with Regulations notices to local and service authorities, pay all
appropriate fees and charges, and carry out all

work in compliance with the Building Regulations.
Nominated Suppliers 9 The contractor shall allow for all expenses in
connection with the unloading, storing and return
of packings of materials and components, including
those listed under prime cost items.
Care of the Works 10 The contractor shall take reasonable care of the
existing premises and of all new work and shall
take steps to reduce interference with the occu-
pants of the building to a minimum. The contractor
shall be responsible for any damage arising from
the weather, carelessness of workmen, loss, theft
or other cause, and shall make good such damage
or loss at his own expense.
Attendance 11 The contractor shall allow for the general attend-
ance of one trade upon another.
Screens and 12 The contractor shall provide all necessary screens,
Hoardings hoardings and similar protective devices for the
benefit of the occupants and adjoining properties.
Clearing Away 13 The contractor shall remove all temporary works,
rubbish, debris and surplus materials from the site
as they accumulate and at completion; and shall
clean all surfaces internally and externally, remove
stains and touch up paintwork, dry out the new
works as necessary, and leave the works clean and
to the reasonable satisfaction of the surveyor.
Contingency Sum 14 Allow the provisional sum of £500 to cover any
unforeseen contingencies. This sum is to be ex-
pended in part or in whole at the discretion of the
surveyor.
Acceptance of 15 The employer does not bind himself to accept the
Tenders lowest or any other tender .
Materials
Cement 16 The cement shall comply with BS 12, be delivered
in the original sealed bags of the manufacturer, be
stored in a proper manner to avoid deterioration
and used in correct sequence.
Aggregate 17 The fine aggregate shall comply with BS 882 and
shall consist of well-graded coarse sand mainly
passing a 5 mm test sieve. The coarse aggregate
shall also comply with BS 882 and shall consist of
natural gravel, crushed gravel or crushed stone ,
well graded with a maximum size of 20 mm.
Concrete 18 Concrete for foundations shall consist of 1 part
Portland cement, 3 parts sand and 6 parts coarse
aggregate, all measuted by volume.
Concrete for new floors, paved areas and lintels

shall be 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand and 4
parts coarse aggregate, all measured by volume.
Mixingshall be carried out in an approved batch
type mixer and shall continue until there is a
uniform distribution of materials and the mix is
uniform in colour and consistency.
Bricks and Blocks 19 Facing bricks shall be 65 mm Himley mixed russet
wirecut facing bricks, extending to at least 75 mm
below ground level. Other brickwork below
ground and inner leaves of cavity walls below
damp-proof course shall be common bricks to
BS 3921. Precast concrete blocks for the inner leaf
of cavity walls and internal partition'S shall be
Thermalite, Celcon or other approved complyinj
with BS 6073,with a density of less than 1500 kg/m .
Wall Ties 20 Metal wall ties for use in cavity walls shall be of
mild steel coated with zinc of the butterfly type
complying with BS 1243.
Lime 21 Lime shall be non-hydraulic or semi-hydraulic lime
complying with BS 890.
Mortar 22 Mortar used below damp-proof course shall consist
of one part of Portland cement, one half part of
lime and four and a half parts of sand (1:t.4t) by
volume. In all brickwork and blockwork above
damp course the mortar shall be 1:1:6.
Damp-proof Course 23 The damp-proof course shall be of bitumen sheet
with hessian base and lead complying with BS 743,
type D, lapped at least 75 mm at angles and joints
and laid on a level bed of cement-lime mortar
(1+4+> and neatly pointed where exposed.
Timber 24 All hardwood and softwood shall comply with
BS 1186. Where timber is to be primed it shall be
coated with a thick mixture of red or white lead and
linseed oil. The moisture content of the timber
used for internal joinery shall not exceed 10 per
cent and that used for external doors and frames
shall not exceed 17 per cent when the joinery is
delivered to the site, and these moisture contents
are to be maintained until the work is complete.
Carpentry timber shall be supplied and fixed to the
lengths and sizes shown on the drawing, be clean,
straight and reasonably free from knots and shakes.
Plasterboard for 25 Ceilingsshall be formed with 12.5 mm gypsum lath
Ceilings plasterboard, of gyproc lath or other approved
type, faced with aluminium foil on its upper face in
accordance with BS 1230, and fixed with 40 mm
galvanised clout headed nails to underside of soft-
wood joists, to give a true plane surface. Nail each

lath to every support using not less than 4 nails
equally spaced across the width and driven no
closer than 13 mm from its edges. The laths shall
be finished with one coat of neat gypsum plaster to
a thickness of 5 mm.
Plaster for Walls 26 Plastered walls and reveals to openings shall be
finished with two coats of plaster . The floating coat
shall consist of Carlite high suction browning
plaster, complying with BS 1191, Part 2, 11 mm
thick, ruled to an even surface and lightlyscratched
to form a key for the finishing coat. The finishing
coat shall be Carlite finish plaster, 2 mm thick,
and trowelled to a smooth surface. All plaster shall
be supplied by British Gypsum Limited, and used
in accordance with the manufacturer's printed
instructions.
Glazed Wall Tiling 27 The wall tiles shall be 152 x 152 x 5 mm glazed
ceramic tiles of low porosity and of thick glaze of
selected colours and from an approved manufac-
turer. The tiles shall be close jointed with an
approved resilient adhesive with 6 mm expansion
joints at the corners. Provide plastic trim at top
edges, external angles, sills and reveals.
Paints 28 All paints shall be supplied by Messrs Berger,
I.C.I. or other approved manufacturer. The mater-
ials shall be used strictly in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. Paint shall be applied
to woodwork and metalwork in three coats; two
undercoats and a gloss finishing coat of approved
colours. Wall and ceiling surfaces shall be painted
with two coats of emulsion paint.
Glass and Putty 29 All glass is to be to BS 952 of British manufacture
and be free from defects. The putty for glazing to
timber frames to be to BS 544 and to metal frames
to be of approved manufacture.
Paintwork
Painting 30 Knot, prime, stop'and rub down all new woodwork
before painting. Burn off and rub down existing
painted wood surfaces preparatory to repainting
as for new work. Wash down existing walls, clean
off old paint finishes, cut out and fill cracks
and rub down existing plastered surfaces before
redecorating.
No painting or other decorations shall be com-
menced before all other work has been inspected
and approved by the surveyor. Pull out all old
nails, screws, hooks and other obstructions from

walls, ceilings and woodwork, and make good to
surfaces.
Living Room
Floor 31 Lift existing tile floor and hack up brick sub-floor
and lime concrete base. Take out soil to average
depth of 75 mm and lay and consolidate 150 mm
bed of hardcore consisting of stone rejects blinded
with gravel. Lay on hardcore, 100 mm bed of
concrete, as specified, with a trowel finish. Remove
existing tiled skirting, hack away existing wall
plaster to a height of 300 mm above floor level, and
make good with a cement and sand (1:3) render
coat finished flush with the plaster. Lay tOOO gauge
polythene membrane and 38 rnm cement and sand
(1:3) screed on the concrete bed, and on the screed
lay PVC tiles of ap~roved make, colour and pat-
tern (p.c. £lO.00/m laid).
Supply and fix matching PVC skirting trim,
75 mm high all round room. The PVC tiles and
skirting shall be laid by an approved specialist
flooring sub-contractor.
Cast Iron Rangel 32 Take out existing cast iron range and remove.
Fireplace Supply and install in opening continuous burning
open fire and welded steel back-boiler of approved
design (p.c. £180 complete), build in and form new
connections to existing flue and copper tubing.
Build up front of range opening in 102.5 mm
brickwork. Supply and fix new tiled surround (p.c.
£90) Render and set as necessary to chimney breast
and returns, and make good to old plaster.
Decorations 33 Prepare plastered walls and ceiling as previously
described and decorate with two coats of emulsion
paint. Prepare existing woodwork as previously
described and apply two undercoats and one finish-
ing coat of hard gloss paint to both existing and
new woodwork.
Kitchen
Alterations 34 Take out existing sink, copper and shelving. Cut
out flue stack from copper and seal off with
triangular concrete pad as shown on drawing, and
make good brickwork where disturbed.
Take out existing sash window and stone sill.
Hack off all loose and cracked plaster and rake out
joints of brickwork for replastering.
Take down existing half-brick wall between fuel

store and external we. Brick-up opening to fuel
store. Take out existing we pan and flushing
cistern and seal off existing drain .
New Doors and 35 Form new door openings in rear wall of existing
Windows scullery and in side wall of existing we to give
access to bathroom extension, and build in
150 x 215 mm precast reinforced concrete lintels
and 100 x 75 mm softwood rebated frames to
receive 726 x2040 x 40 mm thick semi-solid flush
doors to BS 4787.
Fit 14 x 45 mm chamfered .architraves in the
positions shown on the drawing. Hang doors from
a pair of 100 mm pressed steel butts and fit mortice
locks and door furniture (p.c. £11 per door) . Make
good to skirtings.
Enlarge side window opening, build in precast
reinforced concrete boot lintel and new steel case-
ment windows to the dimensions and type shown
on the drawing. Form two course tile sill extern-
ally. Glaze windows with 4 mm clear sheet glass.
Render and set to window and door opening
reveals and make good to old plaster.
New Cupboards 36 Build and bond into existing walls 75 mm concrete
block partitions to form new cupboards. Build in
cupboard fronts in accordance with the details
shown on the drawing, and fix timber shelving as
shown. Build in 2 or 215'x 215 mm terra cotta
airbricks to food cupboard in positions shown and
finish internally with 215 x 215 mm fibrous plaster
vents. Render and set block partitions and make
good ceilings. Fit skirtings to new partitions to
match existing.
Gas Water Heater 37 Fit and connect Ascot multi-point water heater
(p.c. £200) and build in asbestos flue outlet.
Sink Unit 38 Install and connect up 1050 x 525 mm stainless
steel combined sink and drainer with cupboard unit
below (p.c, £160).
Decorations 39 Decorate. plastered walls and ceilings and paint
woodwork as for living room.
Bathroom
Extension 40 Build new bathroom extension to the dimensions
shown on the drawing. Excavate over site and
spread soil in back garden. Excavate for and lay
concrete foundations, 550 x 150 mm in section.
Build 255 mm cavity walls of 100 mm insulating
concrete blocks internally and half-brick faced skin

externally tied together with 4 wall ties/nr'. The
face of brickwork, with flush joints, shall be kept
clean and the ties clear of mortar droppings. Seal
the cavity with brickwork and vertical felt d.p.c.
at window opening, and build the walls solid at
eaves. Fill the cavity with 50 mm glass fibre slab
insulation.
Lay 100 mm bed of concrete on hardcore, poly-
thene waterproof membrane and 38 mm cement
and sand (1:3) screed on the concrete bed, and on
the screed lay PVC tiles as for the living room. Lay
a boarded and joisted roof as shown on the drawing
to falls, and finish with three layers of built-up felt
covered with white spar chippings . The roof shall
be insulated with 100 mm fibre glass insulation on
the plasterboard ceiling. Fit fascia board and soffit
boarding to eaves as shown.
Fix cast iron rainwater goods as shown. Build in
metal casement of the dimensions and type shown,
together with boot lintel, tile sill and window
board, and one air brick as for kitchen. Fit
14 x 70 mm chamfered softwood skirting.
Render and set walls and fit plasterboard ceiling
with skim coat as previously specified. Lay two
courses of 150 x 150 mm wall tiles over bath and
wash basin.
Decorate walls and ceilings and paint woodwork
as for living room . Paint external woodwork and
metalwork to match existing . Glaze window with
4 mm patterned glass.
Sanitary Appliances 41 Install and connect up bath , wash basin and we
(p.c. £3(0) in the positions shown on the drawing,
including provision of hot and cold services and
waste pipes.
Electrical Work
Electrical Supply 42 Allow the sum of £280 to cover the provision of
and Fillings three additional socket outlets in kitchen, two
additional socket outlets in living room and lighting
and power circuits and fittings in bathroom, as
shown on drawing. Allow for attendance on electri-
cian and necessary builder's work.
Drainage
Drains 43 Excavate for, backfill as necessary and lay 100 mm
flexible jointed vitrified clayware pipe drains and
fittings to BS 65, to the lines and gradients shown
on the drawing. Foul drains shall be of British

Standard quality and surface water of British Stan-
dard Surface Water quality. Provide vitrified c1ay-
ware back inlet trapped gullies with 150 x 150 mm
galvanised wrought iron hinged flat grating and
frames, set on and surrounded with 150 mm con-
crete. All drains shall be tested with water to the
satisfaction of the local authority .
Inspection Chamber 44 Excavate for, backfill as necessary and construct
inspection chamber in one brick walls in class B
engineering bricks in cement mortar (1:3), 900 x
675 mm internally on a 150 mm concrete base.
Corbel the sides of the chamber to take a coated
cast iron cover and frame , size 600 x 450 mm
complying with BS 497 (grade C-Iight duty-
reference C6-24118).
Note: The installation of a gas fired central heating system including
boiler, piping, radiators, pump and controls could be in the range of £2000
to £2500 (1987 prices).
Speciftcations for New Work

When specifying new building work, including that contained in extensions
to existing buildings like the bathroom extension described earlier, it may be
deemed necessary to prepare much fuller workmanship clauses to ensure a
good standard of work, even although the quantity of work may be quite
small. The following specification clauses for the trade of bricklayer relating
to the work in the bathroom extension are given to show a possible
approach.
Bricklayer
Brickwork and Build the whole of the brickwork and blockwork
Blockwork Generally to the dimensions and heights shown upon the
drawings . Cavity walls are to have a 50 mm cavity
and wall ties are to be provided spaced 900 mm
horizontally and 450 mm vertically and staggered
and with extra ties at reveals and openings; the ties
to be carefully laid so that they do not fall towards
the inner leaf. Keep the cavity clear by lifting
battens or other means, leave openings at the base,
clean out cavity at completion and subsequently
brick up the openings uniformly with the surround-
ing brickwork.
In dry weather the suction rate of the bricks shall
be adjusted by wetting before use and the tops of
walls left exposed shall be wetted before work is

recommenced.
All bricks shall be well-buttered with mortar
before being laid and all joints shall be thoroughly
flushed up as the work proceeds.
Brickwork shall be carried up in a uniform
manner , no one portion being raised more than
900 mm above another at one time. All perpends
and quoins shall be kept strictly true and square
and the whole properly bonded together and kept
level.
No brickwork shall be carried out during frosty
weather without the consent of the surveyor and
subject to his requirements. All brickwork laid
during the day shall, in seasons liable to frost,
be adequately covered up at night with suitable
protective material. Should any brickwork be dam-
aged by frost the brickwork shall, at the discretion
of the surveyor, be pulled down and made good at
the contractor's expense.
Half-brick walls shall be in stretcher bond. Bats
shall not be used except where required for bond .
No four courses shall rise more than 300 mm. Build
cavity walls solid at head of wall as shown on
drawings. Rake out joints of all brickwork which is
to receive plaster.
Concrete blocks shall be jointed in cement-lime
mortar (1:1:6). Construction joints must be formed
at intervals not exceeding 6 m with a 38 mm X
200 mm long galvanised mild steel strip across
joints in alternate courses and with the render and
plaster coat severed.
External Facework Face the brickwork externally with facing bricks as
described, taking care to obtain an even mixed
distribution' of bricks of the various colours (red ,
brown and purple) and to avoid patches of bricks
predominantly of one colour. Joint the bricks with
cement-lime mortar, as described, and point with a
curved recessed joint (bucket handle) as the work
proceeds. Bricks are to be carefully handled to
prevent damage .
All faced work shall be kept perfectly clean and
no rubbing down of brickwork will be allowed.
Scaffold boards shall be turned back during
heavy rain and at night to avoid splashing.
Damp-proofing Layover the whole of the walls, for the full
thickness at a minimum height of 150 mm above
finished ground level and under copings, a bitumen
hessian base and lead damp-proof course as pre-

viously described .
Cover the cavities of hollow walls under wood
sills with bitumen damp-proof course, as described,
200 mm wide.
Build solid the reveals of hollow walls at window
and door openings with brickwork, 100 mm thick
and insert bitumen hessian base and lead vertical
damp-course.
Sundries Cut and fit brickwork and blockwork around waste
pipes; provide all necessary chases for pipes and
conduits; build any oversailing courses that are
required; build in or cut and pin ends of sills
and thresholds; bed plates; bed door and window
frames in cement mortar (1:3) and point in mastic;
secure door and window frames in brickwork with
stout galvanised mild steel ties (six to each opening)
and build in fixing bricks, wherever else required,
for fixing joinery. Cut away as required, and make
good after all trades .
Further Sources of Information

Gardiner? has formulated a systematic approach to the scheduling of works of
building r~air, improvement and conversion, while Bernstein and
Richardson illustrate a logical method of formulating specification clauses
for rehabilitation and conversion work, and useful examples are provided by
Scott."
References
1 I. H. Seeley, Civil Engineering Specification. Macmillan (1976)
2 Specification. Architectural Press, published annually
3 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and Building Employers
Confederation. SMM6: Standard Method of Measurement of Building
Works: sixth edition (1979)
4 A . J . Willis and C . J . Willis. Specification Writing for Architects and
Surveyors. Granada (1983)
5 BRE Current Paper 37/69: Performance Specifications for Building
Components (1969)
6 BRE Report 32. Performance Specifications for Whole Buildings (1983)
7 L. Gardiner. Standard Method of Specifying for Minor Works . Lewis
Brooks (1986)
8 L. Bernstein and A. Richardson. Specification Clauses for Rehabilita-
tion and Conversion Work . Architectural Press (1982)
9 J. J. Scott. Specification Writing: An Introduction . Butterworths (1984)
9MEASUREMENT AND PRICING OF MAINTENANCE WORK
Measurement or Building Work
Historical Background to Measurement

Up to the middle of the nineteenth century it was normal practice to
measure and value the work after completion. This practice gave rise to
various problems as, for instance, when some of the craftsmen's surveyors
made extravagant claims for waste of material in executing the work on the
site, and the architects felt obliged to engage surveyors to contest these
claims.
During the period of the Industrial Revolution there was a large increase
in the volume of building work and general contractors became established
who submitted inclusive estimates covering the work of ail trades. They also
engaged surveyors to prepare bills of quantities on which their estimates
were based. As competitive tendering became more common the general
contractors began to combine to appoint a single surveyor to prepare a bill
of quantities, which all the contractors priced. In addition, the architect on
behalf of the building owner usually appointed a second surveyor, who
collaborated with the surveyor for the contractors in preparing the bill of
quantities, which was used for tendering purposes .
In later years it became the practice to employ one surveyor only who
prepared an accurate bill of quantities, based on the architect's drawings,
which was used for tendering. This surveyor also measured any variations
that arose during the execution of the work. This was the origin of the
present-day independent professional quantity surveyor, who is an expert on
ail matters relating to bUildi~g costs. 1
Purpose of a Bill of Quantities

The bill of quantities is a schedule of all the items of labour and materials
needed to carry out a building contract. Each item is suitably referenced
with a full description of the work and the quantity involved. Rate and
pricing columns are also contained in the bill so that each contractor
tendering can insert prices against each billed item, and the total of all these
prices provides the tender sum.
264
Measurement and Pricing of Maintenance Work 265
If any variations arise in the work, resulting for instance from changes of
design or substitution of alternative materials, the rates in the bill will
normally form the basis for valuing the varied items of work. One of the
primary functions of the bill of quantities is to enable all tenders to be
computed on an identical basis and it invariably forms a contract document.
The main object of preparing a bill of quantities is to determine the cost of
the particular contract, and so everything that is likely to affect cost must be
included. The principles on which such a bill of quantities is to be prepared
are detailed in the Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works.2
For domestic alterations and small extensions, the Code for the Measure-
ment of Building Works in Small Dwellings' is more appropriate.
In the absence of a bill of quantities, each contractor has to prepare his
own bill of quantities, or possibly an abridged version, in the limited amount
of time allowed for tendering. With larger contracts this places a heavy
burden on each contractor and also involves him in additional cost which
must be spread over the contracts in which he is successful.
Bill Preparation
The traditional process of bill preparation can conveniently be broken down
into two main processes--taking-off and working-up.
In taking-off, dimensions are scaled or read from drawings and entered in
a recognised form on specially ruled paper, called 'dimensions paper', as
illustrated in table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Dimensions,paper
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Each page of dimensions paper is split vertically into two identically ruled
parts, each consisting of four columns, which are used for the following
purposes.
Column I-timesing column, in which multiplying figures are entered
where there is more than one of the particular item being measured.
Column 2-dimension column, where the actual dimensions are en-
tered. There may be one, two or three lines of dimensions, depending on
whether it is a length, area or volume.
Column 3--squaring column, where the length, area or volume,
obtained by multiplying together the figures in columns 1 and 2, is recorded,
ready for transfer to the abstract or bill.
Column 4--description column, in which the written description of
each item is entered. The right-hand side of this column is known as waste,
in which preliminary calculations, build-up of lengths, locational references
and other explanatory information can be entered . Abbreviations are used
extensively in writing descriptions at the taking-off stage; a comprehensive
list is given in Building Quantities Explained. t
The dimensions must always be recorded in the order of (1) length, (2)
width or breadth and (3) depth or heightjall taken to two places of decimals
(to nearest 10 mm), although dimensions in waste are taken to three places
of decimals.
Typical entries on dimensions paper are shown in table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Entries on dimensions paper

Explanatory notes
5.78 Exc. topsoil avo ISO dp. Superficial item for stripping
5.48 topsoil from site of small build-
ing
(5.78 m x 5.48 m)
19.50 Exc. fdn. tr, ex 0.30 m wide, Cubic item of foundation trench
0.75 n.e . 1.00 m max. depth, excavation. taken in the depth
0.75 startg. at stripd . lev. stages listed in the Standard Me-
& thod, 19.50 m long x 750 mm
wide x 750 mm deep.
Fillg. previously excvtd. All taken as filling in the
mat. to excavns. first instance and subsequently
adjusted when concrete and
brickwork below ground are
measured.
The order of taking-off must be logical and normally follows fairly closely
the sequence of work on site as follows.
Carcass-foundations, brickwork and facework; blockwork; fireplaces,
chimney breasts and stacks; floors; and roofs.
Finishings-wall, ceiling and floor finishings; windows, including adjust-
ment of openings; doors, including adjustment of openings; fittings; stairs;
plumbing installation; drainage work ; other services; and other external
works, such as roads, paths, fences and landscaping.
One of the first principles of measurement to be mastered is the girthing
of buildings, measured on the centre lines of the main enclosing walls.
Taking for instance a rectangular building of 255 mm cavity walls, measur-
ing 15 mx 7 m externally, the girth of the perimeter wall can be built up in
the following manner.
15.000
7.000
2122.000
44.000
less corners 4/255 1.020 (4 times thickness of wall)
girth of building 42.980 (measured on centre line of enclosing walls)
Working-up generally consists of squaring the dimensions, transferring

the resultant lengths, areas and volumes to the abstract, where they are
arranged in a convenient order for billing and reduced to the recognised

units of measurement; and finally the billing process, where the various
items of work making up the complete building are listed in full with their
quantities in a suitable order under appropriate work section headings. The
traditional working-up process is both lengthy and tedious and various
alternative approaches have been introduced with a view to accelerating this
stage of the work. One of the older methods was 'billing direct', involving
the transfer of items direct from the dimension sheet to the bill. This system
operates quite well where the number of similar items is limited and the
work is not too complicated, as with drainage. Other developments include
'cut and shuffle' and computerised systems, both of which are particularly
well suited for larger projects.
In abstracting the dimensions are transferred from the dimension sheets
on to abstract sheets which are double width A3 sheets ruled vertically into
columns about 25 mm wide. Each sheet is headed with the contract
reference or title and the particular works section and subdivided into
appropriate subsections as necessary. The order in each section of the
abstract is cubes, supers, linear items (runs) and lastlyenumerated items, so
that they are in the correct sequence for billing, normally using the
abbreviations C, S, Land Nr.
The description of each item is normally spread over two columns as
shown in table 9.3. It is now customary to omit metric symbols from the
descriptions as far as possible.
Table 9.3 Abstract entries

BRICKWORK PROJECT. REFERENCE
SI U
H.b. skin of holl. wall in Hor. d.p.c. 102 wide of
comms. in str tcher bond in single layer 0 hessian base
g.m, (1:1:6) bit. to BS 743 ref. A, lapd.
100 at jts. ( esd. net) &
81.36(1 bedded in c. . (1:4)
132.14(1 )
61.04( )
9.21 4)
25.8 15)
12.4 (21)
These items will be crossed through on the dimension paper as they are
transferred to the abstract. Any deductions, such as window and door
openings from brickwork, which are measured overall in the first instance,
are entered in the second column, and the numbers appearing in brackets
after the dimensions are the page or column numbers of the dimension
sheets. Each total in the abstract will be reduced to the recognised unit of
measurement. Finallyeach item will be crossed through on its transfer to the
bill.
The final stage of billing takes place on bill paper usually in the form
of single right-hand billing, in accordance with BS 3327 (Stationery for
Quantity Surveying). This form of billing is shown in table 9.4.
Table 9.4 Billing entries

Item
Nr Description Qty Unit Rate £ p
Excavation ]
A Excavate topsoil
average 150 mm deep. 50 m2
8 Excavate roundation ]
trench, exceeding 0.30 m
wide , not exceeding
1.00 m maximum depth
starting at stripped level. 30 mJ
The most common referencing arrangement is alphabetical commencing

on each page, thus an item reference could be 24D (page 24, item D) . All
descriptions are entered in full with no abbreviations permitted. The
monetary totals at the bottoms of pages are normally transferred to a
collection at the end of the section, and the total for each section is
transferred to a summary at the end of the bill. The total of the summary will
represent the tender sum. The units are normally expressed as m, m2 , mJ , t
and nr.
Preambles are introductory clauses entered at the head of each work
section in a bill of quantities, relating to matters which affect the contractor
in pricing the bill and which ought to be drawn to his notice. Their main
purpose is to help contractors when tendering for projects by making the
task of pricing as straightforward as possible. They often assist in reducing
the length of billed descriptions by avoiding repetitive entries and they
often contain descriptions of materials and workmanship, as found in
specifications.1
The Preliminaries Bill is the first sectional bill in a bill of quantities and
covers many important financial matters which relate to the contract as a
whole and are not confined to any particular work section, and the
contractor is thus given the opportunity to price them. Section B of the
Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works2 describes most of the
items which would appear in such a bill. Matters to be inserted in a
Preliminaries Bill include the names of the parties to the contract; descrip-
tion of the site; list of drawings; contract conditions clause headings; water
for the works; lightingand power for the works; contractor's and employer's
liabilities; temporary works such as temporary buildings, roads, screens,
hoardings, scaffolding and telephones; nominated sub-contractors' work;

goods from nominated suppliers; protection and drying out of works ;
clearing the site on completion and contingencies.
Principles and Units of Measurement

The general principles of measurement are expounded in the Standard
Method of Measurement of Building Works,2 as slightly modified by the
Code for the Measurement of Building Works in Small Dwellings' which
covers small dwellings and alteration and repair work. An outline of the
operative units of measurement applicable to building work follow. The
modifications to the Standard Method of Measurement/ contained in the
third edition of the Small Dwellings Code' are minimal. SMM7 was
expected to be published in late 1987.
Excavation and Earthwork

Excavating topsoil which is to be preserved shall be given in m2 stating the
average depth . Disposal of the soil is measured separately in m3 .
Reduce level excavation is given in m3 stating the appropriate maximum
depth range.
Excavation of foundation trenches shall be given in m3 stating the starting
depth, such as stripped or reduced level, and . the maximum depth of
excavation in appropriate stages, for instance not exceeding 0.25 m, 1.00 m,
2.00 rn, 4.00 m and thereafter in 2.00 m stages
Earthwork support is measured in m2 to vertical faces and sloping faces
exceeding 45° and exceeding 0.25 m in height.
Levelling or grading the bottom of excavation shall be given in m2.
Filling to excavations and disposal of surplus soil shall be given in m 3•
Concrete Work
Formwork is measured in m2 in the various categories listed in the Standard
Method.
Concrete in foundation trenches shall be given in m3 , stating the thickness
in stages of not exceeding 100 mm, 100 to 150 mm, 150 to 300 mm and
exceeding 300 mm thick.
Concrete in beds, roads, pavings, walls and suspended slabs shall be given
in nr', stating the thickness in the ranges previously listed .
.Concrete in beams and attached columns are deemed to be included with
the suspended slabs and walls respectively .
Bar reinforcement shall be given in tonnes stating the diameter, with each
given separately, and classified according to location .
Fabric reinforcement shall be measured the net area covered in m2 , stating
the mesh, the weight per m2 and the minimum extent of side and end laps.
Precast concrete steps, sills and lintels shall be enumerated stating the size,
and giving the appropriate particulars.
Brickwork and B/ockwork

Descriptions of brickwork shall include the kind, quality and size of bricks,
type of bond, and composition and mix of mortar. Brickwork shall be
measured in m2 , stating the thickness under various classifications, such as
walls, filling existing openings, and isolated piers and chimney stacks. Skins
of hollow walls are measured separately in m2 as is also forming of the
cavity, giving the width of cavity and type and spacing of wall ties.
Various labours such as eaves filling, chases, and rough and fair cutting
are deemed to be included with the brickwork.
Facework shall be measured as extra over brickwork in m2 (no deduction
is made from common brickwork measurements), stating the kind and
quality of bricks, type of bond, composition and mix of mortar for pointing
and method of pointing. Half-brick walls and one-brick walls built fair both
sides or entirely of facing bricks shall each be given separately in m2 stating
the thickness, as for example the outer skin of a hollow wall.
B/ockwork shall be given in m2 stating the thickness under various
classifications, as for brickwork.
Damp-proof courses generally over 225 mm or one-brick wide shall be
given in m2 , while those of narrower width shall be given in metres stating
the width.
Underpinning
This forms a separate section in the Standard Method of Measurement of
Building Works .
Rubble Walling
Rubble walling shall be measured separately in several categories in m2
stating the thickness, including faced work .
Rough cutting is not measured but other labours shall be given as linear
items.
Masonry
Stonework shall be measured separately in several categories in m2 stating
the thickness.
Various labours on superficial items of stonework, such as ends, reveals,
external angles, fair raking and curved cutting, grooves, rebates and
sinkings, shall each be given separately in metres.
Columns, lintels, sills, mullions, transoms, copings, cornices and band
courses shall each be given separately in metres stating the size and profile .
Asphalt Work
Asphalt coverings over 300 mm wide shall be given in m2 while those not
exceeding 300 mm wide shall be given in metres stating the width in stages of
150 mm, to various classifications.
Various labours, such as fair edges, rounded edges, drips, arrises, and
turning asphalt nibs into grooves shall each be given separately in metres,
while skirtings, aprons, fascias and gutter linings shall each be given
separately in metres stating the width on face.
Roofing
Coverings shall each be given separately with a full description in m2•
Work to edges of roofs, such as eaves, verges, valleys and hips, shall each
be given separately in metres as extra over roof coverings.
Underfelting shall be given in m2 stating the extent of laps and method of
fixing.
The sheet metal roofing section lists allowances to be made for drips, rolls,
seams, welts and upstands.
Sheet metal flashings, aprons and cappings shall each be given separately
in metres stating the profile. The supply of soakers is enumerated stating the
size.
Woodwork
Carcassing timbers shall be given in metres stating the cross-section dimen-
sions under various classifications, such as floors, partitions, flat roofs,
pitched roofs and bearers.
Roof boarding shall be given in m2, stating the thickness.
Bolts and straps shall be enumerated and described stating the method of
fixing.
Flooring shall be given in m2 with raking and curved cutting each given
separately in metres.
Boarding to eaves, verges and the like shall be given in metres stating the
cross-section size.
Doors shall be enumerated and described.
Casements and sash windows, including their frames, shall be enumerated
and described.
Door frames and linings shall be enumerated stating the overall size and
sizes or cross-section dimensions of the various parts.
Skirtings, architraves, picture rails, cover fillets, shelves and the like shall
each be given in metres stating the cross-section dimensions.
Fittings, Futures and staircases shall be enumerated and supported by
component details .
Structural Steelwork
Structural steelwork shall be given in tonnes under the headings of
fabricated steelwork, unfabricated steelwork and erection, and appropri-
ately described.
Metalwork
Handrails shall be given in metres stating the size and balusters and railings,
other than fencing, given in metres, stating the height and describing the
posts or other supports .
Metal windows and doors shall each be enumerated separately stating the
overall size, nature of construction, finish and number of opening portions.
Plumbing Installations
Gutters and pipes shall be given in metres stating the type and nominal size.
Joints to pipes shall be given in the descriptions of the relevant pipes. Pipe
fittings, such as bends and junctions, shall be enumerated as extra over the
pipes in which they occur.
Sanitary appliances shall be enumerated giving adequate particulars.
Water storage tanks and the like shall be enumerated giving adequate
particulars .
Valves shall be enumerated.
Electrical Installations
Cables for lighting and heating, earthing conductors and conduit shall be
measured in metres.
Lighting fittings, switches, socket-outlets and the like shall be enumerated
and described .
Plasterwork and Other Finishings

Wall, floor and ceiling fin ishings shall be given in m2 and work not exceeding
300 mm wide shall be so described. Work in compartments not exceeding
4 m2 on plan shall be given separately.
Glazing
Glass shall be given in m2 , classified as to sizes of panes (not exceeding
0.10 m2 , 0.10-0.50 m2 , 0.50-1.00 m2 and over 1.00 m2 ) , giving a full
description of the glass and method fixing.
Curved cutting shall be given in metres.
Painting and Decorating

Painting work on general surfaces over 300 mm girth, shall be given in m2
with isolated surfaces not exceeding 300 mm girth given in metres. The girth
shall be stated in stages of 150 mm, giving a full description of the work and
keeping internal and. external work, and new work and redecorations
separate.
Similar rules apply to work on wood frames, wood and metal windowsand
glazed wood and metal doors, with work on edges of opening casements in
metres. Descriptions of windows and glazed doors shall include the sizes of
panes, classified as small (not exceeding 0.10m2) , medium (0.10-0.50 m2) ,
large (0.50-1.00 01 2) and extra large (over 1.00 m2) .
Work on railings, fences, gates, pipes and gutters shall be measured as for
general surfaces .
Polishing shall be measured as for painting and paperhanging in m2 ,
stating the number of pieces, 'classified as on walls and columns or ceilings
and beams (both grouped together) . Raking and curved cutting (grouped
together) and border strips shall be given in metres.
Drainage
Excavating pipe trenches shall be given in metres, stating the starting level
and the depth range in stages of 2 m and the average depth to the nearest
0.25 m.
Beds, benchings and coverings shall each be given separately in metres,
stating the necessary dimensions .
Pipes shall be given in metres stating the kind and quality of pipe, nominal
size and method of jointing. Pipe fittings, such as bends and junctions, shall
be enumerated as extra over the pipes in which they occur. Pipes in runs not
exceeding 3 m long shall be so described giving the number.
Gullies shall be enumerated and fully described.
Manholes and soakaways shall be given in detail under an appropriate
heading, stating the number.
Fencing
Each type of fencing shall be given separately in metres with a full
description of the materials and method of fixing and the height.
Gates shall be enumerated stating the size and method of construction,
and gateposts shall also be enumerated stating the size.
Special fencing posts shall be enumerated as extra over the fencing and
excavation for post holes enumerated, stating the size and depth.
Refurbishment and Alteration Work Documentation

A RICS publication' which contains some useful examples, describes how
the type of quantity surveying documentation will depend largely upon the
project, as illustrated in the following guidelines:

(1) A quantified specification is ideal where there are extensive minor
alterations.
(2) A priceable schedule is useful where there is extensive repetition of
similar items.
(3) Elemental bills of quantities could be the best approach for a
one-off project involving fairly extensive alterations.
Building Estimates
Building estimates are prepared by different categories of people for various
purposes and using a variety of approaches. Surveyors frequently prepare
approximate estimates of building work at the design stage, to indicate to
the client his probable financial commitments. Builders preparing estimates
will be influenced in their approach by the nature and extent of the
information supplied by the designer. It may consist of a bill of quantities
accompanied by working drawings, reasonably comprehensive drawings and
specification, or possibly just annotated drawings for a small alteration
contract or a schedule of repairs for repair work.
Approximate Estimates
Surveyors are frequently required to prepare approximate estimates of the
cost of building projects before the detailed schemes have been prepared.
A variety of approaches are available each with their own particular
advantages and disadvantages. The most commonly used is the floor area
method, but other methods 'occasionally employed are the unit, cube,
storey-enclosure and approximate quantities.
Floor area method. The total floor area of the building is measured within
the internal faces of the enclosing external walls, with no deduction for
partitions, lift shafts; internal walls, stairs, landings and passages. A unit
rate is then calculated per square metre of floor area and the probable total
cost of the building is obtained by multiplying the total floor area by the
calculated unit rate.
This is a popular method of approximate estimating as it is relatively easy
to compute, and most published cost data is expressed in this way in terms
which can be understood by a building client . It has a number of inherent
weaknesses and, in particular, it cannot directly take account of changes in
plan shape or total height of the building, or of variations in finishings,
number and quality of fittings and related factors. A few typical rates are
shown in table 9.5 to illustrate ranges but it must be emphasised that wide
variations occur in the unit rates for any given class of building.
Table 9.5 Floor area price rates

Type of building Typical costs/m2 (1987)
Factory workshop (for owner occupation, including all services) £250 to £350
Shop (shel1) £260 to £400
Private detached house (built singly and including central heat-
ing, garage and external works) £350 to £500
Local authority 4/5 person two -storey house £270 to £360
Cube method. The cubic content in m3 of the building is obtained by

multiplying the length, width and height (external dimensions) of each part
of the building. Heights are taken from the top of foundations to a point
half-way up the roof slope in the case of an unoccupied pitched roof and
600 mm above a flat roof. If the roof space of a pitched roof is to be
occupied then the height measurement is taken three-quarters of the way up
the roof slope, and with mansard roofs it is customary to take the whole of
the cubic contents. If a flat roof is surrounded by a parapet wall, then the
height measurement is taken to the top of the parapet wall, but where the
wall height is less than 600 mm, the minimum height of 600 mm applies. All
projections, such as porches, steps, bays, dormers, projecting roof lights,
chimney stacks and tank compartments on flat roofs, are measured and
added to the cubic content of the main building. A small part of the
foundations may be deeper than the remainder, and the unit rate is then best
adjusted to account for this variation, rather than attempting to alter the
cubic content of the building.
The assessment of the price per cubic metre of a building calls for the
exercise of careful judgement coupled with extensive knowledge of current
prices and trends. Unit prices show large variations between different classes
of building and will even vary considerably between buildings of the same
type, where the proportion of walling to floor area, quality of finishings and
fittings and amount of partitioning and other components vary. The greater
the proportion of wall in relation to the cubic contents of the building, the
greater will be its cost per m3• With single-storey industrial buildings, wide
variations in storey height can occur and costs will not vary directly in
proportion to height. Features such as piling, lifts, external pavings,
approach roads, external services and similar works, which bear no relation
to the cubic unit of measurement, should be covered separately by lump sum
figures or approximate quantities. Some typical cubic metre rates for various
types of buildings are shown in table 9.6 to give a rough guide.
Table 9.6 Cube price rates
Type of building Typical costs/mJ (1987)
Church hal1s £80 to £130

Hotels £200 to £260
Offices £180 to £210
Shops with one floor of offices over (excluding shop fronts) £80 to £140
Houses (of various types) £75 to £230
Table 9.7 Composite price rates

Composite items Unit £
Strip foundations . Excavating trench 1 m deep in heavy soil;
levelling; compacting; earthwork support; backfilli~ ; disposal of
surplus material from site; concrete 11.50 N/mm foundations
300 mm thick; hollow brickwork in cement mortar (1:3) to
ISO mm above ground level; bitumen hessian-based horizontal
d.p.c.; and facing bricks externally. m 80.00
(£18.00 for each additional 300 mm in depth) .
Hollow ground floor construction. Excavation; disposal of
surplus; hardcore 100mm thick; concrete bed 150 mm thick;
half-brick sleeper walls, honeycombed. at 2 m centres; horizontal
dpc; 100 x 50 mm plates; 50 to 100 mm joists at 400 mm centres;
and 25 mm tongued and grooved softwood boarded flooring. 52.00
Upper floor. 50 x 175 mm joists at 400 mm centres with ends
creosoted and built into brickwork; 50 x 25 mm herringbone
strutting; trimming to openings; 25 mm tongued and grooved
softwood boarded flooring; plasterboard ; one coat of 5 mm
gypsum plaster; and two coats of emulsion paint . 50.00
Pitched roof (measured on flat plan area) . 75 x 40 mm plates;
TRADA trussed rafters at 2 m centres ; 32 x 100 mm rafters and
ceiling joists at 500 mm centres; 40 x ISO mm purlins;
125 x 50 mm binders; 25 x 150 mm ridge; 40 x 19 mm battens;
felt; and concrete interlocking tiles nailed every second course . 46.00
Stairs. 900 mm wide; treads and risers, winders, balustrade one
side; plasterboard and one coat of gypsum plaster to soffit and
painting; rising 2600 mm. Nr 575.00
(£78.00 for each additional.3OO mm in height).
Wash basin. White glazed vitreous china, waste fitting, cantilever
brackets and pair of taps (p.c, £55 complete) ; trap; and copper
waste pipe. Nr 135.00
(Comparable costs of other sanitary appliances would be £215 for a
sink; £406 for a bath; £170 for a ground floor we and £520 for a
we on an upper floor, including a cast iron soil pipe and
connection to drain .)
Electrical installations. These are most conveniently priced on a
cost per point basis, for example lighting points at £45.00 each and
double 13 amp switched socket outlets wired in a ringmain circuit
at £57.00 each .
Drainage. 100 mm g.v.c. pipes and fittings to OS 65; excavating
trenches average 1 m deep in heavy soil; grading bottoms; earth
work support; backfilling; removal of surplus spoil; and 150 mm
concrete 11.50 N/mm2 beds and benchings. m 24.00
(£4.00 for each additional 250 mm depth of trench not exceeding
2 m deep and £4.30 for each 250 mm between 2 m and 4 m deep) .
Manhole 686 x 457 x 900 mm deep internally in one-brick
walls in engineering bricks on 150 mm thick concrete base; with
100 mm half-section channel and branches; concrete benchings;
610 x 457 mm cover and frame; and all necessary excavation,
backfill, disposal of surplus and earthwork support. Nr 360.00
(£90.00 for each additional 300 mm of depth up to 2 m deep
internally.)
Unit method. This allocates a cost to each accommodation unit of a

building, be it persons, seats, beds, car spaces or whatever. The total
estimated cost is then found by multiplying the total number of units
accommodated in the building by the unit rate. The process of calculation is
very simple but the computation of the unit is exceedingly difficult, and is
based on the analysis of the unit costs of a number of fairly recently
completed buildings of similar type, adjusted as necessary. Hence at best it
can only be a rather blunt tool for establishing general guidelines, as
required for budget estimating on a rolling programme and has little
relevance to maintenance and improvement work.
Storey-enclosure method. Takes the area of the external walls, floor and
ceiling enclosing each storey of the building, and then proceeds to weight
some of them to allow for foundations , upper floors and the extra cost of
work below ground level. The method represented a great advance on
previous single rate estimating methods but as it has been little used since it
was introduced in 1954, there is not much data for comparison purposes, and
the method has little relevance to maintenance and improvement work . It is
well described in Building Economics?
Approximate quantities method. Abridged quantities of the work are

measured and priced to give an estimate for the work. It involves more work
and is superior to any of the other methods previously described, but there
are occasions when lack of information precludes its use. Composite price
rate items are obtained by combining or grouping bill items; for example,
a brickwork item measured in m2 will normally include all incidental
labours and finishings to both wall faces. Doors and windows are usually
enumerated as extra over the walling and associated finishings, thus
avoiding the need to make adjustments to the walling. Furthermore, a door
item will be a comprehensive one, including the frame or lining, architraves,
glazing, ironmongery and decoration. Details of a wide range of composite
items with current costs are given in Spon's Architects' and Builders' Price
Book/' Some composite items and costs (1987) are shown in table 9.7 to
amplify the approximate quantities approach.
Preparation of Estimates by Contractors

Matters Affecting Building Prices
It is customary to approach several contractors for a price when a client
wishes to undertake some building work. The actual number of firms
approached will depend largely on the size of the contract and for main-
tenance and conversion work under normal conditions could vary between
three and six. The prices submitted may vary considerably and some of the
more important reasons for these price variations follow.
(1) Some contractors may be already heavily committed with work and
may submit 'cover prices'.
(2) Extent of availability of labour, plant and materials in the locality.
(3) Time of the year when the work is to be undertaken.
(4) Amount and quality of information supplied to contractors.
(5) Quality of work likely to be expected .
(6) Time allowed for execution of work.
(7) Time allowed for tendering.
Action by Contractors on Receipt of Tender Documents

With larger contracts, the contractor is advised to follow the procedure
outlined in the CIOB Code of Estimating Practice." On receipt of a bill of
quantities, it is advisable to list all PC items, work to be sublet and major
materials and components, and to send out enquiries to suppliers and
sub-contractors. The site must be visited to see whether there are any
unusual or special features or obstacles which could affect the price;
examples being work to be carried out in extremely confined space; site
close to a hospital or other establishment where restrictions on noise
emission may be imposed during certain hours; site within a river flood plain
which might cause problems with excavation and drainage work.
When pricing a bill of quantities, usually on a short time scale, it is best to
start with the largest quantity items by detailed cost analysis. These items
are probably only about 25 per cent in number of all items in the bill but may
well account for about 80 per cent of total cost.
Most contractors approach the pricing of preliminaries in different ways.
Some use a percentage of the total sum for measured work, others price
almost every item in considerable detail, while some include the cost of
preliminaries in the measured rates and insert a lump sum in the summary of
preliminaries for the sake of appearances. There are, however, four major
items that must be considered as they are not necessarily in direct cost ratio
to the measured items-wages of site staff; mechanical plant and scaffold-
ing; travelling time, fares and expenses paid to operatives; and site
accommodation.
Site staff consist of agents, foremen, site clerks and similar personnel.
Their cost will depend on the length of the contract and can be assessed on a
monthly basis. . .
The contractor's plant will be costed over its effective life (often three or
four years). The costs are made up of the purchase price, interest on capital
over the life of the plant, repairs and servicing costs, and insurance and road
fund licence where appropriate. This total cost can be divided by the
estimated number of working hours to give an hourly rate, to which must be
added haulage costs to and from sites and fuel costs to give a comprehensive
rate. Similarly hire costs of plant need increasing to include haulage and
fuel. The costs of the plant operators must not be overlooked.
The contractor is required to pay his own employees' travel time and
expenses in travelling to building sites and these will be dependent on the
distance involved.
Site hutting can be a fairly expensive item . Even where the contractor has
the huts in his possession, he is faced with the cost of depreciation, rates ,
transport, erection, some repair work to keep them watertight and resistant
to pilfering, and dismantling. These costs can amount to as much as £350 to
£600 per hut . In addition there is probably the cost of telephone, temporary
lighting, heating and labourer attendance to huts used as offices.
Many repair and conversion contracts are too small to warrant a bill of
quantities, and they are usually based on drawings and specification. The
cost of preliminaries on this type of contract is disproportionately high
compared with large contracts or new work. Every contract should be
considered on its merits and the kinds of factor needing investigation
are excessive amounts of scaffolding, additional site accommodation,
unavoidable unproductive time of operatives to meet occupiers' needs,
protective screens, and lack of storage facilities.
When estimating for new work , contractors normally take off and price
their own abridged form of quantities. Alteration work in a cramped existing
building can present many additional problems, particularly when the
premises will be occupied throughout the contract period. One approach is
to take a notebook ruled in question and answer form to the site, when
typical questions might be as follows.
(1) Name and address of project.
(2) Nature of access and any traffic restrictions .
(3) Ground and site conditions, including location of services.
(4) Whether hoist required.
(5) Amount of scaffolding required.
(6) Availability of storage space both inside and outside the premises .
(7) Number of rooms available at anyone time .
(8) Any special difficulties.
If the building is empty and likely to remain so until final completion, the
foreman will be able to distribute different trades in the various rooms , there
will be ample storage and office space and no interference by occupants.
Occupied buildings can, on the other hand, create various difficulties as the
whole of the work may have to be completed during a holiday closing period
or outside normal working hours, or maybe only one or two rooms will be
available at a time . Where the specification is not clear on these aspects, the
estimator must make allowance for any matters which are likely to hinder
the progress of the work. Narrow fronted shop premises in particular
frequently create difficult working and access conditions, which are best
assessed as lump sums based wherever possible on the estimated number of
man-hours needed.
The contractor or his estimator should take sufficient dimensions on the
site to permit the pricing of every item of work involved. An additional
check is to assess the number of man-hours required for each operation on
the site. For example, in forming a new window opening a number of trades
are involved-bricklayer and labourer forming the opening and building in
the window, joiner, glazier and painter on the window itself and plasterer
making good-in all a total time commitment approaching 40 hours. The
removal of an old sink and its replacement with a new sink unit may involve
a plumber, bricklayer, plasterer and painter for a total time of around 16
hours. Furthermore, allowance must be made for labourers' time unloading
materials and components on the site and clearing away on completion.
Many contractors, particularly the smaller ones, use estimating and price
books" as a basis for their estimates. It is important to check the materials'
prices, which are changing quite frequently, and the operative labour rates,
which are generally London based and make no allowance for payments
over the recognised wage rates. Labour constants (time taken to execute a
specific task) in price books generally relate to average conditions, whereas
few projects are ever average. Work may be in confined spaces or
at excessive heights involving higher labour costs because.of lower product-
ivity. For example, ceilings with a total area of 200 m2 are to be painted with
two coats of emulsion paint. The ceilings may be 2.50 m or 5 m above floor
and although the materials requirements remain constant, the labour
involvement will vary appreciably.
This problem can be approached by assessing the additional time allow-
ances to be included for difficult working conditions. They occur mainly with
painter's work but could also be applied to other trades.
(1) Room by room in a private house. This involves moving furniture
to the centre of rooms and covering and protecting it-15 per cent addition.
(2) Single room flatlets or bedsitters. This form of accommodation is
often in large properties of three or more storeys divided into units of one or
two roomed furnished apartments. These are very congested-30 per cent
addition.
(3) External work to buildings more than two storeys high , involving
more time negotiating ladders and hoisting materials. Additional time might
be roughly assessed as follows .
full scaffold-2 to 4 storeys 5 per cent
full scaffold-c-over 4 storeys 10 per cent
ladder work-2 to 4 storeys 20 per cent
ladder work-over 4 storeys 50 per cent
(4) Shop or factory premises outside normal working hours. If this
involves work in the evenings or at weekends, the labour costs could be
doubled.
(5) School work during holidays. The premises are unoccupied and the
work is quite straightforward but there is invariably a target date for
completion. Labour shortage during the crucial period at the end of the
school summer holiday may involve additional labour costs of the order of
10 per cent.
Price Build-up
A contractor often builds up the price for each item of work in detail,
working from first principles, in order to compute a realistic price for the
complete contract. The price of any item of work is made up of certain
components from amongst the following .
(1) Labour--<:raft operatives' and labourers' time at recognised rates

or at actual rates where these are higher. It is customary to use all-in hourly
rates when associated labour costs are added to the basic wage rate to
include such items as public and annual holidays, NWR allowances,
productivity bonus. payments, non-productive overtime, sick pay,
employer's national insurance contributions, employer's liability and third
party insurance, severance pay, trade supervision, training and CITB levy.
These labour oncosts can amount to as much as 100 per cent or more of the
basic hourly wage rate.
(2) Materials-including waste, transportation, unloading, stacking,
storing and distributing around the site, and return of crates or packages
where appropriate.
(3) Plant-either owned or hired calculated on an hourly rate in either
case, and including fuel and operator.
(4) General overheads and profit--<>ften expressed as a percentage of
the sum of the appropriate previous items; it could be in the range of 10 to 20
per cent according to the organisation of the building firm and the method of
pricing. As an alternative a higher general overheads and profit percentage
may be added only to the all-in labour rates, which is rather more realistic
and makes analysis and recovering by the contractor much simpler. General
overheads include such items as office salaries, supervision by office staff,
rent and rates, insurances, running and maintenance expenses of premises
and plant, printing and stationery, postages and telephone charges, legal
and accountancy charges, bad debts, depreciation of office equipment and
car expenses.
Site or project overheads such as site supervisory staff, clearing site, site
transport services, scaffolding and gantries, site accommodation, small plant
and hand tools, temporary services, welfare, first aid and safety provision,
defects liability costs, transport of men to site and abnormal overtime are
likely to be priced separately in preliminaries items as they will vary
considerably from one contract to another.
Some typical examples of the build-up of prices for some of the more
common items of building work are given in this chapter. For more
information on this extremely complex subject, readers are referred to
Smith.f The amount of labour required to perform a given unit of work is
termed a labour constant and most estimating and pricing books contain
many hundreds of such constants. In practice the labour constants or outputs
should be computed from analyses of actual performance on past contracts,
varied as appropriate for differences in quantity, working conditions and
other relevant matters.
Excavation
In building up prices for excavated soil disposal allowance must be made for
increases in bulk on excavation. This varies with different types of soil but an
average figure is 25 per cent. Typical labour constants applicable to normal
ground conditions follow.
With earthwork support to sides of excavation it is necessary to determine

just how much support is required having regard to the depth of excavation
and type of soil. It is customary to allow seven uses of timber, so that
one-seventh of the cost of timber appears in the calculations.
When pricing hardcore, allowance must be made for loss of material on
consolidation, as shown in the example on pricing hardcore.
Excavation work Unit Labourer/hours
Excavate oversite, average 150 mm deep 0.50

Excavate foundation trench, not exceeding 1 m deep 3.00
Backfill excavated material 1.50
Level and compact bottom of excavation 0.15
The following examples show the price build-up of typical hand excavation items incorporating
1987 all-in hourly rates.
Excavate foundation trench not exceeding 1 m deep/m 3

£
Labourer-3 hours @ £4.10 12.30
Add general overheads and profit (15%) 1.85
Cost/m 3 £14.15
Filling to excavations/m 3 £
Labourer-1.50 hours @ £4.10 6.15
Cost/m 3 £7.frT
Bed of hardcore, 150 mm thicklm 2

£
0.16 m2 of hardcore @ £7.5OIm 3 1.20
Allow for 20% consolidation 0.24
Labourer-~>.20 hour @ £4.10 0.82
2.26
Cost/m 2 £2.60
Concrete work
Concrete can be hand or machine mixed on site or ready mixed. Approxi-
mately 90 per cent of all in situ concrete work consists of ready mixed
concrete, as it offers many advantages, and hand mixing is rarely used.
The followingexample shows the price build-up for in situ machine mixed
concrete in foundations.
In situ concrete grade 20 in foundation trenches 100-150 thicklm J
(1) Materilll costslm J £

320 kg cement @ £76.50 per tonne 24.48
720 kg fine aggregate @ £5.90 per tonne 4.25
1080 kg coarse aggregate @ £6.00 per tonne 6.48
35.21
Add 5% waste 1.76
£36.97(1)
(2) Mixing and placing of concrete
3/h)
Assume 14/10 mixer output of 0.28 m3 and 10 discharges per hour (2.80 m
£
1 mixer operator @ £4.30 4.30
1 labourer filling @ £4.10 4.10
Hire of dumper per hour plus fuel, etc . 12.30
1 dumper driver @ £4.25 4.25
Hire of 14110 mixer per hour plus fuel, etc . 9.60
1 spreader @ £4.10 4.10
£38.65
Costlm
J
= 2.80 = £13.80 (2) £38.65
Total cost/nr' = (I) + (2) = £36.97 + £13.80 ;; £50.77

Costlm 3 £58.39
The comparable cost of ready mixed concrete would be similar.
Brickwork
With brickwork it is necessary to be able to calculate the number of bricks
per square metre in different bonds and wall thicknesses, allowing 8 per cent
waste.
a one-brick wall contains 114 + 9 (waste) = 123 bricks/m/
a half-brick wall contains 57 + 5 (waste) = 62 brickslm 2
(using 65 mm thick bricks with 10 mm joints).
In calculating the number of facing bricks
Flemish bond = 76 + 7 (waste) = 83 brickslm2
English bond = 86 + 9 (waste) = 95 brickslm2
Labour constants Bricklayer Labourer

2
hourslm
One-brick walls 2.30 2.50

Half-brick walls 1.40 1.50
Fair face to brickwork 0.30 0.30
Extra for facework .and pointing as work proceeds 0.50 0.50
One brick wall in commons in cement mortar (I:3)lm 2
£
123 bricks (including waste) @ £97 per 1000 11.93
Unloading: Labourer-{).12 hour @ £4.10 0.49
0.08 mJ of cement mortar @ £56 4.48
Bricklayer-2.3O hours @ £4.70 10.81
Labourer-2.50 hours @ £4.10 10.25
37.96
Cos/1m2 £43.65
An alternative approach to the pricing of the last item follows.
Qty Ra/e Labour Materials

£ £ £
Bricks (including waste) 12.3 97.001 11.93

thsd .
Unloading-Labourer 0.12 h 4.10 0.49
Mortar (including waste) 0.08 mJ 56.00 4.48
Labour Bricklayer 2.30 h 4.70 10.81
Labourer 2.50 h 4.10 10.25
£21.55 £16.41
General overheads on labour 15% 3.23 24.78
£41.19
Profit 6% £ 2.47
Costlm 2 £43.66
The variation in price between the two approaches for specific items of
work will depend upon the respective labour contents. Both methods are
used extensively in practice, and the percentages will vary according to the
circumstances and policy of the firm.
Extra over common brickwork (£97 per ](00) for [acework (£252 per ](00) in English bond and
pointing with a neat struck joint as the work proceedslm '
£
Cost of facing bricks 252
Cost of common bricks 97
Extra costll000 £155
£
95 bricks (including waste) @ £15.50 per 100 14.73
Bricklayer-O.SO hours @ £4.70 2.35
Labourer-O.50 hours @ £4.10 2.05
19.13
Costlm 2 £22.00
=
Woodwork
Labour constants Carpenter Labourer
hourslm
Bearers (100 x 75 mm) 0.32 0.04

Floor joists (SO x 100 mm) 0.20 0.04
Rafters and ceiling joists (SO x 100 mm) 0.24 0.04
Ridge boards. hip and valley rafters (38 x 175 mm) 0.30 0.04
Softwood in bearers (100 x 75 mm)lm
£
I m of softwood bearer @ £1.65 1.65
Allow 10% waste 0.17
Carpenter-O.32 hours @ £4.70 1.30
Labourer-O.04 hours @ £4.10 0.16
3.28
Costlm £3.77
-
With floorboarding, allowance has to be made for waste in tongued edges
and this can vary from 15 to 25 per cent according to the width of the boards.
Joiner's time varies from 0.70 to 0.95 hours per m2, depending on the form
of jointing and the width of boards. With doors and windows it is necessary
to calculate the quantity of timber required and joiner's time works out at
about 1.2 to 2 hours per m2 , depending on the site and complexity of the
component. Labourer's time is calculated at about half the craft operative's
time with windows and around one-eight with doors.
Plastering
Plasterer's time varies from tto It hours per square metre depending on the
type, thickness and location of plaster, with labourer's time calculated at
one-half the craft operative 's time. Typical prices (1987) are £7.40/m2 for
9 mm baseboard ceilings, fixed, scrimmed and skimmed with gypsum
plaster, and £7.60/m2 for two coat gypsum plaster to walls.
Glazing
A typical example of pricing glazing work follows.
4 mm float glass and glazing to wood with putty, .exceeding 0.10 and not exceeding 0.50 m 2/m2
£
1 m2 of 4 mm float glass 12.60
Allow 5% waste 0.63
2 kg of putty @ 40p 0.80
Glazier~.70 hours @ £4.70 3.29
Labourer~.05 hours @ £4.10 0.21
17.53
Costlm 2 £20.16
Painting
Examples of price build-up for painting follow.
Twice emulsion paint plastered walls/m2
CostllOO m2 £
1 coat sealer: 3.75 litres
2 full coats: 2 x 7.50 = 15 + 3.75 = 18.75
18.75 titres of emulsion paint @ £8.5015 litres 31.88
Painter-22 hours @ £4.70 103.40
Add use and waste of brushes/rollers (5% of labour costs) 5.17
140.45
Cost/loo m2 100)161.52
£ 1.62
Prepare, knot, prime, stop and painttwo undercoats and onefinishing coatofoilpainton general
wood surfaceslm 2
Costl100 m 2 £
0.75 Iitres of knotting @ £4.00IIitre 3.00
2 1/2 kg of putty @ 40p 1.00
8 sheets of glasspaper @ lOp 0.80
10 Iitres of wood primer @ £11.5015 Iitres 23.00
2 x 9 = 18 Iitres of undercoat @ £11.0015 litres 39.60
9 litres of gloss paint @ £11.0015 litres 19.80
Painter-IS + 2 x 13 + 14 = 58 hours @ £4.70 272.60
Wear of brushes, ladders etc . (5% of labour costs) 13.63
373.43
Cost/100m2 100)429.44
2
Costlm £ 4.29
It must be stressed that the labour constants used must appertain to the
particular job and those applied by an inexperienced person merely consult-
ing a price book are unlikely to produce realistic prices. For example,
repetitive work takes less time to perform-to lay floor boarding in a small
room will cost more proportionately than in a large room, and more still if
the small room is of irregular shape.
Pricing Alteration Works

Table 9.8 shows one approach to the build-up of an estimate for a rear
extension to a house with an extended floor area of 10 m2 and accommodat-
ing a bathroom and ventilated lobby. The bathroom contains a white bath,
wash basin and we. The prices given are typical 1987 provincial rates."
Table 9.8 Estimate of alteration work

Item Description Quantity Rate Cost
£ £
1 Excavate over site 11 m2 1.50 16.50

2 Excavate foundation trenches and dis-
pose of surplus soil 4 m3 14.00 56.00
3 Concrete foundations 2 m3 72.00 144.00
4 100 mm hardcore, 150 mm concrete floor
and damp-proof membrane 10 m2 16.00 160.00
5 255 m cavity wall including outer skin of
facings and bonding new work to old 28 m2 64.00 1792.00
6 100 mm concrete block partition 7 m2 20.00 140.00
7 Damp-proof course (felt-lOO mm wide) 30m 0.80 24.00
8 Steel lintels 4 Nr 24.00 96.00
9 Softwood wall plate (100 x 75) 6m 3.60 21.60
10 Softwood roof joists (SO x 1(0) 20m 2.80 56.00
11 19 mm roof boarding 12 m2 16.00 192.00
12 Fascia and soffit to eaves 3m 11.50 34.50
13 Roofing felt in 3 layers 12 m 2 11.00 132.00
14 Upstands to roof 10 m 2.80 28.00
15 Casement windows 2 Nr 48.00 96.00
16 Window reveals 10m 4.00 40.00
17 Flush doors 2 Nr 47.00 94.00
18 Door frame and architraves 10m 9.00 90.00
19 Ironmongery Item 21.00 21.00
20 Cutting opening through existing wall for
new door Item 26.00 26.00
21 Plasterboard ceiling and plaster skim coat 10 m2 8.00 80.00
22 Plaster walls (including reveals) 47 m2 8.30 390.10
23 Thermoplastic floor tiles 10 m2 12.00 120.00
24 Softwood skirting 18 m 2.00 36.00
25 Bath complete 1 Nr 350.00 350.00
26 Wash basin complete 1 Nr 180.00 180.00
27 WC suite complete 1 Nr 215.00 215.00
28 Copper water services 10m 8.00 80.00
29 PVC gutter 3m 6.80 20.40
30 PVC downpipe 3m 8.00 24.00
31 Obscure glass and glazing 2 m2 20.00 40.00
32 Twice emulsion paint walls and ceiling 60 m2 2.00 120.00
33 Painting doors, frames , etc. 10 m2 5.00 50.00
34 Painting windows 4 m2 6.00 24.00
35 Manhole complete 1 Nr 275.00 275.00
36 Excavate drain trench 4m 24.00 96.00
37 Drain pipe on concrete bed 4m 20.00 80.00
38 Connection to existing manhole 1 Nr 15.00 15.00
39 Connection to WC 1 Nr 11.00 11.00
40 Gully trap and surround 1 Nr 24.00 24.00
41 Electrical work Item 250.00 250.00
42 Preliminaries Item 350.00 350.00
43 Contingencies Item 250.00 250.00
Total estimated cost £6340.10
say £6340
Table 9.9 shows a detailed price build-up for forming a new doorway
opening in a half-brick partition, plastered both sides, to show the large
number of operations involved.
Table 9.9 PrIce bulld.up for new doorway

Item Description Quantity Rate Cost
£ £
1 Remove and set aside skirting 4m 1.20 4.80
2 Ditto picture rail 4m 1.20 4.80
3 Demolish brickwork and plaster and
remove 3 m2 12.00 36.00
4 Cut, tooth and quoin up reveal 4m 12.00 48.00
5 102 X ISO precast RC lintel 11/3 m 18.00 24.00
6 Cut and pin ends or lintel 2 Nr 1.50 3.00
7 Wedge and pin up over lintel If, m2 15.00 3.00
8 Level brickwork across threshold and lay
screed 1m 12.00 12.00
9 Hack brickwork and render and set
150 mm wide, including making good
new to old at one edge 8m 6.00 48.00
10 Ditto 225 mm wide 2m 7.50 15.00
11 RefIX existing skirting to wall 2m 2.40 4.80
13 Wash off, stop and twice emulsion paint
frieze 3.60 7.20
14 Ditto wall filling 4.80 19.20
15 Wash off, stop, touch up and apply two
coats of oil paint to skirting 4m 1.50 6.00
17 Contingencies and preliminaries 15.00
Total estimated cost £262.80
Small items of repair and alteration work are often disproportionately

expensive as they are very labour-intensive, require small quantities of a
variety of materials involving considerable waste, and the general overheads
are also high. Normal price book unit rates have little relevance to this class
of work, although sections covering minor worksand alterations and repairs
are helpful.
The essence of estimating for rehabilitation is to ensure that the estimate
covers realistically the work content specified. One risk in rehabilitation
work is die content and/or extent may not be clearly defined. The general
condition of the building; existing defects and the contractual responsibility
for their correction must be determined. Ambiguous or insufficient descrip-
tions must be clarified or qualified before entering into a contract and all
risks identified and quantified. 10
Checking BuUder's Accounts

Surveyors are often called upon to check builders' accounts for works of
repair and alteration. These accounts normally list the materials used-and
amount of labour employed with the costs involved plus allowances for
overheads and profit. This type of work is often carried out on a daywork
basis under some form of cost reimbursement contract . The reader is
referred to chapter 10for more detailed information on contractual arrange-

ments.
On receipt of an account, the surveyor should examine it against the
background of his own notes of site inspections made while supervising the
work, where these are available. A further site visit to clarify any doubtful
points prior to arranging a meeting at the builder's office is often helpful. It
may be that alternative materials were substituted for those previously
specified resulting in changes in price.
The quantities of materials listed in the account can be checked by
measuring the work done and calculating the materials required, incorporat-
ing suitable waste allowances. The labour component is more difficult to
assess, although the constants listed in price books and included earlier in
this chapter form a useful guide. Thesurveyor must be prepared to adjust
the constants to suit the particular site conditions. Materials prices can be
checked against manufacturers' price lists with due allowance made for extra
costs attributable to small quantities . .
At the meeting at the builder's office, queries will be discussed and the
builder will produce invoices and time sheets to substantiate details in the
account. It is possible that materials have been incorrectly charged to the
contract, that some are overpriced or that labour from another site has been
inadvertently allocated to the contract. On occasions labour may be
rendered unproductive while one trade waits for another. and some
adjustment to cost may be necessary if this delay is considered excessive.
Frequent transfer of labour from one job to another can result in heavy
travelling costs and further unproductive time. Labour costs usually include
a variety of labour-related overheads as described earlier in the chapter.
Finally, the percentage addition for general overheads and profit requires
scrutiny to ensure that no ancillary costs .are charged twice and that the
allowance is not excessive. For instance, foreman's time in supervision may
be included both as a labour-related charge and as a general overhead.
Some builders apply a single percentage to both labour and materials while
others use separate figures for each. The surveyor's task is not to reduce the
account to an irreducible minimum but to ensure that the sum paid by the
client is fair and reasonable.
References
1 I. H. Seeley, Building Quantities Explained, Macmillan (1979)
2 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors/Building Employers Con-
federation : Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works, sixth
edition: SMM6 (1979)
3 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors/Building Employers Con-
federation . Code for the Measurement of Building Works in Small
Dwellings, third edition (1979)
4 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Refurbishment and Alteration
Work : Quantity Surveying Documentation (1982)
5 I. H. Seeley, Building Economics. Macmillan (1983)
6 Davis, Belfield and Everest (Eds). Spon's Architects' and Builders' Price
Book. Spon (1987)
7 Chartered Institute of Building, Code of Estimating Practice (1983)
8 R. C. Smith. Estimating and Tendering for Building Work. Longman
(1986)
9 Building Maintenance Information Ltd. Building Maintenance Price
Book (1987)
10 CIOB Estimating Information Service Nr 42. Estimating for Rehabilita-
tion (1981)
10 TENDERING PROCEDURES AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION
This chapter is concerned with the contractual arrangements for the

execution of building work, with particular reference to works of alteration
and repair.
Nature and Form of Contracts

The law relating to building contracts is one aspect of the law of contract and
tort (civil wrongs). It is accordingly desirable to have an appreciation of the
law relating to contracts generally before considering the main character-
istics and requirements of building contracts.
A simple contract consists of an agreement entered into by two or more
parties, whereby one of the parties undertakes to do something in return for
something to be undertaken by the other. A contract has been defined as an
agreement which directly creates and contemplates an obligation. The word
is derived from the Latin contractum, meaning drawn together.'
We all enter into contracts almost every day for the supply of goods,
transportation and similar services, and in all these instances we are quite
willing to pay for the services we receive . As our needs in these cases
are comparatively simple and we do not need to enter into lengthy or
complicated negotiations, no written contract is normally executed.
Nevertheless, each party to the contract has agreed to do something and is
liable for breach of contract if he fails to perform his part of the agreement.
In general, English law requires no special formalities in making contracts
but, for various reasons, some contracts must be in a particular form to be
enforceable and, if they are not made in that special way, then they will be
ineffective. Notable among these contracts are contracts for the sale and
disposal of land, and 'land' for this purpose, includes anything built on the
land such as houses.
It is sufficient to create a legally binding contract if the parties express
their agreement and intention to enter into such a contract. If, however,
there is no written agreement and a dispute arises in respect of the contract,
then the Court which decides the dispute will need to ascertain the terms of
the contract from the evidence given by the parties, before it can make a
decision on the matters in dispute.
292
Tendering Procedures and Contract Administration 293
On the other hand if the contract terms are set out in writing in a
document which the parties subsequently sign, then both parties are bound
by these terms even if they do not read them . Once a person has signed a
contract he is assumed to have read and approved its contents, and will not
be able to argue that the document fails to set out correctly the obligations
which he actually agreed to perform. Thus by setting down the terms of a
contract in writing one secures the double advantage of affording evidence
and avoiding disputes.
The law relating to contracts imposes upon each party to a contract a legal
obligation to perform or observe the terms of the contract, and gives to the
other party the right to enforce the fulfilment of these terms or to claim
'damages' in respect of the loss sustained in consequence of the breach of
contract.' . -
Enforcement of Contracts
An agreement can only be enforced as a contract if
(1) The agreement relates to the future conduct of one or more of the
parties to the agreement.
(2) The parties to the agreement intend that their agreement shall be
enforceable at law as a contract.
(3) It is possible to perform the contract without transgressing the law.
Validity of Contract
The legal obligation to perform a contractual obligation only exists where
the contract is valid. In order that the contract shall be valid the following
conditions must operate.
(1) There must be an offer made by one person (the offeror) and the
acceptance of that offer by another person (the offeree), to whom the offer
was made. Furthermore, the offer must be definite, and made with the
intention of entering into a binding contract. The acceptance of the offer
must be absolute, be expressed by words or conduct, and be accepted in the
manner prescribed or indicated by the person making the offer.
An offer is not binding until it is accepted and, prior to acceptance, the
offer may come to an end by lapse of time, by revocation by the offeror or by
rejection by the offeree, and in these cases there can be no acceptance unless
the offer is first renewed.
(2) The contract must have 'form' or be supported by 'consideration'.
The 'form' consists of a 'deed' which is a written document, which is signed,
sealed and delivered, and this type of contract is known as a formal contract
or contract made by deed.
If a contract is not made by deed, then it needs to be supported by
'consideration', in order to be valid, and this type of contract is known as a
simple contract. Consideration has been defined as some return, pecuniary
or otherwise, made by the promisee in respect of the promise made to him.
(3) Every party to a contract must be legally capable of undertaking th

obligations imposed by the contract. For instance, persons under 18 years c
age may, in certain cases, avoid liability under contracts into which the
have entered. Similarly a corporation can only be a party to a contract if it i
empowered by a statute or charter to enter into it.
(4) The consent of a party to a contract must be genuine. It must not b
obtained by fraud, misrepresentation, duress, undue influence or mistake
(5) The subject matter of the contract must be legal.
Remedies for Breach of Contract

Whenever a breach of contract occurs a right of action exists in the Courts tc
remedy the matter. The remedies generally available are as follows:
(1) Damages
(2) Order for payment of a debt
(3) Specific performance
(4) Injunction
(5) Rescission
Each of these remedies will now be considered further .
(1) Damages. In most cases a breach of contract gives rise to a right 0

action for damages . The damages consist of a sum of money which will, a:
far as it is practicable, place the aggrieved party in the same position as if the
contract had been performed.
The parties to a contract, when entering into the agreement, may agree
that a certain sum shall be payable if a breach occurs. This sum is usualf
known as liquidated damages where it represents a genuine estimate of the
loss which is likely to result from the breach of contract. Where, however
the agreed sum is in the nature of a punishment for the breach of contract
then the term penalty is applied to it, and penalties are not normallj
recoverable in full.
For instance, in building contracts it is often stipulated that a fixed SUIT
shall be paid per day or per week, if the contract extends beyond the agreec
contract period. If this sum is reasonable it constitutes liquidated damage!
and , unlike a penalty, is recoverable in full.
(2) Order for payment of a debt. A debt is a liquidated or ascertained SUIT

of money due from the debtor to the creditor and is recovered by an 'actior
of debt'.
(3) Specific performance. The term 'specific performance' refers to all

order of the Court directing a party to a contract to perform his part 01
the agreement. It is now only applied by the Courts on rare occasions when
damages would be an inadequate remedy but specific performance con-
stitutes a fair and reasonable remedy and is capable of effective supervision
by the Court. This remedy will not be given if it requires the constant
supervision of the Court.
(4) Injunction. An injunction is an order of Court directing a person not to

perform a specified act. For instance, if A had agreed not to carry out any
further building operations on his land, for the benefit of B, who owns the
adjoining land, and B subsequently observes A commencing building
operations, then B can apply to the Court for an injunction restraining A
from building. Damages, in these circumstances, would not be an adequate
remedy .
(5) Rescission. Rescission consists of an order of Court cancelling or

setting aside a contract and results in setting the parties back in the position
that they were before the contract was made.
Main Characteristics of Building Contracts

Most contracts entered into between builders or contractors and their
employers are of the type known as 'entire contracts'. These are contracts in
which the agreement is for specific work to be undertaken by the contractor
and no payment is due until the work is complete.
In an entire contract, where the employer agrees to pay a certain sum in
return for building work which is to be executed by the contractor, the
contractor is not entitled to any payment if he abandons the work prior to
completion, and will be liable in damages for breach of contract . Where the
work is abandoned at the request of the employer, or results from
circumstances which were clearly foreseen when the contract was entered
into and provided for in its terms, then the contractor will be' entitled to
payment on a quantum meruit basis, that is, he will be paid as much as he
has earned.
It is, accordingly, in the employer's interest that all contracts for building
work should be entire contracts, to avoid the possibility of work being
abandoned prior to completion. Contractors are usually unwilling to enter
into any contracts, other than the very smallest, unless provision is made for
interim payments to them as the work proceeds. For this reason the standard
form of building contract/ provides for the issue of interim certificates at
various stages of the works, with the proviso that payment, or the issue of a
certificate as a preliminary to payment, shall not be taken as approval of the
work performed up to the time of payment.
It is usual for the contract to further provide that only a proportion of the
sum due on the issue of a certificate shall be paid to the contractor. In this
way the employer retains a sum, known as retention money, which will
operate as an insurance against any defects that may arise in the work. The
contract does, however, remain an entire contract, and the contractor is not
entitled to demand payment in full until the work is satisfactorily completed,
the defects liability period expired and the final certificate of completion
issued.
That works must be completed to the satisfaction of the employer, or his
representative, does not give to the employer the right to demand an
unusually high standard of quality of work, in the absence of a prior express
agreement. Otherwise the employer might be able to postpone indefinitely
his liability to pay for the works. The employer is normally only entitled to
expect a standard of work that would be regarded as reasonable by
competent men with considerable experience in the class of work covered by
the particular contract. The detailed requirements of the specification will
have a considerable bearing on these matters.
The employer normally determines the conditions of contract, which
define the obligations of the contractor. He often selects the contractor for
the job by some form of competitive tendering and any contractor who
submits a successful tender and subsequently enters into a contract, is
deemed in law to have voluntarily accepted the conditions of contract
adopted by the employer, and any requirements embodied within the
invitation to tender. For example, the employer will not be bound to accept
the lowest or indeed any tender and this is often stated in the advertisement.
A tender is, however , normally required to be a definite offer, and
acceptance of it gives rise legally to a binding contract. 1
Types of Building Contract

There are a variety of employer/contractor relationships and the choice will
be influenced considerably by the particular circumstances. They range from
'cost reimbursement' or 'cost plus' contracts at one end of the scale to truly
lump sum contracts at the other.
The essential difference between the two extremes devolves upon which
party is to carry the risk of making a loss (or profit) and the incentives which
are built into the contract to encourage the contractor to provide an efficient
and economic service to the employer or client. An examination and
comparison of the most commonly used contractual arrangements follows .
(1) Cost Plus Contracts

These contracts are sometimes described as 'cost reimbursement' or 'prime
cost' contracts. In practice they can take anyone of three quite different
forms .
(a) Cost plus percentage contracts are those in which the contractor is
paid the actual cost of the work plus an agreed percentage of the actual or
allowable cost to cover overheads and profit. They are useful in an
emergency, when there is insufficient time available to prepare detailed
schemes prior to commencement of the work, but it will be apparent that an
unscrupulous contractor could increase his profit by delaying the completion
of the works. No incentive exists for the contractor to complete the works as
quickly as possible or to endeavour to reduce costs . They are quite
commonly used in maintenance work.
(b) Cost plus fixed fee contracts are those in which the sum paid to the
contractor will be the actual cost incurred in carrying out the work plus a
fixed lump sum, which has been previously agreed upon and does not
fluctuate with the final cost of the work . No real incentive exists for the
contractor to secure efficient working, although it is to his advantage to earn

the fixed fee as quickly as possible and so release his resources for other
work. This type of contract is superior to the cost plus percentage type of
contract.
(c) Cost plus fluctuating fee contracts are those in which the contractor
is paid the actual cost of the work plus a fee, the amount of the fee being
determined by reference to the allowable cost by some form of sliding scale.
Thus the lower the actual cost of the works, the greater will be the value of
the fee that the contractor receives. An incentive then exists for the
contractor to carry out the work as quickly and as cheaply as possible, and it
does constitute the best form of cost plus contract from the employer's
viewpoint.
(2) Target Cost Contracts

Target cost contracts are used -on occasions to encourage contractors to
execute the work as cheaply and efficiently as possible. A basic fee is
generally quoted as a percentage of an agreed target estimate often obtained
from a priced bill of quantities. The target estimate may be adjusted for
variations in quantity and design and fluctuations in the cost of labour and
materials. The actual fee paid to the contractor is determined by increasing
or reducing the basic fee by an agreed percentage of the saving Or excess
between the actual cost and the adjusted target estimate . In some cases a
bonus or penalty based on the time of completion may also be applied.
Target cost contracts can be useful when dealing with unusual or particularly
difficult situations, but the real difficulty lies in the agreement of a realistic
target and they are expensive to manage.?
(3) Fixed Price Contracts

These contracts include those based on schedules of rates, approximate
quantities and bills of quantities. Their great merit lies in the predetermined
nature of the mechanism for financial control provided by the pre-contract
agreed rates. The risk of making a profit or loss rests with the contractor.
Schedule of Rates Contracts may take one of a number of.different forms.

The employer may supply a schedule of unit rates covering each item of
work and ask the contractors, when tendering, to state a percentage above
or below the given rates for which they would be prepared to execute the
work . Alternatively, and as is more usual, the contractors may be requested
to insert prices against each item of work, and a comparison of the rates so
entered will enable the most favourable offer, and a comparison of the rates
so entered will enable the most favourable offer to be ascertained . Approxi-
mate quantities are sometimes included to assist the contractors in pricing
the schedules and the subsequent comparison of the tendered figures.
This type of contract is very suitable for maintenance and repair contracts,
where it is impossible to give realistic and accurate quantities of the work to
be undertaken. In this form of contract it is extremely difficult to make a fair

comparison between the figures submitted by the various contractors, unless
approximate quantities are inserted in the schedules, as there is no total
figure available for comparison purposes and the unit rates may fluctuate
extensively between the various tenderers. Occasionally schedules of rates
are used as a basis for negotiated contracts.
Approximate Quantities Contracts are occasionally used where speed is

important and design data is incomplete at the tendering stage. A Standard
Form of Contract has been prepared by the Joint Contracts Tribunal (JCT)
for use with bills of approximate quantities. The main problems lie with
post-contract administration when full remeasurement will be required.
Bills of Quantities Contracts are still a very commonly used contractual

arrangement for building projects of all but the smallest in extent, where the
quantities of the bulk of the work can be ascertained with reasonable
accuracy before the work is commenced. A bill of quantities gives as
accurately as possible the quantities of work to be executed and the
contractor enters a unit rate against each item of work. The extended totals
are added together to give the total cost of the project as described in
chapter 9.
In the absence of a bill of quantities each contractor tendering will have to
assess the amount of work involved and this will normally have to be
undertaken in a very short period of time, in among other assignments.
Under these circumstances a contractor, unless he is extremely short of
work, is almost bound to price high in order to allow himself a sufficient
margin of cover for any items which he may have missed. Furthermore,
there is no really satisfactory method of assessing the cost of variations and
the contractor may feel obliged to make allowance for this factor also, when
building up his contract price. Billsof quantities thus assist in keeping tender
figures to a minimum.
(4) Contracts based on Drawings and Specification

These are often described as 'lump sum' contracts although they may be
subject to adjustment in certain instances . They form a useful type of
contract where the work is limited in extent and reasonably certain in its
scope and are frequently used for works of alteration and conversion. They
have on occasions been used where the works are uncertain in character and
extent, and by entering into a lump sum contract the employer hoped to
place the onus on the contractor for deciding the full extent of the works and
the responsibility for covering any additional costs which could not be
foreseen before the works were commenced. The employer would then pay
a fixed sum for the works, regardless of their actual cost, and this constitutes
an undesirable practice from the contractor's point of view. A RICS
publication" has advocated the use of quantified specifications (specifica-
tions containing quantities) for projects consisting principally of extensive
minor alterations.
(5) Design and Build Contracts

These constitute a specialised form of contractual relationship in which
responsibility for design as well as construction is entrusted to the con-
tractor. The less developed the design, the less detailed the specification and
hence the less precise must be the calculation of the price. Contingencies
must be included to provide for the unknown. Design and build (package
deal) contracts have been used for local authority housing, often incor-
porating heavy industrialised systems; hospitals; defence installations and
factories .
With housing schemes up to six contractors may be invited by a local
authority to submit a complete development scheme for a large site. The
contractors may use their own design teams or private architects to prepare
schemes within the specified requirements of densities and costs, and the
successful contractor will subsequently be required to collaborate with the
authority's architect. This form of approach is particularly favoured where
special factors exist such as the use of building systems, although the
post-war record of the latter has been far from satisfactory.
Contractor-sponsored systems make it essential for the contractor to be
brought into the design team. It has also become necessary to formulate
procedures which will allow competition between contractors offering
different systems. This has involved two separate stages:
(i) a competition to select the contractor who can best satisfy the
functional, aesthetic and economic needs; and
(ii) a period of negotiation with the selected contractor using data,
especially prices, derived from the first stage.
Public Sector Maintenance Contracts

Where there is a concentration of maintenance work in a comparatively
restricted geographical area, the Property Services Agency frequently
makes use of term contracts. These are contracts under which the builder
undertakes to carry out a specific type of work within a range of contract
values for a specified period in a particular area at agreed rates. By this
means, projects which are appropriate to the contract can be ordered
without the extensive preliminary work which would be necessary, both by
PSA and the contractors, if each were the subject of lump sum tendering; at
the same time the method preserves the principle of competitive tendering
necessary to ensure that all approved firms have an equal chance of
obtaining work, and that the agency pays the lowest reasonable price. These
contracts can take the form of measured, daywork or specialist term
contracts.
Measured term contracts are used particularly for maintenance and minor
new works in the middle band of contract sizes, although the upper and
lower limits of cost vary with the type of work. Each is based on a priced
schedule of rates! which includes a specification, and tenders are submitted
in the form of a percentage addition or deduction from the rates as a whole.
To assist contractors in computing the appropriate percentage , they are
supplied with extensive information by PSA, including details of buildings

and the estimated annual value of work. Tenderers are expected to visit the
sites. This type of contract is used for building and civil engineering work,
painting and decorating, roadworks, ground maintenance, electrical work
and heating, hot water and ventilating installations. Their prime disadvan-
tage is the time taken in measuring each project in accordance with the
priced schedule of works.
Daywork term contracts are used in areas where the volume of work is too
small and too spasmodic to justify the use of measured term contracts.
Tenders are sought for daywork term contracts on the basis of a percentage
addition but in this case two figures are required, one for labour and the
other for materials, with quotations for transport costs. These percentages
are the additions required by the tenderer to cover profit, expenses and
overheads in addition to the refund of his actual labour and material costs.
PSA normally restricts this type of contract to small projects and smaller
catchment areas, where smaller firms can provide personal supervision and a
good and economical service.
Specialist term contracts are used where services are required regularly
over a period of time. The type of work appropriate to this contract includes
gully and window cleaning, boiler descaling, lift inspection and main-
tenance, cleaning bulk fuel tanks, inspection of pressure vessels, masts and
towers, and the maintenance of small isolated gardens and grounds. A
pre-priced schedule of rates with percentage additions is not usually
appropriate, but a schedule may be prepared for pricing by tenderers or a
quotation obtained in the form of a price per visit or operation.
Term contracts have the advantage of enabling the contractors to become
familiar with the buildings to be maintained and they assist in the planning of
an annual maintenance programme. This is reflected in lower prices and a
better service than could be obtained from separate orders for each project
on an ad hoc basis. PSA gains from a saving in staff time and the contractor
benefits from his ability to forecast his resource requirements and to
programme them efficiently, although it is not easy to plan a programme of
maintenance work well in advance and foresee all contingencies.
Another alternative is to use fixed price maintenance contracts, whereby a
lump sum is agreed with an existing contractor for a wide range of recurring
jobs of a similar kind in a specified group of buildings over a specified
period. Minor items of maintenance not covered by term contracts may be
the subject of lump sum contracts against a specification and drawings.
National Schedules
A number of local authorities have developed their own schedules of rates
for building maintenance work and there are several national schedules of
which probably the widest used is the National Schedule of Rates published
jointly by the Building Employers Confederation (BEC) and the Society of
Chief Quantity Surveyors in Local Government (SCQSLG).6 A funda-
mental requirement for schedules of rates for general use is that they be
soundly based." This was, in fact, the basic aim of the BEClSCQSLG
document.t although the Association of Metropolitan Authorities (AMA)8

came to the conclusion that a common standard schedule of rates for
maintenance was not a practical proposition and that schedules should be
individually prepared to suit the needs of each local authority .
Tendering Arrangements
Conventional tendering procedures have been criticised on the grounds that
they fail to take full advantage of modern techniques and do incorporate
unsatisfactory features. All tendering procedures aim at selecting a suitable
contractor and obtaining from him at an appropriate time an acceptable
offer, or tender, upon which a contract can be let.
The Simon Committee in 19449 drew attention to the fact that low prices
resulting from indiscriminate tendering result in bad building and that
resources are wasted when many firms tender for the same project. In 1964
the Banwell Report!" suggested that invitations to tender should be limited
to a realistic number of firms, all of whom were capable of executing the
work to a recognised standard of competence . The Banwell Committee
appeared to favour the general use of standing approved lists of contractors
and that ad hoc lists should be used mainly when the work was of a specialist
or one-off nature. The Committee further recommended that the period
allowed for tendering should be adequate for the type of project and
welcomed 'firm price' contracts (contracts without a price fluctuations
clause) . The former Ministry of Housing and Local Government issued
revised model standing orders to local authorities in 1964 to facilitate the
wider use of selective tendering procedures, and in 1965 the Ministry gave
guidance to local authorities on the operation of selective tendering.
In 1965 a working party was established by the Economic Development
Committee for Building to examine the Banwell Report and its implementa-
tion and it submitted its report in 196711• The working party considered that
insufficient attention was paid to the importance of time and its proper use
and that clients seldom define their requirements in sufficient detail at the
start of negotiations. It favoured the main contractor joining the design team
at an early stage .
The working party urged the wider adoption of the practices which are
well detailed in Code of Procedure for Single Stage Tendering,12 although
they recognised that in the public sector this would require a more flexible
approach to satisfy standards of accountability. Although the working party
saw merit in 'firm price' contracts, they stressed the difficulties involved in
producing firm tenders in a market where materials prices tend to fluctuate
and contractors are often invited to tender on incomplete documentation.
This problem has now been largely solved by the introduction of price
adjustment formulae described later in this chapter.
Summing up, tendering arrangements can be broadly classified into three
main groups
(1) advertising for competitive tenders;

(2) inviting tenders from selected contractors; and
(3) negotiating a contract with a selected contractor.
Method 1 ensures maximum competition but there is the disadvantage
that tenders may be received from firms who have neither the necessary
financial resources nor adequate technical knowledge and experience of the
class of work involved. Hillebrandt'P lists two principal objections to open
tendering .
(1) No guarantee that the contractor who submits the lowest tender is
technically, managerially or financially capable of carrying out the project.
If he is not, the costs of remedial work may far outweigh the gain by the
lower initial cost.
(2) The costs of tendering to the would-be contractor are high and have
to be recouped so that they will be reflected in higher overhead costs.
Method 2 is becoming increasingly popular as it provides for the use of a
list of contractors of proven competence for work of the size and nature
contemplated and retains the competitive element. Method 3 is often
restricted to special circumstances, as for instance when the contractor is
already engaged on the same site and space is very restricted . Negotiation
might also offer advantages where it is required to make an early start with
the work or where the contractor in question has exceptional experience of
the class of work covered by the particular contract.
The number of firms invited to tender will depend on the size and type of
contract, ranging from a maximum of five for contracts up to £50 000 in
value, six between £50 000 and £250 000, and eight between £250 000 and £1
million. A period of four weeks is normally allowed between the receipt of
tender documents by contractors and delivery of the actual tenders.
Contract Documents
There are five contract documents which are often used in connection with
building contracts. With small contracts it is likely that a bill of quantities
will be omitted. In cases where a bill of quantities is issued the specification
is not a contract document unless the contract expressly provides for it. The
following can constitute contract documents.
(1) Articles of Agreement
(2) Conditions of Contract
(3) Specification
(4) Bill of Quantities
(5) Contract Drawings
The nature and uses of each of these documents are as follows.
(1) Articles ofAgreement. These constitute the formal agreement between

the employer and the contractor for the execution of the work in accordance
with the other contract documents for the contract sum. The contractor
covenants to construct, complete and maintain the works in accordance with

the contract, and the employer covenants to pay the contractor at the times
and in the manner prescribed by the contract.
(2) Conditions of Contract. These define the terms under which the work
is to be undertaken; the relationship between the employer, architect,
quantity surveyor and contractor; the powers of the architect and the terms
of payment. The normal standard set of conditions used for most building
contracts is that issued by the Joint Contracts Tribunal and is generally
known as the JCf Conditions, currently JCf80. There are four separate sets
for use on public or private contracts and with or without quantities in each
case.' Practice notes are issued from time to time to clarify doubtful points.
Where a contract is of very limited extent and the use of the standard
comprehensive set of conditions is not really justified, an abbreviated set of
conditions may be used . Another and popular alternative is to use the
Agreement for Minor Building Works,14 which is well suited for works of
alteration and improvement, where no bills of quantities are prepared, and
is described in some detail later in this chapter. On government contracts the
general conditions (GC/Wks/1)15 are frequently used, while the Form
GC/Works/2 is particularly desifned for minor works16 and there is also a set
of conditions for small works. 1
(3) Specification The specification performs a vital role in any building

contract but in recent years there has been a tendency to include it in the bill
of quantities in the form of preamble clauses, or even more effectively in
annotated bills. Where a bill of quantities has been prepared, the
specification will not constitute a contract document unless it is a
requirement of the particular contract, and the contract documents have
precedence over documents of lesser standing. Where there is no bill of
quantities, the specification constitutes a contract document. As described
in chapter 8 the specification amplifies the information given in the contract
drawings and bill of quantities. It describes in detail the work to be executed
under the contract and the nature and quality of the materials and
workmanship.
Details of any special responsibilities to be borne by the contractor, apart
from those listed in the conditions of contract, are often incorporated in this
document. It may also contain clauses specifying the order in which various
sections of the work are to be performed, the methods to be adopted in the
execution of the work, and details of any special facilities that are to be
afforded to other contractors or sub-contractors.
An excellent arrangement for a building specification is to commence with
any special conditions relating to the contract and the extent of the work,
then to follow with a list of contract drawings, details of the programme,
description of access to site, supply of electricity and water, offices and mess
facilities, and statements regarding suspension of work during frost and bad
weather, damage to existing services, details of borings if any, groundwater
levels and similar general matters.
This section could conveniently be followed,by detailed clauses covering
the various sections of the work, commencing with materials in each case
and then proceeding with workmanship and other clauses. The specification
constitutes a schedule of instructions to the contractor with particular
reference to the way in which the work is to be undertaken.
(4) Bill of Quantities. This consists of a schedule of the items of work to be
carried out under the contract with quantities entered against each item, the
quantities normally being prepared in accordance with the Standard Method
of Measurement of Building Works or the Code for the Measurement of
Building Works in Small Dwellings. The bill of quantities provides a uniform
basis on which tenders can be obtained and, when these are priced, they
provide a means of comparing the tenders received and of pricing the work
on site as executed. The unit rates entered by the contractor against each
measured item in the bill of quantities normally include an allowance for
general overheads and profit, as described in chapter 9.
(5) Contract Drawings. These depict the nature and scope of the work to
be carried out under the contract. They must be prepared to a suitable scale
and be in sufficient detail to permit a contractor to price the bill of quantities
and to carry out the work satisfactorily. For instance site plans will normally
be drawn to a scale of 1:200 or 1:500, working drawings of buildings
probably 1:100, assembly drawings 1:20 or 1:10 and details to 1:10 to 1:5.
All available information on the topography of the site, the nature of the
ground and the groundwater level, should be made available to contractors
tendering for a project. Existing and proposed work must be clearly distin-
guished on the drawings. For instance, old and new drains and other services
are often depicted in different colours or by different types of line. With
alterations to buildingsit is often preferable to prepare separate plans of old
and new work.
All drawings should contan an abundance of descriptive and explanatory
notes which should be clearly legible and free from abbreviations. Ample
figured dimensions should be inserted on the drawings to ensure maximum
accuracy in taking off quantities and in setting out the constructional work
on site.
Parties Involved in Contracts

A number of persons are involved in the execution of a building contract
operating under a quite complicated set of interrelationships.
Employer. The employer, building owner or client is the person , firm or

body on whose behalf building work is undertaken and who is responsible
for paying for the work as executed and certified in architects' or surveyors'
certificates. There is little contact between the employer and most of the
parties to the contract as he deals mainly through his agent-the architect or
surveyor for the contract. It assists in the smooth running of a contract if the
employer is reasonably clear about his requirements, refrains from changing
his mind or interfering with the work on site, and honours the certificates
within the prescribed period. There is no contractual relationship between

the employer and any nominated sub-contractor.
Architect. The architect acts as agent and technicaladviser to the employer

and prepares all the contract particulars. He ascertains the employer's
requirements, selects any necessary consultants and a quantity surveyor if
required, prepares preliminary drawings and obtains approximate estimates,
selects sub-contractors, prepares detailed drawingsand specification, obtains
a bill of quantities where required and invites and advises on tenders. He
subsequently selects a tender for the employer's approval, supervises the
work, certifies payments to the contractor, issues variation orders as
necessary, decides how provisional sums are to be spent, secures the
remedying of defects at the end of the defects liability period and certifies
the final account. On smaller maintenance, alteration and conversion
contracts a surveyor may act as agent and plan and supervise the work on
behalf of the employer .
Engineer. Engineers may be employed on large contracts to advise on

specialist work such as structural steelwork and heating and ventilating
installations. The engineers will prepare designs and specifications for the
specialist work, obtain quotations and submit reports to the architect.
Subsequently they will supervise the specialist work on the site.
Quantity Surveyor. The quantity surveyor is concerned with the cost and
measurement aspects of building contracts. He advises the architect on the
cost implications of design decisions, prepares approximate estimates and
often cost plans, and later tender particulars. He values the work on site,
assesses the effect of variations and finally prepares the final account on the
basis of which the architect certifies final payment.
Contractor. The contractor undertakes to construct and complete the

building work in accordance with the contract documents. He must have
sole responsibility for all executive work on the site. He is generally required
to proceed regularly and diligently with the work and to complete it by a
specified date, otherwise he may be liable for the payment of liquidated
damages. The contractor is required to comply with all statutory regulations
affecting the works, to give all necessary notices and to insure the works. He
receives his instructions from the architect or surveyor for the contract.
Sub-contractors. There are a variety.of sub-contractors engaged on most
large building contracts. They specialise in a wide range of crafts, structural
work, mechanical and other equipment, and decorative and other finishes.
They are frequently able to produce cheaper and yet higher-quality work
than the main contractor. Sub-contractors have to look to the main con-
tractor for instructions and payment; there is usually a sub-contract regulat-
ing the relationships between the two parties.
Contractor's Supervisory Staff. The contractor is required under the
Standard Form of Contract to keep upon the works a competent person-in-

charge, generally a foreman on smaller contracts, to whom the architect may
issue instructions ; all verbal instructions being subsequently confirmed in
writing. The foreman is generally responsible for organising the labour
employed on the site, securing efficient use of plant and materials, setting
out the works, liaising with the clerk of works, programming and progress-
ing the work and recording daywork and other data. In the case of very
large contracts an agent may be employed to take over some of these
responsibilities.
Clerk of Works. The clerk of works is appointed by and acts as an

inspector on behalf of the employer, but he carries out his inspection duties
and issues instructions only under the directions of the architect, who must
confirm them in writing within two working days. He is usually a craft
operative with a wide experience of building work and his main function is to
ensure that all the work on the site is in accordance with good construction
practice and that it complies with the contract documents. He often records
details of drainage and other work which will be hidden by subsequent
building operations and agrees details with the contractor's foreman.
Although the architect may delegate supervision of the work to the clerk of
works, he remains nevertheless responsible. In the case of Leicester Board
of Guardians v. Trollope (1911), the architect was held negligent for a
structural defect (absence of damp-proof membrane), despite collusion
between the contractor and the clerk of works.
Building Control Officer. Building control officers are employed by local
authorities and examine submitted plans under the Building Regulations
and inspect the work under construction to ensure compliance with the
current regulations and the submitted and approved plans. A more detailed
consideration of the building control process is given in chapter 11.
Conditions of Contract for Minor Works

The full JeT Conditions are sometimes considered unduly complicated and
extensive for works of building maintenance, alteration and conversion,
often referred to as 'minor works' . Abridged or condensed formats have
been prepared blJ the Joint Contracts Tribunal" and the Department of the
Environment. 16. 7 A description of the principal provisions of the 1Cf
Agreement for Minor Building Works'" follows.
General Principles
The JCT Agreement for Minor Building Works has the attractions of brevity
and simplicity. The simplicity has been achieved by the omission of many of
the clauses of JeT 80, the reduction of others to basic requirements and the
omission of detailed legal provisions and administrative procedures. 18
This Form of Agreement is designed for use where minor building works
are to be carried out for an agreed lump sum and where an Architect!
Supervising Officer has been appointed on behalf of the Employer. The
Form is not for use for works for which bills of quantities have been
prepared, or where the duration is such that .full labour and materials
fluctuations provisions are required; nor for works of a complex nature
which involve complicated services or require more than a short period of
time for their execution. Furthermore, no sub-contractors or suppliers are to
be nominated. It is however possible to incorporate a fluctuations clause
similar to clause 39 of JCf 80. Readers requiring more detailed information
on the operation of the Agreement are referred to WOOd. 19
Recitals
The Agreement contains four Recitals which explain and set out the purpose
of a contract and the facts upon which the contract is based .
Recital] describes the contract works, names the architect and defines the
contract documents which together with the conditions may be one of the
following:
(1) the contract drawings, the reference numbers of which have to be
stated, together with the contract specification and schedules;
(2) the contract drawings and the contract specification;
(3) the contract drawings and schedules;
(4) the contract drawings;
(5) the contract specification and schedules;
(6) the contract specification;
(7) the schedules.
Recital 2 states that the contractor has priced either the specification or the
schedules, both of which are contract documents, or has provided a schedule
of rates. Presumably the contractor will have to provide a schedule of rates if
the contract documents consist only of the contract drawings and the
conditions.
Recital 3 states that the contract documents have been signed by or on behalf
of both parties.
Recital 4 provides for the appointment of a quantity surveyor should one be

required in connection with the contract, although it is difficult to envisage
how this can arise .
Articles
There are 'four Articles in the Agreement.
Article] states that the contractor will carry out and complete the works in
return for the payment of the contract sum.
Article 2 sets out the contract sum and states that the sum is exclusive of
Value Added Tax (VAT).
Article 3 names the person appointed as architect for the. purposes of the
contract and gives the employer the right to nominate some other person to
act as architect should the named architect cease for any reason to be the
architect.
Article 4 follows the procedure in JCf 80 and makes the arbitration clause
part of the Articles of Agreement. Any disputes or differences concerning
the contract that may arise between the employer or architect and the
contractor, shall be referred to arbitration at any time, whether or not
practical completion of the works has been achieved .
Contract Clauses
Intentions of the Parties (clause 1.0) . The Contractor is to carry out and
complete the Works with due diligence and in a good and workmanlike
manner, using materials and workmanship of the prescribed quality and,
where appropriate, to the reasonable satisfaction of the Architect/
Supervising Officer. The Architect/Supervising Officer shall supply any
further information as necessary, issue all certificates and confirm all
instructions in writing.
Commencement and Completion (clause 2.0). Dates are inserted for com-
mencement and completion. If it becomes apparent that the Works will not
be completed by the agreed completion date for reasons beyond the
Contractor's control, the Contractor shall notify the Architect/Supervising
Officer, who shall make, in writing, such extension of time for completion as
may be reasonable. If the Works are not completed by the prescribed or
extended completion date, the Contractor shall pay to the Employer the
appropriate weekly rate of liquidated damages for the period during which
the Works remain uncompleted. The Architect/Supervising Officer shall
certify the date when the Works have reached practical completion.
Any defects, excessive shrinkage or other faults which appear within three
months of the date of practical completion and are due to materials or
workmanship not in accordance with the Contract or frost occurring before
practical completion, shall be made good by the Contractor at his own cost
unless the Architect/Supervising Officer instructs otherwise. The Architect/
Supervisingofficer shall certify the date when the Contractor has discharged
all his obligations.
Control ofthe Works (clause 3.0). The Contract shall not be assigned by the
Employer or the Contractor without the written consent of the other. The
Contractor shall not sub-contract any part of the Works without the written
consent of the Architect/Supervising Officer which shall not unreasonably
be withheld.
The Contractor shall at all reasonable times keep upon the Works a
competent person in charge and any instructions given to him by the
Architect/Supervising Officer shall be deemed to have been issued to the
Contractor. The Architect/Supervising Officer may (but not unreasonably
or vexatiously) issue instructions requiring the exclusion from the Works of
any person employed upon them.
The Contractor shall carry out any written instructions issued by the
Architect/Supervising Officer, and oral instructions require confirmation
within two days. If the Contractor fails to comply with a written notice
requiring compliance with an instruction within 7 days after receipt, the
Employer may employ other persons to carry out the work and deduct the
costs from monies due to the Contractor or they shall be recoverable as a
debt .
The Architect/Supervising Officer may vary the contract by ordering
additions, omissions or other changes, and value them on a fair and
reasonable basis, using where relevant prices in the priced specification,
schedules or schedule of rates. Alternatively, the price may be agreed
between the Architect/Supervising Officer and Contractor before the Con-
tractor carries out the instruction.
The Architect/Supervising Officer shall issue instructions as to how
provisional sums are to be spent and the basis of valuation shall be the same
as for variations.
Payment (clause 4.0). Any inconsistency between the Contract Drawings

and Contract Specification and schedules shall be corrected and treated as a
variation. Nothing contained in these documents shall override, modify or
affect the application or interpretation of the Contract Conditions.
The Architect/Supervising Officer shall if requested by the Contractor, at
not less than four weekly intervals, certify progress payments to the
Contractor in respect of the value of the Works properly executed, and the
value of any materials and goods which have been reasonably and properly
brought on to the site and which are adequately stored and protected, less a
retention of 5 per cent and less any previous payments made by the
Employer. The Employer shall pay the amount certified within 14 days of
the date of the certificate.
The Architect/Supervising Officer shall within 14 days after the date of
practical completion certify payment to the Contractor of 97t
per cent of
the total ascertainable amount due to the Contractor, less previous progress
payments, and the Employer shall pay the Contractor within 14 days of the
certificate. The Contractor shall supply within three months of the date of
practical completion all documentation required for final certification by
the Architect/Supervising Officer, who shall within 28 days issue a final
certificate .certifying the amount remaining due to the Contractor or the
Employer, and this sum shall constitute a debt payable from 14 days after
the date of the final certificate .
Statutory Obligations (clause 5.0). The Contractor shall comply with, and
give all notices required by, any relevant statute, regulation, by-law and the
like, and shall pay all fees and charges legally recoverable. If the Contractor
finds any divergences between the statutory requirements and the contract
documents and Architect's instructions, he shall immediately notify the
Architect/Supervising Officer in writing. Subject to this latter obligation, the
Contractor shall not be liable if the Works do not comply with statutory
requirements.
The Employer shall pay to the Contractor any value added tax properly
chargeable on the supply to the Employer of any goods and services by the
Contractor under the Contract. The Contractor shall in respect of all
persons employed by him comply with the Fair Wages Resolution.
The Employer shall be entitled to cancel the contract and to recover any
consequent loss from the Contractor, if the Contractor shall have offered or
given or agreed to give to any person any gift or any consideration of any
kind, or if he shall have committed any offence under the Prevention of
Corruption Acts 1889 to 1916, or shall have given any fee or reward the
receipt of which is an offence under section 117 of the Local Government
Act 1972 or any subsequent re-enactment.
Injury, Damage and Insurance (clause 6.0) . The Contractor shall be liable
for and shall indemnify the Employer against any expense, liability, loss,
claim or proceedings arising under any statute or at common law in respect
of personal injury to or death of any person arising out of the Works, unless
due to any act of the Employer or of any person for whom he is responsible .
Without prejudice to his liability to indemnify the Employer, the Contractor
shall maintain and shall cause any sub-contractor to maintain the necessary
insurance to cover the liability of the Contractor or sub-contractor. Similar
provisions also apply in respect of property.
The Contractor shall in the joint names of the Employer and the
Contractor insure against loss and damage by fire, lightning, explosion,
storm, tempest, flood, bursting or overflowing of water tanks, apparatus or
pipes, earthquakes, aircraft and other aerial devices dropped from them,
riot and civil commotion, for the full value, plus a prescribed percentage to
cover professional fees, of all work executed and all unfixed materials and
goods intended for the Works, but excluding temporary buildings, plant,
tools, and equipment owned or hired by the Contractor and. his sub-con-
tractors. Upon acceptance of any claim under the insurance, the Contractor
shall with due diligence restore or replace work or materials damaged and
dispose of any debris and proceed with and complete the Works .
In the case of works to existing structures, the Employer shall maintain
adequate insurance encompassing all the matters previously listed. The
Contractor or sub-contractor and Employer shall produce evidence of
insurance as and when required by the other party.
Determination (clause 7.0). The Employer may, but not unreasonably or

vexatiously, by notice by registered post or recorded delivery to the
Contractor, determine the employment of the Contractor, if the Contractor
shall make default in one or more of the following respects:
(1) if the Contractor without reasonable cause fails to progress dili-
gently with the Works or wholly suspends the carrying out of the Works
before completion ;
(2) if the Contractor becomes bankrupt or makes any composition or
arrangement with his creditors or has a winding up order made.
In the event of the Employer determining the employment of the
Contractor, the Contractor shall immediately give up possession of the site
of the Works and the Employer shall not be bound to make any further
payment to the Contractor until after the completion of the Works, but this
shall be without prejudice to any other rights or remedies which the
Employer may have.
The Contractor may similarly determine his employment if the Employer
shall make default in anyone or more of the following respects:
(1) if the Employer fails to make any progress payment under the
Contract within 14 days of such payment being due;
(2) if the Employer or any person for whom he is responsible interferes
with or obstructs the carrying out of the Works or fails to make the premises
available for the Contractor;
(3) if the Employer suspends the carrying out of the Works for a
continuous period of at least one month;
(4) if the Employer becomes bankrupt or makes .a composition or
arrangement with his creditors or has a winding up order made.
Under sub-clauses (1), (2) and (3), determination does not become effective
unless the Employer continues the default for seven days after receipt of the
notice .
In the event of the Contractor determining his employment, the Employer
shall pay to the Contractor, after taking into account amounts previously
paid, such sum as shall be fair and reasonable for the value of work begun
and executed, materials on site and the removal of all temporary buildings,
plant, tools and equipment, but without prejudice to any other rights or
remedies which the Contractor may possess. .
Contract Procedures
Placing the Contract
In the case of a bill of quantities contract , where no serious errors have been
found in the priced bills of the lowest tenderer, the architects's report to the
employer will normally recommend acceptance of that tender, particularly
where selective tendering operates. As soon as the employer has made his
decision, all contractors who tendered should be notified. If priced billshave
been submitted with tenders, these should be returned to unsuccessful
contractors unopened. Letters to unsuccessful tenderers should include a list
of tenders in ascending order and a list of tenderers in alphabetical order .
If the quantity surveyor finds serious errors in pricing, the contractor
should be advised and given the opportunity of withdrawing or standing by
his tender. Where the errors are significant, an adjusting lump sum will be
added to or deducted from the corrected total of the summary. This
adjustment can be applied as a percentage to any billed rates subsequently
used for valuing variations.
All contract documents must be signed by both parties and deletions or
alterations initialled by them . The contractor is then supplied with the
appropriate number of copies of documents and insurance cover obtained
and agreed.
Variations
As the contract proceeds, the architect will almost invariably issue further
drawings, details and instructions. All architect's instructions must ·be in
writing and it is advisable to use standard forms covering both instructions
and variations. Provisional quantities may be inserted for work which is
uncertain in extent such as foundations; the provisional quantities are
omitted in the variation account, and the actual work done is measured and
included as an addition. Alterations in design and finishings are frequent
subjects for variation orders.
Variation orders are generally issued in triplicate; onecopy each for the
contractor, architect and quantity surveyor. If the contractor considers that
any work constitutes a variation, he should at once draw the architect's
attention to it. Subsequently, the quantity surveyor and the contractor's
representative meet to agree the amount of work omitted from the contract
and to measure the additional work. Items measured in the office are usually
entered on dimensions paper and those on the site recorded in dimension
books. After the measurements have been agreed the quantity surveyor will
work them up into a variation account, containing a bill of omissions and a
bill of additions, when suitable rates for the various items will be agreed.
Certificates
As the contractor is continually financing the works in progress, .it is
imperative that he should receive interim certificates at the appropriate time
and for the full amount due on all but the smallest contracts. It is equally
important that he should be paid promptly on the certificates, especially
since he is expected to pay sums due to sub-contractors whether he receives
payment or not. It will also be appreciated that no interest is paid on sums
outstanding which arise from incorrect certification.
Certificates are normally issued monthly by the architect; these are based
on the quantity surveyor's valuation of the work done and of unfixed
materials properly and not prematurely brought upon the site and also of
materials in workshops subject to suitable safeguards. The valuations will
include a proportion of preliminaries and the cost of any recoverables and
daywork which have been certified. The amount of detail in a valuation
varies according to circumstances and a percentage of the total of each work
sectional bill is often considered adequate. In some cases the contractor's
surveyor prepares a statement containing his estimate of the sum due for
checking by the quantity surveyor. Previous payments and the retention
percentage will be deducted from the total valuation to give the sum due to
the contractor.
Daywork
Until 1966 the National Schedule of Daywork Charges, with its fixed
percentage additions, provided the basis for the payment of daywork. Since
that date, fixed percentages cannot be directed or authorised by any
professional body or trade federation . Every contractor must be free to

decide what percentage addition he deems necessaryto cover overheads and
profit and to vary such additions from contract to contract if he deems fit.
Some contractors welcome daywork as with an adequate percentage there
is no risk of loss. Employers and their professional advisers tend to view
daywork with suspicion, believing that there is no incentive to reduce costs
or increase efficiency, and that the contractor may be tempted to use his
slowest men on this work and to regard it as a standby or 'hospital' job. On
occasions, daywork can be disruptive of the smooth operation of a contract.
Daywork should be restricted to work which cannot satisfactorily be
measured and valued at billed rates. Suitable examples are the repair and
reinstatement of work stemming from a bad outbreak of dry rot, exploratory
work and underpinning of a settled building, and opening up and reinstate-
ment of defective drains . The surveyor must carefully examine the daywork
sheets and rigorously check the quantities of labour and materials listed.
Milne20 has amplified the methods of controlling daywork.
Claims
Variations which cause loss or expense, not being due to underpricing in the
tender or the contractor's inefficiency, may be the subject of a loss and/or
expense claim, and these must be submitted in writing within a reasonable
time of the event. Where a claim is appropriate the amount of loss and/or
expense is to be ascertained by the architect, or quantity surveyor if so
instructed, but the contractor will need to submit the necessary information
to support his claim. If a variation has caused delay an extension of time may
be granted.
The contractor's site management needs to keep adequate records and
take other appropriate action as follows to support any claimsfor disruption
and delay:
(1) ensure that appropriate written notice, application or confirmation
of instruction is made;
(2) use best endeavours to prevent delay;
(3) keep a programme showing the dates on which it is planned to carry
out the various operations making up the works;
(4) record the effect on the programme of any events which disrupt or
delay the regular progress of the works;
(5) record any loss of productivity resulting from these events or any
waiting time;
(6) .if the character or conditions under which work is to be carried out
have changed as a result of the architect's instructions, record the item as
daywork .
Price Adjustment Formula

The easiest and quickest method of assessingprice fluctuations of labour and
materials is to apply the NEDO price adjustment formula.I' Where this
formula is used building works are allocated between the indices for each of
the work categories, such as in situ concrete, brickwork, blockwork and
asphalt work. The formula permits a regular assessment of price fluctuations
as valuations are made of work executed for each work category during the
period covered by the interim valuation.
Work category index numbers are calculated monthly by the Property
Services Agency (PSA) and published in HMSO Monthly Bulletin Con-
struction Indices. Each work category index measures the price level
changes which occur in respect of certain items of work chosen as being
representative of that work category. This is done monthly by revaluing the
resources required (labour, plant and materials) at current prices .
When the formula method of price adjustment is to be used, the base
month must be stated in the tender documents and an appropriate clause
inserted in the contract conditions. The bills of quantities will contain a
schedule indicating the work category into which each item in the bills of
quantities falls. The value of preliminaries will be totalled and spread
proportionately over the value of the main contractor's work which is
subject to price adjustment. Where no bill of quantities is provided and the
work tendered for is on a lump sum basis, the full amount of the tender
subject to price adjustment will be allocated to work categories.
The value of each item of work executed and included in an interim
valuation will be allocated to the appropriate work category. The formula.
will then be applied to the value of work performed and included in the
interim certificate for each separate work category . The indices from which
all fluctuations are calculated are the final index numbers for the base month
and the month of valuation. The formula is as follows
c = V[Iv ~oIo]
where C = the amount of the price adjustment for the work category or
group
V = the value of the work executed in the work category/group during
the valuation period
l; = the work category/group index number at the mid-point of the
month of valuation
10 = the work category/group index number for the base month.
The principal advantages of the price adjustment formula method are:

(1) the contractor secures the benefit of good buying;
(2) fluctuations are dealt with monthly, thus improving cash flow;
(3) there can be no arguments about how labour is employed as the
labour element is recoverable no matter how the work is done;
(4) time sheets and invoices need no longer be produced with all the
consequent work in checking and cross-checking.
A typical example is given and comparisons made with the orthodox
analysis method in Quantity Surveying Practice.22
Final Account
In order that the architect may issue the final certificate, he requires from
the quantity surveyor the final account for the contract. The adjustment of
the contract sum in the final account falls under the following headings:
(1) variations
(2) remeasurement of provisional quantities
(3) nominated sub-contractors' accounts
(4) nominated suppliers' accounts
(5) loss and expense caused by disturbance of regular progressof the
works
(6) fluctuations (where applicable) .
Delays in the settlement ofthe final account are a cost to the contractor and
the employer is usually anxious to know his ultimate financial commitment.
The architect and quantity surveyor both have a contractual responsibility to
adhere to the date stipulated in the contract, and the contractor should
provide every assistance in the prompt provision of sub-contractors' and
suppliers' accounts, agreement of measurements and prices and similar
matters. Where no quantity surveyor is employed, the responsibility lies
with the contractor to supply all relevant cost particulars to the architect.
References
1 I. H . Seeley . Civil Engineering Quantities. Macmillan (1987)
Standard Form of Building Contract (1980)
3 The Aqua Group. Tenders and Contracts for Building . Granada (1982)
4 Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Refurbishment and Alteration
Work: Quantity Surveying Documentation (1982)
5 DOE. Schedule of Rates for Building Works. HMSO (1984); Schedule
of Rates for Decoration Work . HMSO (1981); Schedule of Rates for
Minor Works and Maintenance of Roads and Pavings. HMSO (1981);
Schedule of Rates for Ground Maintenance. HMSO (1981); Schedule of
Rates for Electrical Installations. HMSO (1980); Schedule of Rates
for Heating, Hot Water and Ventilating Installations. HMSO (1983);
Schedule of Rates for Electrical Distribution Systems External to
Buildings. HMSO (1978)
6 Building Employers Confederation and Society of Chief Quantity
Surveyors in Local Government. National Schedule of Rates. (1982)
7 Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy and Institution
of Municipal Engineers. Local Authority Maintenance Work : Interim
Users' Guide to Schedules of Rates (1982)
8 Association of Metropolitan Authorities. Guidance Notes on Prepara-
tion of Term Contracts using Schedules of Rates (1981)
9 Simon Committee. The Placing and Management of Building Contracts.
HMSO (1944)
10 Ministry of Public Buildings and Works (Banwell Report). The Placing

and Management of Contractsfor Building and Civil Engineering Work .
HMSO (1964)
11 Economic Development Council for Building. Action on the Banwell
Report. HMSO (1967)
12 National Joint Consultative Committee for Building. Code ofProcedure
for Single Stage Tendering. (1977)
13 P. M. Hillebrandt. Analysis of the British Construction Industry.
Macmillan (1984)
Agreement for Minor Building Works (1985)
15 Form GClWorks/l. General Conditions of Government Contracts for
Building and Civil Engineering Works . HMSO (1977)
16 Form GClWorks/2. General Conditions of Government Contracts for
Building and Civil Engineering Minor Works. HMSO (1980)
17 Form ClOOl. General Conditions of Government Contracts for Build-
ing, Civil Engineering, Mechanical and Electrical Small Works. HMSO
(1982)
18 J. M. Audus. A Builder's Guide to the Agreement for Minor Building
Works-January 1980 Edition. CIOB (1981)
19 R. D. Wood. The JCT Agreement for Minor Building Works. Estates
Gazette (1983)
20 R. D. Milne. Building Estate Maintenance Administration . Spon (1985)
21 NEDO. Price Adjustment Formulae for Building Contracts: Guide to
applicationlDescription of the indices. HMSO (1979)
22 I. H. Seeley. Quantity Surveying Practice. Macmillan (1984)
11 BUILDING CONTROL
It is doubtful whether any other industry is subject to so much legislative

control as the construction industry. A government department or local
authority cannot exercise any control over building work unless it can show
that an Act of Parliament confers this power upon it. Acts of Parliament also
confer powers to make regulations, orders and by-lawswhich have the force
of law. This type of legislation is often called delegated or subordinate
legislation; it has the same validity and effect as if it formed part of the law
which authorised it. For example, much of the control of building work is
exercised through Statutory Instruments, particularly in the field of town
and country planning. Up to 1966, local authorities were authorised to make
building by-laws under the Public Health Act 1936, but the 1961 Act
deprived them of this power and conferred upon the Minister the power to
make regulations covering the same field as the former by-laws. The
currently operative Building Regulations 1985, were made under the
provisions of the Building Act 1984, and apply to England and Wales,
including London.
BuDding Regulations
Building Regulations! may apply to alteration and improvement works and
to buildings which are to undergo a material change of use, such as the
conversion of a house designed for occupation by a single family to multiple
occupation. The Building Regulations' cover the construction of and
materials used in building, including resistance to moisture, cavity insula-
tion, means of escape and fire resistance, resistance to passage of sound,
ventilation, hygiene, drainage and waste disposal, heat producing app-
liances, conservation of energy and facilities for disabled people. Approval
of alteration and improvement work under the Building Regulations will be
required in the following circumstances in particular.
(1) Addition to a building.
(2) Any work involving structural alterations, which includes breaking
out an opening in a loadbearing wall and inserting a lintel.
317
(3) Any alteration to an existing drainage system.

(4) Installation of new sanitary conveniences and certain heating
appliances.
Even when maintenance work is exempt from the provision of the Building
Regulations, it is advisable to adhere to them, particularly in relation to
structural fire precautions. There is a danger that constructional methods
and components, such as fire check doors, which originally satisfied the
Building Regulations, could as part of maintenance work be replaced with
new components which fail to comply.
Exempted Buildings
Certain buildings are exempt by the Building Act 1984from the operation of
the Building Regulations; these are as follows.
(1) Buildings exempt by direction of the Secretary of State.
(2) Schools and other educational establishments to be erected in
accordance with plans approved by the Secretary of State for Education and
Science or the Secretary of State for Wales.
(3) Buildings of statutory undertakers, the United Kingdom Atomic
Energy Authority, the British Airports Authority or the Civil Aviation
Authority, to be used for the purpose of the undertaking, but excluding
houses and hotels or buildings used as offices or showrooms . /
It also exempts public bodies from the procedural requirements of the
Building Regulations.
A number of exemptions are contained in the Regulations themselves
(Schedule 3) and comprise the following.
(1) Buildings under the Explosives Acts 1875 and 1923, licensed under
the Nuclear Installations Act 1965 or scheduled under the Ancient Monu-
ments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979.
(2) Buildings not frequented by people, such as those housing fixed
plant or machinery.
(3) Greenhouses or agricultural buildings, subject to certain condi-
tions.
(4) Temporary buildings and mobile homes.
(5) Ancillary buildingson housing sites or in connection with mines and
quarries.
(6) Small detached buildings with a floor area not exceeding 30 m2 ,
with no sleeping accommodation or to shelter people from the effects of
nuclear, chemical or conventional weapons; subject to certain conditions.
(7) Extensions at ground level to a building by a greenhouse, conserva-
tory, porch, covered yard or covered way, or a carport open on at least two
sides, with a floor area not exceeding 30 m2 •
Building Control 319
Relaxation of Regulations
The Building Act 1984 empowered the Minister (Secretary of State for the
Environment) to issue a directive dispensing with or relaxing a requirement
of the Regulations where, in any particular case, he considers its operation
would be unreasonable, but he must consult the local authority before so
doing. Under Part III of the Building Regulations 1985, the Secretary of
State's powers to dispense with or relax any requirement in the regulations
shall be exercisable by the local authority.
Applications for relaxation must be made on the prescribed forms and
shall contain such particulars as may be required. Prior to authorising
relaxation, the Minister or local authority shall give notice of the application
in a local newspaper, and state that representations on grounds of public
health or safety may be made by a specified date, not less than 21 days from
the date of the notice . The applicant may be required to pay the cost of
publication of the notice. If it appears that the relaxation will only affect
adjoining premises, it is necessary to notify only the owner and occupier of
those premises. No publicity is needed for relaxations confined to internal
work . If, after receiving representations, the local authority refuses an
application and an appeal is brought against its refusal, the local authority
shall transmit to the Secretary of State copies of the representations.
Implementation of the Building Regulations means that the appropriate
local authority has to be notified and the building work will have to comply
with the Regulations. The main purpose of the Regulations is to ensure the
health and safety of people in or about the building, and they are also
concerned with energy conservation and access to buildings for the disabled.
The client may choose either the local authority or a private approved
inspector to supervise the work .
Where the client opts for local authority supervision, he has a further
choice of depositing full plans or submitting a much less detailed building
notice, and a fee is payable to the local authority. The local authority can
prosecute if work is started before either course of action has been taken .
Where a private approved inspector is selected, the client and the inspector
must jointly give the local authority an initial notice accompanied by a site
plan. Work must not be commenced before the notice has been accepted by
the local authority. The inspector's fee is negotiable.
The two alternative procedures are now considered in more detail.
(1) Local authority control

Where the proposal encompasses the erection of offices or shops, full plans
must be deposited. Where full plans are deposited, the local authority may
pass or reject them within 5 weeks, or 2 months if the client agrees. The
plans must be accompanied by a certificate that the plans show compliance
with the structural stability and/or energy conservation requirements of the
Regulations. The local authority has to consult the fire authority about
proposed means of escape in the case of certain factories, offices, shops,
railway premises, hotels and boarding houses.
The local authority may pass plans subject to either or both of the
following conditions:
(1) modifications in the deposited plans;
(2) the depositing of further plans .
Work may begin at any time after the submission of a building notice or
deposited plans, provided the local authority is given 48 hours' notice. If the
local authority considers that any work contravenes the requirements of the
Regulations, it may serve a notice requiring the demolition or alteration of
such work within 28 days.
(2) Supervision by approved inspector

The approved inspector and the client should jointly give the local authority
an initial notice together with a declaration that an approved scheme of
insurance applies to the work, which must be signed by the insurer. The
initial notice must contain a description of the work and, in the case of a new
building or extension, a site plan and information about drainage.
The local authority has 10 working days in which to consider the notice
and may only reject it on prescribed grounds. On acceptance the local
authority may impose conditions . It is a contravention of the Regulations to
start work before the notice has been accepted. As a general rule the
approved inspector must be independent of the designer or builder, but he
need not be if the work consists of alterations or extensions to one or two
storey houses. The National House-Building Council is a major provider of
private building control services, alongside practising professionals.
Where a client wishes to have detailed plans of work certified as
complying with the Building Regulations, he should ask the approved
inspector to supply a plans certificate and the local authority also receives a
copy. When the work is complete the approved inspector should give the
client and the local authority a final certificate.
Unlike a local authority, an approved inspector has no direct power to
enforce the Building Regulations. He is, however, required to inform the
client if he believes that any work being carried out under his supervision
contravenes the Regulations . If the client fails to remedy the alleged
contravention within 3 months he is obliged to cancel the initial notice. He
must also inform the local authority of the contravention, unless a second
approved inspector is taking over responsibility.i
Building Notice Procedure

A person intending to carry out building work may give a building notice to
the local authority unless the building requires a means of escape and is
designated under the Fire Precautions Act 1971, such as certain hotels and
boarding houses, and prescribed factories, offices, shops and railway
premises. Full plans must also be deposited for dwellinghouses of three or
more storeys and buildings of three or more storeys containing a flat.
There is no prescribed form of building notice. It must, however; be

signed by the person intending to carry out the work or on his behalf, and
must contain or be accompanied by the following information.
(1) The name and address of the person intending to carry out the
work.
(2) A statement that it is given in accordance with Building Regulation
11 (1)(a).
(3) A description of the location of the building and the use or intended
use of the building.
(4) If it relates to the erection or extension of a building, it must be
supported by a plan to a scale of not less than 1:1250, showing its size and
position in relation to streets and adjoining buildings on the same site, the
number of storeys, and details of the drainage.
(5) If section 18 of the Building Act 1984 (building over a sewer) or
section 24 (provision of exits) applies, the necessary particulars must be
given.
(6) Where cavity wall insulation is to be inserted, information must be
supplied as to the insulating material to be used and whether or not it has an
Agrement certificate or conforms to British Standards, and whether or not
the installer has a BSI Certificate of Registration or has been approved by
the Agrement Board.
(7) If the work includes the provision of a hot water storage system
with a capacity of 16 litres or more, details of the system and whether or not
the system and its installer are approved.
The local authority is not required to approve or reject the building notice
and has no power to do so. It is, however, entitled to request any plans that
it considers necessary to enable it to discharge its building control functions
and may give a time limit for their provision. Plans in this context include
drawings, specifications, structural calculations and other information. The
building notice and plans are not to be treated as having been deposited in
accordance with the Building Regulations (regulation 12 (6».
Deposit of Full Plans

The traditional method of building control by which full plans are deposited
with the local authority is covered under section 16of the Building Act 1984,
as supplemented by regulation 13 of the Building Regulations. The local
authority must give notice of approval or rejection of plans within five weeks
unless the period is extended by written agreement.
The full plans required under the deposit procedure are the same as those
required by the building notice approach , together with such other plans as
are necessary to show that the work will comply with the Building
Regulations. The plans must be deposited in duplicate; the local authority
retains one set of plans and returns the other set to the applicant. They must
be accompanied by a statement that they are deposited in accordance with
regulation 11 (1)(b) of the Building Regulations 1985. Since the reason for
depositing full plans will normally be to have them passed, a person who is in
doubt would be wise to provide more information rather than less, to avoid
the possibility of the plans being rejected on the grounds that they are
incomplete.
The advantage of the deposit of full plans method is that the work has to
be carried out in conformity with the plans as approved by the local
authority. Furthermore, the work will be supervised by a building control
officer of the local authority. 3 A typical approval notice from a local authority
follows.
PENDLETON DISTRICf COUNCIL
Date: 4 November 1987
Reference: 217/BR/87
Messrs Simmons and Peters

10 High Street
Newville
Dear Sirs
Building Regulations
Your Building Regulation application dated 21 October 1987, relating to the

conversion of a bedroom to bathroom and the provision of a new WC at 65
Thomey Lane, Bedrock for Mr E. J. Robinson, has been approved.
The necessary notices for completion and submission to this office at the
various stages of the work are attached.
C. A. Smith
Chief Building Control Officer
Planning Control
External maintenance, improvement or alteration, when they are works
which materially affect the external appearance of a building, require
planning permission. While acknowledging that painting is exempt from
planning control, there is a need to keep the external painted surfaces
regularly painted for both protective and decorative reasons. Planning
control is unlikely for instance to prevent the spoliation of the elevations of
buildings, particularly old ones , by incompatible pointing of brickwork,
rendering attractive brickwork and replacing with modern unsuitable win-
dows. This can only be secured on the wider front by raising the standards of
aesthetic appreciation and sympathy with older buildings of both clients and
builders alike and recognition of the importance of harmony, scale, compo-
sition, texture and colour.
Improvement works do not usually require consent under the Town and
Country Planning Acts unless the size or appearance of the building is
altered; all conversions schemes require consent to cover the change of use.
Buildings of special architectural and historic interest are protected under

the Town and Country Planning Act 1971 and the Civic Amenities Act 1967.
There are restrictions on the demolition, alteration and extension of these
buildings. All scheduled buildings require separate planning applications
and press and site advertisement notices must be displayed. There are a
number of advisory bodies whose function it is to promote public interest in
and assist in preserving older buildings; a selection of these bodies is given in
table 11.14
Table H.t Advisory bodies for repair and preservation work

Bodies Main Objectives
Ancient Monuments Society Advise on sources of finance, new uses for
redundant buildings and dating and value of
historic buildings
Historic Buildings Councils Advise on grants for repair and maintenance of

(England, Scotland and Wales) buildings of architectural and historic interest
The Building Conservation Trust Promote proper conservation, maintenance,

alteration and uses of buildings of aU types and
ages
Civic Trust Encourage protection and improvement of the

(Various regional offices) environment
Georgian Group Promote public interest and give advice on

repair. adaptation and preservation of Georgian
buildings
National Trust Promote preservation of buildings of

architectural and historic interest
Victorian Society Promote preservation of 19th century

architecture
Pilgrim Trust Make grants for repair of ancient buildings
Society for the Protection of Ancient Advise on problems of conservation repair and
Buildings arrange lectures and training courses
Planning Permission
The law relating to town and country planning is mainly contained in the
Town and Country Planning Act 1971, which consolidated in a single Act
most of the previous law on the subject. The local planning authorities are
primarily the county councils but the development control functions are
shared with district councils in varying ways. Steps have been taken to
accelerate and simplify planning procedures by giving executive powers to
local planning committees to decide the less complex applications, without
reference to higher committees or full council, and the delegation of a wide
range of decisions to planning officers. In addition, increased consultation

has been developed between applicants and planning officers and many local
authorities have compiled comprehensive guides to their development
control policies as a code of practice for the public and for developers. For
its part, the Department of the Environment has reduced the number of
applications referred to the Department and have suitable appeals against
planning decisions settled by the written representation method to avoid
delays in arranging formal public inquiries. At the time of preparing the
second edition, the government was considering further measures to stream-
line and simplify the development control arrangements.
Planning permission is required for 'development' as defined by the Town
and Country Planning Act, namely the carrying out of building, engineering,
mining or other operations in, on, over or under land, or the making of any
material change in the use of buildings or other land. The Act lists a number
of operations or uses which do not constitute development. These include
road improvement works within the boundaries of a road and repairs to and
renewal of services by local authorities and statutory undertakers.
The Use Classes Order 1972 classifies buildings with similar uses into 18
different use classes. For instance, class I embraces shops of all kinds but
excludes garages, fun fairs and petrol filling stations. It does however
include hairdressers' and undertakers' establishments, laundries and dry
cleaning receiving offices. Class II consists of offices, including banks, while
class III comprises light industrial buildings, which can be located in a
residential area without detriment by reason of noise, smell, vibration,
fumes, soot, ash or grit.
The Order provides that if the use of a building is changed but it still
remains in the same class, then the change will not constitute development
and planning permission will not be required. Hence permission will not be
needed to change a newsagent's into a hardware shop, or a butcher's into a
greengrocer's shop, as these do not constitute a material change of use. On
the other hand if it is proposed to change the use of a building from one class
to another, such as from a shop to an office, then permission will be
required.l .
It will be observed that the change in use must be material to constitute
development; trivial changes will be disregarded. Whether a change of use is
material is often a matter of degree. For example, an architect may use one
room of his house as an office without changing the predominantly
residential character of the dwelling, but if he converts a number of rooms to
drawing offices, print rooms, plan stores and similar uses, the essentially
residential use may cease, involving a material change of use and the need
for planning permission. .
The 1971 Act empowered the Minister to make development orders
which grant planning permission for specified types of development. It is
unnecessary to make application for planning permission for development
coming within one of the twenty-three classes of permitted development
listed in the Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1973.
The two most common forms of permitted development which are particu-
larly appropriate to maintenance and improvement work follow.
Class I-Extension of a Dwelling House

The cubic capacity ma~ be increased by up to 70 m3 or 15 per cent of the
original capacity (50 m and 1/10 in the case of a terrace house), whichever
is the greater up to a limit of 115 rrr'. The extension must not increase the
height of the building nor must it project beyond the front of the original
building. The erection of a garage in the curtilage of a dwelling house is
treated as an enlargement of the house. Permitted development under class
1 includes the erection of a porch outside an external door of a dwelling,
subject to the general requirements that its height must not exceed 4 m and
no part must be within 2 m of any boundary of the curtilage of the dwelling
house.
Other developments permitted under class 1 comprise the construction
within the curtilage of a dwelling house of a hardstanding for vehicles or the
erection of a storage tank for oil for domestic heating. The tank must not
have a capacity exceeding 3500 litres and is also subject to other conditions.
Class lI-Sundry Minor Operations

Permitted development within class II includes the erection of gates, fences
and other means of enclosure, provided the height does not exceed 1 m
where abutting on a road used by vehicular traffic, and 2 m in other cases.
The painting of the exteriors of buildings, except for purposes of advertise-
ment , is also permitted development within class II .
Development Plans
Local planning authorities (county councils) are required to institute a
comprehensive survey of their area and, among other matters, must
examine and keep under review such matters as the principal physical and
economic characteristics ofthat area and adjacent areas likely to influence
it; the size, composition and distribution of the population; communications
and transport; and any changes in these matters already projected which are
likely to have any bearing ~n the development of the area.
The local planning authority must then prepare and send to the Minister
for his approval a structure plan for its area .
The structure plan consists of a written statement which formulates the
local planning authority's proposals for the development and use of land in
its area and relates these proposals to those for neighbouring areas. The
plan must be accompanied by diagrams, illustrations and such descriptive
matter as the authority considers necessary for explaining its proposals, but
not a map. In preparing a structure plan, the authority must take steps to
secure adequate publicity for the report on which it is based and the matters
which it proposes to include in the plan and the proposed content of the
explanatory memorandum. It must make copies of the plan available and
ensure that persons interested are given adequate opportunity to make
representations. It must also see that each copy of the plan is accompanied
by a statement of the time within which objections can be made to the

Minister.
When submitting a structure plan, the authority must inform the Minister
of the steps taken to publicise it and of the consultations with, and
consideration of the views of, interested parties. If the Minister is satisfied
that the appropriate steps have been taken he may then consider the plan
and, if he does not reject it, he must consider any objections which have
been made . He must give objectors an opportunity of appearing before a
person appointed by him and, if he decides upon a local inquiry, he must
give a like opportunity to the planning authority and such other persons as
he thinks fit.
In addition to the structure plan, a local planning authority may, and if
required by the Minister must, prepare a detailed plan for the development
of any part of its area, called a local plan. The proposals it contains must
conform generally to the structure plan. The proposals must be given
adequate publicity and the steps to secure this follow closely those required
for a structure plan. Objections to a local plan are considered at a local
inquiry arranged by the authority and presided over by a person appointed
by the Minister or in some cases by the authority itself. After considering
any objections, the authority by resolution may adopt the plan as originally
prepared or as modified to take account of objections. The express approval
of the Minister is not required unless he has, before adoption, directed that
the plan shall not come into effect unless approved by him.
Planning Applications
If a person wishes to undertake development, for which planning permission
is not granted by the current General Development Order, then he must
make application to the local planning authority for planning permission.
Where in doubt he may apply to the authority for a decision as to whether an
application is necessary. The application for planning permission is made on
the appropriate form obtained from the local planning authority or the local
authority with whom the application is to be lodged (district council), and
accompanied by the appropriate fee. The application must be accompanied
by a plan sufficient to identify the land and such other plans and drawings as
are necessary to describe the development. The local planning authority
may require additional copies of the plan(s) and drawings, not exceeding
three, and such further information as may be needed to determine the
application. The plans consist of a 1:2500 site plan and normally a 1:500
block plan showing the site, its boundaries and adjoining buildings. Other
drawings should normally be to a scale of not less than 1:100 showing
existing features of the site, and accesses thereto, the appearance of any
proposed buildings and, where change of use of part of a building is
proposed, floor plans indicating the extent of the new use."
In practice the following particulars are generally required on a planning
application: name and address of applicant; applicant 's interest in land
(owner, lessee, prospective purchaser, etc.); name and address of agent (if
any); address or location of site; present use; vehicular access requirements;

total area of site; area of site covered by existing and proposed buildings;
cubic content of existing and proposed buildings; description of processes in
industrial buildings, together with floor area, provision for loading and
unloading vehicles and means of disposal of trade refuse and effluents. In
addition they may require an indication as to whether it is an outline
application and a brief description of the development, including materials
to be used in roofs and external walls of buildings if it is a detailed
application.
Under the 1971 Act (section 26) the classes of development that follow,
sometimes referred to as 'bad neighbours', must be publicised in the
prescribed manner (by a notice clearly visible on the land and by advertise-
ment in the local press describing the applicant's intentions and indicating
where the application may be inspected).
(1) Construction of buildings as public conveniences.
(2) Construction of buildings and use of land for disposal of refuse or
waste, or as a scrap yard or coal yard or for winning or working of metals.
(3) Construction of buildings or use of land for sewage treatment or
disposal.
(4) Construction of buildings to height exceeding 20 m.
(5) Construction of buildings or use of land as slaughter house or
knacker's yard or for killing or plucking poultry.
(6) Construction and use of buildings as a casino, fun fair, bingo hall,
theatre, cinema, music hall, dance hall, skating rink , swimming bath or
gymnasium (not being part of an educational establishment), or a Turkish,
vapour or foam bath.
(7) Construction and use of buildings or land as a zoo or for the
breeding or boarding of cats or dogs.
(8) Construction of buildings and use of land for motor car or motor
cycle racing.
(9) Use of land as a cemetery.
Outline Applications
A person may be considering the purchase of land for a particular purpose
but can be uncertain as to whether he can obtain planning permission for
that purpose. In these circumstances he will be unwilling to purchase the
land or to prepare detailed plans for its development if there is the
possibility of planning permission being refused. He is however able to make
application for outline permission, as, for example, to erect a certain
number of houses on a particular plot of land. The local planning authority
may approve the proposals in principle but at the same time will specify
certain matters, known as reserved matters, to be subsequently submitted
for approval before development can proceed. These matters usually
include the siting, design and external appearance of buildings and means of
access. Permission is generally available for a specified period.
Certificates
The 1971 Act (section 27) requires every application for planning permission
to be acompanied by a certificate relating to the applicant's interest in the
land which is the subject of the application, otherwise an application for
permission to develop land might be made without the owner's knowledge.
There are four forms of certificate to be used according to circumstances.
Certificate A is used when the applicant is either the owner or tenant of all
the land in the application.
Certificate B states that the applicant has notified all owners of any part of
the land he wishes to develop.
Certificate C states that the applicant has notified some of the owners but
has failed to notify others because he does not know their names and
addresses. It also states that he has advertised his application in a local
newspaper.
Certificate D is used when the applicant cannot discover the names and
addresses of any of the owners. This certificate must also certify advertise-
ment in a local newspaper.
Planning Register
On receipt by the local planning authority, or possibly a district council, an
application will be date-stamped and entered in the planning register. A
copy of the application is usually submitted to the highway authority when
the development affects a road for which the authority is responsible . A
district council normally retains one copy of the application and forwards
two copies to the local planning authority (county council). The arrange-
ments for the determination of applications may vary from one county to
another. Part of a typical planning register with two entries is shown in table
11.2. Planning registers are to be open to public inspection .
Notices
When considering a planning application the planning officer will have
regard to the Development Plan (Structure and Local Plans). He will also
consider the effect of proposals on adjoining developments, amenities of the
area and other relevant factors. In general, the decision of the local planning
authority must be notified to the applicant within eight weeks or such
extended period as may be agreed by the authority and the applicant. Notice
must be in writing and, where planning permission is refused or granted
subject to conditions, the authority must state the reasons for its decision.
An aggrieved applicant has a right of appeal against a planning decision to
the Minister.
Table 11.2 PIanoiog register
Brief N_and
dDcription N_and addnss Date
Date of addrm of considered Daleof
iAPplication of proposed of agent by Commitree's Dale of local D«ision
Nr Application dnelopmnlt Location applicant (if any) Commiue« decision appetll inquiry on appetJJ
GP~ 1S11<V87 Outline appIica- South Bilney, Mr P , J . Lewis, D and E Car- 3/11187 Permission reo
tion for resideD- Castle Road OS IS St . Brelade ruthers, 8 fused as develop-
tiaI development plot 364 Walk, Jacksville Aubrey Avenue, ment would be a
at a density of 20 (1.22 ha) Chatsford substantial
houses per bee- departure from
tare the Couoty
Development
Plan, whieh en-
visages the
retention of the
existing agricul-
tural use . Devel-
opment in the
Bilney Valley
l.H must be res-
~ tricted because
of deficiencies in
water supply and
drainage
GPI224187 2G'10l87 New bungalow Wateham, St Mr R . S. Ship- 3/llI87 Permission

and garage Peters Road ley, 20 Beaufort granted subject
Close, Bradwell - to vehicular ac-
Church End cess being eons-
tructed and
maintained to
the approval of
the Couoty
Council, to mi-
nimise danger,
obsuuction and
inronveniencc to
users of the
highway and the
premises
A typical planning approval subject to conditions follows.
CRINGLEFORD DISTRICf COUNCIL

Date 5 November 1987
Reference GP/220/87
Herbert S. Scribbington
6 Hawthorn Avenue
Tupton-on-Marsh
Dear Sir
Town and Country Planning Acts
Your planning application dated 13 October 1987, relating to the erection of

a new parsonage house for the sequestrators of the Benefice of Newley, in
part of the field adjoining the Bewley rectory garden is hereby approved
subject to the following condition:
Both vehicular and pedestrian access to serve the proposed parsonage
house shall be obtained through the combined vehicular and pedestrian
access serving the existing rectory in the manner indicated on the
deposited plan.
The reason for this condition is to minimise danger, obstruction and
inconvenience to users of the highway and of the premises.
D. F. Marshall
Chief Planning Officer
Procedure at Public Inquiries

Public inquiries are held before inspectors of the Department of the
Environment, in connection with appeals against decisions on planning
applications, building applications and other matters. The procedure is
similar to ,that adopted in a Court of Law, although a greater measure of
flexibility and informality is permitted. There is, for instance, some relaxa-
tion of the rules of evidence, and it is usual for witnesses to read their
evidence after circulating copies to the inspector and the opposing party.
The procedure at a public inquiry dealing with an appeal on a planning or
building application is as follows
(1) The applicant or his representative makes an opening statement
outlining his case.
(2) The appellant calls witnesses to give evidence and these are
cross-examined by the local authority's representative and re-examined, if
necessary, by the appellant. The inspector may also ask questions if he
wishes to do so.
(3) The local authority's representative makes an opening statement

and calls his witnesses in the same manner as the appellant .
(4) The local authority's representative can make a closing statement if
he wishes.
(5) The appellant or his representative makes a closing statement.
(6) Any other interested parties are invited to make statements and
may be cross-examined.
. (7) The inspector may visit the site accompanied by a representative of
each party, who can identify objects mentioned at the inquiry.
The inspector subsequently prepares a report for submission to the
Minister. The Minister's decision and reasons must be given in writing to the
parties and be accompanied either by a copy of the inspector's report or a
summary of his conclusions and recommendations. Since July 1981, appeals
relating to planning decisions, enforcement notices and related matters are
heard and determined by an Inspector appointed by the Secretary of State
(Determination of Appeals by Appointed Persons (Prescribed Classes)
Regulations 1981).
Other Statutory Requirements
Highway Matters
The public have a right to pass and repass over a highway and it is an offence
to obstruct a highway in the exercise of this right. At common law, any
encroachment on the highway is a public nuisance and a member of the
public can accordingly bring an action for damages if he can show that he has
suffered 'damage' in excess of that suffered by the public generally. It is also
a nuisance to render the use of the highway unsafe for the public as by
making excavations adjoining it and leaving them unfenced .
The contractor, with the consent of the local authority, may deposit
temporarily building materials, equipment and rubbish in the street or make
temporary excavation there. Should the authority refuse consent, the
contractor has right of appeal to the Magistrates' Court. Where consent is
given, the contractor must ensure that the obstruction or excavation is
properly fenced and lighted during hours of darkness. He must remove the
obstruction or fill the excavation when required to do so by the highway
authority and in any event must not allow the excavation or obstruction to
remain any longer than necessary (Highways Act 1980 s. 171). A local
authority may remove things unlawfullydeposited on a highwaywhich are a
danger to users, without giving notice or obtaining a court order, and can
recover expenses (Highways Act 1980 s. 149). There are also extensive
conditions prescribed in respect of builders' skips located on highways, and
the builder requires the highway authority's consent before placing the skip
(Highways Act 1980, ss. 139 and 149).
The HighwaysAct 1980s. 172prescribes that a contractor who is about to
erect, demolish, alter or repair the outside of a building in a street, before
commencing work must erect a close boarded hoarding or fence separating
the building from the street to the satisfaction of the local authority. This
obligation may be dispensed with if the local authority agrees . The builder,
if the local authority so requires, must make a convenient covered platform
with a handrail to serve as a footway for pedestrians. This must be kept in
good condition and, if the authority so requires, must be lighted during
hours of darkness. The hoarding must be removed when required by the
authority.
The Highways Act 1980also empowers the highway authority to recover
the expenses of repairing a road where damage has been caused by
~xtraordinary traffic'. Extraordinary traffic is traffic which by reason of its
weight, nature, extent or mode of operation is likely to cause damage to the
highway in excess of that caused by traffic normally carried by it.
Building and Improvement Lines

The siting of new buildings and extensions to existing buildings is often
affected by building lines under the Highways Act 1980s. 74. A building line
may be prescribed by the highway authority on either one or both sides of a
public highway. and no new building, other than a boundary wall or fence,
shall be erected and no permanent excavation below the level of the highway
shall be made, nearer the centre line of the highway than the building line,
except with the consent of the highway authority, who may impose
conditions. The frontage line of existing buildings may in some cases form
the building line. The main purpose of the building line is to ensure that all
buildings are kept a reasonable distance from the highway to preserve
amenity and obtain good sight lines.
Under section 73 of the same Act, a highway authority may prescribe
improvement lines on one or both sides of a street and they represent the
lines to which the street will eventually be widened. This procedure is
normally adopted when a public highway is narrow or inconvenient without
any sufficiently regular boundary line, or it is necessary or desirable that it
should be widened. Similar prohibitions apply to building work in advance
of an improvement line as those applicable to building lines, except that
boundary walls and fences are not excluded.
Amenity and Safety

The Building Act 1984contains several provisions regarding the safety and
appearance of buildings and sites. If a structure is in a dangerous condition
the local authority may apply to a Magistrates' Court, and the court may
order the owner to carry out remedial works or, if he so elects, to demolish
the building and remove the rubbish. If the owner defaults, the authority
may carry out the work and recover its reasonable expenses from the owner.
In addition, the owner is liable to a penalty (section 77). If it appears to an
authority that immediate action should be taken, it may take appropriate

action to remove the danger, recovering the cost from the owner through
the Magistrates' Court. However, the authority must first, if it is reasonably
practicable, give notice to the owner and occupier (section 78).
Local authorities may exercise considerable control over demolition
works. With minor exceptions, a person who intends to demolish a building
must notify the local authority, and the authority may require action to be
taken in various ways, such as shoring up adjacent buildings, weatherproof-
ing exposed surfaces, removing rubbish and sealing or removing drains and
other pipes. The recipient of the notice may appeal to the Magistrates' Court
where the required action could result in problems concerning the adjoining
building or its owner. Furthermore, the local authority may undertake
the work if the recipient defaults and also seek a fine, additionally or
alternatively (sections 81-83) .
Local authorities also have powers to deal with ruinous buildings and
vacant sites used as rubbish dumps . If a building, because of its ruinous or
dilapidated condition is seriously detrimental to the amenities of the
neighbourhood, the local authority may by notice require works of repair or
restoration or, if the owner chooses, its demolition, and the clearance of the
resultant rubbish. In case of default the authority may do what is necessary
and can seek a fine . Before taking direct action the authority must serve a
notice on the owner or occupier stating what it proposes to do. The recipient
may serve a counter-notice stating that he will do the necessary work or he
may appeal to the Magistrates' Court on the ground that the authority's
action is not justified. If a counter-notice is served, the authority must wait
to see if the necessary steps are taken within a reasonable time, or, if work is
begun, whether satisfactory progress is made (section 79).7
Other Statutory Provisions

In addition to the provisions of the Building Act 1984 concerning the
compulsory repair of dilapidated property, the Housing Acts also contain
provisions for the compulsory repair of houses unfit for human habitation.
The FactoriesAct 1961 makes provision for securing satisfactory means of
escape in case of fire in the majority of factories and for the issue of
certificates by the fire authority. The same Act prescribes certain minimum
standards for space, heating, ventilation, lighting, cleanliness, sanitary
conveniences and welfare provisions. This Act is supplemented by the
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.
The , storage of petroleum in bulk requires a licence from the local
authority to which conditions may be attached under the Petroleum (Con-
solidation) Act 1928. The conditions may cover the mode of storage , the
nature and situation of the premises, the nature of any goods stored with it,
facilities for testing and other safeguards.
The Clean Air Act 1956 aims at the ultimate elimination of-smoke and
other forms of atmospheric pollution arising from the operation of industrial
furnaces and domestic heating appliances . The Act makes it an offence to
emit dark smoke from a chimney but the Minister may by regulation exempt
periodic emissions. All new furnaces must be smokeless and minimise the
emission of grit and dust as far as practicable. This provision does not apply
to domestic furnaces with a heating capacity not in excess of 55000 BTUIh.
Furthermore, a local authority may, by order confirmed by the Minister,
declare the whole or any part of its area to be a smoke control area, when it
will be an offence to emit smoke within that area. If the Minister confirms a
smoke control order, anyone with an interest in a dwelling situated in the
area who spends money on an installation designed to prevent a breach of
the order is entitled to claim 70 per cent of his expenditure from the local
authority. The local authority may also pay all or some of the remaining 30
per cent.
The Offices, 'Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963 is designed to give
protection to office and shop workers comparable to that given to industrial
workers by the Factories Act. The most important regulations made under
the Act relate to dangerous machines, washing facilities and sanitary
conveniences. The Act also prescribes minimum standards in respect
of cleanliness, overcrowding, temperature, lighting, accommodation for
clothing, construction and maintenance of floors, passages and stairs, and
fire precautions. Hotels and restaurants are examined under the Food
Hygiene Regulations.
Other regulations affecting building work include water by-laws admin-
istered by the water authorities and covering water supply installations and
the use of water.
The lEE Regulations issued by the Institution of Electrical Engineers lay
down minimum requirements for electrical work. Finally, as described in
chapter 1, the Defective Premises Act 1973 places a statutory duty on any
person responsible for the provision of a dwelling, whether by building,
conversion or enlargement, to use proper materials and for the work to be
carried out in a professional or workmanlike manner, providing a dwelling
fit for habitation.
The Fire Precautions Act 1971 ensures a minimum standard of fire
precautionary measures for certain buildings such as institutions for enter-
tainment, teaching, treatment or care and most purposes entailing access by
the public, and the issue of certificates specifying the means of escape, fire
fighting equipment and fire alarms.
Control of Work in Progress

Under the Building Regulations.! a contractor carrying out building work
which is subject to the regulations and to supervision by the local authority,
is to give the local authority not less than 48 hours' notice in writing of when
work will be commenced; 24 hours' written notice before the covering up of
any excavation for a foundation; any foundation, damp-proof course; or
concrete or other material laid over a site; before any drain or private sewer
is haunched or covered; and not more than 7 days after the work of laying
any drain or private sewer.
If the contractor neglects to give any of these notices, he may be required

to cut into, lay open or pull down so much of the building work as prevents
the local authority from ascertaining whether any of the regulations have
been contravened. Finally, the contractor shall give notice in writing to the
local authority not more than 7 days after completion of the building work
which is subject to the regulations.
Building work in progress will also be inspected as part of development
control under the Town and Country Planning Acts, to ensure that
development proceeds in accordance with the approved applications and
any conditions that may have been imposed. Where development has been
carried out without planning permission or conditions attached to permis-
sion have not been satisfied , then there is a breach of planning control and
the local planning authority may serve on the offender an enforcement
notice requiring him to remedy the breach. If the breach consists of carrying
out, without permission , building, mining, engineering or other operations,
or the failure to comply with conditions relating to these operations, then
the enforcement notice must be served within four years from the date of the
breach .
.The local planning authority is also empowered to serve a 'stop notice' on
any person having an interest in land and who is carrying out operations on
it. The authority must serve an enforcement notice and then, at any time
before the notice takes effect, may serve a stop notice which will prohibit
continuance of the operations specified in the enforcement notice. The stop
notice must specify the date upon which it is to take effect, which must not
be less than 3 or more than 28 days after service, and the stop notice will
cease to have effect when the enforcement notice is withdrawn or quashed;
or the period for compliance with the enforcement notice expires; or the
stop notice is withdrawn .
Easements
Difficulties may sometimes arise in carrying out building extensions through
the existence of easements, in which the owner of the dominant tenement
secures a right over another property (the servient tenement). The tene-
ments must be in different ownerships, the right must be capable of being
granted, the servient owner must not be involved in any expenditure in
complying with the easement and it must not involve the removal of
anything other than water from the servient tenement. A legal easement is
made by a grant from the owner of the servient land or by prescription (long
use of the privilege by the dominant owner under certain conditions), and is
binding on all persons who occupy the servient tenement.
The more common easements affecting building development are as
follows
(1) Right of light: the right of light to a building becomes legally
protected after it has been enjoyed for a period of twenty years. A right of
light prevents the owner or occupier of land from creating buildings on it

which will obstruct the light passing on to the other person's land.
(2) Right of support: the ownership of land carries with it the right to
support from the adjoining land but not for the support of any buildings
subsequently erected on it.
(3) Right of way: a private right of way may be presumed if it has been
enjoyed for twenty years and becomes absolute if enjoyed for a period of
forty years . Public rights of way are not easements.
(4) Right of drainage or pipe easements: the right to drain across the
property of another. An easement which permits the dominant owner to lay
pipes across the land of the servient owner, whether for purposes of
drainage or water supply, may sterilise the strip of land through which it
passes and provision will have to be made for access to and inspection of the
pipes."
Disputes over Sit« Boundaries

On occasions disputes arise as to the 'o wnership of land and the boundaries
between adjoining plots . The difficulties may stem from one of a number of
causes and the more common ones follow .
(1) Fences are normally erected by persons with limited knowledge of
setting out.
(2) Many fences are constructed of materials which are subject to
decay .
(3) Deeds often fail to specify the position of the boundary line in
relation to the fence-whether on the centre line or one face of the fence .
A common approach is to assume that the smooth side of a fence faces the
adjoining owner. Unfortunately this rule is not infallible, as for instance
where an owner has renewed his fence without being permitted access to his
neighbour's land . This results in the owner being obliged to nail the pales on
his own side owing to the physical impossibility of working overhand. Again
it might be that a previous owner preferred to see the more attractive side of
the fence and hence erected the posts on the boundary and the boarding on
the inside face. Aldridge? has pointed out that a wall or boarded fence may
be set back slightly from the boundary to avoid trespassing on erection or
maintenance. Reference should always be made to the appropriate deeds.
In the case of a bank and a ditch, it is often presumed that these belong to
the person whose land is on the bank side of the ditch. The owner would
normally dig the ditch up to the edge of his land, throw the earth on to his
land to form the bank and then often plant a hedge 01) the bank. This
presumption can apply only to artificial or man -made ditches. to
References
1 DOE. Manual to the Building Regulations . HMSO (1985)
2 I. H . Seeley. Building Technology. Macmillan (1986)
3 V. Powell Smith and M. J. Billington. The Building Regulations:

Explained and Illustrated. Collins. (1986)
worths (1980)
5 D. Heap. An Outline of Planning Law. Sweet and Maxwell (1987)
6 J. Stephenson. Planning Procedures. Northwood Books (1982)
7 C. Cross and S. Bailey. Cross on Local Government Law. Sweet and
Maxwell (1986)
8 I. H Seeley. Building Economics. Macmillan (1983)
» ,
9 J. M. Aldridge. Boundaries, Walls and Fences, Longman (1982)

10 1. H. Seeley . Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapidations. Macmillan
(1985)
12 PLANNING AND ANANCING MAINTENANCE WORK
Planning, budgeting and controlling the cost of maintenance work are

essential operations if buildings are to be maintained effectively within
available funds. This leads automatically to regular"inspections and the
implementation of programmes of planned maintenance. These activities
need to be backed up with adequate data and particularly a full awareness of
maintenance and operating costs.
Planning, Budgeting and Controlling the Cost of Maintenance Work

Planning
Planning and budgeting are two highly interrelated activities which must
proceed simultaneously. It is not possible to plan maintenance work without
knowledge of the costs involved, or to budget for the work in the absence of
an effective programme. Nevertheless, effective building maintenance is
dependent upon making the correct decisions and satisfactorily implement-
ing them.
Building maintenance should be regarded by management as part of the
total operating strategy; that far from being a 'make do and mend' service, it
should be viewed as a property conserving activity contributing significantly
to the success and well-being of the operations and occupants within it. With
manufacturing organisations adopting carefully structured procedures,
building maintenance claims can be justified on financial grounds in
comparison and in competition with other direct profit making projects, 1
showing dividends as good as or better than other activities .
A study of local authority housing maintenance/ showed the general
standard of maintenance on certain post-war housing estates to be reason-
ably high, but the greater part of expenditure was made on basic fabric
maintenance and on satisfying tenants' requests. Some areas of maintenance
were neglected and there was a long waiting list of requests requiring
attention, showing the need for a positive programme of maintenance.
Closer examination revealed that building maintenance policy was
influenced by four criteria which could on occasions be conflicting , namely:
338
Planning and Financing Maintenance Work 339
(1) social-to provide a quick service to high standards of quality;

(2) financial-to invest funds in activities in the most efficient manner
with due regard to the effects on debt charges, subsidies and rents;
(3) technical-to maintain property at a level deemed necessary after a
thorough and regular technical survey;
(4) to provide continuous employment for certain operatives within a
fixed budget.
Policy Formulation
The ability to formulate a long-term maintenance strategy and prepare
budgetary forecasts is one of the benefits of having a maintenance policy.3
The following five factors deserve consideration when formulating a main-
tenance policy for a manufacturing organisation.
(1) The aims of the organisation-the nature of the end product and
how it is produced and the requirements in buildings and services.
(2) The standards required-influenced by aims of the organisation but
may vary between different buildings.
(3) Legal Iiability-eompliance with statutory requirements.
(4) Method of execution-such as direct labour or outside contractors,
with particular attention paid to the effect on production.
(5) Cost and method of financing-with decisions supported by
cost-benefit analyses where appropriate showing that the previous criteria
(1-4) have been considered and optimum solutions proposed. All this
information can then be translated into maintenance, cleaning and operating
profiles for use not only in management of property but also for guidance of
designers of new buildings so that total cost concept may be used.
In the detailed formulation of maintenance policy for a specific property,
the following approach has much to commend it.
(1) Analysis of present condition of buildings, their nature and use, and
estimated life cycle, as described by Smith."
(2) Outline programme of work necessary to put and keep the build-
ings in satisfactory condition.
(3) Determine the method of implementing the programme .
(4) Calculate the approximate costs-total and annual. In most cases
two assessments will be needed: first, for the period while the buildings are
put in repair-including the routine repair in this fhase-and then the
assessment of the cost of keeping them in that state.
It may be helpful at this stage to apply these principles to a specificsituation,
in this case a major property holding consisting of a range of large and small
buildings of diverse age, construction and use. There is a large maintenance
staff of poor calibre with greater experience of plant than fabric, and they
are often diverted on to minor improvement work. The buildings reflect an
absence of regular routine maintenance and finance is limited.
An investigation shows that there is no planned routine maintenance and

that the owners are unaware of the serious and expensive results of neglect.
The roofs are in particularly poor condition. Although finance is limited, it is
still ill-used and often diverted to improvements at the expense of main-
tenance. There is no central control of maintenance expenditure or priori-
ties, and the works managers of individual buildings undertake their own
repairs.
The outline policy recommends the following action.
(1) Centralisation of administrative and technical control of main-
tenance.
(2) Listing of priorities and drawing up a programme for remedying the
serious backlog, with emphasis on financial consequences of further ad hoc
arrangements.
(3) Assessing the finance required over a five-year period and justify-
ing the need for a larger allocation of funds, while ensuring that the
programme is sufficiently flexible to fit into the existing allocation if no
further funds are forthcoming.
(4) Ensuring that the neglected structural repairs are carried out and
that external painting is undertaken at the same time to make the best use of
scaffolding.
(5) Reorganisation of maintenance staff securing a suitable balance
between engineering and building operatives.
(6) Newer buildings to be subject to planned preventive maintenance
programme to prevent deterioration. S
Long-term policy concentrates on putting buildings into a satisfactory
state of repair, because of the prevalence of ad hoc maintenance based on
breakdown maintenance. The earlier years of the programme may be
relatively expensive (the cost of neglect) but succeeding years should,
assuming the correct diagnosis and decisions, result in a lower and steadier
level of expenditure.
Sometimes the cost of putting in good repair so greatly exceeds current
annual maintenance as to disturb management, hence the case must be
argued soundly and well. The most convincing argument for spending more
is an assessment of the eventual cost of deferment. If inadequate funds are
available, the rectification period will have to be extended. Periodic
inspection-preferably annually-is the best method of ensuring that the
right policy has been devised and is being implemented and adapted, if
necessary, to meet changing conditions.!
The Department of Health and Social Security has emphasised the need
for maintenance managers to prepare costed long-term and annual pro-
grammes of work which distinguish between work of a periodical nature,
work of an irregular nature, planned preventive type maintenance and
provision for day-to-day requisitions and emergencies . Provision must also
be made for minor improvements. It is intended that long-term programmes
should be on a rolling basis being reviewed and moved forward as each
annual programme is prepared."
Bushell", in assessing maintenance priorities in the National Health

Service, proposed the following approximate order of priority: safety;
essential service; statutory requirements; security; initial cost; revenue
saving; spares availability; alternative source of supply; delivery time;
manpower; public relations.
Standards of Maintenance
If insufficient maintenance is carried out, the fabric of buildings first become
unattractive, then unacceptable to the occupants and finally dangerous and
uninhabitable. The maintenance manager has to decide the optimum level
of maintenance work required on the fabric to preserve an acceptable
environment in the buildings under his care. He has for instance to decide
whether a building should be patched temporarily and replaced later or be
replaced immediately. To determine the best course of action he needs to
consider the use and condition of the building, the comparative cost and
effectiveness of different types of repair, the expected future life of the
building, acceptable standards of maintenance and similar matters.
The first step is to determine reasonable standards of maintenance for the
various building elements, such as paintwork, rainwater goods, and windows
and paths. These usually fall into two categories:
(1) The smaller number where standards can be related directly to cost.
For example, it is evident that a roof should not be permitted to deteriorate
until it leaks as this will give rise to higher future maintenance costs.
(2) The majority where maintenance costs do not increase appreciably
as the .condition deteriorates. For instance it costs little more to repaint
internal waH surfaces after seven years than after five, although the appear-
ance has worsened. Hence discussions are needed with management and
occupants to agree appropriate standards."
After establshing reasonable standards it is necessary to estimate the
deterioration rate of each element, so that changes in its condition can be
related to its age. This rate is influenced by a number of factors such as
aspect, age and location. The maintenance manager should supplement
published data with his own information on the history of elements.
The next step is to decide the maintenance policy to be implemented for
each element, determining also the method and materials to be used. The
costs of maintaining each element can then be estimated over a period of
time-possibly 20 or 30 years. Over this time scale most elements will need
replacing or repairing and average annual maintenance costs can be
computed.
Finally the average annual costs of implementing the maintenance policy
can be assessed, by summing the average annual costs of all the elements. If
the total cost can be met from available resources, the maintenance manager
can prepare a programme for work, but if the resources are insufficientthen
lower standards of fabric maintenance will have to be set which are
consistent with available funds."
In general, most local authority maintenance sections are organised on

hierarchical lines often at three or four levels. Attempts to overcome
the problem of achieving consistent standards throughout county council
administrative areas include meetings between the chief officer and
divisional staff, when guidelines will be discussed and periodically reviewed,
and occasionally officers from one area inspecting and reporting on proper-
ties in another area to identify differences in assessment of needs. Difficulty
may also arise from the fact that there is some improvement element in
much maintenance work .?
Budgeting
A budget has been defined as 'a financial and/or quantitative statement
prepared prior to a defined period of time of the policy to be pursued during
that period for the purpose of obtaining a given objective'. The budget limits
will be established after inspections, critical analyses and estimates have
provided the essential supporting data as previously described. Budgetary
control is an impo rtant management function aimed at planning and
controlling the use of its resources in order to achieve its objectives. In
practice this is not always achieved, as indicated by the Committee on
Hospital Building Maintenance'? which reported "there is no evidence to
show that the existing financial allocation for building maintenance was
either sufficient or that it was being distributed on the most equitable basis
relative to need and priority." All too frequently a maintenance budget is
based on the previous year's allocation plus a percentage. Admittedly, there
is no standard method of budgeting, but the skills and empiricism of building
surveyors with their wide ranging experience of the construction, use,
performance and cost of repair of buildings, can help to provide a sound
base for budgeting.
The budget as a plan stipulates the use of the organisation's available
funds over the projected time span towards the various objectives and
opportunities within the total plan. It is thus the basis of control-the
monitoring, evaluation and provision of a basis for decision taking upon
ongoing operations and future plans. 11
To devise an effective budgetary control system the following criteria
must be satisfied.
(1) A clear understanding of objectives and their order of priority.
(2) A systematic analysis and evaluation of the needs and demands
stemming from the objectives.
(3) A rational balancing of these demands against the desired object-
ives within the known constraints of labour, materials, time, managerial
skills and funds.
(4) The avoidance of waste of financial resources.
(5) The development of a control system based upon identification of
needs, adequate measurement of resource requirements, setting of work
standards, measurement of performance, evaluation of significant devia-
tions from standards, and the control of present and future opportunities
through this knowledge.'!
From these principles, implementation of the budgetary control system

will require: organisational plans for a specific period; definition of
resources required to accomplish the allotted tasks, establishing operating
standards and targets to be achieved; information systems to generate,
collate and evaluate data for decision taking and control purposes ; detailed
plans and programmes for achieving objectives; a framework for decision
taking and a basis for measuring efficiency, effectiveness and profitability. 11
Cost Structure Analysis and Budgeting

Budgets are based upon work to be done and are expressed in terms of
financial expenditures. The costs are built up from labour, material and
other expenses contributing to the maintenance work. The costs can be
classified under various headings.
Bedrock costs are incurred to maintain the assets in a serviceable condition,
regardless of whether or not the property is used productively.
Programme costs are incurred by specific decisions of management with a

view to improving the level of activity, technology of operations, quality of
the environment and/or public relations image.
Operating costs are incurred by decisions of management in fulfilling the

operating role of the enterprise; they may be variable when geared to the
level of business activity, or fixed as in the case of heating plant.
Committed costs stem from past decisions over which present management
has little or no control, while management has some discretion about the
level of managed costs.
Engineered costs arise where for a given future activity the optimum amount
of work and hence of cost can be measured .'!
Budgets and Building Maintenance

There are often technical difficulties in assessing the quantity, problems in
execution and costs of building maintenance work, but overruns and
underestimates frequently result from failure by management to recognise
the value and need for realistic budgets. In many enterprises the cost of
building maintenance is such a small proportion of total expenditure that it is
not accorded a very high priority. Hence the process of compiling and
appraising the budget is conducted ·on a level of additions to last year's
expenditure rather than upon current costs or future needs.'!
The building maintenance budget is easily pruned if pressure is exerted for
funds for other purposes. It is comparatively easy to defer the incidence of
spending on maintenance because the impact of so doing is seldom obvious,
and the insidious nature of the needs is not fully recognised. Few organisa-
tions regard building maintenance as the preservation of the value of the
asset as a functioning property . Thus budgeting for the total upkeep of the
property is rarely conducted in full knowledge of all relevant facts. Various
aspects of property upkeep are often tabulated under differing budget
heads; accountability is thus diffused and control becomes difficult to
exercise.
Constant or bedrock costs represent an inescapable minimum expendi-
ture. General and specific programmes may impose additional maintenance
responsibilities which can be separately identified and costed . The identifi-
cation of the fixed and variable elements of operating expenditure related to
changes in the level of activity should assist in .avoiding illogical budget
pruning. II
A basic aim of management is to minimise the discretionary or contingen-
cy amounts in a budget, and wherever possible to determine the proper
amount for a given level of activity. In establishing the budget for building
maintenance too much attention is often paid to the previous year's
expenditure and insufficient to technical requirements.
In preparing a maintenance budget a distinction can be made between
current foreseeable work such as painting, clearing gutters and cleaning, and
non-recurrent foreseeable work such as repairs to floors, roofs and the like.
In the absence of a technical survey, the contingency sum for unforeseen
work is likely to be high and it becomes more difficult to plan and control
efficiently.
Many county councils in preparing their budgets, identify three main
components, in their annual planned programmes:
(1) non-recurring or irregularly occurring needs of individual proper-
ties which have been accorded the highest priority in the year in question;
(2) cyclical work, stemming from a predetermined policy to renew or
refurbish certain elements at fixed intervals (normally staggered, to even out
annual workloads);
(3) service contracts."
Relationship between Budget and Finance

Finance is provided from either capital or revenue sources. Capital is
normally provided for new works only and revenue for running costs, but
this seemingly straightforward procedure is upset by one factor-the expen-
diture on renewal or replacement. These latter processes often involve large
sums that increase the revenue budget by a varying and substantial extent.
In theory 'depreciation' should provide the financial aid required for
renewal or replacement-the non-recurrent maintenance costs--but too
often it is merely a 'book' figure and the cash is not available . There is a
tendency to invest the capital in new works only and to pay insufficient or no
regard to a replacement policy.
There is a tendency to pay for renewals and replacements by reducing
expenditure on routine maintenance. Furthermore, variations in the cash
flow available, such as from profits, can cause a serious disruption to
renewal and replacement programmes. Delayed expenditure in these areas
means higher future costs, owing to increased prices and possibly higher
operating costs. Larger items of machinery are generally financed out of
capital whereas items like roof renewals or replacement of building services
are often treated unsatisfactorily as write-off or revenue expenditures.
To overcome these difficulties, it is good practice for financial authorisa-
tions for new assets to include the capital cost of the project, depreciation
and running costs, so that it is considered as a whole from initial conception.
With existing assets, the condition should be assessed and monies set aside
for planned renewal and replacement.
Controlling Cost
The management process of control should incorporate the following
activities:
(1) setting performance standards at the appropriate level to achieve a
given objective;
(2) measuring actual performance and comparing it with the standard;
(3) taking appropriate action in the event of actual performance
deviating from standard.
To achieve effective total cost control, the following criteria need to be
satisfied:
(1) A sound knowledge of the relationship between budgeting and
finance.
(2) A logical breakdown of the budget into specific sections under
capital and revenue, with particular reference to renewals and replacements.
(3) Reasonable assessment of the factors affectingthe budget, including
a plan for maintenance.
(4) A method of calculating economic assessments of capital, renewal
and replacement expenditures, using discounted cash flow analysis.
(5) Evaluation of the results of non-maintenance, such as lost amenities
or production due to breakdown, excessive running costs and increased
health hazards.
(6) Budgetary control, including a calendar programme for authorisa-
tion and implementation of plans for capital, renewal and replacement
expenditures.
(7) The use of accurate costing techniques, including cost coding and
classification systems, methods of cost collation and investigation, and
feedback of relevant cost information for control purposes.
A computer program can be used to ensure effective budgetary control by
providing a pattern of regular and frequent printouts giving for each level of
management appropriate details of expenditure-actual and committed-
and physical progress for each project under each separate budget heading.
In this way performance can be compared with forecast in terms of time and
resources but particularly in relation to finance. Likely problems and
deviations in the budget can be quickly identified and corrective action
taken in good time.
The detail into which each separate project is subdivided and pro-
grammed will depend on the degree of management control that is
required, but it is important that the printout for the lower levels of
management should show separate projects, each with its own sub-budget.
A computerised system will meet the overriding requirement which is the
continuous provision of up-to-date information and a quick reaction at the
first sign of deviation from the budget or programme.
Planned Maintenance
Nature of Planned Maintenance
There is growing interest in applying planned preventive maintenance to
buildings following its established use in engineering . In engineering the
maintenance operative takes with him tools and materials and performs such
tasks as lubricating bearings and adjusting tolerances, and will in most cases
attend to these items fairly frequently whether or not a defect is apparent.
In the context of building maintenance a change of emphasis is needed with
a higher proportion of inspections, with treatment only if a defect is
detected . 1 It is advisable to keep day-to-day maintenance to a minimum as
its nature and extent cannot be forecast and it can frequently be detrimental
to longer-term action, in addition to being expensive in terms of both unit
costs and staff time.?
Planned maintenance of buildings can be subdivided into three main
categories:
(1) Preventive running maintenance-s-wots: which can be done while
the facility is in service.
(2) Corrective shut-down maintenance-work which can only be done
when the facility is, or is taken, out of service.
(3) Corrective breakdown maintenance-work which is carried out
after a failure, but for which advance provision has been made, in the form
of spares, materials, labour and equipment.
The terms 'emergency maintenance', 'condition-based maintenance' and
'scheduled maintenance' are also used in maintenance practice, and these
were identified and defined in chapter 1.
A system of planned maintenance consists of two mutually balanced
components-planned preventive maintenance and planned corrective
maintenance. Both must be organised with forethought, control and
records, but their nature is different . In the case of planned preventive
maintenance, each item of work is identified some time before failure or a
diminution from an acceptable standard of the facility. Planned corrective
maintenance differs in that restoration to the acceptable standard is re-
quired, and corrective maintenance must have a prior claim on available
resources.
In practice, the most common approach to building maintenance is to wait
until a defect is reported to the maintenance organisation by the occupants.
Often a better approach would be to adopt a policy of periodic inspection of
the property and subsequent rectification of observed defects. Observing

and rectifying a defect at an early stage is likely to reduce repair costs.
Furthermore a large proportion of maintenance work is identified and
grouped at discrete points in time. The maintenance organisation is thus
able to allocate its resources and rectify the defects in the most efficient
manner. In many large building complexes the majority of maintenance
repairs are single trade repairs, such as plumbing or joinery work. These
trades can operate as autonomous groups within the parent maintenance
department and a strong case could be made for inspections on a trade basis,
such as plumbing systems every 2 months and slated roofs once a year.
Maintenance programming should ideally be preventive as far as practic-
able, based on regular inspection at intervals designed to prevent trouble
from developing or accumulating. Admittedly not all building defects can be
prevented but many can and others will be rectified before they become
more expensive. The frequency of inspection is the crux of the matter so that
the right balance is struck between the cost of inspection and prevention on
the one hand and expenditure on repairs on the other. Dramatic examples
can be given of expensive repairs which could by relatively small outlay have
been avoided , such as a major outbreak of dry rot stemming from a single
long-neglected leaking rainwater pipe. It is not possible to over-emphasise
the high cost of the consequences of neglect of historic buildings, not only in
hard-to-raise funds, but also in the irretrievable loss of our heritage of
ancient materials, craftsmanship and even entire buildings.
Having decided a maintenance policy, the next step is to prepare a
maintenance programme. There may be a need to deal with a backlog of
general disrepair; to plan major restoration works some years ahead; to deal
with year to year painting, decoration and associated repairs; and to operate
a system of regular inspection and minor repairs. Very often it entails
programmed maintenance within a restricted budget-s-deploying scarce
resources to satisfy many demands-entailing a professional assessment of
the overall situation, inspection of specific problem areas, formulation of
general strategy for containing or removing critical problems and for
reducing the breakdown aspect of maintenance to an acceptable level.
Inspection Cycles
Inspection cycles are an important component of an efficient maintenance
service. The facilities which are most subject to wear and tear are the
services which contain parts that are affected by friction, heat or dynamic
stress . Suppliers normally prescribe inspection cycles for these items which
are kept within anticipated endurance limits. Planned maintenance of
services is essential to avoid inconvenient and often costly failures. Similarly
the fabric of a building must also be inspected at regular intervals and this
can be related to the endurance characteristics of a significant component or
material. For example, external painted surfaces normally last for about 5
years without attention, although there are variations due to geographical
location and the degree of atmospheric pollution, and this could provide the
basis for the cyclic inspection of the fabric. Buildings cannot however be left
uninspected for 5 years and interim examinations should be carried out at

intervals of not less than 12 months. The aim of the intermediate inspection
should be to detect defects which would result in progressive deterioration if
left unattended until the next cyclic inspection. The linking of inspections of
local authority houses with external painting cycles was advocated by the
Local Government Operational Research Unit,13 although the Unit also
examined the purpose of inspections-whether they should be confined to
individual elements in a large number of houses or to all elements in
particular houses, either of the same age and type or on the same estate.
A study of hospital maintenancel" examined a variety of approaches
ranging from ad hoc inspections to annual inspections and different inspec-
tion frequencies for different elements. Having regard to the dispersed
locations of hospitals, the study recommended 2-yearly regular inspections
together with interim inspections where necessary. On inspection it was
suggested that the following information should be recorded on standard
inspection forms and this information provides the starting point for the next
inspection :
(1) locality and identity of elements;
(2) type of work (for example, patch or replace);
(3) extent of work (such as area involved);
(4) estimated total cost;
(5) estimated year of treatment.
Stevens'Pdevised a classification system for assessing building condition to
secure uniformity of approach. He prescribed five categories of condition
ranging from class 1 (very good) to class 5 (dangerous). In like manner the
levels of maintenance to be achieved will be influenced by the type of
building and the use of the part under consideration, and these can also be
assessed on a five-point system ranging from level 1 (very high; applicable
to board rooms and operating theatres) to class 5 (very low; prior to
demolition) .
Programming Maintenance
To prepare a programme it is necessary to assess the general condition of the
buildings, services and external works and to consider these against the
criteria currently adopted. The repair and replacement work is costed and
priorities established having regard to any cyclic arrangements.
Maintenance of the very large Shell Centre on London's South Bank is
based on a 9-year cycle and covers fabric maintenance, redecoration, major
cleaning, and maintenance of plant, services, fixtures and fittings. The
building and site are divided into nine zones for maintenance purposes.
Workload is controlled through a card index system which permits levelling
out work peaks, control of costs against budgets and the forecasting of areas
where reductions in the maintenance budget can be accommodated in the
short term if spending has to be curtailed. Based on experience the
programme adopted is a 9-year redecorating cycle, 3-year cleaning of offices
and an 18-monthly cleaning of walls in corridors.
Painting
Painting embraces a variety of activities including washing down; washing
down and touching up; washing down and applying one coat of paint; and
washing down and applying one undercoat and one finishing coat. Paint-
work should be inspected to verify the need to repaint as programmed; for
example, the exterior may last 6 years instead of 5 and exposed elevations
may require more frequent decoration. Hence on large buildings or groups
of buildings some maintenance personnel advocate painting by elevations
rather than buildings, although it results in fragmentation of the mainte-
nance work.
If the painting of external woodwork is neglected, the timber may decay
prematurely. The effectiveness of paintwork on external joinery is depen-
dent on a wide range of factors-painting cycle; age of building; quality of
timber, joinery, paint and painter's work; system of painting; use of
building; local climatic conditions; design of building; and degree of
exposure. The greatest rate of deterioration occurs on south and west
elevations to sills and bottom rails of both upper and lower sashes. There is
no universal economic optimal painting cycle.
The former Greater London Council formulated the following effective
painting programme for housing estates.
External. 5-year cycle with new property painted in third or fourth year if
found necessary; short life property to be painted if life is 2 years or more
and it has not been painted for 4 years; extensive repairs prior to painting
are to be executed 1 year ahead of the painting programme and minor
repairs completed 3 months before painting commences. The author"
identified the need to repaint externally within two to three years of the
initial painting.
Internal . Normally every 5 years.
Choosing the correct paint for the project is vitally important. The
difference in initial cost between a satisfactory material and a cheap paint is
insignificant compared with the additional labour and disruption costs in
having to repaint 1 year earlier, together with possible deterioration of the
base material in the meantime.
It is generally necessary to schedule painting of factories to avoid
interference with production and this often entails doing the painting during
the 2-week annual shut-down period, with any unfinished work completed
during evenings and weekends. The problems can be reduced by the use of
modem paint systems and methods of application.
In aggressive areas it may be better not to use cycles based on complete
repainting but to spot prime and apply one finishing coat as and when
necessary. For instance one large factory chimney is repainted every 2 years
at a cost of about £3000, whereas if painted on a 5-year cycle the cost of
repainting and disruption of production would be in excess of £30 000.16
The Scottish Special Housing Association has linked the general mainte-
nance of buildings to a five-year painting maintenance cycle in a very
effective way, with plumbing and sanitary fittings in year 1, specialised
services and painting defective work in year 2, painting guarantee check and
gas and electrical services in year 3, detailed inspection of building fabric,
including windows and doors, in year 4, and check on items to be repainted
and inspection of external services in year 5. 18 Another alternative approach
to the preparation of a 5-year planned maintenance programme is shown in
Table 12.1.
Cleaning
The cost of cleaning and maintaining a normal building over a 20 to 3D-year
period can equal the initial cost of the building. Cleaning can in fact be
regarded as part of maintenance in that in part it is a preventive and
protective activity. For example, regular washing down of painted wall
surfaces reduces subsequent painting costs.
Programming of cleaning work should be preceded by a survey of the
various floor and wall finishes with their respective areas and uses. Uses
have a bearing on cleaning frequency as for example windows in offices,
display rooms and dining areas are usually washed more frequently than
those in storage and factory production areas. Generally, 40 to 45 per cent of
all cleaning time is devoted to floor surfaces. Work sheets are compiled for
daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly and annual operations and these will
provide the basis for estimating labour requirements.
Cleaning equipment and products must be carefully selected to secure the
best results at an advantageous price. The choice is influenced by such
factors as standard of appearance, amount of wear, degree of soiling, type
of equipment available and quality of cleaning staff. It is good policy
to minimise the number or type of products in use, and the cheapest product
is not necessarily the most economical. Supervision and inspection of
cleaning work is vitally important, and cleaning equipment must be properly
maintained.
Engineering Services
In the planned maintenance of engineering services in buildings, it is vital to
define clearly the tasks to be performed and then to programme the work in
a logical manner. If properly planned, malfunctioning components will be
detected at an early stage, enabling simple corrective action to be taken,
rather than waiting for a complete failure and then being faced with an
expensive replacement; in addition productivity will be increased by the
reduction in travelling and waiting time. Kelly19 has described how condition
monitoring can be applied in three ways: simple inspection; condition
checking; and trend monitoring. The frequency of monitoring will depend
on the deterioration characteristics of the item and the costs involved.
Table 12.1 5-year planned maintenance programme
YEARS 1 2 3 4 5
SURVEY 1 - - - .....
EXTERNAL
FABRIC WORK
EXECUTION
PRE- SURVEY
PAINTING
MAINTENANCE WORK
EXECUTION
SURVEY 1---_
EXTERNAL
DECORATION WORK
EXECUTION
SURVEY 1----
EXTERNAL
WORKS WORK
EXECUTION
SURVEY ~---
PLUMBING
WORK
EXECUTION
SURVEY 1----
INTERNAL
FABRIC WORK
EXECUTION
INTERNAL SURVEY 1----

FINISHES &
FITTINGS WORK
EXECUTION
SURVEY ~---
HEATING
INSTALLATION WORK
EXECUTION
ELECTRICAL
SURVEY ----
INSTALLATlON WORK
EXECUTION
SURVEY OF FABRIC & PRE.PAINTING

MAINTENANCE HERE PRIOR TO
SCHEME'S INTRODUCTION
Furthermore, building owners are also requiring a good service and a better
environment. 1
The majority of engineering planned maintenance schemes have tended
to concentrate solely on planning the activities of craft operatives to carry
out predetermined tasks at regular frequencies , and this often falls short of
the ideal. The operative is inevitably limited in his ability to inspect
installations for correct operation . For example, all the component parts of
an air conditioning plant may appear to operate satisfactorily but unless the
airflows, temperatures and humidity are measured and checked against the
design one cannot be certain that the plant's performance is satisfactory.
Similar checks should be carried out on boiler efficiency, water treatment,
electrical insulation and earthing, heating systems and domestic hot water
calorifiers.l?
Another major shortcoming of frequency-based maintenance for engineer-
ing services is the large number of inspections that results. Most of the
maintenance tasks are better dealt with by periodic inspections carefully
planned and carried out by competent persons, followed by specific correct-
ive action. The person inspecting equipment should be supplied with full
diagrams and operating data, any instruments required and information on
their method of use. Some preparatory work such as draining down,
removing lagfiing and opening up may be required and this should all be
pre-planned.
For example, the method of controlled maintenance adopted by the
British Steel Corporation at a major plant resulted in large savings in
operating and maintenance costs. Lubrication tasks are carried out on .a
frequency basis but otherwise all maintenance is done on request only. The
plant is inspected regularly and any faults, found are assessed for urgency.
Some will require immediate attention if only to effect a temporary repair.
In these cases the inspector raises a requisition and work is put in hand
straight away. In most cases, however , the work requires planning and if
detected early enough can wait for a convenient shut-down . The work is
planned, spare parts ordered and labour and time requirements assessed,
and then all this information is stored in a computer memory until the
appropriate time. When convenient the plant is shut down and the carefully
pre-planned remedial work is carried out in the shortest possible time. A
considerable reduction in the spares inventory has been possible owing to
the decreased likelihood of an unexpected breakdown .l?
Edwards! has described how a diverse estate of offices in several central
London buildings under individual manual plant control was equipped with
a remote control system designed and engineered for the specific purpose
required, with greatly improved operation and halving of the manpower
requirements.
Computerised Maintenance
Following technical inspections and completion of standard inspection
reports, the appropriate data can be fed into the computer which can
produce detailed orders based on standard specification items , and these can
be incorporated in contract documents if required. As an extension of this

process, the computer can print out complete and ready priced maintenance
schedules based on the inspection report and schedules of prices submitted
by contractors. Responsibility for ordering minor every-day maintenance
work can be delegated to caretaking staff, provided the extent of the
delegation is clearly defined and the work restricted to certain contractors .
Accounts can be checked for accuracy and paid by the computer.
The maintenance manager must keep detailed records of maintenance
expenditure and must know what each unit costs to maintain . To establish
control figures, maintenance and running costs of each individual building
will be recorded and analysed to show costs by age group of property, type
of construction, and location and user. Comparison of expenditure with
control figures will indicate where further investigations are needed to
determine whether a property i~ being over or under maintained, is being
misused, let at an uneconomical rent or is suffering from design deficiencies.
These processes could be carried out laboriously by clerical staff but the
computer is able to receive, process and print out this information quickly
and accurately.
The advantages of computer programming are numerous and include the
following:
(1) reduces clerical staff and management costs;
(2) lessens risk of human error and increases reliability;
(3) provides a check on work done;
(4) permits instant updating;
(5) capable of ready adaptation to suit alterations to buildings and
additions and variations in estates;
(6) can incorporate various management and administrative functions;
(7) can provide management with cost and other supporting data.
ElIiou20 has shown how computerisation will deal effectively with
the provision of information, sorting and quantitative and chronological
analysis, but it will not solve policy and people problems. However, accurate
information and effective channels of communication can result in the
formulation of sound policies and good performance .
The following example helps to illustrate the practical benefits to be
gained from the use of a computer. On receipt of the relevant information
the computer can be used to perform the following operations relating to the
production of works.orders with speed and efficiency:
(1) immediate display of all work outstanding , in progress or com-
pleted, to avoid duplication;
(2) provision of details of cyclical maintenance such as repainting and
rewiring that may affect the response;
(3) provision of information from past records to identify trends in
maintenance/repair works and patterns of failures;
(4) identification and arrangements for tasks requiring pre-inspection
and appointments, to validate accuracy of original work descriptions;
(5) production of works orders with full descriptions of requirements
from basic codes as predetermined and access to schedules of rates;
(6) automatic up-date of records of committed expenditure to assist

with budgeting and cost control.
Minicomputers or even microcomputers are likely to have the capacity
necessary for a maintenance/repairs system, but investigation of available
software should precede any consideration of hardware. Once the software
is agreed then computer suppliers can be invited to submit quotations.
There is a growing range of software available, but often coupled as
packages with particular types of computer. Software specifications should
be checked against the defined maintenance/repair requirements, practical
demonstrations held, and existing users contacted to gain knowledge of how
well their systems perform in practice and how well needs are satisfied.
Pettitr" has provided guidance on the design and operation of a simple
computer system and described the scope of a comprehensive system.
He has also given a useful code specification of building maintenance
operations.
Recording and Dissemination of Maintenance Data

Information Systems
Information and information flows are normally justified by their relevance
to decision-taking and the action which has to be initiated. However, the
general view of many concerned with building maintenance is that there is
already too much information in the form of Codes of Practice , British
Standards, Building Regulations , manufacturers' catalogues, research
reports, specifications and drawings. An individual is primarily interested
in the information that affects his area of decision-taking-he needs to know
the source of information, what decisions have to be made and what action
initiated. To be effective, information has to be collected, collated,
presented, and be easily retrieved and capable of direct application in
problem-solving and decision-taking. Designers can benefit from having
more knowledge of how structures operate, useful lives of buildings and
components, and how much is spent on their maintenance and operating
costs. Useful sources of information are DOE (construction feedback
series), BRE (digests and other publications) and BMI (Building Mainte-
nance Information Ltd) .
Building Records
The first requirement of a maintenance or property manager is to know in
detail what he is managing. Without this basic knowledge he will not be in a
position to decide his maintenance policy or to prepare estimates of
expenditure which go to form his budget. The information he needs includes
the geographical location of each property, the constructional details by
elements, age and condition, details of services, the superficial area and
cubic content, the accommodation available, the current user and any
proposals for the area by the local authority which might affect the
property.22
There are various ways of recording this information ranging from the
simple card index to the computer, and the method chosen will depend on
the size and resources of the estate. The method of recording is however of
secondary importance; the prime requirement is for accurate and relevant
information to be available as quickly as possible. It is likely that in the
foreseeable future the development of computers will make it possible for
the manager of even a small estate to have access to data through his own
minicomputer or microcomputer.
There is a risk of accumulating masses of data which can be expensive and
of only limited practical value. The maintenance manager must retain a
sense of proportion and recognise the limitations as well as the benefits of
recorded data. Records cannot for instance detect the leaking drain caused
hy minor subsidence or indicate the untrue ring of a timber floor affected by
rot.
Maintenance Cost Records

There is a vital need for cost information for both overall budgetary control
and for making day to day management decisions. There is a need for more
information on the consequences of design decisions as they affect mainte-
nance costs and insufficient feedback of maintenance cost data.
Maintenance Cost Records may be kept to fulfil three separate functions.
(1) Budgetary control-to produce the annual or other periodic sum
which needs to be set aside to provide for maintenance and operating
services.
(2) Management control-to permit the day to day control over
maintenance expenditure.
(3) Design cost control-to provide full information concerning causes
of failure, types of failure , design faults and similar particulars. Records of
roof repairs are of little use unless, for instance, they show the type of tile,
quality of tile, method of laying, angle of pitch and degree of exposure.
Some have advocated a hierarchical system of grouping or classification of
items for recording maintenance work and costs. A primary grouping would
be of value to organisations who do not wish to prepare very detailed
records, and would also form the basis for more detailed recording. One
possible primary grouping could be as follows:
(1) external painting
(2) internal decorations
(3) main structure
(4) internal structure
(5) finishes and fittings (including kitchen equipment)
(6) plumbing and sanitary services
(7) mechanical services, including heating , ventilating and gas installa-
tions
(8) electrical services

(9) external works
(10) miscellaneous and ancillary works.
A secondary grouping of plumbing and sanitary services could be hot
water and heating services, and a tertiary grouping of this element could
embrace pipes of different materials, and valves, tanks and cylinders of
different materials.
In 1970 the Department of Health and Social Security requested hospital
authorities to introduce an improved method of recording and analysing
expenditure on hospital building and engineering maintenance by the use of
fourteen primary and fifty secondary codes .6
A detailed coding system for building maintenance has been developed by
Holmes23 with job codes made up of a comprehensive elemental code and a
process code. The elemental code consists of a main elemental code and up
to five subelements, in a hierarchical structure. For example, 3 is structure;
34 is roofs; 342 is roof covering; 3422 is a flat roof; and 34221 is an asphalt
covered flat roof. The process code includes such items as renew, remove,
refix, and ease and adjust. Additional codes were developed to further
define the specific items. These consisted of a descriptive code to identify
materials and components; a block code and a location code to identify
locations at different levels; and a reason code to encompass the type of
maintenance and the nature and/or cause of the defect.
This coding system provides an effective coding frame for all types of
building. Subsequently, two case studies were presented to illustrate the use
of the code,24 and they do show the advantages to be gained by the use of a
universal but flexible system of recording maintenance cost data for
comparative, analytical and monitoring purposes.
There is a wide variation in the method of recording maintenance costs as
betwen different organisations. Some organisations using directly employed
labour will include overheads and management costs in varying proportions.
These variations in costing procedures make for difficulties when comparing
maintenance costs.
The breakdown of expenditure into elements will isolate expensive items
which can then be investigated. Where expenditure reveals the failure or
short life of an item, an alternative replacement should be considered. The
analysis of expenditure may also be subdivided according to use and cause of
failure under such headings as vandalism, boisterous use, fair wear and tear,
design failure, permanent failure and poor workmanship. This information
should also be fed back to the design team to secure improved future designs
and consequent lower maintenance costs.
Holmes and Marvin2S have advocated that any statement of costs and
trends will be more meaningful if the basic cost data used as evidence were
supplemented by details of the factors which influenced policy within the
hierarchical structure, and the extent of discretion exercised by the decision
makers . A further policy variation which will affect maintenance costs is the
extent of self-help maintenance, whereby tenants often undertake small
repairs themselves. Additionally, tenants of some local authorities are
permitted to make certain improvements to their homes, such as installing

central heating or modern kitchen fitments, with subsequent maintenance
implications for the authority on a change of tenancy. It has been suggested
that it may be possible to construct a discretion model , in terms of policy
weightings, which could be applied to the annual maintenance costs at the
same time as applying cost indices. 25
Need for Clearing House

A vast amount of information flows from many different sources to the
designer and his often limited technical library facilities and he tends to
become the human computer which sifts, selects, analyses and co-ordinates
this information for design purposes. A central clearing house can perform
this task far more effectively, as the information needs constantly to be
updated, catalogued and cross referenced, supplemented by graphic details
and costs recorded on standard forms . Such a centre can disseminate
information on performance of materials, formulate standard classification
routines for maintenance cost analysis, receive and analyse costs and
circulate results. The RICS Building Maintenance Information Ltd (BMI)
aims to provide this service.
Building Maintenance Information Ltd (BMI)

Building Maintenance Information Ltd (formerly BMCIS Ltd) is admin-
istered by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors to help maintenance
managers and property administrators in the maintenance of property, and
the service relies upon their support in providing information and in assisting
with feedback . BMI supplies general information on cost indices, labour
costs, materials and equipment, control techniques, legislation and statistics ,
together with digests of articles of relevance to property managers .
Feedback of technical information from properties in use to the design
team occurs through design/performance data sheets of building failures,
which describe the element or component, forecast the likely long-term
effect, analyse the cause of failure, and suggest any design or construction
correction . which might have avoided the situation and the necessary
remedial action. Case studies consist of factual reports of typical situations
and exemplify current operative practice in both public and private sectors.
They can reveal strengths and weaknesses in an organisation and a com-
mentary on each case illustrates the lessons to be learnt .
Probably the most valuable part of BMI is the occupancy cost analyses
covering a range of property types. Annual property costs are analysed
on the basis of standard instructions and elements on a unit area basis, and
these form part of a technical/financial budgetary control system. The
analyses provide a unique library of property occupancy data on organisa-
tions and costs . Each analysis contains details of the building and a note of
the managerial criteria which decide maintenance policy . Examples of BMI
occupancy cost analyses are given in appendixes 2 and 3, covering a

laboratory and halls of residence. The importance of monitoring and costing
energy usage is illustrated in the BMI energy cost analysis of a hospital
shown in appendix 4.
BMI centres its operations on the regular distribution of up-to-date data
which, when filed in loose leaf binders, provide a comprehensive library of
information and costs concerning property occupancy. It collects and
disseminates information from many sources but to a large extent the data is
derived from the records, operating conditions and experience of its own
subscribers. The service encourages better communications between upper
management and maintenance management and also between property
occupiers and the design team. The service is non-profit making and anyone
can become a subscriber.
Maintenance Feedback
Maintenance feedback should be an essential part of any maintenance
administration. Feedback may be mainly injected into the system in two
ways:
(1) directly to the design team; particularly information on design
faults, faulty workmanship and materials failures;
(2) by general discussion within the maintenance team, when solutions
to problems should be documented and passed on to all appropriate
personnel.
A visual representation of feedback is illustrated in figure 12.1, and this
shows some of the major stages in the operation of a maintenance scheme.
(1) management organisation of resources;
(2) work execution;
(3) appraisal of results; and
(4) corrective action through feedback to design and management
teams .
To assist in the feedback of information, site defects are suitably recorded
showing the symptoms, diagnosis , prognosis (projection of defect perfor-
mance in time), and the agreed remedy.
Skinner and KroU 26 believe that through a thorough analysis of past
maintenance data, the components in each project need to be identified,
together with the nature of the work undertaken, and preferably the
position in the building and the cause of failure. Hence, an adequate coding
system is required, simple enough for every day use with every job coded.
There is unlikely to be much benefit derived from the detailed feedback
on an individual small building, whereas a large stock of buildings could
produce meaningful data over a relatively short period. This, together with
the fine breakdown required normally necessitates computerised analysis.
For feedback purposes, the information has to be retained after the point
where its usefulness for day to dllY management has ceased, and it should be
START HERE
"" -,
" MAINTENANCE
MANAGER
FEEDBACK TO
DESIGN AND
~ BETTER MANAGEMENT TEAMS
)
, ORGANISATION
ORGANISATION
OF RESOURCES
APPRAISAL OF BETTER
:2~~'GNS
EXECUTION
Figure 12.1 Feedback in maintenance supervision
coded on an elemental basis. Facilities for the analysis of work and

consequent feedback are normally included in the computer programs of the
larger maintenance organisations."
The Princes Risborough Laboratory" has found that:
(1) stored maintenance information is sparse and rarely goes back
more than a few years;
(2) it is seldom in the form required and often inextricably agglome-
rated;
(3) it is very time-consuming to retrieve; and
(4) results are highly dependent on specific local factors of specifica-
tion, design and workmanship.
Furthermore, Holmes" found that few local authorities know how much
different dwelling types are costing; therefore to budget for maintenance on
particular elements the authorities had to depend on site feedback, usually
in the form of estimates from area managers. Authorities were unable to
plot costs or indices of failure for individual house types, and maintenance
budgets were compiled from experience rather than from an analysis of the
work needing to be done.
In general terms, maintenance costs rise with age; during the first twenty
years costs rise fairly steeply and then settle down to a more gradual increase
for the rest of the building life. However, the age/cost profile is not a simple
one, and there are a number of factors which affect the shape of the profile,
such as policy and type of construction.
Some aspects of dwelling design, in terms of maintenance, are critical,
such as flat roofs finished with lightweight membranes and large areas of
painted woodwork. It is more difficult to pin-point many of the problems
with smaller components. Government pressure on local authorities in the
19808 to provide financial statements of maintenance expenditure could lead
to improved maintenance systems and, hopefully, to the production of data
on component lives and-costs.
Current analyses show that a high percentage of repairs to finishes and
fixings result from work to doors and windows. Finishes account for
approximately 27to 30 per cent of maintenance work, plumbing for about 25
per cent and heating and lighting for around 20 per cent. Defective ball valves
were the most common plumbing problem. More attention needs to be paid
to the design and treatment of external doors and windows with a view to
extending their lives.
It is probably unwise for designers to judge a component or system on the
basis of annual maintenance costs . Holmes27 suggests that the ratio of
capitalised maintenance costs to initial costs provide a better guide. The
main problem is that few designers receive analytical data (cost and
performance) from maintenance departments. Most of the feedback to
designers appears to come from the results of their own activities or through
the experience of other designers, rather than from systematic records of
behaviour maintained by the user. There should be a more analytical
approach to feedback, which has become increasingly important with the
greater use of new materials and components, otherwise their cost benefits
may never be soundly evaluated.
Smith 28 has provided extensive information on the estate data base and
performance monitoring system employed by the National Health Service.
Maintenance Manuals
Need for Manuals
Most buildings, from the dwelling house to the prestige office block, have
increased in complexity in recent years. An increasing number of domestic
buildings are being provided with thermostatically controlled heating and
hot water systems , while large office blocks will probably be equipped with
high-duty heating and air conditioning systems, lifts and other items of
sophisticated plant and equipment, all requiring regular and specialist
inspection and servicing . The form of construction may involve new
techniques for which conventional maintenance practices may be unsuitable.
Although the designer may be aware of servicing requirements, these are
rarely communicated to those responsible for maintenance of the property.
A convenient form of communication is the maintenance manual which
should provide clearly and concisely all the information needed to maintain
and operate the building satisfactorily.29
Maintenance manuals will facilitate building maintenance and there is a
growing awareness of the need for them to be prepared for new buildings by
the design team, as part of the building contract at an appropriate fee,

possibly in the order of 0.5 per cent of the contract sum. A properly
prepared and comprehensive manual will serve three principal functions.
(1) It will enable the property manager to organise the repair and
maintenance of the building, its services and surrounds effectively and
economically.
(2) It will enable the occupier to clean the building and operate its
services efficiently, thus reducing loss of time and production.
(3) It will establish a link between the project design team and the
client and his maintenance organisation to their mutual benefit. 29
Contents of Manuals
It has been suggested that a maintenance manual should consist of three
basic parts.
(1) A physical record of the building and site, to include materials,
services, superficial area and cubic content, all in sufficient detail to assist
the manager in looking after property efficiently.
(2) Time-based inspection and maintenance cycles for the various
elements, including services, together with detailed check lists, maintenance
schedules for engineering services and list of specialist sub-contractors and
suppliers.
(3) Information and instructions on maintenance delegated to the
occupier.F
The type and amount of information in a maintenance manual will vary
with the nature and complexity of the property and its services. The detailed
contents could include the following matters.
(1) Contract and legalparticulars, including the design team, contractor
and sub-contractors, nature of tenure and details of any easements or other
restrictive covenants, contract particulars and statutory consents, and any
operative guarantees.
(2) Housekeeping-details of surface finishes and decorations both
internally and externally, with information concerning cleaning and
periodical routine maintenance; this is best prepared in schedule form set
against a time scale for the operations or inspections.
(3) Operation of plant-means of operating mechanical, electrical or
solid fuel plant or fittings, with details of requisite periodical routine
maintenance or servicing; the location of meters, recording devices, stop-
cocks, valves and the like should be recorded.
(4) Maintenance and repairs-full details of materials, components and
constructional processes should be given, preferably on an elemental basis in
the form given in appendix 5. All hidden features should be described and
special items noted such as jointing and replacement techniques, method of
fixing cladding components to structure and form of repair or replacement,
and the method of dismantling and re-erecting demountable components.
The names and addresses of sub-contractors or suppliers of all fittings,

components and plant installed in the initial project shall be given together
with catalogue numbers, colours and other relevant information which may
ease the task of ordering replacements or spare parts.
(5) Record of maintenance executed-provision for a maintenance log
to permit constant updating and the inclusion of any changes or additions.
(6) Plans and drawings-plans of each floor to a small scale with
permissible floor loadings and usable areas, all as built, on size A4 or A3
sheets for convenience, and relevant service layouts.
(7) Emergency information-names, addresses and telephone numbers
of contacts in the event of fire, theft or burglary; gas, electricity or water
failures or leaks; or failure/breakdown of plant; together with location of
appropriate equipment.
(8) Manufacturers' leaflets-these should be incorporated to give an
'after sales' service, with technical information on cleaning, operating,
maintenance and repairing products. 29
Many local authorities provide their house tenants with a maintenance
manual giving information on the cleaning and operating of the dwelling, its
services and equipment , together with the locations of stopcocks, valves and
other fittings, and any restrictions imposed on the tenant by the nature of
the construction, regarding the fixing of any fittings or execution of any
alterations or adaptations. The inclusion of emergency information is
essential.29
The RICS has issued a set of guidance notes for persons preparing
manuals, titled Building Management Manuals.
Types of Manual
Carnwath'" has described the criteria which he established when preparing
a maintenance manual-absolute simplicity of identification; minimum of
coding and maximum of easily identifiable abbreviations; special drawings
to show drainage, buried service runs, floor loadings, fire alarm shut off
points and like features; and a general attempt to make the building as easy
to run and the manual as easy to read as possible. His manual was divided
into three volumes as follows.
(1) Building specification with key drawings, names and addresses,
paint colours, materials, plant type numbers, light bulb wattages, and the
like, to assist anyone requiring detailed information quickly or to replace
damaged items.
(2) Maintenance references, describing all cleaning and maintenance
requirements and frequencies, and giving areas of particular materials and
numbers of plant and equipment. It assists the maintenance manager
in planning his workload and contains particulars to send to cleaning
contractors as a basis for their quotations.
(3) Current and forecast budgets and programmed replacement dates
for plant.
All volumes are contained in loose leaf folders and the maintenance
manager is encouraged to update it by inserting comments on performance,
revising specifications as new items are fitted and modifying maintenance
procedures and frequencies.
Typical manual schedules follow in tables 12.2 and 12.3.
Table 12.2 Maintenance manual materials schedule

Element Number-2 (floors/ceilings)
Item Nr Item Location Description and Manufacturer or
comments supplier
2/1 Acoustic Basement access Gold bond fissured Supplied and fixed
tiles corridor solitude tiles, 300 by Anderson Cons-
mm square, self- truction, Twicken-
finish on Anderson's ham
'J-type' suspension,
with white semi-gloss
stove enamelled edge
trim
212 Asphalt Tank room Includes skirting 300

floor mm high
2/3 Carpet Offices 'Debron' 1/2 metre Supplied and laid

tiles square by Carpet Tile Co.
Stipple range, colour Berkhamsted.
103 'brindle' brown'. Maker-s-Carpet
Arborite skirting. Manufacturing Co.
Another form of maintenance manual adopted by the Clwyd and Deeside

Hospital Management Committee, contained the following data:
(1) brief history
(2) short specification outlining system of construction, principal ma-
terials and finishes;
(3) floor plans as a minimum with sections and elevations wherever
possible;
(4) description of renovations, extensions, adaptations and major
repairs;
(5) graph showing maintenance expenditure from 1960 to date with
provision for continuation for further ten years for the particular hospital
and average of all Welsh hospitals, and material and labour costs;
(6) estimate of annual maintenance costs for next ten years subdivided
into (i) larger repairs and infrequent items; (ii) periodic repainting, wall
washing and road surfacing; and (iii) minor day to day repairs;
(7) schedule of statistics-number of beds and net cubic capacity
provide two standards for assessing performance;
(8) schedule of measurements for external repainting;
(9) room schedule.
~
~
l::
Table 12.3 Maintenance manual cleaning schedule }

Element Nwnber-2 (floors/ceilings) Maintenance frequency ~
S·
Item Maintenance Twice One Three Six One year
Nr Item specification Quantity Location dDily Day Week month months months or longer S
210 m2 Basement
s~
2/1 Acoustic Vacuum clean with Vac.
tiles brush attachment access corridor once
year
2
212 Asphalt Wash with clean water 25 m Tank room Wash
floor and and wipe dry
skirting
2
213 Carpet Vacuum shampoo 4900 m Offices Vac . Oean
tile clean with proprietary
carpet shampoo and
report wear
Other Matters
Information should be provided on methods of jointing and techniques for
repair and replacement of units, especially those likely to be the subject of
maintenance work. For instance, information could be included on the
fixing of cladding panels and how they may be removed and replaced
without damage and methods of weatherproofing joints between units. The
manual should enable faults to be analysed quickly with a minimum of
preliminary investigation, and to permit rectification without causing further
damage.
All finishes should be cleaned in accordance with the manufacturers'
instructions, as failure to do this may reduce their effective lives. For
example, vinyl floor finishes should normally not be cleaned with strong
detergents, wax polishes or scouring powders; in like manner steel wool,
strong acids and alkalis and abrasive cleaners should not be used on
aluminium window frames. The success of a manual is to a considerable
extent dependent upon manufacturers providing suitable literature prepared
as an after sales service to consumers, giving the means of cleaning,
operating and servicing their products.
Costs in Use!Life Cycle Costing

When designing a building the design team should ideally consider the total
costs or life cycle costing of alternative designs, embracing both initial and
future costs. The costs in use approach enables the way in which a building
functions to be expressed in terms of the costs of renewing and repairing the
fabric and fittings , of heating, lighting and fire insurance, and of the labour
needed to operate the building. The life cycle costing approach is extended
to include rates, insurances and other charges, and energy costs feature very
highly in the life cycle cost analyses. These costs can be added to the
amortised initial cost of the building to give the annual cost in use. The use
of this technique makes it possible to combine all the costs of the building
and so enables the vast range of factors on which judgement is necessary to
be reduced to a comparison of a single cost,31 as described in chapter 1. A
useful guide to life cycle costing is provided by Flanagan and Norman ."
Effect of Taxation and Insurance

The incidence of taxation can have a considerable effect on the design
economics of buildings. For instance, with industrial buildings some relief
can be obtained on the initial cost, through depreciation allowances,
investment, initial and cash allowances, their actual form and impact varying
from time to time. Amounts spent on maintenance and repairs , heating and
lighting, and other running expenses, are classified as business expenses and
are deductible from profits in the case of all types of buildings. The exact
incidence of taxation varies with the circumstances of the taxpayer. Public
authorities do not normally pay tax and so are not affected. Current
regulations and levels of taxation tend to favour alternatives with low
construction costs and high running costs. The total costs of buildings can
thus be influenced considerably by the form of taxation. For example,
valued added tax partially offsets the tax advantage previously accruing to
running costs, as new construction work was still zero rated in 1987.31
There is thus a wide variation of fiscal relief against building expenditure,
ranging from the total absence of relief against investment in commercial or
residential property, through the general run of investment in industrial
property, to the favoured case of a building treated as plant for tax purposes
and situated in a development area. The case has often been argued that
while maintenance expenditure is wholly allowable against liability to tax,
and capital expenditure, subject to the incidence of grants and allowances, is
not allowable, then a given volume of maintenance work must be less
expensive to the property owner than a corresponding volume of new
construction; hence building expenditure is liable to bias against new
construction in favour of maintenance, even when maintenance would
otherwise be uneconomic. If this is so, the demand for maintenance is
increased at the expense of demand for new construction, which would put
the same volume of physical resources to more productive and less labour-
intensive use. Maintenance-saving investment is also stifled; the use of
buildings is prolonged beyond their natural life, existing buildings are put to
uneconomic uses, and the quality of the environment deteriorates."
There can however be alternative explanations. Despite every fiscal
inducement, it remains genuinely uneconomic to retire apparently obsolete
buildings; fiscal policy has yet to realise the full development potential of
land; and finally there may be an innate resistance among businessmen to
investment in construction unless necessary, or for prestige.
It is also argued that fiscal considerations often have but a marginal
influence on investment decisions in new building, and that the harmful
effects of fiscal discrimination between new construction and maintenance
may thus be less prevalent than is supposed. Furthermore, the argument
described earlier is conceptually in error since money saved by building
more cheaply initially would be invested elsewhere to produce at least an
equal return and consequentially equal tax liability.31
The design and layout of buildings may also influence rating valuations
and premiums payable for fire insurance. For industrial buildings, floor
space is rated according to the level of amenities provided; thus upper
floors, and areas which are unheated, have low storey heights or can only
carry low loads will be assessed at lower rates. However, an attempt to
reduce rateable value by lowering standards may adversely affect efficiency
and flexibility. Fire insurance premiums are related to the degree of fire risk
and reductions in premiums may be made for design features which are
likely to reduce fire spread, such as the use of non-flammable materials or
those which resist the spread of fire, and the provision of fire-fighting
equipment like sprinklers. It may not pay to install sprinklers or automatic
fire alarms where the annual equivalent cost of provision and maintenance is
greater than the reductions in fire insurance premiums."
References
1 E. J. Gibson (Ed.). Developments in Building Maintenance-I.

2 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service (BMI). Maintenance
Management of Local Authority Housing (1973)
3 Chartered Institute of Building. Managing Building Maintenance (1985)
4 R. N. B. Smith. Condition Appraisals and Their Use. CIOB Technical
Information Service No. 52 (1985)
5 B. A. Speight. Formulating maintenance policy. Chartered Surveyor
(April 1970).
6 H. R. P. Gregson. Putting maintenance into perspective. DOE Fourth
National Building Maintenance Conference . HMSO (1973) .
7 R. J. Bushell. Assessing Maintenance Priorities-Guidelines based on
Health Service Experience. CIOB Maintenance Information Service
No. 17 (1981)
8 R. G. Howell. Making the right decision. DOE Third National Build-
ing Maintenance Conference. HMSO (1971)
9 DES Architects and Building Group. Design Note 40: Maintenance and
Renewal in Educational Buildings: Needs and Priorities (1985)
10 Committee on Hospital Building Maintenance. Report of Committee,
1968-70. HMSO (1970)
11 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service (BMI). Occasional
Paper No .5. Budgetary Control and Building Maintenance (1973)
12 Local Government Operational Research Unit. Report D9: Building
Maintenance How Can OR Help? HMSO (1972)
13 Local Government Operational Research Unit. Report Cl88: Evaluat-
ing Alternative Housing Maintenance Strategies: Proposals for a Study to
Develop a New Method. HMSO (1973)
14 Local Government Operational Research Unit. Report C144: Hospital
Building Maintenance: Can Decision Making be Improved? HMSO
(1972)
15 R. F. Stevens. BRE Current Paper 55/74: Maintenance Standards and
Costs (1974)
16 I. H. Seeley. Blight on Britain's Buildings: A Survey of Paint and
Maintenance Practice. Paintmakers Association (1984)
17 B. P. Holloway. Considering planned maintenance. DOE Fourth Na-
tional Building Maintenance Conference. HMSO (1973)
18 R. D. Milne. Building Estate Maintenance Administration. Spon (1985)
19 A. Kelly. Maintenance Planning and Control. Butterworth (1984)
20 D . A. Elliott. Computerisation of Maintenance/Repairs Systems. CIOB
Technical Information Service No. 54 (1985)
21 R. Pettitt. Computer Aids to Housing Management. HMSO (1981)
22 Department of the . Environment. Practice in Property Maintenance
Management. HMSO (1970)
23 R. Holmes. A Coding System for Building Maintenance. CIOB Tech-
nical Information Service No . 47 (1985)
24 R. Holmes. Maintenance Coding and Monitoring: Two Case Studies.

CIOB Technical Information Service No. 53 (l985)
25 R. Holmes and H. Marvin. Maintenance Costs and Policy. Housing
(January 1980)
26 N. P. Skinner and M. E. Kroll. Maintenance Feedback. CIOB Mainte-
nance Information Service No. 18 (1981)
27 Building Maintenance Cost Information Service (BMI). Occasional
Paper No. 123. Feedback from Housing Maintenance (1983)
28 R. N. B. Smith. Estate maintenance monitoring and appraisal. DOE
Ninth National Building Maintenance Conference. HMSO (1986)
29 Department of the Environment . Maintenance Manuals for Buildings.
HMSO (1970)
30 D. Carnwath. Design responsibility and maintenance manuals, DOE
Third National Building Maintenance Conference. HMSO (1972)
31 I. H. Seeley. Building Economics . Macmillan (1983)
32 R. Flanagan and G. Norman. Life Cycle Costing for Construction .
RICS (1983)
13 EXECUOON OF MAI~ANCE WORK
Maintenance work can be undertaken by contractors, direct labour organi-

sations or a combination of both systems, and the decision will be based on
a number of criteria. The structures of maintenance organisations are
examined together with programming and operational activities. Finally the
training of maintenance staff and the operation of incentive schemes are
considered.
Choice Between Direct and Contract Labour

General Background
Building maintenance is not a single industry and is executed by contractors
working for profit and by commercial enterprises and public authorities as
an adjunct to other functions. Contractors in fact accounted for less than
half of all estimated expenditure on building maintenance in the early 1980s;
nevertheless they have in the past constituted the more flexible part in that
they are subject to direct economic pressures and can respond fairly readily
to changes in the pattern of demand. Direct labour organisations are rather
more rigid in structure and the previous absence of a profit motive required
the substitution of other forms of motivation and objective. In all cases the
services should be effective and the total cost economic.
It is possible that the form of construction, use of the building or
maintenance policy may determine whether directly employed labour, or
contractors, or both will be the most advantageous. There are no general
recommendations that will provide the correct proportions of direct and
contract labour for all maintenance departments; each has to be treated
separately. In reaching a decision, the maintenance manager in any organi-
sation should compare the costs and services provided by contractors with
his own directly employed labour force, taking into account the availability
of labour and the type and location of buildings to be maintained. The type
of maintenance organisation serving a single large complex of hospital
buildings in continuous use will be ill-suited to maintain the dispersed
properties of a large county council. Direct labour forces are particularly
369
well placed to cope with emergency repairs to large commercial and public
buildings, while small contractors can provide a good service to house-
holders.
The cost of directly employed labour is made up of wages and materials;
consumable stores; administrative overheads such as labour oncosts, and
associated clerical, travelling and supervisory costs; and depot costs. The
cost of employing a contractor consists of the contractor's charges plus
administrative overheads, such as inviting and comparing tenders, drawing
up contracts, work supervision and checking invoices.
Application in Practice
The main advantages claimed for the use of directly employed labour are:
(1) it allows full control of activities of operatives, permitting reason-
able flexibility, a more rapid response and direct quality control;
(2) it should ensure a good standard of workmanship by craft operatives
who enjoy continuity of employment and are suitably trained, although
recruitment may be a problem;
(3) there is a standard complement of labour available;
(4) the maintenance manager can introduce and operate incentive
schemes, with resultant improved productivity;
(5) it is particularly well suited for the execution of emergency repairs,
as the labour force is familiar with the location of stopcocks, switches,
manholes and the like, and for operational services and services requiring
particular or unusual skills for which employees can be trained;
(6) there is little opportunity for trade demarcation in small main-
tenance organisations.
On the other hand the establishment of a direct labour maintenance force
will require the provision and administration of supporting facilities such
as stores, workshops, transport and accounting services; a high standard
of supervision and control to ensure economic programming, and good
productivity and quality of work; and experienced and efficient management
to provide effective labour relations and communications.' With direct
labour work the difference between estimated and actual cost can be
considerable; a report by one local authority on schemes undertaken by its
works department showed that some jobs cost two to three times the
original estimate, while claims that direct labour yields a higher standard of
work are often difficult to substantiate. Accounting procedures of direct
labour organisations have varied considerably in the past and some rationali-
sation would facilitate statistical analysis to general advantage. Some
criticism of local authority direct labour expenditure is founded on the
assertion that some costs are hidden and one local authority auditor
questioned how it could be established that a direct labour organisation was
effectively competing with contractors, when it operated depots for which
the costs were unknown. Direct labour had no bad debts , no costs of
tendering in competition but, on the other hand, often had a high rate of
Execution of Maintenance Work 371
sickness around 6 per cent, and its higher ratio of staff to operatives could
exceed the contractor's profit element.
Contractors play an important part in maintenance work, both for putting
buildings in repair and for the larger periodic .works, Successful results
depend on exacting and well-detailed specifications and close supervision.
Special contractors are indispensable for maintenance of lifts and other
sophisticated plant and for specialist trades such as asphalt and terrazzo
work. 2
Maintenance work loads tend to fluctuate, particularly with redecorations
where external work is seasonal. With certain buildingssuch as universities,
polytechnics and colleges, some work can be undertaken only during
vacations, resulting in heavy demands in the summer. Direct labour gangs
cannot be built up to cope with such diverse seasonal loads, otherwise they
will be underemployed at other times of the year. Milne3 has emphasised the
desirability of keeping the workforce to such a size that full employment can
be found for them irrespective of the economic climate, by identifying the
essential and irreducable maintenance operational requirements.
Some have argued that it would be better to confine direct labour to little
more than emergency and scheduled maintenance, and to use contractors
for the seasonal , major and specialist work, although many efficient
direct labour organisations would quarrel with this approach . Contractors
generally need long-term contracts to give the employer good service on
advantageous terms. .
Effect of Local Government Planning and Land Act 1980

The Local Government Planning and Land Act 1980 was designed to
provide greater flexibility, better accountability and firmer financial dis-
ciplines for local government. Under Part III of the Act, the Secretary
of State was empowered to introduce regulations so that where local
authorities continued to operate direct labour organisations they must
compete for work with private contractors, keep their accounts on a trading
basis and earn a specified rate of return , to ensure that they would be
cost-effective in operation. Failure to achieve the prescribed rate of return
could result in the DLO being ordered to cease its operations. Although
Part III of the Act does not apply to small maintenance organisations
employing fewer than 30 manual workers. .
The Direct Labour Organisations (Rate of Return on Capital) Directions
1981 set the rate of return at 5 per cent, calculated on a current cost
accounting basis. The new legislation was aimed at bringing to an end the
unfair advantages that DLOs were considered to enjoy as a result of their
non-profit making financial structure supported by subsidies from the rates.
It did, however, go much further by imposing a profit margin which private
contractors were unable to achieve."
Edwardsf has described how DLOs have been placed at an unfair
advantage when comparing with the private sector. For example, there are
limits on the types of work for which they can tender; they are confined to
certain geographical areas; are required to achieve a prescribed percentage

return on capital; must make a profit in each of the specified work
categories ; and must bear their share of the authority's central operating
expenses.
The main implications of the new legislation in the operation of DLOs is
now examined.
(1) Increased accountability: DLOs now have to make a profit to
survive while continuing to satisfy the demands for service.
(2) Potential reduction in workload: in order to achieve previous levels
of workload a high success rate in tendering would have to be achieved.
(3) Charging to clients: work can no longer be charged at cost; it must
be based on a tender price or estimate and any excess costs will be shown as
losses against the particular contract or account.
(4) AI/ocation of overheads: many of the overheads could remain in
the event of a reduction in workload, thus adversely affecting the chances of
gaining new work.
(5) Local authority responsibilities: various aspects of national agree-
ments relating to pay and service conditions could put DLOs in an adverse
position as compared with private contractors. Examples are the arrange-
ments for absences due to sickness and industrial injury and the requirement
for all full-time employees to participate in the local government superan-
nuation scheme.
(6) Monitoring of expenditure: need to have more rapid access to
up-to-date financial information on works in progress.
(7) Additional work/overheads: significant increase in the surveying
and estimating workload with a consequent increase in overheads with a
potential diminishing workload.
(8) Local issues and policies: difficulties in operation within locally
determined policies and strategies, such as a non-redundancy agreement or
a 'buy British' policy, restrictions on the use of suppliers of materials or
services, or any local betterment of basic payor conditions of service.
(9) Problems with tendering: much of building maintenance work is in
the under £10 000 category and day to day repairs, which is difficult to put
out to tender as the nature and amount of the work involved is not known
prior to going out to tender.5
Bdwards' has advocated the implementation of the following actions to
overcome the problems previously outlined:
(1) improve efficiency in operations and organisation;
(2) review assets used to improve the rate of return;
(3) review overheads to effect reductions wherever possible;
(4) maximise work available as by right;
(5) review contract conditions to ensure that wherever possible con-
tractors and DLOs compete on equal terms;
(6) review the range of operational procedures.
Much of the action centres around improving efficiency and cost effective-
ness, and Edwards' has aptly listed the main areas where this could be
achieved.
(1) reduction or elimination of wasted time such as that spent waiting

for materials, plant or transport, travelling to and from and between jobs,
and abortive calls;
(2) effective organisation and deployment of labour by trade and area
to give satisfactory service at minimal cost;
(3) monitoring of incentive payment schemes;
(4) improvements in the planning and scheduling of the larger main-
tenance schemes;
(5) rationalisation of plant and transport and depot location and usage
to give the best service possible;
(6) review of working methods to maximise flexibility and minimise
labour input and materials usage for each task .
Building Maintenance Departmental Structures and Arrangements

Hierarchical responsibility
The pattern of responsibility for directing and undertaking repairs and
maintenance varies considerably from one local authority housing depart-
ment to another, and is influenced by such factors as geographical spread of
the authority's administrative area and the size of the housing stock. The
primary functions will consist of determining general maintenance policy,
assessing funding requirements, preparing work programmes, executing
maintenance work, progressing the work, monitoring costs and implement-
ing feedback procedures.
Authorities owning less than 5000 dwellings and occupying a compact
geographical area are likely to manage repairs and maintenance from the
departmental headquarters. Authorities which have more houses or a large
administrative area will probably have the work organised on a district basis.
The latter arrangement will be examined, although it will be appreciated
that the functions performed by district officers will be carried out by
headquarters staff in smaller authorities.
Irrespective of the size of the authority, all housing matters will normally
be administered by a director of housing, who will be responsible to the
Housing Committee for the work of the department. The director will be
concerned with the initiation of policy and is the link with the Council. An
assistant director is often appointed to liaise with the principal headquarters
officers overseeing the districts; these could, for example, be a principal
technical officer and a principal surveyor, although on occasions these posts
might -be combined.
The housing team within each district will be headed by a district officer,
with a district technical officer and possibly a district surveyor controlling
repairs and maintenance. The likely maintenance personnel and their main
functions are now described.
District officers
District technical officer: reports to the principal technical officer at head-
quarters and exercises financial control of maintenance work, deals with
non-routine matters, arranges payments to contractors and may prepare
estimates in conjunction with the district surveyor.
Assistant technical officers: report to the district technical officer, carry
out building inspections and compile work specifications, possibly in
co-operation with an assistant district surveyor. They will also monitor
maintenance costs by overseeing work undertaken by the authority's direct
labour organisation.
District administrative staff: report to the assistant technical officers, taking
work requests, issuing work dockets to the direct labour organisation or
contractors and maintaining adequate records.
District surveyor: reports to the principal surveyor and supplies data

obtained from site inspection surveys. He also undertakes structural
surveys, organises demolition work and oversees alteration, conversion
and refurbishment work, including the preparation of cost estimates and
specifications and valuation of payments to contractors.
Assistant district surveyors: assist the district surveyor in carrying out his
various duties .
Clerks of works: carry out normal inspection duties to ensure satisfactory

quality standards in materials and workmanship.
Works personnel: direct labour organisations require sufficient supervisory
staff, craft operatives and labourers to carry out the maintenance work
allocated to them. They often operate as mobile teams .
An alternative arrangement consists of area maintenance units operating
under the control of an area manager, responsible for carrying out pro-
grammed and contingency maintenance works in his area within the
prescribed budgetary provisions, and assisted by a supervisor, technicians,
work study officer and clerical staff. A central planning and control group
prepares routine planned maintenance programmes for each area, and its
work includes the allocation of manpower 'and other resources, preparation
of area budget estimates, monitoring the performance of area maintenance
units and co-ordination of their activities.
Central administration
The central administration will monitor the progress made by the districts
in fulfilling the authority's repair and maintenance objectives , and the
effectiveness of its actions. In addition, it will keep comprehensive records
of the authority's properties, and of the repairs, maintenance and improve-

ment work carried out to them.
Property details will be stored on a property register, which often ranks
property in terms of age, height and size of accommodation. Although
property maintenance records will be kept by each district office, informa-
tion will also be forwarded to the central administration to enable work to be
monitored. Information will be received on instructions issued, including
their date of issue; brief descriptions of the work, when it was completed and
whether by contractor or direct labour organisation. This enables the central
administration to examine the effectiveness of the work and to identify
responsibility for substandard performance.
Case studies
The organisational structures for maintenance of dwellings of a large city
housing department and a much smaller housing association are briefly
described to show the different arrangements.
Nottingham City Council owned over 45 000 dwellings in 1987 and the
Department of Housing Services controls all aspects of maintenance and
management of the properties. The Director of Housing is supported by two
deputy directors, one of whom is responsible for the direct labour organisa-
tion of about 500 employees. The administrative centre of the DLO contains
various trade shops and a minor works section which deals with adaptations
and pre-painting repairs. Jobbing repairs are organised through six depots
on the basis of orders raised by technical housing officers located in branch
and neighbourhood offices.
Repairs are categorised according to priority. Thus 'E' orders relate to
emergency items, such as burst pipes, blocked drains, broken windows and
serious electrical faults and are rectified within 24 hours. 'A' orders are dealt
with within 10 days and include ill-fitting external doors and holed roofs,
while 'B' orders are rectified within 10 weeks and include all non-urgent
repairs such as defective plaster and ill-fitting windows.
The area covered by each depot is subdivided into cyclical districts each
covering about 2000 dwellings. They are visited every three to four weeks,
one or two portakabins are set up and craft operatives sent out from these to
deal with 'B' orders. The nearest arrangement to an estate-based repair
team are the on-site joiners, plumbers and electricians for the flat comp-
lexes.
A surveying and estimating section of 30 technical staff deals with work
not undertaken by the DLO, such as rewiring and central heating installa-
tions and work exceeding £2000 in value. Specifications are prepared and
the work is put out to tender. This section is also responsible for the planned
programme of repainting, each contract comprisingseveral hundred houses,
and for which the DLO is usually invited to tender .
In 1987 the department was in the process of computerising its system for
costing and ordering repairs . Each branch and neighbourhood office will
have a terminal and printer. When a disrepair is reported by a tenant, the
details are immediately keyed in and stored under the appropriate property
reference. The printer then automatically produces an acknowledgement for
the tenant and a copy is passed to a technical housing officer to assess the
work. He codes the work which is then typed back in and an order
automatically raised with the appropriate depot which has its own VDU and
printer. When the work is completed the depot clerk books off the repair.
Managers are able to ascertain the extent and location of outstanding repairs
and detailed information on works completed, costs and many related
matters.
The technical aspects of modernisation work are undertaken by the
Department of Technical Services, although the improvements section of
the Department of Housing Services liaises with tenants, arranges decent
accommodation and related matters . In 1985/86 Nottingham City Council
spent £250 per dwelling on repairs and improvements compared with the
national average of £375.
By comparison, Nottingham Community Housing Association Ltd
managed 1575 properties in 1987 through three area offices. Maintenance
work is organised from the Association's main office, which is staffed by a
maintenance officer, two maintenance assistants and administrative support
staff. The properties are predominantly refurbished dwellings with a small
number of new buildings. Unlike a local authority, properties are rarely
located in close proximity to one another.
Most of the maintenance work is complaint-orientated and each defect is
recorded on a repair acknowledgement form. Most of the works are
pre-inspected, recorded on a card with a priority code and a confirmation
order sent to a contractor . If works are estimated to exceed £100 to £200,
competitive prices are obtained from selected contractors.
Properties which have not been visited previously are inspected at
six-monthly intervals. Cyclical maintenance is carried out every four years.
Decorations, gas and electrical installations are inspected on relets and
appropriate action taken. Where possible, contractors submit invoices on a
weekly basis and these are carefully scrutinised, with details entered on to
individual house cards and into an expenditure record book . Each month a
statement of expenditure and outstanding works is prepared as a means of
budget control. In 1985/86 the Association spent £253 per dwelling on
repairs and maintenance.
Maintenance Depots
Area Depots
Craft operatives normally operate from depots which should Include facili-
ties for changing clothes, washing, and drawing stores and tools. The
economics of providing a central depot as against a number of smaller
depots dispersed throughout the administrative area needs to be examined.
The optimum number, size and location of depots is an operational research
problem that requires for its solution a detailed examination of the total
costs of running the depots, geographical distribution of jobs, their urgency

and how long they take to complete.
Depots provide craft operatives with the materials they require and the
maintenance manager has to determine the correct stock levels. He needs to
consider how frequently each item is required, how long it takes to replenish
stocks when they run low, the relative seriousness of stocks running out, the
cost of purchasing stock in different quantities and the storage costs
associated with bulk purchasing.
Mobile Depots
Mobile depots can often be used to advantage with housing maintenance,
particularly in rural areas. Their use needs to be carefully planned to provide
an efficient service and the following arrangements introduced by a con-
tractor have proved satisfactory in practice.
Site instructions for repairs are as far as possible grouped into areas or
streets, whereby the team has sufficient work for at least two days ahead . To
overcome the common problem of non-accessibility, the team foreman calls
at all houses which it is proposed to visit the following day. He makes the
call at the end of the working day by which time there is usually someone at
home; arrangements can then be made for someone to be available the next
day or for a key.to be left with a neighbour.
The problem of stores availability is almost completely overcome by a
wide selection of articles carried in the mobile workshop, including standard
doors and windows and plumbing spares. It is seldom that the mobile
workshop has to return to base during the day. Stores are replenished at the
end of each day's work. There is considerable advantage in having a mobile
workshop readily accessible to the repair work. Even the most straightfor-
ward repairs, such as easing doors and windows present cleaning problems
when carried out in the house. They can now be done, whatever the
weather, close at hand in the mobile workshop. This particular mobile unit
was used for the maintenance of 2600 dwellings with a team consisting of a
foreman, 2 carpenters, 1 plumber, 1 bricklayer-handyman and 1
painter-glazier.
A useful type of mobile workshop was based on a diesel-engined 1.75 t
vehicle. On one side of the workshop was fitted a joiner's bench and the
other side was racked to assist in the identification of small stores . There was
an electric circular saw which could be used on the bench or outside;
although not large it catered for almost all the requirements of small
maintenance jobs.
A mobile workshop could take the form of a motorised workshop or be a
caravan type workshop towed by a Land Rover or lorry. In making a choice
the following factors should be considered.
(1) How long is the mobile workshop likely to remain in anyone place?
(2) Could the towing vehicle be used for other duties when not
required for moving the workshop?
378 Building MDin~nance
(3) The consequeanal gain or loss from Road Fund licensing costs in
each case.
(4) The cost of replating a motorised workshop every 18 months and
the effect on overall costs.
Programming of Maintenance Work

Planning the Workload
In planning maintenance work, the maintenance manager aims to match the
available resources with the workload. Effective forward planning is difficult
with this category of work because of the large number of uncertain factors
involved. Hence it is advisable to adopt a two stage planning system.
(1) An annual plan is prepared showing the expected workload for the
coming year and how this can be matched effectively with available
resources. Jobs are best grouped according to their work content, urgency,
amount of notice required and restrictions on timing. A simple classification
is jobbing repairs, fabric maintenance and modernisations. Using a classifi-
cation of this type, a detailed plan can be formulated of the work to be done
by each trade during the coming year.
(2) The completed plan is translated into a weekly work schedule, with a
rolling programme prescribing the workload for about 6 weeks ahead. This
programme is updated regularly to take into account the most recent
information on the content and timing of specific jobs and availability of
resources. In this way the maintenance manager retains close control of the
maintenance work and when events diverge from the plan, it aJlows him to
take corrective action at the earliest possible time. '
The majority of local authorities find it helpful to employ their own direct
labour organisation extensivelyin order to control the order of priorities and
to build up comprehensive information on the nature, condition and
requirements of their own properties . A direct labour organisation generally
caters for most routine jobs, while specialist work such as electrical or
heating may be let out to private contractors. It is usuaJly advisable to put
out to tender any abnormal increases in workload, including possibly part of
the painting work to avoid employing too many painters in the winter .
Furthermore, obtaining tenders from contractors provides a useful indica-
tion of the cost effectiveness of a direct labour organisation, and in many
cases the local authority has to tender in competition with private con-
tractors to satisfy the requirements of the Local Government Planning and
Land Act 1980. On occasions the extent of a maintenance programme could
be too rigidly constrained by the size of the direct labour organisation rather
than the needs of an effective maintenance service.
It is surprising that some local authorities organise their maintenance
service without attempting to match expected demands and resources. It is
possible to estimate annual and seasonal variations in workload and the
proportion of the labour force likely to be available. Admittedly, some
maintenance jobs can be unpredictable in work content, but without a
forecast of probable future work the effects of abnormal delays and the
necessary remedial measures cannot be predicted. Even with formal plann-
ing, work does not arise in a uniform flow. There are inevitably peaks and
troughs for most trades, dependent upon climatic conditions and changes in
local authority policies and attitudes.
Many local authorities endeavour to restrict severely the repairs under-
taken for tenants, often to the extent of issuing conditions of tenancy of
doubtful legality, such as requiring the tenant to protect from frost badly
designed and very vulnerable fittings and services. The primary objective of
this policy is to limit maintenance expenditure and to avoid as far as possible
undertaking small jobs which can be proportionately very expensive.
Internal decorations are normally made the responsibility of the tenant and
replacing broken glass arising from wilfuldamage or gross negligence on the
part of the tenant. Most local authorities exempt old age pensioners from
many repair obligations, and some concessions may be granted to single
parent families with children of school age and registered disabled persons
living alone. Tenants must be fully aware of their own repair obligations and
the procedure for notifying the landlord of repairs for which he is respon-
sible under the tenancy agreement.
Use of Programmes
Frequency-based programmes can be prepared for internal and external
painting and for washing down. These programmes can be based on manuals
drawn up for each building recording all relevant data such as painting
specifications, superficial areas and a cost index based on the actual cost in a
particular year. A programme of preventive maintenance such as drain
clearing, gutter clearing, tap re-washering and oiling and adjusting door
furniture can also be prepared for each building.6
The main part of any maintenance programme is usually a series of
pre-planned inspections. An annual inspection by a structural engineer
ensures the stability of the structure. A checklist ensures effective inspec-
tions at suitable intervals. The programme of inspections can be fed into a
computer which prints out a slip requesting the inspection on a specificdate.
The report of defects prepared on inspection is then assessed for urgency.
Where these are urgent a requisition can be prepared and corrective work
put in hand . Less urgent jobs can be planned and fitted into a work
programme provided it can be kept within the budget. The information can
then be returned to the computer for updating the historical record."
One effective method is to operate a planned maintenance system based
on a 5-year painting cycle, and a typical 5-year planned maintenance
programme is illustrated in table 12.1. The first priority is the replacement
or repair of any item to be subsequently painted. Alongside this is work
urgently needed for reasons of safety or hygiene, such as rewiring, replace-
ment of sanitary ware or making good defective structural work. Effort is
made to ensure that the work would not be quickly overtaken by more
comprehensive schemes of maintenance or modernisation. More compre-
hensive improvements can be classified under three main headings, as
follows.
(1) Internal improvements: improved insulation, central heating,

remodelling of kitchens and upgrading of bathroom fitments.
(2) External improvements: general facelift to property not being part
of maintenance paintwork cycle, such as tiled roofs, fencing and footpaths.
(3) Site improvements: car parks, children's play areas, landscaping
and general environmental improvement.
Speight' has described several approaches to programming or a combina-

tion of them, such as determining priorities over a 1 to 2 year period to
dealing with emergency work, deciding on a rolling programme covering 5
to 7 years, and identifying the requirements for routine day to day
maintenance and servicing. He asserts correctly that sound maintenance is
largely dependent upon doing the right thing at the right time .
A typical painting schedule would show the locations of dwellings on the
left-hand side and the columns would be headed with years. In addition
the number of dwellings, type of dwelling (for example, pre-war three
bedroom) and possibly the date of erection may be inserted. The schedule
will show the painting programme for each group of dwellings and whether
this has been implemented in the past . Schedules can also be prepared to
cover other major items of repair or replacement such as re-roofing,
replacement of paths and fences, rewiring and replacement of sanitary
fitments.
Graham" has formulated the following maintenance standards as a basis
for programming of housing maintenance work.
external painting: every 5 years
electrical re-wiring: every 25 to 30 years
renewal of gas water heaters: every 25 years
servicing of gas appliances: annually
servicing of electric appliances: annually
cleaning of ventilation ducts: annually
servicing floor springs to swing doors: annually
cleaning gullies: annually .
cleaning of water storage tanks: annually
cleaning refuse hoppers on staircases and balconies: three times each
year
cleaning dust chute chambers: clean three times each year and paint
internally or wash down as required
grass cutting: generally every 9 working days, reducing to 7 days in peak
growing periods and increasing to 10 days in slow growing periods
hedge cutting: twice each year (ApriVMay and August/September)
hedge splitting: one fifth each year (October/March)
Housing authorities often rank repairs and maintenance work in a stated
order of priority to indicate the urgency with which operatives should seek
to deal with them. The following represents a typical priority ranking.
emergencies: make safe or complete within 24 hours of notification
bricklaying: within 5 weeks
carpentry: within 4 weeks

plumbing: within 3 weeks
glazing: within 2 weeks
electrical work: within 1 to 2 weeks
space heating: within 3 days
Stevens," while accepting that many building components deteriorate

gradually, believes that consideration of the physical needs of the building
might indicate that different speeds of service would be appropriate for
different types of repairs. He suggests the following categories of priority.
(1) several hours: major water leaks, gas leaks and dangerous wiring
(2) several days: minor water leaks, reglazing, repairs to external doors
and heating repairs in winter
(3) several weeks: major plastering repairs, and blocked rainwater
pipes and gutters
(4) several months: renewal of gutters, easing of windows and doors,
and repainting brickwork.
It is possible to estimate app-roximate times for a range of cleaning tasks
calculated on a unit of 100 m2 of floor area but these will vary according to
the type of building and its use. Some of the more common cleaning tasks
follow with their likely times.
Activity Time in minutesper 100 m1 of floor area

Office and toilet cleaning 60-70
Impregnated mop sweeping 10-15
Damp mopping 18-25
Wet mopping, rinsing and drying 60-70
Hand scrubbing and drying 180-200
Machine scrubbing 12-45
Machine drying (suction) 25-30
Stripping and re-waxing 160-1SO
Vacuum sweeping 30-35
Hand sweeping 20-25
Applying wax polish manually 85-100
Applying liquid polish manually 45-50
Applying liquid polish with applicator 30-40
Organisation of Maintenance Work

Recording of information concerning properties and repairs is best under-
taken on a card system providing ready means of communication by means
of a computer. The records are sometimes described as a property register.
The computer can be programmed to give either fixed format reports
providing answers to individual questions or an analysis across the full range
of properties. In one such system the information is held on standard 80
column punched cards, using a very simple code to identify each street. On
7 B • 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 1. 20 21 22 23 24 2li 211 27 2B 2lI 30 31
DAY
• C
~~$ I PROPERTY
.1•
> TYPE BUILT OCCUPIED ...
r-
C • !
I:
TENANT I CONSTRUCTION III
~a
e ~<~ i
·· ..
C)
•·
-------------------------fl EXTERNAL IIIl
;:;
.........wnlJUT .ur..n TRADE MARK7OIC.C. . . .
• u CAVI~ SOLID 0 BRIC~ STONE 0
CONCRETE RECON.STONEC-JI • a.
PLUMBING ELECTRICAL FITTINGS ....
TIMBER CONCRE~ FLA~
KITCHEN
R~ I~ ~
·.
PITCHED TILES IT SLATES IT
·L1VING ,
FELT !; - - - .
••
DINING, .,
WI ~ -'
~ • gQ LOUNGE/DINING RAIN WATER ~
·• ...... BEDROOM 1
o
I
. PIPES
LEAD§
IRON ASBESTOS
IRON~PVCPVC~ESTOS Q
CONCRETED
.
• ~ 2 GUTTER
3, LEAD IRON PVC
C)
I 4. m
••
Z
AlUMINI~ STEE~ woo~ m
CONCRETE SlABS TARMACc==r= 21
---~
• ~ laAfflRODM I
N ,...
•
• ~ I W/CIGI'LI _ T1MllER CHAIN LINK . . POST. WIRE 0
LAUNDRY GATES METAL TIMBER
•••
-~ I 0 0
STAIRCASe I
a:
• >-
H.LNOW
••
Y:llf't lfY:lA
• :E
---· ; ••
Ic~HIll.~~E r r sr • • L • 9 • £ l: 1 i iii
........
~i0 · ·
:.,.; ~. ~ i; ~ ~ .?4.~.~•.~ ~ ~ J~ ••••••••• •••• 4 ••
being given a cycle number the computer can provide a printout of street
names and house numbers in the sequence of inspectors' areas, to instigate
the planned maintenance inspection process. The inspector will be told
which houses and elements to inspect.
In this way a centrally updated and accurate information service is
secured. It also provides an effective management tool capable of very fast
pre-inspection assessment of problems and realistic projections.
The primary functions of control cards are to contain details of property
and maintenance work. A typical control card is shown in table 13.I.
With private properties there may be agreements between landlord and
tenant which restrict access to the property. Records should show tenancy
details and arrangements. Repairs to roofs, or electrical or heating services
may be chargeable to a number of tenants . Furthermore, tenants may
require notice of intention to inspect.
Notification of Defects
Defects are notified in a variety of different ways, which are now listed
roughly in descending order of use.
telephone call from tenant
tenant returning pre-paid complaint card
letter from tenant \
officer of local authority finding defect
tenant notifying defect in person at a depot or housing office
tenant notifying complaint to officer of local authority on site
It has been found that requests for work are sometimes mislaid because of
the many and varied procedures that exist for notifying repairs, and in the
absence of a record card for each property, it is difficult to trace some
enquiries . Hence it is better for all complaints to pass through maintenance
control, where a maintenance complaint card can be completed, and a
property card index system established. A typical tenants' request card is
shown in table' 13.2 on which is entered the tenant's name and address and
the nature of the complaint . An alternative form of card is illustrated in
table 13.3, which comprises three NCR (no carbon required) copies in
different colours, serving various purposes (request, action and
acknowledijement to tenant).
Thurley· on a survey of services tenants on married quarters estates
found that the percentage of requests for each main category of repair was
structural: 2; fixtures and fittings: 33; plastering and tiling: 6; plumbing: 25;
electrical: 14; domestic services: 13; and external work: 7.
General Maintenance Procedure

A typical procedure covering the identification of a defective component
and the associated remedial work is shown diagrammatically in figure 13.1,
and a completed maintenance feedback report is provided in table 13.4.
Official Use
Table 13.2 Tenant 's request card Only
HOUSING MAINTENANCE REQUEST
.LOCK LITTIRS I'LIAII
Name. Tel No•....................... ....

Address.
Keys at . At home a.m./p.m. (Not Sat .) Date .
Please give precise nature of fault and. where poss ible. location (Indicate by t ick In box)
Location Nature of Fault
External 0 Internal 0
Room: Kitchen 0
Living 0
Dining 0
Bedroom 0
Bathroom 0
w .e. 0
NOTES : Please use th i s card to request rep airs. Urgent calls Te l ep hone Newtown 538ijij
Un less otherwise notifi ed repa i rs may normall y be expect ed t o be ca rr ied out
within seven .days .
Table 13.3 Housing repair requesl/acknowledgement
N.C.H.A . 14 Pelham Road, Sherwood Rise, Nottm. Tel: 622531 DATE :-

39 Sneinton Hermitage, Sneinton, Nottm . Tel: 604146
303 Castle Boulevard, Lenton, Nottm. Tel: 411664
HOUSING REPAIR REOUEST ACINOWLEDGMENT
ADDRESS :- POST CODE:-
-ITEM WORIS DESCRIPTION PRIORI rY

CODE
ACCESS DETAILS
CONTRAC TOR CONTACTED ITEM
INSPECTIONREOUIRED/ADDITIONAI
DE TAILS
SIGNA JURE:-
384
ELEMENT OR
roof-pitched
COMPONENT
roof~ring
PART
DETAILED
COMPONENT clav plain tiles
BREAKDOWN
EVIDENCE laminated and dii"ett EVIDENCE

OF slipped tiles, rain OF FAILED
DEFECTS corroded penetration FUNCTIONAL
galvanised nails PERFORMANCE
strip tiling and replace

with new clav tiles,
SUGGESTED
nailed everv fourth course
REMiDJAL
with aluminium allov nails;
AGTION also replace battens
(treated) and felt
MAINTENANCE
DOCUMENTATION specification
PREPARATION
tiling stripped.and
MAINTENANCE
replaced, also battens
EXECUTION
and felt
FEEDBACK ON check to ensure

EFFECTIVENESS proper1v laid and
OF ACTION effective barrier
to rain echieved
Figure 13.1 Component maintenance procedure

JTf"Nf : FLoor .f\1'\.sh.: AA,,,, I B"'41'\~ome EstAte

c~ -tiles
ADD/lESS : IS St: Jahn ~ w~ lk
7}'PI: C 22 JC...i - Jet'"'ch~.L
DGFE.CT
A"p't"Ql(II"''''~ one:-'"'-lr.L etf city .floo,. t1lLs il'\.
S)'MPTO..w" one...::IUJ (' of~'" l4j' I "S 1

~-ti:C:he.n '" ''''3 ~ 1..i t'""-3 ("'~r""o)(i~!:y
Jh't"i"-~e ~ u",U\t": .J'41nJ .sc:re~.d., 1"e.sul:f;'~ ~h.

b.--eaRi~ 0} bon.t. betw«.n 1:Ll.c.s • ...J, $4::1"«
DlAa";o~/~
R--a.,..e.ssi~ .ktM~ . D~"''''i~/ ""eOJ",",,~

-t",,,",uiAOlC. ~n. t: p.,.ev ~u~ ~
P.ea(J"'O~/.5 e.lck""b -i;';r.~",-t4
~Re ~r -tiLe.s I 1""MOVe. beMi~ :Jrou.t J ~

.e£M~OJ' / pob'~~"ne. .shut' over s.:.reeJ. d-L "'~'f. .-t:tI..u
ReeDMM EI-l1>TN. .-ro' whole. fr...,.) &..i lit\" QX~ iO\o\. ;:J0\n d>"'o\U\J,
~ pe..... tl'\~t' ~",",eo )"bam.
A...1&\(no' is ",-t'l «:111.: IMrl

20 0e!tDb.,,.. I., S7
.s""JlIf)'.•
~~~
c.,.",LID ay I
Table 13.4 Maintenance feedback report

These illustrate the need for a systematic approach to maintenance work to

secure effective and economical solutions to the defects that occur.
Execution of Maintenance Work by Maintenance Departments

Even with jobbing repairs such as repairs to dripping taps, broken windows
or faulty door latches, the maintenance department has to decide on the
method of execution and has a number of choices.
(1) Whether to use its own operatives or contractors, or to make the
tenants responsible for certain repairs.
(2) Decide on urgency of jobs--whether to put into effect or to
postpone until the next planned maintenance cycle.
(3) Decide on response time to tenants' requests for non-emergency
work.
Relet repairs undertaken prior to reletting a house to a new tenant often
include painting and decorating as well as general maintenance work, such
as replacing cracked sinks or relaying badly damaged floors. The extent of
the work can be affected by the policy on planned maintenance and jobbing
repairs . Once again some types of non-emergency work could be postponed
until the next planned maintenance cycle.
The majority of direct labour maintenance systems operate on a job
ticket, request or order arrangement, whereby operatives only do work
contained on a job form . One such system embraces forms of four colours
used for housing maintenance.
Red forms are used for emergency work in response to tenants' requests and
must receive attention within 24 hours.
White forms are used for normal tenants' requests and may be prepared by
rent collectors. No guarantee is given as to when the job will be completed
but the tenant is asked to give access times.
Blue forms are used for tenancy changes where a foreman inspects all
properties after the outgoing tenant has vacated, and all work necessary
prior to reletting is entered on blue tickets for the appropriate trades . Three
weeks are normally allowed between tenancies for such work.
Green forms are used for work involving several trades. The initial form
(red, white or blue) is passed to the first trade which after completion
arranges for the chargehand to make out a green form for the next trade.
The white forms are prepared from descriptions supplied by tenants and
require some degree of pre-inspection depending upon the nature of the job
description. On average each man in a gang completes six jobs per day and,
on this basis, the foreman sends selected job forms to the chargehand at
least three working days prior to the scheduled work visit. This enables the
chargehand to make any necessary pre-inspections and to obtain materials
and plant in time for the scheduled visit.
I
I
NEWTOWN CORPORATION
_ _ _ _ _ _....J HOUSING MAINTENANCE REQUEST _
Nam Addr ..
Keys .c ........................................ Ac home a.m./p.m. Dace .

Trad. Location Repair Craft operative
81ncernal Mat.rlala U.ed
External
r~'h' ~KI~'
Eleetrld.n
General
Palncer Living
Plumber Olnlnl
Glazier Bedroom
Muon Bachroom
OW.C. Time Taken:
Speclallnscruetlonl/ _
Commenu
Other Trades Necessary
Signature Dine .
Craft operative ..
Foreman ..
Table 13.5 Job order form
A typical job order form is shown in table 13.5 to provide foremen and
craft operatives with all requisite information, including location, operatives
and time taken and materials used. Once again the colours of forms have
special significance-pink for emergencies to be done in hours, green for
urgent work to be done in days, and white for routine work which could
extend over weeks.
Yet another works order system uses different colours according to the
personnel for whom they are intended-pink: record, white: operative,
yellow: foreman, buff: plant/transport, and blue: work study/bonus.
With some local authorities the housing maintenance order form is
produced on AS size paper with two different coloured copies. When
operatives find no occupants at home, they leave call cards which ask
tenants to specify a convenient time for the operatives to call. Tenants who
do not return the prepaid call card receive a follow up card which states 'if
no reply is received within seven days we shall assume you no longer wish to
have the matter attended to'. For jobs delayed beyond two months,
maintenance control estimates the probable date of execution and sends a
two month delay card containing this information to the tenant.
In addition a check is made on jobs outstanding at the end of each week

for each trade and depot. This is multiplied by the appropriate average work
time (3.50 hours) to determine the likely delays in execution on the basis of
the available labour force .
An alternative housing repair instruction/order form is illustrated in table
13.6. This is made up of four copies of NCR paper each in distinctive
colours.
The planned maintenance and operation system used by one government
department embraces:
(1) providing operatives with information on work to be done (job
sheets);
(2) overall planning of the work (planning charts);
(3) issuing orders for work to be done (work dockets, contractors'
orders);
(4) keeping records of work done (by books).
Another system used in Australia and termed the plant information
management system has the following routine inputs:
(1) budgets (annually);
(2) work orders or requests or maintenance jobs to be done ;
(3) timesheets, on which craft operatives record the hours worked on
each job;
(4) stores warrants, recording the value of stores items issued for each
job;
(5) purchase orders for each job;
(6) invoices to match the purchase orders;
(7) lost production records;
(8) job completion sheets, outlining what was actually done.
Execution of Maintenance Work by Contractors

The maintenance contractor must be able to process efficiently all enquiries
and orders by submitting quotations or issuing works orders. Effective
communication is important so that building owners are kept informed and
the contractor's own staff are aware of their involvement. Operatives have
to be deployed to cope effectively with the workload, adequately backed
with materials and plant. An easily operated and yet foolproof booking and
costing system is needed to provide quotations and accounts, together with
the necessary feedback of cost data, including the analysis of oncosts.
On maintenance work, operatives are required to work more on their
own, are more scattered and have less supervision, often restricted to a
travelling foreman, surveyor or works manager. On larger projects there
may be a foreman resident on the site, although he will probably be a
working foreman.
Yard stocks of all regularly used materials should be maintained, as
purchasing materials in -small quantities is expensive. Purchasing in bulk
where practicable is advantageous, when materials will be distributed from
NOTTINGHAM COMMUNITY HOUSING ASSOCIATION LIMITED

. -----.~
HOUSING REPAIR INSTRUCTION/ORDER
CONTRACTOR:-
WORKSAODRESS
ACCESS INSTRUCTIONS I
DATE
INSTRUCTIONS
CODE
CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION BY CONTRACTOR/DATE JOB NO.
Table 13.6 Housing repair instruction/order
stock to each job. Bulky materials such as aggregates, bricks and hardcore
are expensive to transport and deliveries should be so arranged to reduce
double handling to a minimum. Some maintenance jobs may require very
small quantities of materials such as 50 kg of cement and a wheelbarrow
load of sand, which should be drawn from a bulk supply where possible.
Management of Maintenance Work

The majority of repairs to local authority dwellings are completed within a
reasonable time and often it is executed to a higher standard than that
expected by private tenants or owner-occupiers. Much of the criticism stems
from shortcomings of management, by the failure to inform tenants why a

repair cannot be executed or has to be delayed. Easy repairs may be
executed promptly while more difficult ones are postponed and sometimes
overlooked. There is a good case for issuing more information to tenants on
housing maintenance policies and the channels available for securing service
and making complaints .
Some of the main problems in housing management have been identified
as follows:
(1) communication problems between tenants and management and
vice versa;
(2) maintenance standards are seldom clearly defined or generally
recognised;
(3) maintenance is susceptible to financial stringency and cut-backs in
resources and future plans, with problems in assessing priorities;
(4) difficulties in obtaining adequate control data for maintenance
management.
The views of a housing tenants' association are useful. Tenants tend to
feel they are regarded as irresponsible as they are given no opportunity to
involve themselves responsibly in the decisions affecting their environment.
They have little or no say in the choice of colour schemes, in the timing and
frequency of repairs, and in the design, provision and management of
amenities. London tenants believed they were the recipients of decreasing
services through the withdrawal of residential caretakers and substitution of
mobile arrangements, reduced rent collection facilities and difference in
level of service provided between older and newer estates. They complained
about the delays in carrying out repairs, the amount of chasing needed to
obtain action and the extent of bad workmanship.
Some of the main needs associated with housing maintenance manage-
ment are now listed.
(1) All significant repairs, except those resulting from deliberate
maltreatment by the tenant, should ideally be the responsibility of the
housing authority, to ensure good standards of maintenance. Most non-
urgent repairs can wait for execution under a planned maintenance cycle if
the delay does not exceed one year; this should be explained to the tenants
so that they can make temporary arrangements or even do the repairs
themselves.
(2) Many housewives go out to work and accesscan often be obtained
only by appointment.
(3) More time should be devoted to routine inspections to ensure that
attention is paid to repairs not reported by tenants. One approach is to
use mobile gangs of mixed trades , with foremen more concerned with
inspection, management and tenant relations than with supervision of craft
operatives, on the assumption that operatives have adequate incentives
through bonuses as described later in the chapter.
(4) It is advisable to determine common acceptable standards of
maintenance as guidelines for housing authorities. Costs of direct labour
forces and contractors' prices for similar work should be compared to

provide comparative yardsticks for efficiency .
(5) More use could be made of local authority consortia to obtain bulk
quotations for materials for housing maintenance.
(6) Tenants should be encouraged to take more interest in the main-
tenance of their dwellings, and in some areas tenants' associations could be
consulted more frequently so that they could for instance help to decide
priorities of expenditure, treatment of common areas and colour schemes.
Thurley'" examined the conflicting goals in housing maintenance systems .
He .described how maintenance engineers or surveyors are anxious to
maintain the value of the property and usually favour a system of systematic
planned maintenance, rather than relying on tenants' requests as a way of
initiating work. They are likely to emphasise structural and preventive
repairs rather than, for example, frequent redecoration. Foremen, charge-
hands and operatives involved with the actual execution of the work are
more concerned with maintaining a sufficient programme of work which will
utilise their own skills. Hence they are likely to resist pressure from tenants
as they have to work under the close scrutiny of the occupants.
Costing and Accounts'

The clerical and accounting processes supporting a direct labour organisa-
tion can be simplified and accelerated by the use of the computer. Staff
records can be filed and quickly retrieved, time sheets can be processed to
produce wage make-ups and salary cheques, stores accounting and ordering
can be programmed so that stocks are recorded and checked and materials
and components ordered at pre-set levels, and the cost of labour and
materials can be coded and charged against budgets for control purposes.
Time sheets for plant and transport can be recorded, costed and charged to
budgets and running times and travel distances recorded against planned
maintenance schedules. Pettitt!' has described how computers can be used
to produce detailed financial analyses of maintenance expenditure as an aid
to achieving strict budgetary control, and to assist in minimising future
breakdown by aiding the preparation of planned preventive maintenance
programmes and feedback to designers.
Where work is carried out by contractors, it may be the subject of a
daywork order with the account rendered on a time and material basis with
percentage additions for overheads and profit; the certified account could be
checked by the computer for arithmetical accuracy and payment made direct
to the contractor's account . Alternatively it may be by order describing the
work, with the account settled on the basis of measurement against an
agreed schedule of prices or by lump sum offer based on specification or bill
of quantities and drawings, from selected tenderers; the account and
measurements could be certified and priced against the contractor's agreed
schedule of prices to provide payment or the account certified and checked
for arithmetical accuracy by the computer.
Contractors will decide the costing system that best suits their needs and
which gives up-to-date information quickly. The basic cost elements of
maintenance work are as follows:
(1) labour costs: from weekly time sheets;
(2) material costs: from merchants' or suppliers' invoices and stock
issues from depot on costing dockets;
(3) transport costs: from drivers' log sheets or time sheets;
(4) expenses: from claims and petty cash vouchers;
(5) fees or charges: such as statutory undertakers;
(6) plant costs: from hire charges or internal costs.
A typical property maintenance record card is illustrated in table 13.7, to
show how works of repair are allocated to a particular property, together
with ,the costs and method of execution. In this way a compauson of the
costs of similar dwellings can easily be made. Computerisation of this
information simplifies and speeds up the recording, retrieval and prepara-
tion of comparative analyses.
Tools and Plant

The maintenance contractor or department needs to have the use of
appropriate power tools and plant, the r.ange of which has increased
extensively in recent years. The contractor has to decide whether to
purchase outright or to hire the plant and there is generally a case for both
approaches. Ideally the most regularly used items should be purchased and
less popular items hired, but having regard to finance, and storage and
maintenance facilities. Plant must be used effectively and reasonably
frequently to be viable.
Carrying out maintenance and jobbing work inevitably means a consider-
able amount oftravelling from one job to another, also more materials have
to be collected from stores or merchants' or suppliers' stocks because of the
need to secure prompt delivery on site. It is not always possihle to predict
precisely all material requirements until work is exposed opened up or
inspected. For instance, the repair of a leaking drain may require bends or
other fittings which have to be collected as required.
Light vans and pick-up trucks are very popular with maintenance con-
tractors. It is generally more convenient to have a large number of small
vehicles rather than a smaller number of large ones. Small vehicles have
various advantages such as ease of handling in confined spaces and ability to
load and unload on domestic drives.
Maintenance and cleaning contractors may be faced with maintenance
and cleaning of buildings at different angles and at heights of 30 m or more.
One useful item of equipment is a hydraulic platform to lift men and tools to
overhead working positions for cleaning and renovating buildings, for
lighting maintenance, painting, welding, property repairs and general
overhead maintenance work. An alternative is multiple staging towers,
based on a scaffolding principle but far less costly and involvingless trouble
and time in erection. There are many companies offering plant hire facilities
Maintenance
~
Address: District code:
--
Property code : _ _
Dote Work Work DLOf Cost Cost Invoice Ale

Docket Contr. Est. Act. Code
Nr. e c
2
'7A/86 532'7 ~J'4 \t'.s"
\front' ~u~t:eri~
H41"r i.rol'\
BlAi/.ders,
*5 ....5 117.32
L-td.
18}2}81 S31CJ6 Re~i"'i' c:hirnnet & ..haWl liS' liS 20011 I

co..d
~
chcllk~
12B/B}87 SL}68<j ~U"f\""l,

...
~Fi ~"'d
.DLo 2So 2.37 - 4-
Table 13.7 Property maintenance record card
but special care is needed in selecting the best type of plant for the particular
job.
Ordering Materials and Stock Control

Maintenance operatives need to be backed by a steady flow of materials and
components of the right type and at the right time, as waiting time is
expensive. Most building maintenance departments have at least one small
store to hold those items that are in frequent demand or difficult to obtain at
short notice. A number of fundamental questions have to be answered.
(1) What items should be kept in store and in what quantity?
(2) At what level should they be re-ordered' and in what quantities?
(3) How to balance the discounts available for bulk purchase against
the cost of storage?
(4) Should stores be kept in sub-depots or a central depot?
(5) Which items could be more economically delivered direct to site by
suppliers?
Operational research has provided a methodology for tackling these ques-
tions which can lead to significant reductions in purchasing costs and store
holdings.'
Where stores are held against issue it is important that satisfactory storage
arrangements are provided to prevent the deterioration of stock, which
could offset the savings accruing from bulk purchases. Ironmongery,
mastics, emulsions , fire parts and many other materials and components
deteriorate rapidly and may become unusable if stored in damp premises.
Cement and plasters should be rotated so that old stock is used before new.
It is also important to employ a competent storekeeper of high integrity,
with a good knowledge of building materials, their worth and how they
should be handled and stored, and the ability to keep accurate and neat
records .
When operatives require materials from the stores, a stores requisition is
normally completed listing the job reference . This requisition will desirably
have the workman's signature for receiving the materials, a supervisor's
signature authorising the use of the materials, and the storekeeper's
signature covering their issue. These forms will pass to the treasurer's
department or other appropriate section for costing together with completed
time sheets. Where materials have been allocated to a job and not used they
can be returned to stock and a credit note issued to ensure that stock records
are correct.
It is advisable to keep a catalogue of the stores with each item allocated a
code number. The catalogue should ideally be subdivided into categories of
stores items for ease of reference and to assist in planning the stores layout.
It is also advisable to stipulate the maximum and minimum stock level for
each item, together with the current unit price. The computer can print out
at prescribed intervals, a list of items which do not conform to the stipulated
stock levels. Annually or at other suitable times a complete inventory of
stores can be printed, giving the average unit price per item based on
invoices of the preceding year, the quantity of each item in stock, the
monetary value of stock per item, and the total monetary value of stock.
As an additional aid to stock control, attention can be drawn to those
items which have remained unchanged throughout the year. Milne3 has
emphasised the importance of computerised storekeeping in order to
maintain an acceptable standard of financial control.
The purchasing of materials and components entails investigating and
selecting sources of supply, obtaining quotations and placing orders, inter-
viewing merchants and suppliers' representatives, keeping catalogues and

other trade literature suitably indexed and being familiar with market
conditions and trends. On delivery of materials, the delivery note should be
checked against the original quotation for price and the quantity and quality
of materials checked before the delivery note is signed. The materials should
be recorded in a stock book or on a tally card and delivery notes cross
referenced to the order number. Invoice particulars are often recorded in a
purchases day book with the costs of materials entered on cost sheets, and
the invoices filed for future reference.
Programming and Progressing Maintenance Work

To maintain regular progress of building maintenance work, a progress chart
should be prepared before the work is commenced, usually in the form
of a bar chart, with bar lines representing the time period allocated to
each operation. The timescale, usually related to a calendar, is shown
horizontally and the activities listed vertically.V The availability of men,
materials and plant are the key factors in determining the time required to
complete the work. The first step is to determine the various operations
involved and which are to be performed by the contractor and which by
sub-contractors. The estimated time required for each operation is then
logged on the chart in the sequence in which it will be carried out on site,
commencing with such items as excavating for and concreting foundations
which must be completed before the walling can proceed. Storage capacity
on the site may affect the speed at which the work can be carried out. The
contractor must then consult with any sub-contractors to ensure that they can
work to the programme. The progress chart is used throughout the contract
to record the actual progress and any variations require discussion and
adjustment of labour and materials to bring the work back on to target.
One commonly used method for planning and controlling building work is
network analysis by which analysis of the operations is recorded in a
diagrammatic form enabling each fundamental problem to be investigated
separately. It employs a network to show the jobs (activities) to be done and
their interrelationship. From the statement provided by this diagrammatic
method and the estimates of times taken to do individual jobs, it calculates
the duration of the project, the critical path (that sequence of jobs which
defines project duration) and the float (or permissible delay) for non-critical
jobs. A schedule or programme for the whole project is thus devised.
Computer-aided network analysis offers the advantages of speed, accuracy
and optimisation of resource utilisation.V
The prime advantages of network analysis are as follows .
(1) It separates planning the sequence of jobs from scheduling times for
the jobs.
(2) It shows the interrelationship of jobs and enables people to see not
only the overall plan but also the ways in which their own activities depend
upon, or influence, those of others.
(3) By setting out the complete plan it is easier- to assess its soundness
and so prevent unrealistic or superficial planning.
(4) The effect on the project of alternative methods or individual job
times can be examined at the outset.
(5) The total requirements of manpower and plant can be readily
calculated; there is a vital need to ensure the use of balanced gangs and to
reduce to a minimum the time when plant is standing idle.
(6) If the completion date has to be advanced , attention can be
concentrated on speeding up the relatively few critical jobs and avoiding
wasting money on accelerating non-critical jobs.
(7) Schedules may be based on consideration of costs so as to complete
projects in a given time at minimum expense.
Other programming techniques include elemental trend analysis, prece-
dence network diagrams and partly linked bar charts, but these are too
sophisticated for most maintenance and repair projects.P
Maintenance Management of .Condominiums

Many large condominium housing developments took place overseas in the
19708and 19808and in Singapore in particular. These consist mainly of large
numbers of flats or apartments, constructed to a high standard of finish, and
usually provided with extensive landscaped areas, car parking facilities and
recreational features such as swimming pools.
Lim 14 has described how a condominium is a legal device by which a
separate interest and an undivided interest in common in a multi-unit
structure can be created. It has been aptly defined as a system of separate
ownership of individual units in multi-unit projects. The owner is described
as a subsidiary proprietor and his interest may be freehold or leasehold.
In Singapore, condominiums are managed by management corporations,
whose main duties are to manage and maintain the common property and to
keep it in good and serviceable repair; to keep the subdivided building
insured; and to comply with all relevant notices and orders. The corporation
can recover from any subsidiary proprietor any sum expended by the
corporation in respect of the subsidiary proprietor's lot (apartment), and
establish a management fund to cover administrative expenses.
The term common property includes the following:
(1) the main structure together with stairways, fire escapes, entrances
and exits;
(2) car parks, parking areas, storage spaces, recreational and commun-
ity facilities, and gardens;
. p) central and appurtenant installations for services such as power,
!lg~tmg, gas, hot and cold water, heating, refrigeration, air conditioning and
incinerators.
(4) escalators, lifts, tanks, pumps, motors, fans , compressors, ducts
and all other apparatus and installations existing for common use.
The multifarious functions of a management corporation have been fully
documented by Goh 15 and the main activities can be categorised as follows.
1. General administration
(a) Overall management of the development, including arranging for
fire, public liability and workmen's compensation insurances, and
supervision of contract or directly employed staff.
(b) Preparing annual budgets for the management and maintenance of
the buildings, and collection of management fund contributions.
(c) Payment of accounts for services rendered, keeping proper books
of accounts, and preparing annual accounts for external audit.
2. Security and carparking

(a) Ensuring the overall security of the development, including screen-
ing all visitors to the buildings.
(b) Ensuring the observance of the by-laws of the corporation by
residents, particularly with regard to recreational facilities.
(c) Manning of the security counter and the ccrv screens, and
operation of the car park .
3. Cleaning
(a) Prepare specification for the regular cleaning of the common
property.
(b) Arrange for cleaning contract for performance of these duties or
employ direct staff.
(c) Supervision of cleaning.
(d) Purchase of cleaning materials.
4. Gardening and landscaping

(a) Prepare specification and work programme for gardeners.
(b) General maintenance of gardens and landscaped areas.
5. M & E Services
These will include the lifts, central air conditioning plant, solar hot
water system, ccrv and video intercom system, anti-burglar alarm
system, fire fighting installations, and electrical installations, including
transformers and standby generators. The activities will include:
(a) Arrangement for a regular maintenance contract with specialist
contractors, especially for the lifts and central air conditioning plant .
(b) Maintenance of service records to ensure that all plant is regularly
serviced in accordance with the contract.
(c) Study plant breakdowns and quotations for proposed repair work.
(d) Arrange for the replacement of items of plant at the end of their
useful lives.
(e) Check light fittings in common lobbies, corridors, driveways, car
park, etc. and replace blown tubes and bulbs.
(f) Arrange for regular runs of the standby generator to ensure its
operational efficiency.
6. Recreational facilities
These facilities usually take the form of swimming pools, gymnasia,
tennis and squash courts. The associated activities will be:
(a) Regulate the use of the facilities so that they are used in an orderly
manner.
(b) Arrange regular testing of water samples from the swimming pool
and maintenance of the filter pumps, to ensure the safety and well-
being of users.
(c) Maintain the health fitness equipment in the gymnasium and ensure
its proper usage to prevent accidents.
The management corporation can employ the requisite administrative
staff direct to undertake the responsibilities that have been listed, but it
is common practice to engage professional firms with wide experience
to relieve the management corporation of the day to day management
problems. The primary duty of managing agents is to provide a complete
management service for the property on behalf of the management corpora-
tion.
Training for Maintenance

The knowledge and skills required for maintenance could form additional
modules to the basic training already received or about to be received in
new work. The nature and scope of this training will vary between the
professions, management, supervisors, crafts and less skilled operatives .
. The professions, managers and supervisors concerned with new construc-
tion need to understand the effect of their activities upon the life and use of
the work they produce. Operatives should appreciate the effect of substan-
dard work on maintenance costs, while those concerned wholly or mainly
with maintenance work should have a detailed understanding of these
aspects.
The Construction Industry Training Board

This Board was set up under the Industrial Training Act 1964 and is the
Board primarily responsible for training in the building maintenance field.
Industrial training boards have three main objectives
(1) to secure an adequate supply of properly trained persons at all
levels;
(2) to secure an improvement in the quality and efficiency of industrial
training;
(3) to share the cost of training more evenly between firms.
A Board can provide its own training courses or arrange for other
organisations to provide training. It imposes a periodic levy on employers
within the scope of the Board to raise funds I from which it makes grants to
those employers whose training programmes meet the standards set by the
Board.
The Construction Industry Training Board (CITB) recognised the impor-
tance of effective training arrangements covering the work of building
maintenance and can influence this through the grant system. More directly
it provides courses for operatives in various trades related to maintenance
and repair work, as well as courses for supervisors and training courses in
general management. The trade courses cover craft skills in maintenance
work, recording and measurement of work, awareness of the costs of minor
works, setting out, recognition of faults and elements of public relations.
Unfortunately the professions in the design team are outside the scope of
CITB, although they include a large number of potential recruits for
maintenance management courses, which are particularly aimed at eliminat-
ing some of the avoidable defects in the maintenance system.
Training of Managers
Most of the degree courses in building and related subjects in universities,
polytechnics and other colleges devote less than 5 per cent of the timetable
to building maintenance. There is however an increasing awareness of the
importance of this subject among educational establishments and the
number of research projects and post-graduate courses in this area is
increasing. There is an identifiable need for an adequate study of
management aspects including maintenance control, operational research,
management techniques, computer studies, marketing of maintenance
services, labour relations and control of human resources and maintenance
standards.
The greater use of building surveyors would lead to more effective
building maintenance, and this entails attracting well-trained persons of
the same level of ability as in the other building industry professions,
with identifiable promotion prospects based on qualifications, ability and
experience. Apart from adequate salary, the building surveyor engaged on
building maintenance should obtain substantial job satisfaction by feeling
that he is part of a team of professionals undertaking a constructive and
worth while assignment. .
The Marks and Spencer organisation require all works team surveyors
upon engagement to spend several weeks at a store to become familiar with
the method of operation of the company, including its aims and trading
principles. Subsequently, they are encouraged to discuss matters of a
building nature with store management affording a useful exchange of views
and improved understanding and integration. 16
Student designers ideally should be made fully aware of the effect of
design and material failures and of the practical considerations of their
work. They should also become familiar with data recovery and analysis
procedures and thus know where to obtain the appropriate information
within a reasonable time scale.
Training of Supervisors
The generally accepted minimum qualifications for supervisors are BTEC
Higher National Diplomas and Certificates in Building Studies. The part-
time higher certificate course is more appropriate for experienced men in
post, while the higher diploma course caters for the bright, younger man
who wishes to advance to a position of responsibility. There will be some
building maintenance supervisors of long experience who will be unable or
unwilling to attend a higher certificate course and for these persons short
residential courses might be more appropriate.
Training of Operatives
There is a shortage of genuine maintenance craft operatives. The absence of
the stresses and incentives of new construction tends to attract the older or
unskilled worker who is prepared to accept lower remuneration in return for
a slower rate of work.
The aim of maintenance contractors and organisations should be to attract
men who have a high standard of skill, even higher than that required for
men on new work. Many of them have to be capable of covering both old
and new work and thus need to be adaptable and discerning, to know what
to do and when to seek advice or instructions. They must be convinced that
their work is as essential as new construction, take pride in producing a high
standard of work, master the use of new materials and techniques and be
keen to use tools and plant where practicable.
A large proportion of maintenance work calls for operatives who are
skilled in the traditional trades and this situation is bound to continue. This
applies particularly to the larger commercial and industrial buildings which
require a greater skill or higher quality of finish.'? At the same time there
are many operatives who are skilled in more than one trade and generally
concentrate on one particular class of maintenance work. Maintenance costs
can be reduced by increasing the number of maintenance operatives skilled
in more than one craft such as bricklayer-mason-tiler, carpenter-joiner-
glazier, painter-glazier-plasterer and other combinations. This type of
operative is particularly valuable on the smaller maintenance jobs. No
building owner wants a job held up periodically waiting for various craft
operatives to arrive, nor do operatives themselves wish to see their work
delayed for a task which they know they are competent to do themselves.
Hence the maintenance sector should be viewed in a different way from new
work when considering the labour aspect. Indeed it is virtually impossible to
organise maintenance work effectively if hard and fast demarcation lines are
applied.
Training arrangements for operatives normally follow one of three
patterns.
(1) School leavers on government training schemes or pre-
apprenticeship courses followed by apprenticeship to a craft or modifica-
tions of this arrangement.
(2) Training of young craft operatives to improve skills and prepare for
responsibility.
(3) Training of older persons in specialist subjects and use of new
materials and techniques.
With pre-apprenticeship schemes, maintenance contractors and organisa-
tions receive reports from technical colleges and thus have a good indication
of the young person's potential. Apprentices should be placed in the care of
good, well-experienced craft operatives, be permitted to attend day release
courses and encouraged to sit their craft examinations. Block release and
day release courses result in more persons being absent from work, but this
is a problem which the contractor or maintenance manager must solve and it
also requires acknowledgement by the building owner . Younger craft
operatives engaged in maintenance work should also be encouraged to learn
from the more experienced men.
Commercial and industrial organisations can also operate 'in house'
training schemes, such as the group working practice (GWP) adopted by
British Steel to develop the natural abilities of both skilled and non-skilled
maintenance operatives by formal training so that each operative acquires a
working knowledge of each other's skills. l8
Maintenance Incentive Schemes

Objectives, Scope and Requirements of Schemes
The aim of a local authority when introducing an incentive scheme is to
obtain maximum value for money from its maintenance or, expressed in
another way, to achieve maximum efficiency in maintenance. The contrac-
tor's aim is to make a profit while the building owner wants to keep cost
down to a minimum, so there may be some conflict in their aims.
An incentive scheme may be defined as a means of relating a worker's
remuneration to his performance; the employer will benefit from increased
productivity and the employee will gain from higher wages provided that he
is prepared to work consistently.
The following principles should be observed when formulating an
incentive scheme.
(1) The scheme must be fair to all parties.
(2) The bonus earned should be closely related to the effort expended.
(3) The standard of performance required to secure bonus payment
must be realistic and attainable by the average operative.
(4) Bonuses should not be affected by matters outside the operative's
control.
(5) Bonus payments should be made as soon as possible after the work
has been performed.
(6) The scheme must be relatively permanent-withdrawing a scheme
because of temporary adverse economic conditions is damaging to industrial
relations.
(7) Operatives should be able to calculate their own bonuses.

(8) The scheme must be approved by trade unions, operatives and
supervisors.
(9) There must be a suitable grievance procedure.
A number of criticisms have been levelled at incentive schemes, which are
now listed, but most of them can be avoided in practice with well-designed
schemes.
(1) The employer is involved in additional work and costs in formulat-
ing, introducing and operating the scheme.
(2) Bad feeling may be generated in an indirect work force if the direct
labour operatives are constantly receiving a high bonus.
(3) Unsatisfactory schemes cannot be lightly withdrawn because of the
initial costs incurred and the bad feeling which would result among
operatives.
(4) Disputes may arise which could lead to strikes.
(5) Some operatives may devote their efforts to exploiting loopholes in
the scheme.
(6) Not all forms of maintenance work lend themselves to incentive
schemes.
(7) The quality of work may suffer unless there is extensive supervision
and/or inspection of the work.
Methods of Assessment of Bonus

A number of methods have been used.
(1) Expenditure or cost of work done, based on the cost of wages,
materials and overheads as compared with estimates. This is not a satisfac-
tory method because of the variations in approach but it is important as a
measure of the success of schemes.
(2) Materials used as a measure of work done, but this also introduces a
number of variables which make for difficulties in assessment.
(3) Orders preformed-the least reliable method because of variations
in the scope and content of orders.
(4) Standard times or ratings-based on work study or records of
previous jobs .
Work study provides the most common approach and consists of breaking
down a job into elements and computing average times for each element or
activity, performed in an efficient manner under proper supervision. A
standard time for any job is obtained by totalling the times for the various
elements. For example an item of replacing a cistern could be broken down
into (a) inspect cistern, (b) disconnect and remove cistern and (c) install
and connect new cistern. Allowance will also have to be made for travelling
between jobs and for ordering and collecting materials, together with
possibly a pre-investigation allowance.
The alternative historical method is simpler but involves some loss of
accuracy depending on the care with which the time sheets have been
compiled. The standard times approach is generally the most satisfactory

method but the standard times must be very carefully computed; high values
are to the employer's disadvantage and low values will bring complaints
from the workforce. The system must be simple and readily understood,
adopting targets that are small, easily identifiable by the operative
and agreed before work is commenced. The additional sums payable to
operatives are based on a percentage of the time savings against standard
times, the percentage credited to the operative is often about 75 per cent
with the remaining 25 per cent going to meet the cost of implementing the
scheme. The number of operatives in a gang working for bonus should be
kept as small as possible, and operatives should have the opportunity to
increase wages by 25 to 35 per cent.
Price and Harris 19 have shown how portable personalised microcomputers
can be used to collect data on site and to up-date existing output values
immediately. It is necessary to use site efficiency factors which isolate the
basic times for operations.
Incentive Schemes for Small Builders

It is difficult to recommend a single scheme for general use as schemes need
to be tailored to suit the requirements of individual firms. Targeting based
on estimator's prices, particularly where analytical estimating is practised, is
recommended for all priced work, carefully checked and closely linked with
a system of control of labour and profitability . Records should be retained to
build up a library of standard data for future use of both estimating and
targeting purposes.
A system of immediate profit sharing where profits are calculated and
shares paid out on completion of each job is worthy of consideration by
firms employing not more than about ten men. This approach is unlikely to
be suitable for daywork.
A government report 20 showed that small firms could operate successful
incentive schemes giving benefit to management sufficient to allow the
whole of the savings in man-hours and profits from increased production to
be passed on to operatives. The chief gains to management accrued from
savings in oncosts; better control of labour, materials and transport;
improved feedback of production information (leading to speedier and more
accurate invoices to the client and better estimating for future jobs); and
stability of labour through increased earnings without inflationary con-
sequences. Other benefits to management consist of improved accounting
procedures introduced in conjunction with the incentive scheme; closer
control of cost and better information on cash flow and profitability .
A number of other advantages gained by contractors introducing incent-
ive schemes for building maintenance work have also been identified. The
labour force becomes much more efficient , thus reducing wasted time,
utilising the full working hours, requesting instructions instead of waiting;
planning and organising their own work and thinking about and improving
their own methods . The management gains from reduced labour oncosts and
site oncosts, increased ratio of materials to labour with increased profit,
faster turnover of capital and general overheads spread over greater volume
of work. In addition, management can see the productivity level of gangs or
individuals and knows with greater certainty the time required for jobs and
so is able to plan future jobs with greater confidence. Further useful
information on incentive schemes is provided by Lee. 21
Incentive Schemes in Operation
In one local authority incentive scheme for building maintenance work
target times based upon work study were established for the range of work
done, and bonus could be earned on all work for which target times had
been set. Target times were expressed in standard hours and included
allowances for rest and personal needs, minor interruptions and delays.
Each operative completed a record sheet showing how each day was spent,
and when checked and signed by the foreman the sheets were used to
calculate bonus, which was paid one week in arrears. In order to safeguard
the health of the men and to maintain the quality of work, a maximum bonus
equivalent to a performance of 1.25 x standard times was operated. All
times that was spent on unmeasured work or lost was excluded from the
bonus calculation and paid at the basic rate of pay.
The first responsibility for quality and safe methods of working lay with
the man or team . Bonus was not paid, nor was the operation of a bonus
scheme accepted as an excuse for substandard work or for unsafe working
methods, for which checks were made.
After one year's operation, the scheme showed an increase in productivity
of 86 per cent, increase in operative's earnings of 27per cent and a reduction
in unit labour cost of 37 per cent. Apart from these benefits the authority
was able to recruit and retain a better standard of operative, secure more
economic use of materials, obtain a better standard of service, and receive a
weekly statement of performance presented against a prepared budget.
References
1 DOE. Practice in Property Maintenance Management. HMSO (1970)
2 B. A. Speight. Formulating maintenance policy. Chartered Surveyor
(Apri11970)
3 R. D. Milne. Building Estate Maintenance. Spon (1985)
4 S. Gillon , M. Dorfman and A. Moye. The Local Government, Plann-
ing and Land Act 1980: A Layman's Guide. Town and Country
Planning Association (1981)
5 J. Edwards. Local authority maintenance operations under the direct
labour organisation regulations. Managing Building Maintenance.
CIOB (1985)
6 B. P. Holloway. Considering planned maintenance. DOE Fourth
National Building Maintenance Conference. HMSO (1973)
7 B. A. Speight. Maintenance policy, programming and information
feedback . Building Maintenance and Preservation . Butterworths (1980)
8 H. Graham . Financial control of building maintenance. Managing

Building Maintenance. CIOB (1985)
9 R. F. Stevens. BRE Current Paper 55/74: Maintenance Standards and
Costs (1974)
10 K. Thurley. Improving the organisation of maintenance in married
quarters estates. Development in Building Maintenance-I. Applied
Science Publishers (1979)
11 R. Pettitt. Computer aids to housing maintenance management.
Managing Building Maintenance. CIOB (1985)
12 A. Kelly. Maintenance Planning and Control. Butterworths (1984)
13 Chartered Institute of Building. Programmes in Construction (1980)
14 S. B. H. Lim. The condominium and its management problems. Main -
tenance Man. Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Building Department, Singapore
(1980)
15 T. L. Goh. Management and maintenance of condominium housing
development. UN/BEAM. National University of Singapore, Building
and Estate Management Society (1984)
16 D. J. Cripps. Building maintenance-a client's viewpoint. Managing
Building Maintenance. CIOB (1985)
17 E. Bampton. Improving productivity in the execution of maintenance
work. Managing Building Maintenance. CIOB (1985)
18 R. A. Macleod, D. A. Flegg and R. Prout. Minimising the cost of
maintenance in a large integrated steelworks. Terotechnica 2 (1981)
19 A. D. Price and F. C. Harris. Methods of Measuring Production Times
for Construction Work. CIOB Technical Information Service No. 49
(1985)
20 DOE. Incentive Schemes for Small Builders. HMSO (1974)
21 R. Lee. Building Maintenance Management. Collins (1987)
14 SUPERVISION OF MAINTENANCE WORK
This final chapter is concerned with the supervision of maintenance work as

executed, to ensure that it is of a satisfactory standard and in accordance
with the drawings and specification. With the larger contracts it is customary
to employ a clerk of works who is constantly in touch with the work, but with
smaller schemes periodic supervision only can be obtained often through the
medium of architects, surveyors , inspectors or other supervisory staff.
Clerk of Works
General Background
There are three main categories of clerks of works.
(1) Maintenance clerks of works who usually hold permanent posts and
are concerned with cathedrals, hospitals, local authority and government
buildings.
(2) Estate clerks of works who are responsible for the upkeep of
buildings, fences, roads, water services, drainage and other related facilities
on large country estates.
(3) Clerks of works who are primarily concerned with new building
work and who are likely to move from one project to another as each is
completed.
Most clerks of works are building craft operatives and preferably have
served as trades and general foremen. They must have an extensive practical
knowledge of building materials, principles of construction and the execu-
tion of techniques in all trades. They must be able to make basic calculations
and take measurements, interpret drawings and other contract documents,
write concise letters, prepare accurate and well-presented technical reports
and enjoy satisfactory relationships with all the persons with whom they
come in contact. In addition, clerks of works must be thoroughly familiar
with the conditions of contract and statutory building controls. They need a
suitable office from which to work. A most useful handbook for clerks of
works was produced by the former Greater London Council.'
407
Duties
The primary duty of a clerk of works is to ensure that all the materials
and workmanship are in accordance with the drawings, specification and
any other relevant documents. He must refrain from making exorbitant
demands or altering details or materials without the approval of the
architect, surveyor or maintenance manager to whom he is responsible. The
method of carrying out the work is the sole responsibility of the contractor,
and the clerk of works should not under any circumstances direct the
contractor as to the method to be employed. Where the clerk of works is
dissatisfied with materials or workmanship, he should notify the foreman in
charge as early as possible, and in the event of no changes being made, the
architect or other responsible person should be notified , and he can issue
written instructions to the contractor. Under the JCf Standard Form of
Building Contract , the clerk of works is defined as "acting solely as an
inspector on behalf of the employer under the direction of the architect."
The clerk of works can assist in the smooth operation of the contract by
keeping a diary or record of work undertaken by the main contractor and
sub-contractors, plant and principal materials delivered to the site,
important activities, actions and discussions, weather conditions, any loss of
production, issue of architect's instructions, site visitors and other relevant
factors. He often takes measurements in conjunction with the contractor's
representative, of work such as foundations and drains which will
subsequently be covered up, and he may check timesheets and lists of
materials used on daywork and possibly setting out. A comprehensive job
diary can help the architect or surveyor in assessing any claims for loss or
expense submitted by the contractor. The clerk of works should write up the
diary as soon as possible after the events recorded and not later than the end
of the day.'
A typical extract from the diary of a clerk of works follows.
27 June Weather: mainly dry but two short showers
Workforce 15 bricklayers, 8 carpenters, 4 plumbers, 2 plasterers,
2 scaffolders, 22 labourers. Newtown Flooring
Company (4)
Materials 4 t cement
8 m3 sand
12 m3 19 mm aggregate
8000 Himley mixed russet bricks
30 metal casements
Visitors Mr Johnson (architect)
Mr Palmer (Newtown Flooring Company)
Drawings received CElBHl and CElBH2
(boiler house details)
Architect's Foundations to Block D to be stepped.
instructions Eaves overhang on Block C to be increased from 250
to 300 mm
Supervision of Maintenance Work 409
Reports Weekly report 23 (21-27 June) given to Mr Johnson

Block A-PVC flooring laid in rooms 24, 28, 29 amd
30.
Setting walls in rooms 15, 16, 18, 19, 22 and 23.
Fixing of door Iinings-some inadequate fixings re-
ported to contractor.
Block B-Roof construction in progress. Service pipe
installation commenced in toilets
Block C-Second lift of brickwork to north and east
walls. Brickwork up to dpc in annexe
Block D-Excavation for foundations commenced
Drainage Excavation for main drain discontinued
owing to groundwater entering trench
Reports
The clerk of works will also prepare reports for consideration by the
architect or other supervisory officer and these .are of three main
types-weekly, periodic and special.
Weekly reports keep the architect fully informed on progress and other
relevant matters and may include such aspects as number of men in each
trade employed on site, approximate value of work done during the week,
weather conditions, amount of rejected material (if any) , general remarks
on progress and quality of work and whether work by sub-contractors in on
target, deliveries of materials and whether these are of satisfactory quality
and delivered on schedule , and drawings received and required. Progress of
work may be indicated on duplicated plans, possibly by colour with
appropriate dimensions added. A bar chart showing the programme and
progress of the works is also very useful. On large jobs, photographs provide
useful records of progress. The clerk of works should retain a copy of each
report on his files.
Periodic reports may be prepared immediately prior to the time when

certificates will be issued by the architect authorising interim payments to
the contractor. The report contains details of the work carried out since the
previous certificate was issued and also lists the materials on site. Where
there is no quantity surveyor, the clerk of works may assess the approximate
value of the work done and materials supplied, including additional work
and daywork.
Special reports may be prepared from time to time to draw the architect's
attention to matters requiring his decision. They could for instance cover the
substitution of unobtainable materials or components, or deal with delays in
the execution of critical items or the failure by the contractor to carry out
architect's instructions.
Site Meetings
Site meetings will be held regularly on larger projects and are generally
convened by the architect or other person responsible for the supervision of
the work. The main objective is to ensure that satisfactory progress is
maintained and to provide the opportunity for clearing outstanding points.
It is important that all parties directly involved are represented including
sub-contractors.
Setting Out
Under the normal terms of contract, the contractor is responsible for setting
out the work and is liable for rectifying any mistakes. The clerk of works
often checks the setting out although he cannot be held liable for verifying
incorrect setting out. It is, for instance, vital that frontage lines shall be
determined correctly. They may be prescribed in relation to adjacent or
opposite buildings, the road kerb and on large and open sites, the centre of a
road, fence or hedge. The frontage line should be adequately pegged and
agreement obtained from all interested parties. Once the frontage line is
fixed, the clerk of works or other supervisory person should satisfy himself
that suitable and accurate methods are being employed to set out the
remainder of the work.
The positions of walls are normally established with profiles where there is
sufficient space, otherwise marks or incisions on abutting walls or other
suitable method will be used. With sloping sites it is important that all
measurements are taken horizontally, preferably with steel tapes. The
setting out of a steel-framed building requires extreme accuracy as the
stanchions and beams are cut to lengths at the fabricator's works, and any
error in setting out can involve expensive alterations on site. It is usual to
erect continuous profiles around the building and to set out the column
spacings along them . Wires stretched between the profiles will give the
centres of stanchions around which templets are formed.?
When laying drains, painted sight rails should preferably be fixed across
the trench, usually at manholes or inspection chambers, at a height equal to
the length of the boning rod above the invert level of the drain. A line
sighted across the tops of the two adjacent sight rails will represent the
gradient of the drain at a fixed height above invert level. At anyone time
there should desirably be at least three sight rails erected on the length of
drain under construction .i
Wooden pegs or steel pins are driven into the trench bottom at intervals of
at least 900 mm less than the length of the straight-edge in use. The use of a
boning rod will enable each peg or pin to be driven until its head represents
the pipe invert at that point. The underside of the straight-edge resting on
the tops of the pegs or pins will give the levels and gradient of the pipe. The
pegs or pins are withdrawn as the pipes are laid. To obtain a true line in a
horizontal plane, a side line is strung tightly between steel pins at half pipe
level, with the pipe sockets just free of the side line. Pins will normally be
located at each manhole or inspection chamber, but intermediate pins will

also be needed on very long lengths. 2
The correct determination of levels for foundation concrete, floors and
other features is as important as securing the correct lines and positions. A
datum of some kind must be established from which all heights can be
determined. It may be an arbitrary level such as a manhole cover or a
specific, suitably marked, point on a kerb, wall or other feature . In the case
of an open site, the datum point may consist of a wooden peg or steel pin set
in concrete. Alternatively a datum of known level may be established
related to the nearest Ordnance bench mark, when it is often referred to as a
temporary bench mark. Levels are transferred from the datum point to the
particular location on site by a dumpy, tilting or automatic level and
levelling staff, or by the use of a straight-edge, spirit level and pegs.
Supervision of BuDding Work

Adequate supervision of new construction and of alteration and repair work
is needed to ensure that the materials and workmanship comply with the
contract particulars and relevant statutory requirements. In the absence of
such supervision, inferior materials, poor workmanship and the omission of
important details can occur resulting in subsequent trouble and expense to
the building owner. 3 The remainder of this chapter is concerned with the
supervision of building work and is subdivided into the appropriate works
sections.
Demolition work
It is generally necessary to give the local authority notice of intention to
demolish buildings and for the demolition work to be under the supervision
of a competent person who is experienced in the type of demolition work
which is to be undertaken. The local authority may require any of the
followin~ works to be carried out .
(1) Shore up adjacent buildings.

(2) Weatherproof any surfaces of an adjacent building which are
exposed by the demolition.
(3) Remove material or rubbish resulting from the demolition and
clearance of the site.
(4) Disconnect and seal at specified points any sewer, drain or water
pipe in or under the building to be demolished.
(5) Remove any such sewer, drain or water pipe , and seal any sewer,
drain or water pipe with which the sewer , drain or pipe to be removed is
connected.
(6) Make good to the satisfaction of the local authority the surface of
the ground disturbed by the preceding operations.
Safety aspects must be fully considered and adequate precautions taken.

Before and during demolition work, all electrical services must be discon-
nected from the main supply, and only apparatus used for the demolition
may be electrically charged. A thorough investigation should precede the
demolition work to ensure that there can be no risk of fire or explosion
through leakage or accumulation of gas or vapour, and no possibility of
flooding from water mains, sewers or culverts.
If the building to be demolished adjoins the public highway, adequate
close boarded hoardings to the approval of the local authority are required.
Hoardings must be painted white for ease of observation and be free from
sharp corners or projections which could be a nuisance to pedestrians. Each
end of a hoarding should desirably be fixed at an angle from the wall to the
front face of the projection. Adequate lighting should be provided during
the hours of darkness at each end of the hoarding and along its length.
Attention should also be given to the special needs of blind persons .
Where space is very restricted, it may be necessary to erect gantries, which
are also subject to local authority control. A gantry is a temporary elevated
working platform at about first floor level over a public footpath, on which
materials may be received and from which rubble and surplus materials may
be removed. They must be properly designed to support the loads which
they will have to carry and to prevent danger or nuisance to the public from
falling materials, dust or water. They can be constructed of timber, steel or a
combination of them, with a minimum headroom over the footpath of
2.40 m and with the front of the gantry at least 450 mm back from the kerb
face. Gantries require lighting at night and vertical members should be
painted white for at least 1.50 m above ground.
When demolishing buildings no floor, roof or other part of the building
shall be overloaded with debris or other material. Before and during
demolition, the building to be demolished and adjoining buildings must be
carefully observed and shoring of one or more of the forms described in
chapter 2 should be erected at the first sign of weakness. The demolition
work must be carried out methodically and special precautions are needed
where the cutting of reinforced concrete, steelwork or ironwork forming
part of the structure may suddenly twist, spring or collapse on completion of
the cutting operation. Reinforced concrete buildings need special considera-
tion with demolition commencing on the upper floors, thereby reducing the
loads on columns as work progresses.
Demolition should be carried out so as to cause as little inconvenience as
possible to adjoining owners, occupiers, the public or the employer, with all
reasonable precautions taken to avoid unnecessary noise and vibration. The
work should be carried out in accordance with BS 6187,4 and the National
Federation of Demolition Contractors Ltd have issued a specification for
demolition and associated works" and an appropriate form of direct
contract.P
Excavation
All topsoil must be removed from the area to be occupied by the building,
and is normally stored ready for re-use. Trenches must not be excavated
deeper than necessary to ensure firm trench bottoms for receipt of founda-
tions and pipes, but always being on the lookout for soft spots. The widths of
trenches need checking to ensure adequate spread of foundations, and check
measurements taken to affirm that the walls will be correctly positioned
centrally on the foundations . Trenches must be kept clear of water and
backfilling carried out uniformly on both sides of walls in shallow layers, not
exceeding 150 mm deep, and adequately consolidated.
The safety of excavations is very important. Where the sides of excava-
tions require temporary support, to prevent the risk of earth or other
material falling into the excavation with consequent danger to workmen and
others on the site, adequate timbering or other support must be provided by
suitably skilled persons. The supports should be inspected once every seven
days by a competent person to ensure that they are in good condition and
free from movement. These inspections should be duly recorded in a register
kept in the site office.
The supporting material must be free of projecting nails which could be
dangerous to persons on the site. Materials must not be deposited or stored
near the edges of excavations where they could cause collapse of the side of
the excavation with resultant dangers. Where the work may affect the
stability of adjoining property, adequate precautionary measures must be
taken. Any explosives used for excavation work must be under the control
of a competent and experienced person . When a charge is fired, it is
essential that no-one is exposed to risk of injury. The police must be
informed that explosives are stored on the site and of the purpose for which
they will be used .
Concrete Work
The foundations of a building are generally considered to be the most
important part of the construction of a building and every possible care must
be taken in the inspection of foundation work and the concrete used in
foundations. The difficulty and expense in making good defects caused by
settlement are adequate reasons for ensuring that the foundat ions are in all
respects satisfactory. The effect of different ground conditions on founda-
tion design is described in chapter 2 and particular attention must be paid to
made-up ground, ground subject to mining subsidence, underlying caves,
proximity of trees, sloping clay sites and unequal loading.
Where small quantities of concrete are mixed by hand, the cement must
be evenly distributed throughout the aggregate. Pulling a long pronged rake
through the heap before mixing helps considerably. The wet mixing must be
carried out on a platform or other hard, clean surface. The amount of water
added is influenced by the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere and
the nature and absorptivity of the receiving point. A good consistency is
obtained when a handful of concrete, pressed tight, sticks together and does
not crumble or flow. Alternatively, the concrete may be machine mixed or

ready mixed.
With machine mixing, the water content should be measured in the mixer
tank, and the ingredients should be mixed to a uniform consistency. The
normal mixing time is at least one minute after all the materials, including
water, have been placed in the mixer. The mixer driver should monitor
visibly the workability, homogeneity and cohesiveness of each mix, as well
as the consistency of production." When the drum is discharged, the first
barrow load is coarser than the remainder with the heavier particles
gravitating to the bottom . This is particularly relevant when the concrete is
destined for comparatively thin slabs around steel reinforcement, and some
hand mixing after depositing may be needed. After mixing, the concrete
should be deposited without delay and not dropped uncontrolled through a
height exceeding 1 m.
The cement and aggregates must be correctly gauged to give the specified
mix. Gauge box sizes must be checked, and boxes kept clean and filled level
when in use. The sizes of gauge boxes for aggregates are normally based on
multiples which relate to a 50 kg bag of cement, but must not be so large and
heavy that operatives avoid using them. Weigh batching gives much more
accurate results, but it is necessary to check constantly that the gauging
apparatus is being used correctly and that allowance is made for the
moisture content of the sand. 2
When the laying of concrete in foundations finishes part way along a
trench at the end of a day, the end of the concrete should be left rough and
inclined as a key for the next day's work. Before concrete is placed between
formwork, the formwork should be checked as to dimensions, levels and
strength. Formwork to beams should be so secured that it will not move
under pressure from the concrete and a slight camber of about 1/360span is
customary. The side forms are usually removed after two or three days but a
longer period is required for soffits of beams, depending upon such factors
as the loading and the time of year. If a fair face is required to the concrete,
the formwork must be treated so that the concrete comes away clean. All
formwork must be clean before use.
Concrete in beams must be laid continuously between supports with any
breaks over columns or walls. Where new work is joined to old the joint
must be hacked, brushed clean, wetted and given a coat of grout. Concrete
in walls must be spread in thin layers and be well tamped or vibrated.
Concrete in casings to steelwork should be kept reasonably wet and be well
vibrated. Expansion joints should be provided in large areas of concrete.
Bar sizes, shapes and positions will normally be shown on bar schedules
and the bars in position need checking to ensure that they are in accordance
with the schedule, that intersections are securely wired and that the
distances of bars from edges of members comply with the drawings. After
the bottom layer of concrete is laid and the bar reinforcement nearly
covered, the bars should be lifted slightly with a hook and shaken to ensure
that a full bed of concrete is obtained under the reinforcement. Temporary
fixings keep the bars in the correct positions.
Freshly laid exposed concrete must be adequately cured by covering with

bubble plastic sheets, quilts of plastic with fibres or other suitable material,
to protect it from the sun and drying winds for at least seven days. Concrete
should be at least 5°e when placed and should not fall below 2°e until it has
hardened. In cold weather special precautions should be taken such as
keeping aggregates and mixing plant under cover, covering exposed con-
crete surfaces with insulating material, using a richer mix of concrete and/or
rapid hardening cement, heating water and aggregate, placing concrete
quickly, and leaving the formwork in position for longer periods.
It is sometimes necessary to carry out site tests on materials to determine
their suitability. The following tests relating to cement and sand serve to
illustrate the approach.
Cement: (1) Examine to determine whether it is free from lumps and of a

flour-like consistency (free from dampness and reasonably fresh).
(2) Place hand in cement and if of blood heat then it is in satisfactory
condition.
(3) Settle with water as paste in a closed jar to see whether it will
expand or contract.?
Sand: (1) Handle the sand; it should not stain hands excessively, ball
readily or be deficient in coarse or fine particles.
(2) Use a standard sieve test-if more than 20 per cent is retained on a
1.25 mm sieve, it is unsuitable for use.
(3) Apply a silt or organic test-a jar half filled with sand and made up
to the three-quarters mark with water; shake vigorously and leave for three
hours; the amount of silt on top of the sand is then measured and this should
not exceed six per cent.?
Coarse aggregates for concrete are normally required to comply with the
grading requirements .of BS 8828 and these require checking to ensure a
well-balanced mix. The maximum size of coarse aggregate is determined by
the class of work; rarely exceeding 20 mm for reinforced concrete but
increasing' up to 40 mm for foundations and mass concrete work.
Concrete strengths are influenced by a number of factors
(1) proportion and type of cement;
(2) type, proportions, gradings and quality of aggregates;
(3) water content;
(4) methodand adequacy of batching, mixing, transporting, placing,
compacting and curing the concrete.?
Concrete mixes can be specified by the volume or weight of the constituent
materials or by the minimum strength of the concrete; the latter approach
being advocated in BS 8110.9 The water/cement ratio is a most important
factor in concrete quality . A common but rather imprecise test for measur-
ing the workability of concrete is the slump test using a 300 mm high
open-ended metal cone which is filled with four consolidated layers of
concrete, the cone lifted and the slump or drop of the concrete measured
(25 mm for vibrated mass concrete to 150 mm for heavily reinforced
non-vibrated concrete). For greater accuracy the compacting factor test
should be used.i
Brickwork
The bricks should conform to the sample deposited with and approved by
the architect or other responsible person. Rough checks for suitability on the
site include striking two bricks together and the resultant sound on impact
should be hard and clear, and certainly not dull. Good bricks should
withstand transport to the site without too many breakages. Arrises should
be true and dimensions within the generally accepted tolerances, otherwise
the contractor may claim an extra for sorting and gauging bricks. Lightness
of colouring or a pink tinge indicates underburning and is a serious fault, as
the discoloured bricks are likely to disintegrate fairly rapidly if used
externally and subjected to severe weather conditions. Overburnt bricks
may detract from the appearance of facework as they are likely to be
misshapen.
In general the production and use of mortar on site is inadequately
controlled. Using modern workability aids or masonry cements, very weak
mortars can easily be produced and used. For example, some garden walls
collapsed on one town development site resulting from a mortar gauging of
1:16. If sulphates are present in the bricks or soil they dissolve in water and
attack Portland cement, forming calcium sulphoaluminate, resulting in
expansion of mortar and eventual disintegration. The remedy in this
situation is to use sulphate resisting cement or stronger mortar-l :3 or
1:4-and to avoid bricks with a high sulphate content. The composition of
mortar should be carefully considered and should ideally have a density as
close as possible to the density of the bricks. A good general-purpose mortar
is cement:lime:sand (1:1:5-6), masonry-cement:sand (1:4t) or cement:sand
with plasticiser (1:5-6) . BRE Digest 16010 provides useful guidelines for the
selection of mortars for different situations and using alternative types of
brick or block.
There are many matters to observe when supervising bricklaying. Brick-
work must be laid to the specified bond and dimensions, and quoins, piers
and reveals should be checked for plumb and brick courses laid to gauge.
Rankin 11 has advocated guideline tolerances of 3 mm in reveal widths in
the full height, 1 mm in 1 m of reveal soffit and 2 mm in 1 m in plumb of
reveal. Work showing three times these tolerances would be unacceptable.
It is unsatisfactory for brickwork to gain for one scaffold height and then
lose to obtain the right level at an upper floor, producing uneven and untidy
joints. Bricks with frogs should be laid frog up with good bed and cross
joints well flushed up with mortar, and perpends kept perpendicular.
Brickwork to both external and internal walls should be carried up at
approximately the same rate, leaving indents for half-brick walls and chases
for block partitions. Quoins should be either racked back or part racked and
toothed.
Bricks must be well wetted during hot weather and the top of newly
constructed work suitably protected during frost or heavy rains. Defacement
through scaffold splash must be avoided. Brickwork should be suspended
during frosty weather, but where bricks and mortar are free from frost, work
can commence at the beginning of the day if the temperature is not below
2°e. Special precautions may be taken to permit bricklaying to proceed
during temporary frosts. An old bricklayer's saying is not without rele-
vance-'when mortar hardens on -the trowel, sets like beads on the line, and
forms a crust on the mortar on the board, then it is time to pack up and go
home'.
Cavity walls need particularly close supervision as there is a tendency for
mortar droppings to bridge the cavity, lodge on wall ties and stand on dpc
trays. Wall ties may slope inwards and be deficient in number or quality.
Waterproofing arrangements around door and window openings need
checking for soundness.
In the case of facings where a variation of colour is required it is usually
advisable to use the bricks straight from the stack, provided this does not
result in patches of one colour on laying. Where the facework is to be
separately pointed, the joints should be raked out for a depth of at least
12 mm and care taken to maintain an even colour of mortar for this work, by
ordering sufficient sand for this purpose. All perpends should be well filled
and properly pointed with mortar of uniform colour and finish, and putlog
holes solidly and neatly filled. Faced brickwork must be free from mortar
stains .
For underpinning, bricks, must be hard and well soaked during hot
weather, and laid with solidly filled joints. Toothings shall be well formed
for linking with the adjoining sections of brickwork and must be kept clean.
The pinning up process deserves special attention and is normally executed
by ramming in a 25 mm layer of fairly dry cement mortar with a piece of
board.
Damp-proofcourses must be provided at the appropriate positions and be
continuous. Damp courses in rolls should be adequately lapped at joints, be
well bedded and kept back about 20 mm from the face of the wall to allow
for pointing.
Most brickwork is laid from scaffolding which requires particular atten-
tion from the safety aspect. The old wooden poles and putlogs have been
largely replaced by the more efficient steel or alloy tubes with patent
scaffold fittings. They must be maintained in sound condition and be
inspected regularly .
Masonry
All stone should be free from cracks, vents and discoloration. For instance
some Portland stone shows a brownish tinge, limestones may contain dark
spots and sandstones may exhibit laminations and discoloured streaks.
Sound stone normally gives a clear ring when tapped with a hammer.
All dowels, cramps and plugs should closely fit the sinkings in the stones
and where of iron should be galvanised or dipped in bitumen. Some stones,
particularly sandstones, need protecting after laying from wet weather.

Masonry needs checking to ensure that all stone members such as lintels
have adequate bearings and that they are worked to the required details. As
a general rule stone needs to be laid on its natural bed and be properly
cleaned down on completion. Some stones need treatment on their back
faces to prevent surface staining by cement. When using an unfamiliar stone,
the supervisor is advised to visit existing buildings where the same type of
stone has been used in similar conditions .
Roofing
Slates and tiles should be checked against approved samples to ensure that
they are of the correct type and quality. Plain clay tiles 'should for instance
be free from cracks and twists, be hard baked, have well-formed nibs and
nail holes and have the appropriate cambers . For random slating the slates
are sorted using the largest and thickest at the bottom . Slates and tiles to be
nailed should be fixed with two nails to each slate or tile, and the nails
should have a high resistance to deterioration such as copper or aluminium .
Plain tiles are normally nailed at every fourth or fifth course and at the top
course and at eaves. One major problem with extensions is the matching of
materials. In the case of roofing tiles it may be advisable to remove old tiles
from a rear roof to replace defective tiles on front elevations .
The battens must be checked to ensure that the correct gauge is being
maintained with appropriate staggering of joints, and that the required
constructional details are being obtained at eaves, ridges and verges, with
particular attention being paid to watertightness. Roofing underfelt should
be checked to ensure freedom from damage, adequate laps and overhang at
eaves. A check should be made to ensure that soakers are fixed around
chimney stacks and in other appropriate locations.
Asphalt to flat roofs should be laid in two thicknesses with 150 mm laps to
a finished thickness of not less than 20 mm. Care must be taken to ensure
that the asphalt is of the correct type and quality and is satisfactorily and
evenly laid at the appropriate temperature to suitable falls. Special care is
needed at the junctions of flat roofs with parapet walls to secure an effective
and watertight joint.
When using built-up bitumen felt roofing, it is essential to use three layers
bonded in hot bitumen for all except temporary buildings. Upstands and
skirtings are best formed by turning up the second and top layers for a
minimum height of 150 mm over an angle fillet and they should preferably
be masked by a metal or semi-rigid asbestos/bitumen sheet (SRABS)
flashing. A check should be made to ensure that each layer of felt complies
with the specification, that each is smoothly and evenly laid to the required
falls, and is free from cracks, holes or other defects.
With copper, lead and zinc flat roofs it is important to check that the
correct quality and thickness of metal sheet is being used and that rolls and
drips are properly formed with adequate laps. A check should be made to
ensure that the sheeting is laid to even and adequate falls and that sheets are
free to move on two edges.
Gutters and downpipes must be checked to ensure that they are of the
correct sizes and properly jointed and fixed. It is not uncommon to see 2m
lengths of gutter supported by one bracket per length instead of two. Cast
iron downpipes need fixing sufficiently clear of wallfaces to permit painting
of the backs of pipes. Balloon gratings to gutter outlets are sometimes
omitted despite being clearly specified.
Thermal insulation to roofs needs checking to ensure that it is of the
correct thickness and properly laid to eliminate gaps and particularly to seal
off vulnerable eaves. Any cold water apparatus above the insulating layer
must be adequately protected.
Carpentry
Carpentry timber should be carefully examined to ensure that it is of
satisfactory quality, conforms to the specification and is of the required
dimensions. Structural timber should be examined for its general character
-straightness of grain, size and type of knots, existence of waney edges, any
discoloration, shakes and other defects. The timber should be adequately
seasoned with a moisture content roughly equivalent to the humidity of the
atmosphere in which it will be placed. Timber which shows signs of decay or
contains considerable sap, bad knots or shakes should be rejected. Guide
notes issued by the Building Research Establishment (Princes Risborough
Laboratory) will assist in the identification of different species of timber.
Most carpentry timbers are supplied to nominal sizes and suitable allowance
needs to be made for any planed faces when checking dimensions. All
timber on the site should be adequately protected from the weather.
Wood is readily attacked by fungi which flourish where timbers become
wet and where there is no ventilation. These conditions can for instance
arise in exterior timber framed panels, where small amounts of water can
enter without showing on the interior surface but resulting in rotting at the
bottom where water tends to collect. To overcome this problem panels
should be double sealed with well-designed joints and finish to openings. In
the more vulnerable locations described in chapter 4 timber should be
suitably treated with preservative.
Floor joists must be laid truly level and be adequately fixed to wall plates
where provided, with adequate bearing. Any joists that have a curve in the
direction of their length should be laid with the convex edge uppermost to
counteract the tendency to sag. Joists must be checked for size and spacing.
Trimmers are normally 25 mm thicker than other joists and the jointing of
trimming members should be carefully checked. Any herringbone strutting
must be carefully formed and be taken across the floor from wall to wall.
Checks must be made to ensure that timbers in position are not weakened
excessively by plumbers and electricians cutting large notches for pipes and
cables.
Wall plates must be well bedded in an appropriate mortar with the ends
half lapped and nailed. Rafters must be properly birdsmouthed over wall
plates with the depth of the birdsmouth not exceeding one-third of the depth
of the rafter. Rafters need checking to ensure that they are laid in a true
plane to the appropriate pitch and spacing and are of the specified sizes. All
other roof members and joints need to be checked together with any
trimming around openings, with rafters properly scribed against ridge
boards and hip and valley rafters.
The more common weaknesses which occur with trussed rafters include
the use of unsuitable (ungraded) timber, careless placing of fasteners, use of
faulty fasteners , excessively tight designs resulting in considerable deflection
and lack of bracing. The latter two defects can cause opening up of joints to
roof tiles and entry of water .
Joinery
All joinery timbers shall be checked for quality and the moisture content
should not exceed the prescribed limits to restrict subsequent shrinkage.
Grounds for skirtings, architraves and like features must be securely fixed
without excessive packing. Where fixing bricks are used they should be
inspected to ensure that they will take nails. Floorboards should not exceed
the specified width and should be well cramped up and adequately nailed in
the prescribed manner . Joints to skirtings must be well formed.
Doors should be fitted to give 3 mm edge joints for painted work and
1.5 mm for polished work. Check to ensure that they are hung to swing in
the correct direction and that all hinges bear equally, have the correct length
of screw with heads countersunk flush. Adequate allowance must be made
for floor finishes. Keyholes must be in true alignment with locks for ease of
insertion and withdrawal of keys. Doors need checking to ensure that they
are of the required type, construction and dimensions. Hardwood jambs
should ideally be screwed and pelleted. The deviation from squareness of
door frames should not exceed 1 mm from a 500 mm square edge , and the
twist or bow in a door not exceed 5 mm.!'
Casements must be out of winding and must not stick. Any sash bars must
be straight and in alignment, while sliding sashes must have suitable weights
and correct lengths of cord or have the prescribed spring devices. Fasteners
to sliding sashes should be sunk flush, sashes must slide freely and the
bottom sash must fit closely to the sill. Deviation from level of window sills
should not exceed 1 mm in 1 m, and plumb of window frame 2 mm in 1 m.'!
All reasonable steps should be taken to prevent shrinkage of finished
work, with joiner's work ideally framed together about two months before
fixing. The building should be dried out as quickly as possible by using the
central heating system or fires and opening windows on drying days.
Particular attention should be paid to throatings, grooves and similar
labours to ensure that they conform to the prescribed details and are
properly set. Ironmongery must conform to the specification or to submitted
and approved samples.
Plasterwork
Plasterboard ceilings must be securely fixed with suitable galvanised nails to
give a true plane surface. Each board or lath should be nailed with not less
than four nails to each support equally spaced across the width and driven no
closer than 13 mm from its edges. End joints should be staggered in
alternate courses with cut ends located over supports. Plasterboard ceilings
are normally finished with one or two coats of plaster and angles at junctions
of wall and ceiling need checking to ensure that they are reinforced with a
strip of jute scrim.
Most internal wall surfaces are finished with two coats of plaster and the
first coat should be ruled to an even surface and lightly scratched to form a
key for the finishing coat. The thickness of all coats must be watched .
Straight edges and accurate screeds and grounds are needed to produce a
good finishing or floating coat. The finishing coat must be applied with
an even amount of material and pressure . Irregular or wavy patches should
be replastered. Defective work should be identified at an early stage;
irregularities can be felt even if not clearly visible. Good plasterwork requires
skilled craft operatives, good materials and adequate time to do the work
satisfactorily. There must be a good key on all surfaces to be plastered and
there is no substitute for this. Galvanised metal angle beads should ideally
be used at all plastered external angles. Rankin" advocated that the level of
a ceiling should not exceed 10 mm from a 3 m straight edge and no
deficiencies in levels should be visible when viewed in normal daylight from
a distance of 1 to 1.5 m.
Plaster should be stored in a dry place and be separated from concrete
floors by wood battens. The finished plasterwork should be truly vertical,
free from cracks, blisters and other imperfections. Different plasters must
not be mixed under any circumstances and the manufacturer's instructions
should be closely followed. Plaster on the site should be checked to ensure
that it is of the type specified. The supervisor must anticipate problems if the
plasterer is using dirty water, dirty tools and an already opened sack of
gypsum from the previous job.
Paintwork
All steel and ironwork should be cleared of mill scale, oil, grease, dirt and
most rust before painting. The preparation of these surfaces is probably
more important than the type of paint to be applied. To remove mill scale
and rust, methods such as wire brushing and chipping, hand or mechanical
acid pickling, blast cleaning or flame cleaning may be used . When repainting
previously painted metal surfaces, care should be taken to remove most
traces of rust, following which rust-inhibiting priming paint should be
applied to the cleaned surface taking care to cover all parts. The backs of all
metal gutters should be suitably metal primed before the fixing and the
inside surfaces after fixing.
All knots in timber must be sealed with shellac knotting before the timber
is primed. Priming paint should not be applied too thickly otherwise it will
not soak into the wood so readily. ·All cracks and holes must be suitably
stopped prior to the application of paint. These preliminary operations can
be omitted when repainting previously painted woodwork provided the
original paint film is sound.
All coats of paint must be properly applied in accordance with the

specification and the manufacturer's instructions . All surfaces must be
clean, dry and free from dust or grease before paint is applied. Check to
ensure that the correct number of coats of paint are applied in the prescribed
sequence. Brush marks applied parallel with the grain improve the appear-
ance of the work. Surfaces should be rubbed down with fine glass paper
before each succeeding coat is applied . Check to ensure that all joinery is
properly primed, where required, all knots sealed and nails or screws driven
below the surface. Special attention should be given to the priming of the
backs of frames, linings, skirtings, fitments and the like which will come into
contract with the structure.
All edges of doors, except bottoms, should be painted and where doors
are painted different colours each side, check that the striking edge is the
same colour as the inside face of the door and the hanging edge as the
outside.
The commonest cause of blistering of paint is resin exuding from the
wood, although painting on a frosty or damp surface can have a similar
effect. An excess of oil in the paint may also cause blisters while too little oil
may tum the paint into powder on drying. Each coat should be allowed to
dry thoroughly before the following coat is applied . External surfaces are
preferably painted during a dry period when at least two dry days have
preceded the day when painting is undertaken.
New plaster surfaces may require drying out for several months before
they are ready to take oil paints. Occupants are not generally prepared to
wait this long and there are two alternative approaches-to apply an
alkali-resisting primer followed by two coats of oil or paint or to use two or
three coats of emulsion paint.
Paperhanging needs checking to ensure that the paper is well secured but
not pasted to architraves, skirtings and the like. Check that the pattern is
matched and the paper hung plumb.
Glazing
Check to ensure that the glass used is of the correct type and thickness and
that the putty is of suitable quality. Ideally the back putty to glass panes
should not be cut out until a week after front puttying. Ensure that there is
clearance between the edges of the glass and the enclosing wood or metal
casement. Large panes must be well sprigged before front puttying. Front
putties should be neatly and evenly formed to the appropriate lines. The
edges of plate glass in shop fronts and showcases should have their edges
blackened.
Plumbing
All materials and components need checking to ensure that they comply
with the specification. Sanitary appliances deserve close examination to
ensure that they are not mis-shapen, cracked, crazed or pitted and that
fittings such as water waste preventers are free from mechanical defects.
A constant check should be maintained while plumbing work IS 10

progress to ensure that pipes are of the correct dimensions and laid in the
correct positions with the prescribed provision of valves. All pipes should be
properly jointed and graded where appropriate. Hot water pipes must be
adequately fixed but at the same time permit movement for expansion and
contraction. Care must be taken to ensure that floor joists are not weakened
excessively through notches being cut to receive pipes. Pipes should be
located so as to be as inconspicuous as possible but nevertheless be readily
accessible for repairs, and be positioned on internal walls where practicable.
Special precautions need to be taken with a single stack plumbing system
to ensure satisfactory operation. For example, the stack must be of adequate
size with airtight joints, and branch pipes must fall gradually and con-
tinuously in the direction of flow and be free from abrupt changes of
direction. The vertical distance between the lowest branch connection and
the invert of the drain should not be less than 750 mm or 450 mm for
three-storey houses with a 100 mm stack and two-storey houses with a
75 mm stack. Waste pipes from wash basins, baths and sinks should be laid
to the minimum prescribed slope, have a maximum length of 1.70 m and be
provided with suitable traps. WCs should be sited as near to the stack as
possible and the we branch should have a generous sweep and enter the
stack an an angle of 950 from the vertical. Bath and wash basin connections
opposite a we connection should be located at least 200 mm above the WC
connection. 12
Great care is needed in fitting plastic wastes to sanitary fitments. Most
plastic connections to stack pipes have a rubber bush which on tightening
has a tendency to twist on the inside of the stack. This results from the
plumber's failure to make a proper connection but is not always seen and the
first indication often is a blockage in the system.
Drainage
Pipes, junctions, bends and other fittings should be checked for soundness
and British Standard kite marks. Gullies, inspection chamber covers and
other special fittings should also be checked for compliance with the
specification.
The drainage work needs to be checked against the drainage plan which
will show the pipe runs and sizes, and the location and possibly also the
invert levels of inspection chambers, manholes and other access points. The
pipes must be laid in straight lines between inspection chambers or manholes
and to even and self-cleansing gradients. Drains which are very shallow,
excessively deep or close to building foundations will need surrounding with
concrete. The alignment of drains can be checked with a line and gradients
with a straight-edge and spirit level, or alternatively a mirror may be placed
at one end of the drain and a lamp at the other.
Drain pipes should be kept clean and must be properly jointed to provide
watertight joints. Many flexible jointed pipes are now used but where
cement and sand joints are used with standard clay pipes, the mix should not
be richer than 1:2 to avoid excessive shrinkage on drying. Drain pipes must
always be laid on a firm bed to prevent or substantially reduce subsequent

settlement with consequent strain on joints. Flexible pipes should generally
be laid on a granular bed not less than 100 mm thick, with the granular
material extending upwards to the top surface of the pipe. 2
The Building Regulations 13 require that all drains after laying, and
backfilling of trenches, shall withstand a suitable test for watertightness.
The most effective test is the water test in which a suitable plug is inserted in
the lower end of the length of drain which is then filled with water. For
house drains, a knuckle bend and length of vertical pipe may be jointed
temporarily at the upper end to provide the requisite test head. A drop in
the level of water in the vertical pipe may be due to one or more of the
following causes
(1) absorption by pipes or joints;
(2) sweating of pipes or joints;
(3) leakage from defective pipes, joints or plugs;
(4) trapped air.
Hence it is advisable to fill the pipes with water for two hours before
testing, top them up and then to measure the loss of water over a 30 minute
period, normally applying a test pressure of 1,.5 m head of water at the upper
end and not more than 4 m at the lower end. It may thus be necessary to test
steeply graded drains in stages to avoid exceeding the maximum head. The
Building Regulations'I recommend that the leakage of water over 30
minutes should not exceed 0.05 litres for each metre of drain for a 100 mm
drain and 0.08 litres for alSO mm drain. Where there is a trap'at the upper
end of a branch drain, a rubber or plastics tube should be inserted through
the trap seal to draw off the confined air as the pipes are filled with water.
Alternative tests are the air test and the smoke test which are both detailed
in Building Technology.2
Inspection chambers and manholes (designed to permit the entry of a
man) provide access to drains for maintenance. Their distance apart on
straight lengths of drain should not exceed 45 m for inspection chambers and
90 m for manholes.P and they should also be provided at changes of
direction and gradient, at drain junctions where cleaning is not otherwise
possible and heads of drains. They must be of adequate size to permit ready
access for inspection, cleansing and rodding; have a removable, durable ;
non-ventilating cover; have step irons or a ladder to provide access where
the depth requires this; and have suitable smooth impervious benching when
there are open channels .
The dimensions of inspection chambers and manholes will be largely
determined by the size and angle of the main drain, the position and number
of branch drains and the depth to invert. Brick manholes should always be
built in unrendered engineering brickwork finished fair on theinside face, to
withstand the humid, corrosive conditions and to prevent cracked rendering
falling into the drains. The bricks should be laid in cement mortar (1:3).
Half-brick walls are permissible for depths not exceeding 900 mm in
granular soils above the water table . 14
Supervlsion of Maintenance Work 425
The main channel should be formed of half-round channel pipes and

branches are best in the form of three-quarter section standard branch bends
discharging in the direction of flow in the main channel. Check the benching
to ensure that it is smooth and hard and sloped at about 1 in 12 where men
may be required to stand on it . Frames and covers must be well bedded at a
suitable level.
Records
A person supervising building work should keep records of site visits, noting
dates, weather conditions, labour force, materials delivered to site, work in
progress and any other important aspects. He will also record his own
observations on the quality of the work and any action that he has taken. He
will record details of any old drains, service pipes or other feature opened up
during the execution of the works. It is good practice to amend the drawings
and specification in red to incorporate any changes that may have been
made during the course of the works.
References
1 Greater London Council. Handbook for Clerks of Works. Architectural
Press (1983)
2 I. H. Seeley. Building Technology. Macmillan(198~)
3 BRE Digest 176 . Failure patterns and implications (1975)
demolition
5 National Federation of Demolition Contractors Ltd. Specification for
Demolition and Associated Works in the Clearance of Existing Buildings
and Structures (1984)
6 National Federation of Demolition Contractors Ltd. Form of Direct
Contract (1982)
7 G. Taylor. Concrete Site work. Telford (1984)
8 British Standards Institution. BS 882: 1983 Specification for aggregates
from natural sources for concrete .
9 British Standards Institution. BS 8110: Structural use of concrete. Part
I: 1985 Code of practice for design and construction
10 BRE Digest 160. Mortars for bricklaying (1973)
11 I. Rankin. Quality Control and Tolerances for Internal Finishes in
Building. CIOB Technical Information Service No .2 (1982)
12 BRE Digest 249 . Sanitary pipework: Part 2: Design of pipework (1981)
13 The Building Regulations 1985: Approved Document HI. HMSO (1985)
building drainage
APPENDIX 1: METRIC CONVERSION TABLE
Length iinch =25.44 mm [approximately 25 mm] , then (mm!

1(0) x 4 = inch
1 ft =304.8 mm (approximately 300 mm)
1 yd =0.914 m (approximately 910 mm)
1 mile = 1.609 km (approximately It. km)
1 m =3.281 ft = 1.094 yd (approximately 1.1 yd)
(10 m = 11 rd approximately)
1 km =0.621 mile (8" mile approximately)
Area 1 ft2 =0.093 m2

1 yd 2 =0.836 m2
1 acre =0.405 ha f1 ha (hectare) = 10 000 m 2]
1 mile 2 = 2.590 km~
1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 = 1.196 yd 2 (approximately 1.2 yd 2)
1 ha =2.471 acres (approximately 2-}acres)
1 km2 =0.386 mile 2
Volume 1 ft3 =0.028 m3

1 yd3 =0.765 m3
1 m3 =35 .315 ft3 = 1.308 yd3 (approximately 1.3 yd3 )
1 ft3 =28.32 titres (1000 titres = 1 m3)
1 gal =4.546 titres .
1 titre =0.220 gal (approximately 4-} litres to the gallon)
Mass 1 Ib =0.454 kg (kilogram)

1 cwt =50.80 kg (approximately 50 kg)
1 ton = 1.016 t (1 tonne = 1000 kf = 0.984 ton]
1 kg = 2.205 Ib (approximately 21" Ib)
Density 1 Ib/ft3 = 16.019 kglm 3

1 kglm3 =0.062 Ib/ft3
426
427
Velocity 1 ftls =0.305 mls

1 mile/h = 1.609 kmlh
Energy 1 therm = lO5.506 MJ (megajoules)

1 Btu = 1.055 kJ (kilojoules)
Thermal 1Btulft2 hOF = 5.678 W/m2°C (where W = watt)
conductivity
Temperature xOF
XO
=t (x - 32tC
C =sx + 32°F
O°C = 32°F (freezing)
5°C=41°F
lOoC = 50°F (rather cold)
15°C = 59°F
20°C = 68°F (quite warm)
25°C =77°F
30°C = 86°F (very hot)
Pressure 1 lbf/inch? = 0.007 N/mm 2 = 6894.8 N/m 2

(1 MN/m 2 = 1 N/mm2)
1 Ibf/ff =47.88 N/m2 ~newtonslsquare metre)
1 tonflinch 2 = 15.44 MN/m (meganewtonslsquarc metre)
1 tonflft2 = 107.3 kN/m2 (kilonewtonslsquare metre)
For speedy but approximate conversions:

kN/m 2 .
1 Ibflft2 = - - hence 40 Ibf/ft2 = 2 kN/m 2
20
and tonflft 2 = kN/m 2 x 10, hence 2 tonflft 2 = 20 kN/m2

Floor loadings office floors - general usage: 50 Ibflft2 = 2.50 kN/m 2
office floors - data-processing equipment: 70 Ibf/ft2 = 3.50 kN/m2
factory floors: 100 Ibf/ft2 = 5.00 kN/m 2
Safe bearing 1 tonflft 2 = 107.25 kN/m 2

capacity 2 tonflff =214.50 kN/m 2
of soil 4 tonf/ft 2 =429.00 kN/m 2
Stresses 100 Ibf/in.2 =0.70 MN/m 2

in lOOO Ibflin. 2 =7.00 MN/m 2
concrete 3000 Ibflin. 2 =21.00 MN/m 2
6000 Ibflin. 2 =41.00 MN/m 2
Costs £lIm 2 = £O.0921ft 2

1 shilling (5p)/ft 2 = £O.538/m2
£lIft 2 = ~lO.764/m2 (approximately (£11/m 2)
£5/ft 2 = £54 m2
428
£10/ft2 = £108/m2
£15/ft2 = £161/m 2
£20/ft 2 = £215/m 2
£2S/ft 2 = £269/m 2
£30/ft 2 = £333/m2
£401ft 2 = £430/m 2
APPENDIX 2: OCCUPANCY COST ANALYSIS-LABORATORY
LABORATORY crsm 732
Building function: Medical research laboratories Owner/Occupier: Charity organisation
Location: Central London Date of erection: 1961--extended 1972
UPPER MANAGEMENT CRITERIA AND BUDGET PROCEDURE
Maintain correct room temperature and very clean working conditions; ensure continuity of all services and facilities to
prevent any interruption of laboratory activities. Preserve a capital asset; maintain the building in as good a condition as
possible.
An analysis is made of the budget during the previous and current budget years to check on accuracy and to examine
".. expenditure trends. Annual maintenance budget is included with other departmental estimates and submitted for
~ approval. Expenditure reviewed monthly-ehecks for likely over-expenditure.
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION
Superintendent engineer, deputy engineer , records clerk and 2 secretaries responsible for maintenance. Annual
inspections by superintendent engineer. Painting frequency: normally every 5 years-more frequently if required. Costs
recorded under 30 budget heads-individual maintenance job cards not costed.
Work done by DEL 50% and contracted out 50%. Directly-employed labour establishment is 5 supervisors, 18 craft
operatives and 14 labourers.
Selected contractors for minor works use the organisation's own contract conditions. Competitive tenders for large works
employ JCT or IMechE contracts.
Contract supervision: daily inspection on minor works; progress reports and interim payments on large works.
Appendix 2 cont'd
BUILDING FUNCTION AND PARAMETERS
Medical research laboratory-laboratories 36%, circulation areas 29%, plant rooms 16%, staff facilities 14%, offices 5%.
400 occupants (average).
Design criterion: sound construction for minimum maintenance to avoid interruption of research work.
Gross floor area: 14 831 m2 Storeys above (and including) ground floor: 9 No.
Area of pitched roofs (on plan):- Floors below ground floor: 3 No.
Area of flat roofs (on plan): 9882 Floor to ceiling height: 2.70 m generally to underside of suspended ceiling.
Area of external glazing: 1583 m2
ti
o FORM OF CONSTRUCTION
Structure: Reinforced concrete frame. Cavity brick external walls. Timber double-glazed windows. Reinforced concrete
roof with screed and 2-coat asphalt covering . Plastered brick internal partitions on ground floor, elsewhere generally
special demountable timber partitions. Solid concrete floors.
Finishings and fittings: Granite flooring in entrance hall, all rooms and corridors linoleum covered, tiling in plant room
and cloakrooms. Teak laboratory bench tops, cupboards and shelving.
Decoration: Plastered surfaces emulsion painted; teak oil on windows and frames externally.
Services: LPHW radiators for corridors and staircases; high velocity dual duet system with full air conditioning for all
rooms except plant rooms and cloakrooms. 3 No. IO-person/1500 lb passenger lifts 30 ftlmin serving 11 floors; 3 No. 3000
lb and 2 No. 1500 lb goods lifts 150 ftlmin serving 11 floors . Emergency lighting, cold rooms, liquid nitrogen plant,
compressed air, CO2 gas, etc.
FINANCIAL STATEMENT: COST PER 100 m2 FLOOR AREA Gross floor area: 14831 m 2
Element 19761T7 vmm 1978n9 1979/80 1980181
o. Improvements &: 8daptatIom t 294.62 £ 369.07 £ 642.39 £1498.74 £2424.54
1. Decontloa
1.1 External decoration 16.81 18.99 19.55 24.79 31.41
1.2 Internal decoration 97.57 85.65 103.53 133.43 234.39
Sub-total £ 114.38 t 104.64 £ 123.08 £ 158.22 £ 265.80
2. Fabric
2.1 External walls 0.67 7.52 17.90 - 31.33
2.2 Roofs 1.35 6.50 2.02 3.37
2.3 Other structural items 45.12 45.05 32.06 39.00 42.94
2.4 Fittings & fixtures 136.18 179.69 116.84 134.10 237.94
~
w 2.5 Internal finishes 27.41 38.40 36.53 32.84 59.18
- Sub-total e 210.73 £ 2n. 16 £ 205.35 £ 209.31 £ 371.39
3. Services
3.1 Plumbing & internal drainage 93.72 83.07 114.95 151.68 232.41
3.2 Heating & ventilating 410.42 455.74 500.67 838.16 806.13
3.3 Lifts & escalators 45.08 57.63 53.15 56.16 78.32
3.4 Electric power & lighting 261.99 315.73 305.26 400.52 395.75
3.5 Other M & E services 258.88 279.89 370.90 472.33 462.21
Sub-total £1070.09 £1192.06 £1344.93 £1918.85 £1974.82
4. CIaaiDI
4.1 Windows 12.31 12.58 12.40 18.13 18.29
4.2 External surfaces
4.3 Internal 285.03 284.30 .273.89 361.67 480.65
Sub-total £ 297.34 £ 296.88 e 286.29 £ 379.80 £ 498.94

Appendix 2 cont'd
s, Utilities
5.1 Gas 11.99 16.46 12.16 18.57 239.24
5.2 Electricity 674.84 764.13 684.28 1195.71 1331.91
5.3 Fuel Oil S01.83 464.73 512.62 m .57 913.57
5.4 Solid fuel
5.5 Water rates 78.13 198.66 93 .90 133.17 137.35
5.6 Effiuents & drainage charges 7.(12 34.05 27.90 35.34 42.07
Sub-total £1273.81 £1478.03 £1330.86 £2312.36 £2664.14
6. AclmiDim'ative costs
6.1 Services attendants
6.2 Laundry 46.65 56.45 58 .30 SS.52 105.30
~
~ 6.3 Porterage 173.92 182.70 208.59 233.40 284.74
N 200.54
6.4 Security 211 .SO 246.09 340.56 396.30
6.5 Rubbish disposal 2.95 3.43 7.47 99.14 123.30
6.6 Property management 557.59 636.20 706.44 1060.83 1254.30
Sub-total £ 981.65 £1090.28 £1226.89 £1819.45 £2163.94
7. Overheads
7.1 Property insurance 87.65 85.63 56 .64 56.64 BO.51
7.2 Rates" 271.65 456.89 380.72 476.30 573.11
Sub-total £ 359.30 £ 542.52 £ 437.36 £ 532.94 £ 653.62
TOTAL £4307.30 £4981.57 £4954.76 £7330.93 £8592.65
°SO'ro rates reduction 8S a research institution.

~rct: Building Mainlell8llCC Information Ltd.
APPENDIX 3: OCCUPANCY COST ANALYSIS-HAU.S OF RESIDENCE
HALLS OF RESIDENCE crsra 856
Building function: Student residenial accommodation Owner/Occupier: University
Location: North-east England urban area Date of erection: 1974
UPPER MANAGEMENT CRITERIA AND BUDGET PROCEDURE
Maintain building in its state within the limits of the budget allocated by the Finance Committee.
Overall annual budget estimate is prepared for all university buildings and grounds, split into 1~lemental heads,
2a-wages and salaries, 2b-materials and contracting services. The maintenance estimate is considered along with
other departmental recurrent estimates and adjusted according to allocations. Budget control is the responsibility of
the maintenance officer who reviews expenditure monthly
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION
e
W The maintenance officer is responsible for the maintenance of all buildings and grounds assisted by the supervisory
staff (electrical, mechanical, buildings and grounds), office manager, secretary and three clerks.
Total estate comprises 90.2 hectares including several small sites away from the main campus; 134319 m2 floor area
teaching and residential accommodation. Routine inspections: regular visits made by supervisors. Maintenance
implemented by PPM process and requisitions raised by heads of departments and others. Painting frequencies: 5 year
cycle externally; 2 and 4 years internally depending on designated use.
Cost records and feedback: individual jobs are cost coded according to I-building, 2~lement subdivided between
a-DEL, b-e-contract, c-PPM.
Work done by DEL 55% and contracted out 45%. Directly-employed labour establishment is 58 in total including 6
chargehands.
Contracted-out work is on a daywork basis, larger contracts use university form or JCT contract.
Appendix 3 cont'd
BUILDING FUNCfION AND PARAMETERS
Residential student accommodation in 8 blocks with study bedrooms and shared conditions and sanitary
accommodation. Communal reading room. 95% student accommodation, 5% ancillary buildings. 260 occupants.
Gross floor area: 4036 m2 Storeys above (and including) ground floor: 3 No.
Area of pitched roofs (on plan): 1714 m2 Floors below ground floor:
Area of flat roofs (on plan): 23 m2 Floor to ceiling height: 2.30 m
Area of external glazing: 468 m2 Height to ridge: 10.00 m
FORM OF CONSTRUcnON
~
~
Structure: Traditional construction. Loadbearing bricklblock cavity external walls, plastered internally. Aluminium
horizontal sliding windows; Velux rooflights. Pitched roof with clay pantiles on battens and felt; flat roof with 3-layer
felt on chipboard and timber joists. Small area of plain clay tile to addition. Blockwork internal partitions. Solid in
situ concrete floor slab to sections and suspended timber joists with tongued and grooved floor boarding to remainder.
Finishings and fittings: Carpet, quarry tiles, non-slip tiles, thermoplastic tiles. Kitchen fittings, shelves.
Decoration:Emulsion paint to walls; stain and varnish to some woodwork, gloss to some, including externally.
Services:Copper water services, PVC wastes, saltglazed drains . Gas-fired boilers, one per house; 1 radiator per room
18-21°C. Kitchen equipment. Laundry. .
FINANCIAL STATEMENT: COST PER 100 m2 FLOOR AREA Gross floor area: 4036 m2
Eleme nt 1978179 1979/SO 1980181 1981/82 1982/83
o. ImpronmeuCs It adaptations £ 92.81 £ - £ 14.99 £ - £
1. DecoratioD
1.1 External decoration - - 1.41 8.28 0.37
1.2 Internal decoration 103.64 17.64 157.56 91.87 136.92
Sub-total £ 103.64 £ 17.64 £ 158.97 £ 100.15 £ 137.29
2. Fabric
2.1 External walls 2.38 3.77 3.37 6.37 4.16
2.2 Roofs 9.54 3.44 9.09 9.12 11.65
2.3 Other structural items 22.64 3.69 15.12 22.18 66.40
2.4 Fitt ings & fixtures 13.95 15.81 12.44 15.54 45.81
2.5 Internal finishes 7.88 4.46 8.15 6.24 29.69
~
..
VI Sub-total £ 56.39 £ 31.17 £ 48.17 £ 59.45 £ 157.71
3. Senka
3.1 Plumbing & internal drainage 9.42 24.40 35.06 24.38 43.09
3.2 Heating & ventilating 9.61 18.19 31.71 39 .56 38.60
3.3 Lifts & escalators - - - - -
3.4 Electric power & lighting 9.96 25.05 60.46 65.34 59.94
3.5 Other M & E services 10.21 12.44 26.81 28.77 31.74
Sub-total £ 39.20 £ 80.08 £ 154.04 £ 158.05 £ 173.37
4. CIeaDiDI
4.1 Windows 5.03 5.28 8.23 7.51 9.46
4.2 External surfaces
4.3 Internal 290.34 423.44 422.52 520.46 516.55
Sub-total £ 295.37 £ 428.72 £ 430.75 £ 527.97 £ 526.01

Appendix 3 cont'd
5. Utilities
5.1 Gas 189.12 322.70 400.02 411.17 446.11
5.2 Electricity 59.27 97.40 127.94 143.36 162.36
5.3 Fuel Oil
5.4 Solid fuel
5.5 Water rates 25.79 27.92 27.65 27.75 25.05
5.6 Effiuents & drainage charges
Sub-total £ 274.18 £ 448.02 £ 555.61 £ 582.28 £ 633.52
6. -AdmiDlstratiYe costs
6.1 Services attendants
6.2 Laundry 26.63 64.72 82.71 104.86 58.67
6.3 Porterage
~ 6.4 Security 96.41 122.02 138.53 146.13 174.06
0\ 6.5 Rubbish disposal
6.6 Property manage ent
1 85.18 93.93 117.14 120.66 130.20
Sub-total £ 208.22 £ 280.67 e 338.38 £ 371.65 £ 362.93
7. Overheads
7.1 Property insurance 39.52 44.65 52.50 60.93 58.82
7.2 Rates 256.32 289.39 348.81 369.80 406.42
Sub-total £ 295.84 £ 334.04 £ 401.31 £ 430.73 £ 465.24
TOTAL £1272.84 £1620.34 DJRrl.23 £2230.28 £2456.07
SoIUU: Building MainIcJlaDce lDformation Ud.

APPENDIX 4: ENERGY COST ANALYSIS OF HOSPITAL
ACUTE HOSPITAL CIISfB 412

Building function: 521 bed, mainly acute hospital.
Location : . 'Edmonton, London N18 .
Description of site: Sheltered location.
Gross floor area: 68 900 m2
GrosS·internal cube: 231 900 m3 ;
Date of erection: Older buildings originally erected as a workhouse dated 1840-1985 with additions dated 1899 as
~ infirm wards. Some newer buildings 1960, 1972, 1981.
~ Form of construction: Older prewar construction is brick built with pitched slate roofs; postwar buildings concrete
framed.
Mechanical and electrical services: 5 No. Lancashire boilers fitted with economisers and all rated at 10000 Iblhour.
Average electricalmaximum demand is 820 kVA per month. Standby generator maximum rating is 1200 kW.
Hours of Occupation: Generally wards and residential blocks 24 hours per day, 7 days; remainder 8 hours per day, 5 days
per week.
Hours of heating: In accordance with occupancy.
Hours of lighting: In accordance with occupancy and natural light.
Measures undertaken to reduce energy consumption:
Installation of automatic doors; wall and roof insulation; strict upkeep of pipe and ventilation system lagging and
installation of various heat recovery systems. Imminent installation of a building automation system.
Appendix 4 cont'd
ENERGY USAGE 1979/80 1980181 1981/82
Source Quantity Cost Quantity Cost Quantity Cost
Gas 12593 OJ £ 26 032 13256 OJ £ 35601 12936 OJ £ 32348

Electricity · 18 288 OJ £120 194 18240 OJ £135 118 17986 OJ £188 UJ7
Fuel oil (3500 sec.) 183 006 OJ £296 n« 178788 OJ £412288 180 390 OJ £400 676
Total therms
equivalent 2 tm 221 therms 1 993 072 therms 2 002 814 therms
ENERGY CONSUMPTION 2942.27 2892.70 2906.84

Therms per 100 m2 per annum
~
w ENERGY USAGE 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85
00
Source Quantity Cost Quantity Cost Quantity Cost
Gas 12268 OJ £ 37491 5692 OJ £ 37751 8412 OJ £ 37 515

Electricity 22 760 OJ £225 280 24345 OJ £229872 22 845 OJ £231814
Fuel oil (3500 sec.) 159149 OJ £436 465 157602 OJ £525 319 132409 OJ £517750
Total therms
equivalent 1 840 409 tberms 1 778 443 therms 1 551 226 tberms
ENERGY CONSUMPTION UJ71.13 2581.19 2251.42

Therms per 100 m2 per annum
Souru: 8MI Ltd, Study of EMrgy in Buildings (1986).

APPENDIX 5: CLASSIRCAnON OF MAINTENANCE OPERAnONS AND REPAIRS
Primary code Secondary code
1. External decoration
2. Internal decoration
3. Main structure 31. Foundations and basements
32. Frame
33. External walls. chimneys and flues
(excluding boiler flues)
34. External windows and doors including
glazing
35. Roof structure
36. Roof coverings
37. Roof lights and glazing
38. Gutters and rainwater pipes
4. Internal construction 41. Ground floors

(where not part of foundation slab)
42. Upper floors
43. Staircases and steps
44. Internal walls and partitions
45. Doors and screens including glazing
5. Finishes and fittings 51. Ceiling finishes

52. Wall finishes
53. Floor finishes
54. Shelves. built-in furniture and miscel-
laneous joinery
55. Ironmongery
56. Cloakroom and similar miscellaneous
fittings
6. Plumbing and sanitary services 61. Cold water service pipes. storage tanks.
cisterns and valves
62. Hot water service pipes. storage tanks
and cylinders. domestic boilers, valves
and insulation
63. Sanitary fittings including taps and traps
64. Waste, soil and vent pipes
7. Mechanical services including heating and 71. Boilers, firing. instrumentation and auto-
ventilation and gas installations matic controls, flues
72. Steam and hot water distribution includ-
ing heat exchangers and heating app-
liances
439
440 Appendix 5
Primary code SecondJlry code
73. Workshop equipment, lifting appliances

and special industrial equipment
74. External water supply, treatment and
storage plant
75. Lifts
76. Air conditioning, ventilation and refrige-
ration
77. General utilities
78. Gas installations and equipment (except
kitchen equipment)
8. ElectricQI services and kitchen equipment 81. Electrical generation and prime movers
(all typeS) 82. Electrical transmission and distribution
83. Electrical installations (wiring switch and
control gear)
84. Electrical appliances and fittings (except
kitchen equipment)
85. External lighting and airfield lighting
86. Lighting protection, ELV systems and
equipment
87. Kitchen equipment
9. External and civil engineering works 91._ Roads, car parks, parade grounds,
hardstandings and runways
92. Paths, playgrounds and general paved
areas
93. Fences, gates and boundary walls
94. Drains and ditches
95. Sewage disposal
96. Water storage tanks and reservoirs
97. Railway tracks, platform docks, wharves
and jetties, sea defence walls
98. Horticultural and arboricultural works
99. Miscellaneous external works
O. Miscellaneous and ancillary works 01. Adaptations and minor new works
02. Replacement of fire damage
03. Routine cleaning
Sourc«: DOE. Mainltnanc~ Manuals/or Buildings. HMSO (1970)

INDEX
Abstracting 26fr8 Bad neighbours (building uses) 327

Accounts 342-6, 392-3 Ball valves 175, 178, 179-80
Advisory bodies for repair and SkevingtonIBRE 178
preservation 323 Banwell report 301
Aggregates for concrete 415 Bar chart 396
Agreement for Minor Building Bark beetles 205
Works 303, 306-11 Bark pocket 101
Agrement certificates 246-7, 250 Basements 49-50
Air bricks 112,259 Bedrock costs 343, 344
Air conditioning 183--4 Billing 268-9
Air ducts 112 Bills of quantities 264-9,304
Air locks 180 Bills of quantities contracts 298
Air seasoning 99 Birds 203
Air starvation in fires 93 Bitumen felt roofs 125-7
Alarm systems 193--4, 196-7 Bituminous paints 85
Alkali resisting primers 170 Blistering of paintwork 166, 422
Alterations Block plan 326
documentation 273--4 Bloom on paint 167
examples 211-18 Blowing of plaster 152
grants 222-6 Boilers 181-2
pricing - 287-9 chimneys 94-5, 181
scope 208-18 Bonus payments 402, 403- 4, 405
sequence and management 218-20 Boundaries 336
Aluminium sheeting 74 Boundary walls 53
Aluminium windows 146, 147 Bread beetles 205
Ambrosia beetles 205 Breakdown maintenance 346
Analyses 357-8, 429-38 Bricks
Approved inspectors 320 clay 56
Approximate quantities requirements 251-2, 416
estimates 276, 277 specification 255-{i, 261-3
Architect 304-5 types 56-7
Articles of agreement 302-3 Brickwork
Asphalt floors 115 boundary walls 53
Asphalt measurement 271 cracks 63-5
Asphalt roofs 127-8 defects 5fH>7
Asphalt tanking 50 drying shrinkage 66
Avoidable maintenance 3 efflorescence 58-60
441
442 Index
frost action 62-3 Ltd 357-8

fumes from cavity foam 67 Building managers 400
laminated 55 Building notices 320-1
lichens 66 Building operatives 334-5, 401-2
measurement 270 Building records 354-5, 425
moisture penetration 55 Building regulations 317-22
mortars 57~, 59 applications 317-18
pricing 283-5 Building reports 233-5
settlement 63 Building Research
specification 261-3 Establishment 15-17,63,78, 79
stability 63-4 Building settlement 40-4
stains 60-1, 88 Building supervisors 320, 401
sulphate attack 33,61-2 Building surveyors 13,400
supervision 416-17 Buildings
unsound materials . 65-{) dangerous 332-3
British Standards 242-6 inspection 232-3 ,334-5
Budgeting 342-6 setting out 410-11
Builders' accounts 289-90 supervision 411-25
Bulding Conservation Trust 11
Building contracts 295-301
Building control 317-31, 334-5 Cables 185
Building control officer 306 Calcium silicate bricks 57
Building decay 29-30 Carbonation of concrete 73-4
Building defects 19,234-5 Carpentry
Building incentive schemes 402-5 supervision 419-20
Building lines 332 timbers 100, 112-13, 117-18
Building lives 17-18 Carpet beetles 205
Building maintenance Carpets 116
avoidable 3 Catalogues 247, 395-{)
concept 1 Categorisation of repairs 375
condition-based 3 Cavity walls 81, 133, 417
control 381-97 Cellar fungus 104
corrective 2 Cement 415
costs 2~ Cement rubber latex flooring 115
definition 1-2 Central maintenance
economics 28--30 administration 374-5
emergency 3 Ceramic tiles 159
feedback 12 Certificates 312
liability 8--10 Cesspools 190
magnitude 5-8 Chain link fences 53
nature 1~, 13-17 Chalking of paint 166
needs 10-11 Check on timber 101
planned 2 Chestnut pale fences 53
predictable 3 Chimneys 90, 93-5
preventive 2 Chipboard 113
priorities 11-12 Chipped grain 101
resources 12-13 Chlorinated rubber paint 85
scheduled 3 City maintenance structure 375-6
significance 4-5 Civic Trust 323
technology 18-20 Claddings 54-6, 72-()
unplanned 2 Claims 313
Building Maintenance Information CLASP 43
Index 443
Classification of maintenance mixing 413-14

operations and repairs 439-40 panels 73-4
Clay bricks 56 pricing 282-3
Clay floor tiles 114 reinforcement 74, 81, 414
Clay soils 34-7, 40 repairs 74
Clean Air Act 1956 333-4 specification 255-6
Cleaning stools and ground beams 43
brickwork 56, 60, 66 supervision 413-16
cycles 200, 350 Concrete beams 414
execution 199-200, 398 Concrete beds 113
facilities 200-1 Concrete flags 51-2
flooring 201-2 Concrete foundations 38-9, 413-14
graffiti 202 Concrete frames 76-7
kitchens 202 Concrete paving 42, 51-2
sanitary appliances 202 Concrete roof tiles 119
schedule 381 ! Condensation 86-90,91, 118, 121
stonework 71-2 Condition-based maintenance 3
windows 201 Conditions of contract 303
Clerk of works 306. 374, 407-9 Conditions of contract for minor
diary 408-9 works 306-11
reports 409 Condominium maintenance
Climbing plants 66 management 397-9
Close boarded fences 52 Conduits 185
Code for the Measurement of Building Coniophora puteana 104
Works in Small Dwellings 269 Construction Industry Training
Codes of Practice 245-6 Board 399-400
Cold roofs 121 Contingency sum 255
Colourless stone preservatives 71 Contract
Colourless water repellent liquids 70, approximate quantities 298
85-6 bill of quantities 298
Colourless waterproofers 85-6 conditions 303
Committed costs 343 cost plus 296-7
Common furniture beetle 107, 109, design and build 299
11~11 determination 31~11
Common property 397-8 form 292-5
Compartmentation 195 JCf Conditions 303
Component maintenance lump sum 298
procedure 383, 385-7 maintenance 299-301
Composite price rates 276, 277 national schedules 300-1
Computerised maintenance parties 304-Q
management 184, 345-6, 352-4 , remedies for breach 294-5
375-6,381 ,383,396-7,404 schedule 297-8
Concrete target cost 297
aggregates 415 term 299-300
cancer 74 types 296-301
cladding 73-4, 75 validity 293-4
curing 415 Contract documents 302-4
defects 81 Contract drawings 304
gauging 414 Contract for minor works 303,
laying 414 306-11
measurement 269-70 Contract labour 369-71
mixes 415-16 Contract procedures 311-15
444 Index
Contractor 305 specification 256, 262-3

Control card 382 Dangerous buildings 332-3
Controlling cost 34~ Data dissemination 354-8
Conversions Daywork · 312- 13
grants 222-6 Dead shores 45-7
scope 216, 217 Deadwood 101
Copper roofs 128,418 Death watch beetle 108, 109, 110,
Cork tiles 115 111
Corrective maintenance 2 Decorations 159-71
Corrosion of metals 66, 74, 76, 77, Decorative laminates 159
81,145-7 Defective Premises Act 1973 9,334
Cost analyses 357-8, 429-38 Defects notification 383-4
Cost classification 355-7 Dehumidifier 90
Cost control 342-6, 392-3 Demolition work 289,332,333,
Cost discounting 24-7 411-12
Cost in use 24-8, 365 Departmental structures 373-6
Cost plus contracts 296-7 Depots 376-8
Cost records 354-8 Design and build contracts 299
Cost yardsticks 20-1 Design of buildings 20-2
Cost-benefit analysis 229-30 Determination of contracts 310-11
Covenants to repair 231,232 Development 324
Cowls 94 Development plans 325-6
Cracks Dew point 87
asphalt 127 Dilapidations 231-2
brick walls 63-5 Dilapidations schedules 232-3, 238-9
causes 19 Dimensions paper 265-6
concrete and calcium silicate Direct labour organisations 369-73,
bricks 57 ·375
external renderings 153, 157, 158 Disabled people, needs 220-2
plaster 148, 150 Discoloration of paint 167
reinforced concrete 76 Discounting costs 24-7
shrinkable clay 34, 35, 37 Doors
wall claddings 41, 75 defects 143-5, 203, 420
Critical path 396 security 192-3
Cube estimates 275 specification 259
Cupboards 259 Doorway, pricing 287-9
Curtain walling 72-3 Dormers 215
Cycles Dote in timber 102
cleaning 200, 350, 381 Double glazed windows 131, 133-4,
inspection 347-8 171
maintenance 376,379-81 Double vacuum method of timber
painting 160-1, 162-3,349-50 preservation 99
services 350, 352 Dovecote 94
Drainage
defects 189-90
Damages 294 easements 336
Dampness French 84
causes 80-3, 141, 143 inspection 190
treatment 83-6 inspection chambers 190,261,
Damp-proof courses 81, 112,417 424-5
Damp-proofing land 49,84
methods 83-5, 113 manholes 190, 424-5
Index 445
Drainage cont'd pricing 281-2

measurement 273 supervision 413
sealing old drains 411 support 413
setting out 423 External renderings 153-7
specification 260-1 Extractor fans 89
supervision 423 Extraordinary traffic 332
testing 424
Drawings 304 Factories Acts 1-2, 10, 191,323
Dry linings 49, 84 Failures 17,19,76-7,78-80, 120-1
Dry rot 102-4, 105, 106, 112, 117, Fair wear and tear 231
139 Feedback 12,21 ,358-60,386
Fencing
Earwigs 204 maintenance 52-3
Easements 335-6 measurement 273
Economic life 18 Filters (air conditioning) 183-4
Efflorescence 58-60, 151 Final account 315
Electrical installations Finishings 159
disconnecting old services 411 Fire alarms 196-7
fire risk 185 Fire extinguishers 197
lighting 186 Fire fighting arrangements 198-9
measurement 272 Fire fighting equipment 196-8
prime cost item 260 Fire hazards 78-9, 195-6
regulations 185,334 Fire insurance 366
requirements 184-6 Fire precautions 195-9
Electrolytic action 177 Fire Precautions Act 1971 334
Electro-osmosis damp-proofing 84 Fire resisting construction 194-5
Elemental classification 439- 40 Fire spread 194
Emergency maintenance 3 Fire stopping' 195
Employer 304 Fireplace, closing openings 95
Empty cell timber preservation Flanking transmission of
process 99 sound 129-30
Emulsion paint 169 Flashings 118
Energy cost analysis 437-8 Flat roofs 119-29
Enforcement notices 335 Flood damage 205-6
Engineered costs 343 Floor
Engineers 305 boarding 112, 113
Environmental works 155 floating 131
Enzymes 102 hardwood strip 115
Epoxy resin grouting 74 solid 113
Escape routes 196-7 sound insulation 131
Estimates specification 258
approximate 274-7 suspended timber 11 1-13, 419
approximate quantities 276, 277 thermal insulation 132-3
arrangements 2n-80 wood block 115
cube 275 Floor area estimates 274-5
floor area 274-5 Floor cleaning 201-2
preparation 274-89 Floor coverings 113-16
schedule of claim 238-9 Floor levels 411
storey enclosure 2n Floor noises 112
unit zn Floor seals 116
Excavation Floor strutting 48
measurement 269 Floor tiles 114-16
446 Index
Flour beetles 205 Gravel 50

Fluctuations 313-15 Grit blasting 71
Flue linings 94-5 Ground beams 43
Flues 93-5, 181, 187 Grouting 49
Fluorescent tubes 186 Gutters 118,419
Flying shores 47, 48 Gypsum plasters 149
Food cupboards 259
Food Hygiene Regulations 334
Foreman 305 Hand pumps 198
Formwork 414 Health and Safety at Work Act
Foundations 1974 10, 191,333
concrete 38-9 Heating requirements 89
inspection 38 Heating systems 181-2
levels 411 High alumina cement 77
modification 39 Highways Act 1980 331-2
narrow strip 36, 37 Hoardings 412
pedatified 44 Hospitals 6
problems 34-8 Hot water supply 180-3
short bored pile 36, 37 House insulation grants 225
French drains 84 House longhorn beetle 107, 109
Frost heave 37 Housing 5-6
Frost precautions Association maintenance
brickwork 62-3 structure 376
concrete 39 condition survey 5
plumbing 176-7 timber framed 78-80
Full cell timber preservation Hygrometer 88
process 99
Fumes from cavity foam 66 Improvement
Fungal attack 101-6, 138 environmental works 225
Fungicidal treatment of timber 141-2
grants 222-6
Furniture beetle 107, 109, 110-11
lines 332
Furring 180 scope 208-18
Incentive schemes 402-5
Gantries 412 Incinerators 189
Gas installations 187 Information systems 354
General development order 324 Injunction 295
Glass 171 Insect attack to wood 106-11
Glass fibre reinforced cement Insecticides 110-11
(GRC) 76 Inspection chambers 190,261,424-5
Glazing Inspection cycles 347-8, 379
measurement 272 Insulation
pricing 286 sound 129-32
requirements 171 thermal 89,132-4
supervision 422 Insurance 310, 365-6
Good tenantable repair 231 Intermediate grants 222, 223-4
Graffiti 202 Internal finishings 159
Granolithic floors 113-14 Interstitial condensation 86, 90
Grants Interwoven fencing 52
buildings and plant 365-6 Inverted roofs 122
improvement 222-6 Iron 147
payment 226 Ironmonger 145
Grass cutting 52 Ivy 66
Index 447
Jacking 44 emergency 3
Job order form 388-9 execution by contractor 389-90
Joinery feedback 12,21, 358-60, 386
defects 138-45 inspections 347-8, 379
measurement 271 magnitude 1-4, 13-17
pricing 285, 288 organisation 373-6, 381-97
supervison 420 planned 2, 346-54
Joint Contracts Tribunal 303 predictable 3
preventive 2
Kiln seasoning 99 procedure 387-9
Kitchen cleaning 202 research resources 12-13
Kitchen improvements 210,258-9 scheduled 3
Knots 100-1 shut down 346
Knotting 164, 421 significance 4-5
standards 341-2
supervision 411-25
Labour technology 18-20
direct 369-73 training 399-402
oncosts 281 unplanned 2
Land costs 27 Maintenance contracts 299-301
Land drains 49, 84 Maintenance cost records 355-7
Larder beetles 205 Maintenance cycles 348-54, 379-81
Lead roofs 128, 129, 418 Maintenance data 354-8
Leaking roofs 80 , Maintenance departmental
Liability for maintenance 8-10, 379
structures 373-6
Lichens 66-7, 85 Maintenance depots 376-8
Life cycle costs 20-8, 365 Maintenance incentive
Lifts 187-9 schemes 402-5
Lighting 186
Maintenance liability 8-10, 379
Lime plaster 149 Maintenance management 390-2
Linoleum 115 Maintenance manuals 360-5
Local Government Operational Maintenance needs 10-11
Research Unit 11-12, 348
Maintenance planning 338-9,379-81
Local Government Planning and Land
Maintenance policy
Act 1980 371-3, 378 formulation 339-41
Local plans 326
Maintenance programme 348-54,
Loft conversions 215-16,217 378-81, 396-7
Luminaires 149 Maintenance research 15-17
Lump sum contracts 298 Manholes 190, 424-5
Lyctus power post beetle 108, 109 Manuals 360-5
Masonry paint 85
Made up ground 37 Mastic asphalt 115
Magnesium oxychloride floorings 115 Measurement procedures 264-74
Maintenance Measurement units 269-74
avoidable 3 Metalwork
breakdown 346 corrosion 66, 74, 76, 81, 145-7
budgeting 342-6 measurement 272
computerised 184, 345-6, 352-4, painting 165, 168
375-6,381,383,396-7,404 Metrication 122-3, 426-8
condition-based 3 Micro bore heating systems 182
definition 1-2 Mining subsidence 37-8; 42-4
economics 28-30 MOATS 250
elemental classification 439-40 Mobile depots 377-8
448 Index
Modernisation of dwellings 181, Painting walls 169-70, 422

211-16,253-61 Painting woodwork 164-5, 422
Moisture measurement 82-3 Paints
Mortars 57-8, 59, 416 bituminous 85
Moulds 66-7,87,92, 151 chlorinated rubber 85
Mycelium 102, 104 emulsion 169
masonry 85
National Building Paperhanging 422
Specification 249-50 Paraffin heaters 87
National House-Building Council 9, Partitions 131
80 Pattern staining 170-1
National schedules 300-1 Pavings 50-2
National Trust 323 Payment for works 309
Network analysis 396-7 Pebbledashing 85, 156
Newtonite 49 Pedatified foundations 44
Noises Performance specifications 250-1
floor 112 Permitted development 325
hot water supply 180 Pest infestation 202-5
plumbing 132, 178 Petroleum storage 333
Notification of defects 383-4 Piling 36, 37, 39
Pinworm beetles 205
Occupancy cost analyses 357-8 , Pipes
429-36 classification 252
Occupational charges 24, 27 drain 190,423-4
Offices, Shops and Railway Premises easements 336
Act 1963 10, 334 service 174
Operating costs 24, 334 Pitched roofs 117-19, 120
Organisation 373-6, 381-97 Pitchmastic 115
Outline planning applications 327 Planned corrective maintenance 2,
Overflows 175, 180 346-7
Overheads 281 Planned lighting maintenance 186
Oxidation 127 Planned maintenance 2, 346-54
Planned preventive maintenance 2,
Package deal contracts 299 346-7
Paint primers 164, 165, 168 Planning
Paint removers 164, 165 applications 326-8
Painting certificates 328
blistering 166, 422 control 322-31
cycles 160-1 development plans 325-{)
defects 160, 161, 162, 166-7 maintenance work 338-9,379-81
discoloration 167 notices 328 ..
maintenance practice 168-9 permission 323--(j
measurement 273 permitted development 325
pricing 286-7,288,289 register 328, 329
procedures 159-71 Use Classes Order 324-6
processes 164 Plans 321
quality 160 Plant 393, 394
specification 257 Plasterwork
supervision 421-2 characteristics 149
Painting asbestos cement 170 defects 148, 150-3, 421
Painting ceilings 169-70 measurement 272
Painting masonry 170 painting 169-70
Painting metalwork 165, 168, 421 pricing 286
Index 449
Plasterwork cont 'd Ramps 220, 221

specification 25~7 Records
supervision 420-1 building work 354-5, 425
Plastic repairs to stonework 70 clerk of works 409
Plastics pipes 147, 174 cost 355-7
Plastics sheeting 75-6 data 354
Plastics wastes 423 Recreational facilities 399
Plastics windows 147 Rectification work 14
Plumbing Redevelopment 226
defects 81, 174-6 Redwood 138
frost precautions 176-7 Refuse chutes 189
measurement 272 Refuse collection from flats 189
modernising 181 Rehabilitation
noises 132, 178, 180, 181 advantages 22~7
single stack 178-9 cost-benefit studies 229-30
supervision 422-3 financing 227-8
Policy formulation 339-41 Reinforced concrete 73-4, 7~7
Polystyrene 134 Reinstatement grants 225
Popping of plaster 152 Relative humidity 8~7
Powder post beetle 108, 109 Relet repairs 387
Preambles 268 Renderings 49-50,85, 153-7, 158
Precast concrete cladding 73-4, 75 finishes 15~7
Predictable maintenance 3 mixes 154-5
Prefabricated building Renovations 14-15
extensions 216, 218 Repairs categorisation 375
Preliminaries 254-5 Repairs grant 222, 225
Preservation of timber 99-100, 102, Replacements 14-15, 27-8
138,141-2 Reports
Price adjustment formula 313-15 clerk of works 409
Price fluctuations 313-15 technical 233-5
Pricing alterations 287-9 Rescission 295
Pricing building work 2~7 Research · 15-17
Pricing repairs 238-9 Resin pocket 101
Primers 164, 165, 168 Retention money 309
Programming Ribbing of timber 101
cleaning 350 Rights
costs 343 drainage 336
maintenance 348-54,396-7 light 335-6
painting 349-50 support 336
services 350, 352 way 336
Proofs of evidence 23~9 Rindgall 101
Protimeter 82, 88 Ring mains 184-5
Ptilinus 107, 109 Rising damp 81-5
Public inquiries 330-1 Rodents 203, 204
Putty 171 Roofs
PVC tiles 114-15 asphalt 127-8
bitumen felt 125-7
Quantity surveyor 305 copper 128, 418
Quantum meruit 295 flashings 118
flat, construction 119-21
Radiators 182 flat, defects 122-5
Rainwater goods 81,88,419 flat, design 120-2
Raking shores 46,47,48 gutters 118
450 Index
lead 128, 129, 418 Silverfish 204

measurement 271 Single stack plumbing 178-9,423
metal flat 128 Site arrangements 278-80
moisture penetration 118-19 Site boundaries 336
pitched, coverings 118-19 Site conditions 32-3
pitched, timbers 117-18,419-20 Site huts 279
polymer 128 Site investigations 32-3
pricing 285 Site meetings 410
slates 118-19, 120, 418 Site plans 326
supervision 418-19 SkevingtonlBRE ball valve 178
thatch 119 Skirtings, hollow detachable 185
thermal insulation 134,419 Skirtings to flat roofs 125
tiles 118-19, 418 Slates 1l~19, 120, 418
zinc 129, 418 Slenderness ratio 63
Roughcast 85, 156-7 Small bore heating systems 182
Rubber flooring 115 Smoke detectors 197
Running costs 24, 27 Smoky chimneys ' 90, 93-4
Socket outlets 185
Safety 190-2, 332-3, 412 Soils 33-8
Sand 415 Solar protection 121, 123
Sanitary appliances 177, 179-80,422 Sound insulation 129-32
Sapwood 138, 139 Special grants 224
Sawflies 204 Specific performance 294
Schedule contracts 297-8 Specification
Scheduled maintenance 3 drafting 251-3
Schedules of condition 233 format 247-51
School conversion 216-17 National Building 249-50
Seasoning timber 98-9 performance 250-1
Security 192-4,398 pu~se 241, 303
Selective tendering 301-2 sources ·of information 241-7
Self-siphonage 178 typical 253--63
SerpuJa lacrymans 102-4, 105, 106, Split timber 101
112, 117, 139 Sprinklers 198
Services Stability of brick walls 63-4
improvement 210-11 Stable conversion 216,217
maintenance 174-90, 398 Stainless steel 146
programming 350, 352 Stains 60-1,88,95, 152
Servicing 14 Staircases 116-17, 195
Setting out 410-11 Standard Method of Measurement of
Settlement 40-8, 63 Building Works 265, 269
Shakes in timber 101 Standard times 403
Sheeriness in paint 167 Standards of maintenance 341-2
Shoring 41,45-8 States of asphalt 127
Showers 180 Statutory requirements 9-10, 309-10
Shrinkable clay 34-7, 40 Steel reinforcement 74,414
Shrinkage Steelwork
brickwork 66 demolition 412
clay 34-7,40 frames 76-8
paint 166 measurement 272
plaster 150, 151 painting 165, 168, 421
timber 79 setting out 410
Shut down maintenance 346 treatment 145-6
Silicone treatment 49, 84, 85-6 weathering 78, 145
Index 451
Stock control 394-Q moisture content 99

Stonework nature 98
cleaning 71-2 preservation 99-100, 102, 138,
colourless treatments 70-1 141-2
defects 67-9 seasoning 98-9
measurement 270 specification 256
repairs 170 strength 100
Stop notice 335 treatment 110-11
Storage tanks 177 types 98
Stores, computerised 394-Q Timber cladding 76
Stores requisitions 395 Timber floors 111-13, 115
Storey enclosure estimates 277 Timber framed housing 78-80
Structural frames 76-8 Timber roofs 117-18, 120
Structural life 18 Timber staircases 116-17
Structural reports 234 Tonged and grooved boarding 113
Structure plans 325-6 Tom grain 101
Sub-contractors 305 Total building costs 23-8
Sulphate attack 61-2, 157 Trade catalogues 247
Supervision of maintenance Training, industrial 399-400
work 411-25 Training, managers 400
Surface condensation 86, 87 Training, operatives 401-2
Suspended floors 111-13 Training, supervisors 401
Tree roots 34, 35, 37, 42
Taking off 265-6 Trench timbering 413
Tanking 50 Trussed rafters 420
Tanks 177 Tyrolean 157
Target cost contracts 297
Target times 403-4 Underpinning 39,40,41,43,417
Tarmacadam 50-1 Unit estimates 277
Taxation 29,365-6 Unplanned maintenance 2
Technicalofficers 374 Unvented hot water supply
Tell tales 41 systems 182-3
Tenants' request cards 384 Upstands to roofs 125
Tendering 301-2, 311 Urban regeneration 8
Term contracts 299-300 Urea formaldehyde foam 133
Terotechnology 19-20 Use classes 324-Q
Terrazzo floors 114 V-value 89, 132
Testing of bricks 416
Testing of cement 415 Valuation tables 25-7
Testing of drains 424 Vandalism 193
Testing of sand 415 Vapour barrier 78,90, 122, 123
Thatch roofs 119 Variations 312
Thermal insulation 89, 132-4, 419 Varnish 165
Thermoplastic floor tiles 114-15 Ventilation 89-90, 95
Throat restrictor to fireplace 93 Vertical tile hanging 86
Tie rods 64 Vibration 134-5
Tiles
external wall 86, 157-9 Walls
internal wall 257 boundary 53
roof 118-19, 418 brick 56-67
Timber cavity 81, 133
defects 100--11, 117-18 concrete cladding 73--4
452 Index
defects 54-6, 81-3 decay 139-41

external tiling 86, 157-9 defects 138-13,420
insulation 131, 132-3 double glazing 131, 133-4
light clad dings 72-3 plastics 147
rubble 270 security 193
setting out 410 sound insulation 131
stone 67-72 specification 257, 259
ties 63-4 steel 145-6
vegetation on external faces 85 thermal insulation 133
waterproofing 85-6 wood 139-43
Waney edge 101 Wiring 185
Warm roofs 121-2 Wood block flooring 115
Warp 101 Wood boring beetles 106-11
Wash basins 180 Wood lice 204
Waste pipes 178-9, 423 Wood stains 86, 165
Water buckets 197 Wood wasps 205
Water by-laws 334 Woodworm 107, 109, 110-11
Water closets 179-80 Work sections 248
Water hammer 178 Work study 403
Water spraying 71 Working up 266-7
Water test 424 Wrinkling of paint 167
Waterproofing basements 49-50
Waterproofing walls 85-6
Weatherboarding 76, 86
Weathering steels 78 Yardsticks 20-1
Wet rot 104-5, 117
Windows
aluminium 146, 147 Zinc chromate primer 168, 171
cleaning 201 Zinc roofs 129, 418

Building Maintenance - Ivor H. Seeley

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Building and Surveying Series

Accountingand Finance for Building and Surveying A. R. jennings

Property Development: Appraisal and Finance David Isaac

Bulldlna IJId Surveylna Stria

All rightsreserved. No reproduction. copy or transmission of

The author has asserted his right to be Identified as the

ISBN 978-0-333-45701-6 ISB N 978-1-349-18925-0 (eBook)

This bookIs printed on papersuitable for recycling and

Acatalogue record for this book Isavailable

Transferred to digital printing 2003

List of Tables xii

1 Nature and importance of building maintenance 1

2 Building maintenance problems and their solution-I 32

3 Building maintenance problems and their solution-II 54

4 Building maintenance problems and their solution-III 98

5 Building maintenance problems and their solution-IV 138

6 Building maintenance problems and their solution-V 174

7 Alterations and improvements 208

8 Specification of maintenance work 241

9 Measurement and pricing of maintenance work 264

10 Tendering procedures and contract administration 292

11 Building control 317

12 Planning and financing maintenance work 338

maintenance feedback; maintenance manuals ; costs in use/life

13 Execution of maintenance work 369

14 Supervision of maintenance work 407

Appendix 1 Metric conversion table 426

Appendix 4 Energy cost analysis of hospital 437

Appendix 5 Classification of maintenance operations and repairs 439

1.1 Types of maintenance 2

1.1 Breakdown of total costs 24

12.1 5-year planned maintenance programme 351

recording of performance, comparison of performance with the plan and the

Nottingham, Autumn 1987 IVOR H. SEELEY

Th~ author a~knowledges with gratitude the willing co-operation and

Building maintenance has until recently been a neglected field of tech-

Concept of Building Maintenance

Figure 1.1 Types of maintenance (source: OS 3811: 198.r)

BS 38113 categorises building maintenance by means of the following

(4) Corrective maintenance : "The maintenance carried out after a

Maintenance work has also been categorised as 'predictable' and 'avoid-

Significance or Building Maintenance

of buildings to an acceptable standard. It emphasised that more rather than

Magnitude of Building Maintenance Problems

Much needs to be done in reducing energy costs through energy conserva-

Liability for Defects in Buildings

1 Liability under Building Contracts

The amount of necessary building maintenance work could be reduced by

Assessing Maintenance Priorities

coupled with a technique for assessing their condition . Finally, he must

Resources for Building Maintenance

Servicing is essentially a cleaning operation undertaken at regular intervals

Replacement is inevitable because service conditions cause materials to

cent on upgrading to acceptable present-day standards and 29 per cent to

Research into Maintenance

Design and specification

Figure 1.3 Origins of building faults (source: Quality in Trrulitional Housing)

Figure 1.4 Attribution of types of faults by performance (source: BRE News 58

In 1986, the Building Research Establishment started providing advice for

of all assets, the conservation of resources and the promotion of controlled

Consideration of Maintenance at Design Stage

the effects of weather, to retain stability, give weather resistance, thermal

Relationship of Capital, Maintenance and Running Costs