Hospitality

Quantitative Correlational Study of Organizational Culture Perception,
Employment Length, and Employee Turnover in Fast-Food Restaurants
by
Duane Dike
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership
UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX
March 2011
UMI Number: 3480369
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QUANTITATIVE CORRELATIONAL STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
PERCEPTION, EMPLOYMENT LENGTH, AND EMPLOYEE TURNOVER IN
FAST-FOOD RESTAURANTS
by
Duane Dike
March 201 1
Approved:
Jean R. Perlman, JD,DBA, Mentor
Jules Klagge, Ph.D., Committee Member
Kimberly Blum, Ph.D., Committee Member
,
Accepted and Signed: March 25. 201 1
Jules Klagge Date
(J>/$L /'
I
I
Accepted and Signed: 4

' March 25, 201 1
Kimberly ~ l f ; m Date
~ e r e G ~ o r e l a nPh.D.
4 Dat
Dean, School of Advanced Studies
University of Phoenix
Abstract
This quantitative correlational study was an examination of the relationships among
perception of organizational culture, length of employment, and employee turnover. The
specific problem is fast-food restaurant owners do not know how perception of
organizational culture and length of employment are related to the rate of employee
turnover (Hayden & Madsen, 2008). Newly hired employees begin their jobs
anticipating responsibility, but within 1 to 2 months, morale decreases, and employees
are no longer happy on the job (DelCampo, 2006). Two statistical tests, the Spearman
Rho and factor analysis, were run on data collected from 15 surveys submitted through a
commercially available web site. The results indicate (a) positive perceptions of
organizational culture are negatively correlated with intentions to terminate employment
and (b) the longer employees are employed, the less likely they are to consider
terminating employment. The current study findings indicate that front-line supervisor
behavior is an important factor for retaining employees (Murphy, DiPietro, Antonio, &
Muller, 2009). Supervisors are the most important connection between an organization
and workers, and supervisors must be able to transfer the precepts of organizational
culture to newly hired employees to improve employee socialization into the work
culture.
v
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my family who put up with me as I disappeared
to attend to my studies. They are, in no particular order, Laure, my wife, Carrie, my
daughter, and John, my son. Of special note is Penny, my Pembroke Welsh Corgi, who
took me on thinking-walks.
vi
Acknowledgments
First on my list is Dr. Jean Perlman, my mentor, who patiently accompanied me
on this journey. Close behind are my committee members, Dr. Kimberly Blum and Dr.
Jay Klagge. A special thanks to Dr. Diane Dursik and Dr. Mary Shrine who, through
expert editing and statistical analysis, made me look good. I never would have finished
the journey without the support of my boss, Robyn Vossen.
A special recognition goes out to all the wonderful people in my cohort, and
especially to Errie Norris, my daily emotional and spiritual guide who kept me focused
on course milestones and the doctorate goal. Others in my cohort of special note are Bill
Dean, Carolyn Wells, Randy Taylor, and Geoff Henderson. Each of these fine people
influenced me in how I think about leadership.
I would also like to acknowledge the fine faculty of the University of Phoenix
who guided me along my educational journey. Additionally, the support I received from
Melissa Fuentes, my academic advisor, and Amber Luvisi, my financial advisor, eased
me through the logistical maze of the program.

vii
Table of Contents
List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xii
List of Figures .........................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ....................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................. 5
Significance of the Problem ....................................................................................... 6
Significance of the study. ................................................................................... 6
Significance of the study to leadership. .............................................................. 6
Nature of the Study .................................................................................................... 6
Research method. ................................................................................................ 7
Design appropriateness. ...................................................................................... 7
Research Question ..................................................................................................... 8
Hypotheses ................................................................................................................. 8
Relationship between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent. ............................ 8
Relationship between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent. ................... 9
Relationship among Employment-Length, OC-Perception, and Separation-
Intent. .................................................................................................................. 9
Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................. 9
Definition of Terms.................................................................................................. 13
Assumptions............................................................................................................. 14
Scope ........................................................................................................................ 14
viii
Limitations ............................................................................................................... 15
Delimitations ............................................................................................................ 15
Summary .................................................................................................................. 16
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature......................................................................... 18
Title Searches, Articles, Research Documents, and Journals .................................. 18
Employee Turnover ................................................................................................. 19
Studies on interruption theory. ......................................................................... 20
Interruption theory as a paradigm shift. ............................................................ 22
Job related and not job related interruptions..................................................... 23
Perceptions and perspectives. ........................................................................... 26
Leader role in controlling interruptions. ........................................................... 27
Organizational Culture ............................................................................................. 29
Organizational culture assimilation. ................................................................. 29
Organizational culture and employee turnover................................................. 31
Leader role in setting organizational culture. ................................................... 32
Corporate and local level organizational culture. ............................................. 34
Training and organizational culture. ................................................................. 36
Employment-Length ................................................................................................ 38
Termination as transfer from one organization to another. .............................. 38
Supervisor intervention and training. ............................................................... 39
The first 12 months of employment.................................................................. 39
Length of employment and compensation. ....................................................... 41
Separation-Intent ...................................................................................................... 42
ix
Intent as a predictor of separation. .................................................................... 42
Supervisor input and Separation-Intent prevention. ......................................... 42
Separation-Intent as change. ............................................................................. 43
Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 43
Summary .................................................................................................................. 44
Chapter 3: Method ................................................................................................... 47
Research Method and Design Appropriateness ....................................................... 47
Research Question ................................................................................................... 49
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................... 49
Relationship between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent. .......................... 50
Relationship between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent. ................. 50
Intent. ................................................................................................................ 51
Population and Sampling ......................................................................................... 51
Data Collection ........................................................................................................ 52
Survey distribution............................................................................................ 53
Survey format. .................................................................................................. 53
Informed Consent and Confidentiality..................................................................... 54
Data collection for the three variables. ............................................................. 55
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 56
Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................ 58
Internal validity. ................................................................................................ 58
External validity................................................................................................ 59
x
Reliability of the instrument. ............................................................................ 61
Summary .................................................................................................................. 62
Chapter 4: Results .................................................................................................... 63
Sample and Population Demographics .................................................................... 65
Data Analysis Procedures ........................................................................................ 65
Data collection challenges. ............................................................................... 66
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................... 67
Intent. ................................................................................................................ 70
Findings: Descriptive Statistics................................................................................ 70
Findings: Inferential Statistics ................................................................................. 74
Summary .................................................................................................................. 75
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 77
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ...................................................... 78
Findings and Interpretations .................................................................................... 79
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................... 79
Intent. ................................................................................................................ 81
Discussion of Findings by Order of Significance .................................................... 82

xi
Summary of Major Findings .................................................................................... 85
Recommendations .................................................................................................... 86
How leaders can apply results to their businesses. ........................................... 86
Implications to leadership in the organization. ................................................. 87
Implication to leadership globally. ................................................................... 88
Suggestions for Further Research ............................................................................ 88
Summary and Conclusion ........................................................................................ 90
Summary. .......................................................................................................... 90
Conclusion. ....................................................................................................... 91
References ................................................................................................................ 93
Appendix A: Fast-Food Employee Survey ............................................................ 110
Appendix B: Informed Consent ............................................................................. 117
Appendix C: Advertisement Copy ......................................................................... 120

xii
List of Tables
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics: Employment-Length, OC-Perception, and
Separation-Intent ..................................................................................................... 71
Table 2 Selected Descriptive Statistics: Summary by Variable ............................... 72
Table 3 Spearman Rho Correlation Matrix ............................................................. 74
Table 4 Component Matrix: Principal Component Analysis ................................... 75

xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Histogram: Employment-Length. ........................................................... 71
Figure 2. Histogram: Organizational culture perception. ....................................... 73
Figure 3. Histogram: Separation-Intent. ................................................................. 73

1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Employee turnover is a problem for leaders in the 21st-century fast-food industry
(Murphy, DiPietro, Antonio, & Muller, 2009; NOBSCOT Corporation, 2006).
Specifically, 65% to 80% of employees quit their jobs after less than one year of
employment (Weber, 2006). Employees leave positions because of distinguishable
interruptive events, such as an argument with a boss or co-worker, which can alter their
perceptions of their employer’s organizational culture.
Employees with greater than 12 months of service are less affected by these
interruptive events because they perceive an organizational culture differently than newly
hired employees (Graham & Nafukho, 2007; Grant, Dutton, & Rosso, 2008). The
relationships among organizational culture perception, job length, and an employee’s
decision to quit were the focus of this dissertation. Chapter 1 is organized as follows:
background of the problem, the problem statement, the purpose statement, significance of
the study, nature of the study, research questions, theoretical framework, definition of
terms, assumptions, scope and limitations, delimitations, and summary.
Background of the Problem
The cost to attract, hire, and train a new employee in the fast-food industry is
estimated between $5,000 and $10,000 (McKay et al., 2007). Aggregate costs related to
employee turnover for the entire fast-food industry are estimated at $10 billion. Such a
situation equates to $50,000 to $100,000 of annual replacement costs for a fast-food
restaurant with 20 employees and a 50% turnover rate.
Work in the fast-food industry is mostly part time (over 50% of workers) with few
educational or pre-existing skills required (Food and Beverage Serving and Related
2
Workers, 2010). The proportion of workers in the fast-food industry who are under age
20 is six times the proportion for all workers. The work is considered unskilled, although
specific training on food preparation, sanitation, and cash handling is required after hire.
The reasons for employee turnover are related to employee morale (Yuceler,
2009). Employees who are happy at work and have good relationships with their bosses
are less likely to quit their jobs (Chiu, Chien, Lin, & Hsiao, 2005). Local store
supervisors, at individual stores rather than corporate offices, who have positive
relationships with their employees communicate friendly, supportive, and collaborative
organizational cultures.
The method a supervisor uses to communicate organizational culture and how an
employee perceives organizational culture are related (Thompson, 2006). A factor in
miscommunication and misperception is a simultaneous presence of multiple supervisors
in the same store. Employees misperceive organizational culture when multiple bosses
communicate different cultures (Dolcos & Daley, 2009). Multiple bosses can
inadvertently communicate conflicting messages, confusing employee perceptions of
organizational culture. The result of confused employee perceptions are negative feelings
of an organization (Holtom, Mitchell, Lee, & Inderrieden, 2005; Lee, Gerhart, Weller, &
Trevor, 2008).
When employees possess negative perceptions of organizational culture, they are
more likely to be affected by interruptions, or “shocks” (Lee et al., 2008, p. 651), to their
perception of a job (Sweeney & Quirin, 2009). Interruptions to perceptions of
organizational culture are “distinguishable” (Lee, Mitchell, Wise, & Fireman, 1996, p.
35) events causing employees to reconsider their relationship with their employer. The
3
distinguishable events are identifiable experiences, such as a disagreement with a boss, a
frustrating assignment, or an argument with a co-worker.
Interruptions to employee perceptions of organizational culture can cause
employees to change their perceptions. Employees often do not adjust well to change
(Luscher & Lewis, 2008), and supervisors who are sensitive to employee perceptions can
create friendly, supportive, and collaborative cultures receptive to change. Interruptions
to employee perceptions occurring in these positive environments are less likely to lead
an employee to consider terminating employment.
No one particular type of interruption is associated with changes to employee
perceptions of an organization (Lee et al., 1996). Instead, intent to separate employment
occurs as a result of multiple interruptions or “jarring” (Lee et al., 1996, p. 35)
interruptions to employee perceptions of their relationship with an organization (Lee et
al., 2008). Employees who question their employment with an organization are more
likely to be negatively affected by subsequent interruptions. These employees are
susceptible to forming termination intentions.
A challenge for owners of fast-food businesses is the effect of these interruptions
on newly hired employees; 65% to 80% of recent hires quit in the first year (Weber,
2006). Newly hired employees are affected by non-financial factors to a greater degree
than are employees with greater than 12 months employment (Peterson & Luthans,
2006). Local store managers who form friendly relationships with newly hired
employees can guide them through a potentially termination-prone first year (Chong,
2007; Dolcos & Daley, 2009; Gould, 2009).

4
Statement of the Problem
Turnover costs in the fast-food industry are estimated between $10 billion and
$20 billion per year (Holtom, Mitchell, Lee, & Eberly, 2008; Ongori & Agolla, 2008;
Turnover and Retention, 2008). Regardless of ownership type, whether corporate-owned
or franchise-owned, turnover rates of unskilled fast-food workers ranged 50% to 120%
during the years 2000 to 2008. A turnover rate of 50% translates to 4 million fast-food
workers quitting their jobs each year (NOBSCOT Corporation, 2006).
Of newly hired fast-food workers from 1999 to 2006, 65% to 80% terminated
employment in less than one year (Weber, 2006). Therefore, with a 50% overall turnover
rate, greater than 2 million newly hired workers could quit in less than one year. For
example, in a retail outlet with 20 employees, more than 10 workers could quit each year
and of the 10 replaced workers, five may quit in less than a year.
The specific problem was fast-food restaurant owners do not know how
perception of organizational culture and length of employment are related to the rate of
employee turnover (Hayden & Madsen, 2008). Newly hired employees begin their new
jobs anticipating new responsibility. However, within one to two months, morale drops
and they are no longer happy on the job (DelCampo, 2006). If they remain employed
longer than one year, turnover intentions drop.
For unknown reasons, a newly hired employee’s perception of organizational
culture can depreciate. As the perception of organizational culture changes, a worker
may consider terminating employment (Detert, Treviño, Burris, & Andiappan, 2007;
Neininger, Lehmann-Willenbrock, Kauffeld, & Henschel, 2010). To study these
relationships, a quantitative correlational study was conducted to examine organizational

5
culture perception (OC-Perception), length of employment (Employment-Length), and
intent to separate employment (Separation-Intent) of entry-level fast-food workers
located in the southwestern United States.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative, correlational study was to examine the degree to
which a relationship exists among OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and Separation-
Intent among entry-level fast-food workers in the southwestern United States. Fast-food
workers were defined as customer contact counter and food preparation personnel in
limited-service eating-places (Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers, 2010).
Organizational culture perception, an independent variable, was measured by responses
on a 7-point Likert-type scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree) on which employees
indicated their perceptions of a workplace as friendly, supportive, and collaborative
(Dolcos & Daley, 2009; Ellett, 2009; Hayden & Madsen, 2008). Employment-Length, an
independent variable, was measured by the number of months an employee has worked
with a company.
Separation-Intent, the dependent variable, was measured by yes/no answers to
four questions asking if an employee has responded to or inquired about job
announcements from other companies (Lee et al., 1996). As used in this study,
Separation-Intent was an indicator of potential employee turnover. The factor equals
voluntary, rather than involuntary, separation and resignation (Haines, Jalette, & Larose,
2010). Data for all variables were collected via a survey posted on a commercially
available web site.

6
Significance of the Problem
Significance of the study. Results of this study may benefit researchers in the
field of employee turnover by showing relationships of the studied variables. The current
study may be important to researchers studying relationships of leadership style on an
employee’s perception of organizational culture and intent to terminate employment by
adding to existing knowledge. Understanding the reasons employees terminate
employment could help researchers develop new methods to prevent or reduce turnover.
Significance of the study to leadership. Findings from the current study may
help fast-food industry owners develop training programs for the purpose of reducing
employee turnover. Owners may benefit from understanding the relationships between
an employee’s perceptions of an organization, length of employment, and employee
turnover (Murphy et al., 2009). A benefit could be a reduction of employee turnover in
front-line workers. Owners could divert human and financial resources saved by
reducing turnover toward productive business efforts.
Business success and growth are critical leadership concerns related to
performance (Gandolfi, 2008). Owners must understand the relationship between stable
employment and organizational performance (LaRue, Childs, & Larson, 2006; Peterson
& Luthans, 2006). Therefore, the findings of this study may help business owners
understand how supervisor style and relationships with their employees at a local store
level affect the rate of employee turnover.
Nature of the Study
A quantitative research method combined with a correlational design was used in
this study. The research method and its appropriateness for a study with known variables
7
and numerical comparisons of data is discussed (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). Also
presented is the research design and its appropriateness for a study of the relationships
among variables.
Research method. A quantitative method is appropriate when the objective of the
study is to compare relationships among variables (Cone & Foster, 2006; Cooper &
Schindler, 2007; Neuman, 2006). In contrast, qualitative methods are used when answers
to open-ended questions are sought and theory is developed (Johnson & Christensen,
2008). The focus of this research was to find the strength of relationships between
variables known to affect employee turnover. Therefore, a quantitative method was
appropriate.
Design appropriateness. A correlational design is appropriate when a
relationship among variables is studied (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). Comparative
designs are used when no research on the variables exists (Neuman, 2006). A causal
relationship design between independent and dependent variables is not assumed in a
correlational study (Cooper & Schindler, 2007; Johnson & Christensen, 2008; Tomal,
2006).
For the purposes of this study, previous research on the variables exists.
Therefore, in this study, the independent variables were compared to the dependent
variable for predictive relationships measured on the strength of the correlation
coefficient. The assumption was changes in the independent variable equate to changes
in the dependent variable. Based on this information, a correlational design was
appropriate.
8
Research Question
A research question was created to understand the relationship among variables
relating to problems of employee turnover. A single research question is appropriate
when testing the relationship among variables (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). The question
was as follows: Is there a relationship among OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and
Separation-Intent? Variances of the relationships between variables were analyzed to
measure the significance of variable relationships.
Hypotheses
To test the research question, six hypotheses were developed. Each of the first
four hypotheses was designed to test relationships between an independent variable (OC-
Perception or Employment-Length) and the dependent variable (Separation-Intent). The
final two hypotheses were designed to test the relationships among both independent
variables and the dependent variable.
Relationship between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent. The first set of
hypotheses was designed to test the relationship between perception of organizational
culture (OC-Perception) and intent to separate employment (Separation-Intent). The
relationship was tested with one null hypothesis and one alternate hypothesis.
H1O: There is no statistically significant relationship between OC-Perception and
Separation-Intent.
H11: There is a statistically significant relationship between OC-Perception and
Separation-Intent.
9
Relationship between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent. The
second set of hypotheses was designed to test the relationship between length of
employment (Employment-Length) and intent to separate employment (Separation-
Intent). The relationship was tested with one null hypothesis and one alternate
hypothesis.
H2O: There is no statistically significant relationship between Employment-
Length and Separation-Intent.
H21: There is a statistically significant relationship between Employment-Length
and Separation-Intent.
Intent. The third set of hypotheses was designed to test the relationship among the two
independent variables, perception of organizational culture (OC-Perception) and length of
employment (Employment-Length), with intent to separate employment (Employment-
Length).
H3O: There is no statistically significant relationship among OC-Perception,
Employment-Length, and Separation-Intent.
H31: There is a statistically significant relationship among OC-Perception,
Theoretical Framework
The context of this research study was employee turnover in the fast-food
industry. Work in the fast-food industry is mostly part time, consisting of over 50% of
workers, with few educational or pre-existing skills required (Food and Beverage Serving
and Related Workers, 2010). The proportion of workers in the fast-food industry who are
10
under age 20 is six times the proportion for all workers. The work is considered
unskilled, although specific training on food preparation, sanitation, and cash handling is
required after hire.
Fast-food work is generally considered to be front-line, meaning workers are in
view of or have direct contact with customers. Work is performed quickly, though is
generally achieved with few safety issues. Fast-food restaurant owners look for potential
employees who are neat and can exhibit a natural rapport with customers. Room for
advancement in the industry is limited to those workers with college degrees.
Employment outlook is good, with a projection of 10% growth by 2018 to 8.5 million
workers (Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers, 2010).
Prior to the 21st century, business leaders believed job dissatisfaction was the
primary factor related to employee turnover. The presence of job dissatisfaction was
indicated by a lack of job alternatives, lack of benefits, presence of difficult work, and a
lack of career opportunities (Crossley, Bennett, Jex, & Burnfield, 2007; Kochanski &
Sorensen, 2008). In findings from studies conducted during this time period, it was
theorized that as job dissatisfaction increased, so did employee turnover. To fix the
effects of turnover, managers had to spend inordinate amounts of time in non-stop cycles
of attracting, hiring, and training new workers (Bhal & Gulati, 2006).
Germinal work on new theories of employee turnover began in 1958 and shifted
again in 1994. In 1958, researchers postulated that turnover was the result of problems of
organizational equilibrium (Holtom et al., 2008). The emphasis of equilibrium theory
was that employees will try to balance their perceptions of the job with organizational
inducements. When employee expectations were in balance with organizational

11
expectations, employees were thought to be satisfied with the job. To become at balance
with organizational expectations, an employee had to know those expectations and
purposefully adjust attitudes and behavior to match them.
Opinions changed little between 1958 and 1994 when a new theory of employee
turnover became popular. In this new theory, it was no longer thought that isolated
events, like job dissatisfaction, were predictors of employee turnover (Lee, Mitchell,
Holtom, McDaniel, & Hill, 1999). Instead, reasons for employee turnover were thought
to be the result of multiple change events in the workplace. The multiple events were
thought to cause workers to experience a process of making sense of their working
conditions. When expectations and reality differed, the worker was more likely to
consider terminating employment.
The distinguishable events were called “shocks” (Lee et al., 2008, p. 651), which
were thought to interrupt a worker’s perception of organizational culture. However,
interruptions have less of an effect on an employee’s perceptions of a culture when
employee perceptions and intended organizational culture are the same. The germinal
theory of interruptions to perceptions of organizational culture, which began in 1994 (Lee
et al., 1999), was similar to the 1958 theory (Holtom et al., 2008) of balanced work
expectations and organizational expectations. Each theory was based on an
understanding of an employee’s perception of organizational culture.
What was different about the theories developed in 1994 from those in 1958 was
that instead of leaving the impetus on employees to change their perceptions to meet job
expectations, the concept of the new theory was to leave the responsibility of change to
leaders in the organization. An important element of this new theory of interruptions was
12
the realization that local supervisors, the individuals with direct contact with employees,
are most responsible for communicating an organization’s intended cultural message
(Luscher & Lewis, 2008). Therefore, when new employees expect to experience a
friendly, supportive, and collaborative culture but are confronted with a contrary culture
through the behavior of local supervisors, they are likely to consider terminating
employment when confronted with interruptive events.
The interruptions to the employee’s perceptions of organizational culture are
identifiable events, such as a disagreement with a boss, a frustrating assignment, or an
argument with a co-worker (Lee et al., 1996). Normally, when an employee’s
perceptions of an organizational culture are in balance with the intended culture of the
organization, these interruptions have little effect. However, when an out-of-balance
situation occurs along with multiple interruptive events, an employee is likely to consider
terminating. The responsibility lies with the supervisor for working directly with the
employee to maintain a balance.
The effect of cumulative interruptions to employee perceptions of a job can
account for 40% of quitting decisions, the strongest single decision-making factor to
terminate (Lee et al., 2008). When interruptions are accompanied by job offers and job
opportunities from other companies, the termination decision need intensifies. The act of
looking for a job elsewhere elevates disruptive emotions in the current job. As an
employee experiences intensified emotions, the decision-making process to terminate
employment accelerates.
Affinity between leaders and employees correlates to increased positive
perceptions and employee retention (Ahmad, 2010; Lee, Mitchell, Sablynski, Burton, &
13
Holtom, 2004). Such social affinity is a benefit to organizational productivity. Work
performed in environments of social affinity may reverse and prevent turnover and
intentions to separate employment by reducing the effect of interruptions on perceptions
and employee morale. Minimizing the damaging effects of interruptions and increasing
feelings of community have been shown to increase retention (Chiu et al., 2005). Good
relationships between supervisors and employees are seen in friendly, supportive, and
collaborative environments.
The theoretical framework for this study was employees who operate in cultures
perpetuated by local supervisors and that are friendly, supportive, and collaborative will
be less likely to make decisions to terminate employment (Chiu et al., 2005). In the fast-
food industry, 65% to 80% of newly hired employees quit their jobs in the first year
(Weber, 2006). Therefore, theoretically, it is important for supervisors to form
relationships with newly hired employees and guide them through a potentially
termination-prone first year (Chong, 2007; Dolcos & Daley, 2009; Gould, 2009).
Definition of Terms
As used in this study, interruptions to OC-Perception were distinguishable events
causing employees to evaluate the effect of an event on their satisfaction with a job
(Donnelly & Quirin, 2006). Interruptions can cause employees to reassess their working
environment and change employment plans. Multiple interruptions may lead an
employee to a decision to terminate employment (Lee et al., 2008).
For the purposes of this study, the fast-food industry was considered to be limited
menu, counter service, food preparation retail outlets (Career Guide to Industries, 2010).
Examples of such establishments are coffee houses and hamburger and chicken outlets.
14
Individuals, families, or corporations can own fast-food restaurants, or the restaurants can
be franchise-owned.
Assumptions
The specific problem studied was fast-food owners do not know how length of
employment and perception of organizational culture are related to the rate of employee
turnover. To study this problem effectively, certain assumptions were made (Creswell,
2008). First, it was assumed the research question for this study was designed to address
the specific problem. If the research question did not specifically address the problem,
unintended variables may be studied (Cooper & Schindler, 2007).
Secondly, it was assumed data were collected, analyzed, and interpreted in ways
consistent with the research method and design. Such adherence to research type ensures
sound interpretation of the results of the study (Rumrill, 2004). In this study, the problem
was studied by quantitative method and correlational design. No causal assumptions
were made.
Thirdly, it was assumed answers to survey questions accurately reflect the
feelings and perceptions of participants in the context of the variables outlined in the
problem because participants were assured of confidentiality. Without an accurate
interpretation of the questions and collection of data, the problem cannot be appropriately
studied.
Scope
Scope is the applicability of the breadth of the findings (Cooper & Schindler,
2007). The scope of a study involved the expandability of a sample’s characteristics to a

15
population. Findings from this study of fast-food workers in the southwestern United
States may apply to fast-food workers throughout the entire United States.
Application of the findings may also apply to workers in the larger population of
hospitality and leisure industry workers (Career Guide to Industries, 2010). The
demographics of workers in the fast-food industry are similar to the demographics of
workers in the hospitality and leisure industry (theme-parks and hotels). However,
findings from this study may not be applicable to workers in skilled, long-tenure, and
professional employment. The factors leading to a termination decision between
unskilled and skilled workers may differ.
Limitations
Limits to the generalizability of the findings in any study can come from
situations, stimuli, and procedures caused by real-life restrictions (Cone & Foster, 2006).
Limitations are unavoidable problems that can limit the application of findings. For
example, although findings from this study of fast-food workers may be applicable to
other restaurant workers, such as chefs, bartenders, and dining room attendants, the
demographics of the two groups are different enough to restrict the generalizability.
Namely, chefs as a sample are outside the design of this study because they are educated,
highly trained, and career-oriented (Career Guide to Industries, 2010). Generalizability
was assumed to apply to similar demographics of entry-level and unskilled workers in
industries other than fast-food.
Delimitations
Delimitations are limits or boundaries of the intent of the study (Miller, 2010).
The delimitations are conscious factors excluded from the study. In this study, the
16
relationship among three variables (Employment-Length, OC-Perception, and
Separation-Intent) as exhibited by fast-food workers was studied. The current study was
a quantitative method and correlational design, and the study of causal relationships
among the variables were not intended.
For ease of data collection, the study was restricted to the collection of data from
fast-food workers in the southwest United States. On the data collection tool, verification
of employment in the fast-food industry was accomplished by checking a box indicating
current employment in a fast-food type job. If the box was not checked or if the
respondents checked the no box, the logic of the online survey directed them to the end of
the survey. The survey is discussed in the section titled Data Collection.
Summary
The cost to attract, hire, and train a new employee in the fast-food industry is
estimated between $5,000 and $10,000 (McKay et al., 2007). Total cost related to
employee turnover for the fast-food industry is estimated at $10 billion. A problem for
owners of fast-food businesses is no single cause is identified as a reason for Separation-
Intent (Lee et al., 1996). Instead, employee turnover is believed to be caused by multiple
interruptions or distinguishable events to employee perceptions of organizational culture
(Lee et al., 2008).
Although research has been conducted on the relationship of an employee’s
perception of an organization’s culture and employee turnover, the strength of the
relationship of these variables and the length of time worked is not known (Haines et al.,
2010; Severt, Xie, & DiPietro, 2007; Sharma, 2009). To study these relationships, a
quantitative correlational study was conducted. The population was front-line hospitality
17
and leisure workers in the southwestern United States.
The sample consisted of entry-level fast-food workers. A new survey was
developed for this research, designed to collect data on each of the three variables. The
results of this study may help researchers and fast-food restaurant owners understand the
reasons the initial attractiveness of a job is replaced by intentions to terminate
employment.
A review of the literature related to employee turnover, organizational culture,
employment length, and separation intent is presented in Chapter 2. The underlying
theories of interruptions or shocks to employee perceptions of organizational culture will
be discussed. Germinal, key, and current literature will be reviewed.

18
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
The problem statement, significance of the study, research question, and
hypotheses were discussed in Chapter 1. The purpose of this quantitative correlational
study was to examine the degree to which a relationship exists among perception of an
organization’s culture (OC-Perception), length of employment (Employment-Length),
and intent to separate from a business (Separation-Intent) among entry-level fast-food
workers located in the southwestern United States.
Chapter 2 begins with a discussion of germinal literature on employee turnover,
retention, and the three variables, OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and Separation-
Intent. Subsequent discussion involved employee satisfaction, organizational culture, and
leader roles in organizational culture. Conclusions were drawn from the literature, and
the chapter ends with a summary of key points.
Title Searches, Articles, Research Documents, and Journals
The web-based databases and sources used in this study were EBSCOhost,
ProQuest, Gale PowerSearch, the online library of University of Phoenix, government,
and industry databases (Bureau of Labor Statistics and U.S. Government Census).
Additionally, research was conducted within dissertations and theses. The web-based
search engines used for research involved Google.com, GoogleScholar.com, and
Bing.com.
Word, author, subject, and title searches were used for finding references in web-
based databases and search engines. Literature was gathered from research articles on
employee turnover, job satisfaction, employment length, organizational culture, and
organizational culture perception. Word searches consisted of the following key terms:
19
employee turnover, worker retention, job turnover, cost of job turnover, employee
retention, culture, organizational culture, job satisfaction, shock to perception,
motivation, service, coffee, coffee franchise, coffee outlet, fast food, and Starbucks.
Research findings were collected from web-based databases and search engines.
Relevant historical research findings were also gathered from peer-reviewed articles,
journal articles, books, and dissertations. The searches yielded literature regarding
employee turnover and retention, and on the three variables.
Employee Turnover
Firms with stable employment tend to outperform those with transient or high
turnover (Gandolfi, 2008). Prior to the 21st century, theorists believed such factors as job
dissatisfaction, a presence of job alternatives, benefits, work content, and availability of
career opportunities related to employee turnover (Crossley et al., 2007; Holtom et al.,
2008; Kochanski & Sorensen, 2008). As employee turnover increased, the job
dissatisfaction of the employees left behind also increased (Adomaitiene & Slatkeviciene,
2008). What ensues is a repetitive cycle of dissatisfaction and employee turnover, which
becomes a problem for leaders. Instead of spending time supporting employees, leaders
become distracted with attracting and hiring replacement workers (Bhal & Gulati, 2006).
In addition to the financial costs of turnover, the intangible costs included the
problems of work disruptions, organizational memory loss, and peer-level mentor losses.
The loss of high performers and high knowledge-based workers can negatively affect the
relationship between the organization and its customers (Allen, Bryant, & Vardman,
2010). Customer relationships are especially important for fast-food restaurants because
20
the majority of the contact between customer and the organization is through front-line
employees (Farrell & Oczkowski, 2009).
Germinal work on the problems of employee turnover began in the early 20th
century as workers became increasingly mobile (Douglas, 1918). The reasons reflected
for increases in turnover were movement of labor between countries, movement between
sections of the country, movement from house to house in the same town (an upgrade in
status), and movement from one employer to another (for more money or better working
conditions). The effects of employee turnover were the loss of trained, skilled, and
knowledgeable workers.
Researchers studying the reasons for employee turnover changed focus in 1958
when it was thought turnover was the result of problems of organizational equilibrium
(Holtom et al., 2008). The emphasis of equilibrium theory was on balancing employee
perceptions with organizational inducements. When employee expectations were
balanced with organizational expectations, employees were thought to be satisfied with a
job. From 1985 to 1995, this theory evolved from focus on equilibrium to relationships
between job satisfaction and employee commitment.
Studies on interruption theory. Studies on current theory began in 1994
(Holtom et al., 2008; Lee et al., 1996). According to theorists, workers decide to
terminate employment after psychological processing of events not necessarily tied to job
satisfaction (Lee et al., 1999). Three categories of psychological steps associated with
employee turnover included the presence of job satisfaction, job hunting while employed
with the first employer, and evaluation of current conditions via factors one and two. The
21
psychological processes can occur quickly, in a matter of one to two days, or longer, over
one to two months.
During psychological processing, employees experience shocks, or interruptions,
to their perceptions and expectations of the job (Donnelly & Quirin, 2006). Interruptions
to perceptions of organizational culture are “distinguishable” (Lee et al., 1996, p. 35)
events causing employees to reconsider their relationship with their employer. The
distinguishable events are identifiable experiences, such as a disagreement with a boss, a
frustrating assignment, or an argument with a co-worker.
Interruptions can be positively, negatively, or neutrally perceived events. Isolated
interruptions to perceptions generally do not affect separation intent. However, two or
more interruptions can cause an employee to reconsider employment status (Lee et al.,
1996).
As interruptions to perceptions increase in number and intensity, employees scan
past experiences for similar events and responses (Lee et al., 1996). The responses are
“scripts” (Donnelly & Quirin, 2006, p. 35), and the employees try to apply a previous
response to a current condition. If successful, the employee will find ways to cope with
the effect of an interruption and not consider terminating employment. However, if a
script does not exist, an employee is more likely to consider decisions to terminate
employment.
The interruption and reaction process included four phases (Lee et al., 1999).
Phase one is the presence of an original interruption to an employee’s perception of an
organization. In the second phase, an employee searches for similar interruptions and
responses, or scripts, from experiential or learned history. In the third phase, an

22
employee evaluates the interruption, based on historical reference, for alignment with
personal values, goals, and plans. In the fourth phase, based on experiences in similar
situations, an employee either adapts to the interruption or begins the decision-making
process to consider terminating employment.
Interruption theory as a paradigm shift. Organizational behavioral researchers
described interruption theory as a paradigm shift from traditional ways of explaining
employee dissatisfaction and turnover (Lee et al., 2008). Paradigm shifts are rare and
change is normally evolutionary, moving slowly from between phases. However,
paradigm shifts are noticeable phenomenological changes (Tinker & Donatelli, 2009).
Shock theory was a new approach, or paradigm, for understanding reasons for employee
turnover.
Cumulative interruptions to employee perceptions and expectations of a job
account for 40% of quitting decisions, the strongest termination motivator (Lee et al.,
2008). Common interruptions to perceptions of the job are job opportunities from other
companies. The action of looking for work elsewhere intensifies other emotions, positive
and negative, associated with the existing job. As an employee experiences intensified
emotions, the decision-making process accelerates.
Workers with inflexible expectations of the job are sensitive to changes in the
cultural environment; employees with flexible expectations of the job are not as sensitive
(Allen, Weeks, & Moffitt, 2005). Employees possessing flexible expectations consider
and prioritize supportive and non-supportive elements of the job when making decisions.
The employees are less likely to be affected by interruptions to perceptions of the job, the
23
effects of which are capable of influencing decisions leading to termination (Lalonde,
2007).
Job related and not job related interruptions. Interruptions to employee
perceptions are divided into two categories, job related and not job related (Holt, Rehg,
Lin, & Miller, 2007; Holtom et al., 2005). Examples of on-the-job interruptions are
events such as being “passed over” (Holtom et al., 2005, p. 340) for a promotion, an
argument with a supervisor, or a corporate reorganization or takeover. Such events are
considered distinguishable.
Distinguishable events are not always negative. Receiving a large bonus or a job
offer can also cause an employee to reevaluate job status. However, negatively perceived
events, such as poor performance appraisals, unfavorable salary decisions, and not being
considered for promotion are the more likely causes of termination decisions.
Examples of distinguishable events not related to the job include events such as
losing a loved one, winning the lottery, or adopting a baby. Non-job related events can
affect perceptions of the job just as significantly as job related. Interruptions to
perceptions of the job are any form of life-altering events, job and non-job related alike
(Lee et al., 1996). Relationships with people away from the company are just as
important for employee satisfaction as relationships with people in the company (Feeley,
Swang, & Barnett, 2008).
As revealed in research findings, the cumulative effect of multiple interruptions to
perceptions appears to be the primary influence of Separation-Intent (Morrell, Loan-
Clarke, Arnold, & Wilkinson, 2008). However, single “jarring” (Lee et al., 1996, p. 35)
interruptions were also identified as influencers. Examples of single jarring events are
24
arguments with supervisors and peers or job offers from other companies. In a 2008
study of employees who terminated employment, no researchers identified job
dissatisfaction as the reason for termination (Morrell et al., 2008). All individuals
reported single large events or multiple small events leading to a decision.
Compensation is rarely a primary factor leading to Separation-Intent, accounting
for 14% of separation decisions (Dainty, 2008; Holtom et al., 2008). However, from
studies of nurses and nurse’s assistants, money-related events, such as a low merit
increase, when combined with other negative events may disrupt employee perceptions of
the job (Wiener, Squillace, Anderson, & Khatutsky, 2009). The results of compounded
compensation-related events are catalysts for workers to consider terminating
employment.
An example of compensation-related events is the perception of disconnects
between expected and actual pay raises. Lower than expected pay increases disturb an
employee’s perception of the job (Schaubroeck, Shaw, Duffy, & Mitra, 2008). Pay
dissonance is an unintended result when managers provide positive feedback while
simultaneously giving lower than expected pay increases. Managers can mitigate the
effects of expectations of large increases by communicating realistic financial results in
poor economies.
Another common interruption to an employee’s perception of the job, which can
cause Separation-Intent, is the annual performance review. Average and above average
reviews can be perceived negatively if communicated incorrectly (Asmub, 2008).
Preferred feedback is positively perceived whereas non-preferred feedback is negatively
perceived. Non-preferred feedback, a potential interruption to perceptions,

25
communicated in perspective of an organizational purpose is less likely to affect
Separation-Intent. Non-preferred feedback issued out of orientation of a larger
perspective is perceived as personally insulting. For example, when a supervisor rates
overall performance of a worker as good but includes corrective feedback such as
employee fails to work well with others, the employee does not hear the positive
components of the review. Feedback, which could be perceived negatively by an
employee, should be administered at a time other than when positive feedback is given.
Additionally, negative feedback should be administered in context of a single incident,
not as a general behavioral flaw.
Perceived positive support from supervisors correlates to employee emotional
connections with an organization, which can reduce the effect of interruptions (Lee &
Peccei, 2007). In a study conducted on employees of two Korean banks, if employees
believed their supervisor voluntarily supported their personal interests, employees tended
to repay support with commitment toward the purpose of an organization (Lee & Peccei,
2007). However, feelings of job insecurity diluted the intensity of employee
commitment. Perceptions of job insecurity can negatively affect personal satisfaction and
perceptions of commitment.
Controlling the effect of interruptions to perceptions is not always feasible.
Externally sourced events such as job offers from other leaders of other organizations and
family crises are unpreventable. Mitigation of the effect of these interruptions can be
effective if leaders take quick action to offset them (Lee et al., 1999). However, once a
decision to terminate employment is in process, neutralizing the decision is difficult.

26
Perceptions and perspectives. Interruptions to perceptions of a job can change
an employee’s perceptions of organizational culture. An ability to adapt to changing
perceptions can ease the negative effects of a poorly perceived change by helping an
employee make sense of the disparity between old and new perceptions, as found in a
study conducted on middle managers of the LEGO Corporation (Luscher & Lewis,
2008). The act of balancing perceptions between the old and new, from an employee’s
frame of reference, is a practical solution to the change. The previous perception is the
employee’s reality, and the new perception becomes theory because it has not yet been
tested. An interruption to an employee’s perception of the job becomes the new reality.
Replacement of the current perception of the job can lead to feelings of insecurity.
Findings from a study of employees in the healthcare industry show that the intensity of
feelings of insecurity because of disruptions varies from person to person (Mauno,
Kinnunen, Makikangas, & Natti, 2005). Expressing insecurity to coworkers or
supervisors is a risk because employees fear such expressions can hinder job
advancement.
Employees can perceive a risk of losing their jobs when no threat exists. Feelings
of insecurity can translate to additional and subsequent feelings of insecurity.
Compounding feelings of insecurity can further disconnect an employee’s balancing
process of theory and practice (Maun et al., 2005).
An underlying theme in discussions of shock theory is the effect of interruptions
on perceptions of the job on organizational citizenship. On-the-job belonging is
predictive of organizational belonging and stronger job performance (Lee et al., 2004;
Stroth, 2010). Twenty-first-century employees are sensitive to emotional content of

27
corporate citizenship messages (Collins, 2008). When a corporate message conflicts with
an employee’s perception of reality, theory and practice disconnect.
Erasing a perceived disparity between theory and practice is possible through
effective leadership. Effective leaders are emotionally intelligent (Poskey, 2009), which
combines intellect, observation, experience, attitude, and personality. Emotionally
intelligent leaders recognize and mitigate problems of employee behaviors and moods.
Good moods are signs of better working conditions, which equate to generally productive
workforces. Leaders fostering friendly, supportive, and collaborative working
environments attract employees to a corporate citizenship, lessening the negative effects
of theory and practice imbalance.
Leader role in controlling interruptions. In a study conducted on managers and
associates at retail outlets, researchers found that managers who are perceived as
emotionally strong emphasized social community and belonging as a means of
encouraging employees to become members of a working social network (Grant et al.,
2008; Kuo & Ho, 2010). Managers who are perceived as emotionally strong are confident
in their leadership strengths and are sensitive to nuances in worker moods and morale,
finding ways to improve quality and productivity through improving employee behavior.
Organizational care of employees helps members identify with the organization.
Affinity between leader and employee correlates to increased employee retention
and positive perceptions of a job, culture, and coworkers (Ahmad, 2010; Lee et al., 2004).
Social affinity is also social capital. Work performed in environments of social capital
may reverse and prevent turnover and intentions to separate by reducing the effect of
perception interruptions on employee morale. Minimizing the damaging effects of

28
interruptions and increasing feelings of community have been shown to increase
retention.
Lack of communication from leaders to workers and lack of freedom to
communicate from workers to leaders is present in environments with low feelings of
social affinity and job community. A perceived lack of communication, an interruption,
is as damaging to employee social health as true lack of communication (Asmub, 2008;
Hall, 2007; Holtom et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2004; Palmer & Loveland, 2008). Providing
information about community and workplace creates secure work settings. Work
completed in secure operating environments may also reverse and prevent turnover and
intentions to separate by reducing the effect of perception interruptions on employee
morale.
Researchers focusing on theories other than interruption theories inadvertently
validated the effects of interruptions on decisions to quit employment (Grant, 2008). One
such theory is the relationship of forgiveness and employee morale (Grant, 2008). Per
this theory, leaders holding resentful feelings toward employees foster harmful
relationships.
A working relationship absent of hurt and pain correlates to stronger interpersonal
relationships, strengthening employee commitment to an organization. Resentful feelings
are, in effect, interruptions to perceptions of the job. A result is damaged commitment
and increased intentions of employees to terminate employment.
Risks of not controlling employee turnover are decreased work performance and
negative financial consequences. Employee turnover rates in excess of 50% are
financially and operationally disruptive (Kochanski & Sorensen, 2008). Turnover rates
29
greater than 50% equate to working situations in which less experienced employees work
less efficiently than longer-term employees (Gentry, 2006).
The next section is a review of the literature on organizational culture.
Interruptions to perceptions of the job are, in effect, interruptions to perceptions of
organizational culture, one of the three variables in this study. Understanding perceptions
of organizational culture is important for understanding employee turnover.
Organizational Culture
Organizational cultures are a product of learned and shared assumptions of a
group. Interpretation of a culture is what guides group members through external
adaptation and internal integration. Although culture is an evolutionary product, it is
valid in the moment and can be taught to newcomers (Salvaggio et al., 2007). How
individuals perceive their culture correlates to how they perceive, think, and feel in
response to external and internal problems. Organizational cultures are learned attitudes
and behaviors of how members think about and respond to their environment.
Organizations where leaders respect worker quality of life tend to have lower
turnover rates overall (Emery, 2010). Quality of life is measured by factors such as
learning opportunities, variety of work, meaningfulness of the work, mutual support and
respect, and autonomy. Essentially, workers desire interesting and challenging work.
Compensation is rarely a primary determinant of quality of work life.
Organizational culture assimilation. Theorists’ opinions differ on how
organizational culture knowledge transfers between group members. However, a
majority viewpoint in the field involves culture transfer facilitated through executive
support and training (Heathfield, 2009; Watts, 2010). Training comes from formal and
30
informal methods. Formal methods are transferred through company training and
development programs, and informal methods are transferred through behavior of other
employees.
A positive relationship between leader and worker is associated with more
accurate employee cultural assimilation (Faulkner & Laschinger, 2008; Lim, 2008;
Mintzberg, Lampel, Quinn, & Ghoshal, 2003). Relationships between leaders and
employees and between employees become strong through executive support of casual
conversations among employees and between leaders and employees. Workers who
know each other and their managers assimilate solidly into an organization. Facilitating
work and personal life balance is a determined action by leaders of productive
organizations. Supervisory support of family and work balance correlates to supportive
and friendly organizational cultures (Dolcos & Daley, 2009).
Positive interactions between employees and leaders correlate to subsequent
positive experiences. Employees learn a culture through test and adjustment periods in
interactions with leaders and other employees (Holt et al., 2007). If existing employees
hold positive opinions about a business, newly hired employees will adopt similar
positive perspectives. Opinions of an organizational culture can be transferred to new
employees via these less formal processes.
Environments in which supervisors form strong working relationships with
workers are typically less stressful (Ahmad, 2010). In these less stressful environments,
strong supervisor and worker relationships are related to higher productivity and job
satisfaction. Frequent interactions between supervisors and workers, preferably daily, are
associated with more positive worker perceptions of the organization.

31
The first 12 months of employment are critical for accurate knowledge transfer
(Keller, 2008; Severt et al., 2007). If an employee’s personal values align with
organization values, the transfer of knowledge is straightforward and accurate. As
knowledge of a job and culture improve, subsequent feelings of autonomy and worth
grow, thus balancing an employee’s perceptions of organizational culture with the
intended organizational culture.
Common factors for successful knowledge transfer are a presence of
knowledgeable and empathetic leaders (Thompson, 2006). Leader participation is critical
for successfully guiding newly hired employees through organizational idiosyncrasies.
Employee assimilation is a change process (Ahmad, 2010). Change communicated and
processed incorrectly can negatively affect job satisfaction and productivity. Positive
perception of change during a learning process can invigorate assimilation.
Regular and systematic connections between supervisors and workers, especially
new workers, are shown to yield positive results by increasing retention. First
impressions of the organization by the new hire have a major impact on job satisfaction
(Yamamura, Birk, & Cossitt, 2010). However, job satisfaction alone is a minor factor in
whether an employee will choose to maintain or terminate employment with a company
(Allen et al., 2010). Positive relationships with supervisors are a stronger factor.
Organizational culture and employee turnover. Studies on perceptions of job
satisfaction and labor turnover are common, and comparisons between these variables
exist. However, studies of perceptions of organizational culture and labor turnover are
less common, indicating a gap in the literature. Positive perceptions of organizational
culture correlate to longer length of employment, as found in a study of university

32
graduates with learning disabilities (Madaus, Jiarong, & Ruban, 2008). Employees
identifying with an organization are satisfied with the job and show more pride in service
and customer empathy.
Relationships between leaders and employees transcend formal, work-related
interactions (Lindsay, 2008). Informal relationships are as important as formal in
facilitating transfer of knowledge of organizational culture between leader and worker.
Salient identity and cohesive networks correlate to worker identity and organizational
connectivity.
Leaders are responsible for transferring extrinsic and intrinsic social identity
factors to employees. Social membership affects how workers perceive work-related
issues, as found in a study of librarians (O’Connor, 2006). A leader’s perception of
organizational culture becomes a worker’s perception. If transferred perceptions of
organizational culture are accurate, interruptive events will be less traumatic because the
employee will have a better understanding of organizational mores.
Transfer of emotional elements of organizational culture cannot be accomplished
through classroom settings alone. Leaders are responsible for emotional transfer, but
only after they have gained a thorough understanding of organizational knowledge
themselves (Wu, Hsu, & Yeh, 2007). Knowledge is not information; knowledge is a
result of thinking. Also, knowledge is current, belongs to a community, and is created
from old knowledge.
Leader role in setting organizational culture. Secure and confident managerial
behavior is present in productive cultures in which managerial behavior is based in solid
reasoning powers. Reasoning managers learn their environments through time-thinking

33
(Gavetti & Rivkin, 2007; Sample, 2002). Time-thinking is a process in which decision
making is complete after introspective thinking about a problem.
Strategy is cognitive, a rational time-thinking attempt to bring order to an
operation. Supervisors succeeding at keeping order learn from their past. Order equates
to positive cultural personalities and knowledge transfer.
Consistent positive leader behavior relates to positive and empathetic
organizational climate (Salvaggio et al., 2007). Good leaders help workers succeed
through active intervention (Sample, 2002). Leadership is action rather than a position.
The challenge is transferring leader philosophy to sub-leaders. Dysfunctional
supervisor behavior is associated with higher employee turnover (LaRue et al., 2006).
Therefore, dysfunctional managers are inept at communicating accurate messages of
organizational culture.
Employee morale can be affected by minor, almost imperceptible, supervisor
behaviors (Bies, Bartunek, Fort, & Zald, 2007). Intended and unintended supervisor
behavior can influence how employees perceive organizational culture. Efforts to create
supportive and friendly behaviors can result in positive productivity and morale.
Supportive employer behavior results in a balance of emotions, values, intelligence, and
collaboration between an employee and organizational leaders. Conversely, personal
employee values out of balance with corporate values correlate to increases in employee
turnover (Detert et al., 2007).
Supportive managers treat employees as members of a team, and members know
their places within the team structure (Kim & Stoner, 2008). Employee fatigue, as found
in a study conducted on social workers, can occur in non-supportive work structures

34
where employees do not know their operating role in the team (Kim & Stoner, 2008).
Employees are more sensitive to interruptions of perceptions when they are fatigued.
Serious problems of turnover can be reversed by corrective action to organizational
structures of non-supportive practices (Erling, Cook, & Sunderland, 2008).
The benefits of friendly, supportive, and collaborative organizational culture are
not effective without an organizational culture balanced between theory and practice
(Ellett, 2009). Structure is a parameter in which culture functions. Workers are
comfortable when they know the cultural rules. Good managers communicate those rules
in action and words. Healthy organizational structures and well-defined cultures are
motivational if an employee acknowledges evidence of a culture in practice at the local
store location.
Corporate and local level organizational culture. A CEO of an organization
has little or no contact with front-line employees (Sample, 2002). The important
elements of business leaders’ philosophies can dissipate by the time they reach lower
level operational managers. Good senior managers minimize philosophical dissipation
by focusing on supporting mid-level and lower-level managers. Encouraging sub-
managers to behave according to corporate ideals involves helping them become
effective communicators of organizational culture and philosophy
Therefore, front-line supervisors are an important link between an organization
and employees. Supervisors promoting unreasonable or negative organizational cultures
can frustrate employees (Schaubroeck et al., 2008). Supervisor expectations not
grounded in positive organizational culture create environments in which employees’
values do not balance with their perceptions of corporate culture.

35
Employees can become detached from the purpose of an organization, not
fulfilling customer-oriented and other corporate expectations. Fast-food workers are
often the only representatives of the organization to customers (Farrell & Oczkowski,
2009). When that representative relationship is jeopardized, organizational expectations
of customer service are threatened.
Supervisors who communicate service-minded philosophies while supporting
employees through the process engender service-oriented climates (Salvaggio et al.,
2007). Fast-food restaurants are customer-focused, and thoroughly supported employees,
entrenched in customer focused organizational culture, become a company’s competitive
advantage. Risks of not assimilating new employees in an organization’s culture include
employee alienation, insecurity, inequity, and poor customer service (Scott & Davis,
2007).
Friendly, supportive, and collaborative organizational cultures correlate to
employee physical and emotional well-being, better work performance, stronger social
relationships, better job effort, and higher levels of commitment, satisfaction, and morale.
Results of such supportive cultures are reduced employee turnover and turnover
intentions (Blase & Blase, 2006; Shim, 2010). Cultural attributes of open, friendly, and
supportive environments are desirable qualities for new members to adopt. Autocratic
supervisor behavior, a leadership style that does not promote friendly, supportive, and
collaborative cultures, is associated with undesirable organizational qualities such as
centralized control of local operating environments. To control employee turnover,
effective senior leaders foster collaborative cultures evident at all levels of an
organization (Blatner & Bacigalupo, 2007; Chen & Scannapieco, 2010; Liu, 2009).
36
Front-line supervisors perform confidently when they know their strengths and values
reflect organizational value. Effective supervisors are emotionally intelligent, knowing
how to encourage worker productivity. Support from superiors gives supervisors the
confidence to run local area operations under the precepts of organizational culture. The
managers establish friendly, supportive, and collaborative cultures resulting in satisfied
employees.
Training and organizational culture. Supervisors operating in supportive and
collaborative environments value workplace training and education. A purpose of
training programs is to educate employees in an organization’s culture (Keller, 2008;
Mackain, Myers, Ostapiei, & Newman, 2010). Accuracy of employee perception of
organizational culture to actual precepts of organizational culture equate to lower
turnover. The objective of routine training programs is to lessen effects of disruptions to
employee perceptions of a culture, making employees less likely to consider terminating
employment.
Emotionally intelligent supervisors recognize the contributions of employees for
the return benefit of those contributions to organizational culture. Good supervisors do
not operate by rote. Instead, good supervisors consciously make an effort to educate
employees in organizational purpose (Karsten, Baggot, Brown, & Cahill, 2010; Mohr,
Burgess, & Young, 2008; Shivashankar & Kannan, 2007). Good front-line supervisors
develop and mentor employees to their full potential. By educating thusly, these
supervisors prevent disparity between intended organizational culture and employee
perceptions of the workplace.

37
Effective supervisors are models for employee innovation, understanding the
context of employee issues (Fisk, 2010). They organize work on larger perspectives of
organizational behavior, understanding worker collaborator roles on a team (Eisenbeiss,
van Knippenberg, & Boerner, 2008). In effect, good managers are good educators.
Emotional dissonance, the opposite end of a healthy emotional spectrum, equates
to work exhaustion (Jamal, 2010; Pathak & Tripathi, 2010; Rutner, Hardgrave, &
McKnight, 2008). Dissonant climates correlate to environments of conflict, role
ambiguity, and job dissatisfaction. Interruptions to employee perceptions of a culture in
stressful climates are more likely to lead to intentions to separate employment than in
less-stressful climates.
Employees perceiving personal values as congruent with organizational values
have positive relationships with their supervisors (Amos & Weathington, 2008; Pillemer
et al., 2008). However, balance is complicated. Researchers do not know the ratio of
when negative perceptions of an organization overpower positive perceptions (Amos &
Weathington, 2008; Pillemer et al., 2008). The effect of incongruence of employee and
organizational values differs from worker to worker.
Employee perceptions of organizational culture are reality. To an employee, the
actual organizational culture is irrelevant (Yuceler, 2009). Individual perceptions of a
culture are how employees view their environments. Effective supervisors understand
how employees assimilate and perceive organizational culture. Cultures of freethinking,
autonomous, and innovative encouragement correlate to positive perceptions, enabling
employee retention and productivity.

38
The next section contains a review of the literature pertaining to length of
employment and employee turnover. Perceptions of organizational culture and
Employment-Length are shown to be related to employee turnover. Understanding
Employment-Length is important for understanding employee turnover.
Employment-Length
Germinal research on the effect of employment length on separation intent is
comparative but not correlational or causal, indicating a gap in the literature (Graham &
Nafukho, 2007). Theorists compared the length of time a worker was employed with a
company and employee turnover rates (Graham & Nafukho, 2007). However, no causal
relationship among variables was identified.
Separation intent was thought to be a linear decision-making process, a result of
employee dissatisfaction. Separation intent increased as alternative job offers in the same
industry or of the same job type appeared. Injecting supervisory contact with an
employee at the beginning of the employment process as opposed to later had no
correlational effect.
Termination as transfer from one organization to another. An alternative job
offer theory is employees terminate employment at one company and begin employment
in another job in a similar industry. Therefore, termination is a transfer from one
environment to another, not an act of quitting (Graham & Nafukho, 2007). Transferring
from one job to another could be a means for an employee to make sense of the problems
related to a job (Luscher & Lewis, 2008). Quitting a fast-food job to work in a retail
outlet, per this theory, is considered a lateral transfer because the work is similar. An
39
employee gains insight to compare attributes of one job to another.
Theoretically, as workers move from one employer to another, their length of stay
with each successive company will be longer. An employee will experience fewer
workplace surprises, or interruptions to employee perceptions of organizational culture,
in the subsequent jobs (Graham & Nafukho, 2007; Grant et al., 2008). An employee will
have gained transferrable knowledge from previous similar experiences. In effect, an
employee learns from experience how to handle future interruptions by transferring to
new environments.
Supervisor intervention and training. However, a problem with this
alternative job offer theory is its supporters do not explain why some employees start and
stay with the same company for years, indicating a gap in the literature (Luscher &
Lewis, 2008). The purpose of the theory is to infer a trial and error approach to job
satisfaction. Theorists with conflicting opinions postulate that supervisory intervention in
the first one to three months of employee training are critical to preventing or slowing the
formation of turnover intention (Severt et al., 2007). Employees in the first one to three
months of employment are vulnerable to voluntary separation intentions when
supervisors fail to intervene with supportive actions. Mismatches between employee
perception and reality in the early days of employment, as found in a study on university
food service employees, can lead to decisions of termination (Kochanski & Sorensen,
2008).
The first 12 months of employment. If employees can persevere through the
first year, the likelihood they will remain employed with the same employer improves
(Severt et al., 2007). Employees recognize a balance of their values with organizational
40
values immediately after beginning employment. As employee knowledge of a job
improves, so will feelings of autonomy and worth (Larrabee et al., 2010). If the first 12
months of employment occur in environments of positive feedback, variety, friendship,
and intrinsic job motivation, an employee is likely to remain employed longer than one
year.
In findings from a 2008 longitudinal study on nurses (Murrells, Robinson, &
Griffiths, 2008), proper training in the first year of employment related to job satisfaction
in subsequent years. However, no single pattern of successful training and job
satisfaction emerged. Support and mentoring programs are suggested to help facilitate
assimilation (Race & Skees, 2010; Van der Heijden et al., 2010). Assimilation of newly
hired employees in any organization can increase perceptions of job satisfaction.
Employment after the first 12 months. Results of a 2009 study on the effect of
Employment-Length on intentions to separate employment conflict depending on job
type (Sharma, 2009). In a study of university teachers, the relationship between
Employment-Length and job satisfaction was non-linear. An assumption was time on a
job led to greater job satisfaction. However, a linear relationship was not supported by
the findings.
In contrast, researchers of studies in 2007 found a significantly positive
relationship between Employment-Length and employee retention (Severt et al., 2007).
However, Employment-Length past one year alone was not a predictor an employee was
less likely to terminate. Other factors had to be considered, such as age, status, and
education level. Turnover occurred in cycles, with the first cycle occurring after ten
41
months. The cyclical phenomenon appeared to be present throughout all industries
(Anantharaja, 2009).
Length of employment and compensation. In a 2005 study (Rogerson, Shimer,
& Wright, 2005) of already terminated employees, those who terminated voluntarily with
less than one-year service did not find higher pay in subsequent employment. Salary
between jobs was either equivalent or lower. Searching for and gaining employment with
other companies in similar industries while still employed did not necessarily equate to
higher pay. However, for employees with greater than one year tenure, crossing over
from one employer to another can equate to generally better pay in a new position. The
comparison between termination intentions of employees with less than one year and
employees with greater than one year service is counter-intuitive because there is no
financial advantage to transferring employment in less than one year.
Supervisors are responsible for setting a sense of belonging and security in the
early months of employment. Employee values balanced with perceptions of
organizational culture equate to happier, fulfilled workers (Luscher & Lewis, 2008;
Strang, Spath, & Bosco-Ruggiero, 2010). Supervisors of local fast-food outlets are
responsible for running the business successfully.
The last section is a review of the literature of the dependent variable, intention to
separate employment. Separation-Intent is the cumulating step of employee turnover
decision-making processes. Understanding Separation-Intent is important for
understanding the problem of employee turnover.

42
Separation-Intent
Step-by-step interventions between supervisors and employees can improve
morale and retention likelihood (Lim, 2008). Supervisors are responsible for setting and
keeping organizational culture at a local level. Productive supervisor interventions
involve clear direction, role clarification, value definition, teamwork, training,
motivation, and relationship building.
Intent as a predictor of separation. An intention to separate employment is an
accurate predictor of actual job termination (Brewer, Kovner, Greene, & Cheng, 2009).
As used in research, such phrases as intent to leave and desire to quit are indicators the
employee will terminate employment. Therefore, studies on employee turnover are
viable if the variables involved are indicators of intent to terminate and not the study of
terminated workers. Once employees have made a conscious decision to terminate
employment, they will tend to follow through on the decision.
The actual likelihood of terminating employment after making a decision to
terminate is not equal between industries or demographics. For example, demographic
differences such as education level, family relationships, work circumstances, and age
can affect the likelihood of following through on a decision to terminate (Hayes et al.,
2006). Supervisor behavior is also a related factor of the relationship between the
prediction of turnover and actual turnover.
Supervisor input and Separation-Intent prevention. Supervisors use four
tactics to integrate new employees into an organization (Mintzberg et al., 2003). First,
supervisors cannot empower workers; instead, they inspire them. Second, supervisors
43
focus on preventing employee-related problems. Problems are interruptions to an
employee’s perception of an organizational culture.
Third, change removes workers from comfortable settings. A good supervisor
will find ways to infuse change methodologically. The infusion of change, versus abrupt
shifts, is less damaging to an operation. Supervisors learn to propagate work under
organizational constructs in which change is evolutionary.
Fourth, supervisors recognize the catalysts affecting employee moods and
personalities. Employee moods can affect performance and productivity (Barsade &
Gibson, 2007; Sullivan, 2008). Emotionally strong supervisors know how to initiate new
ideas without disturbing the balance between organizational culture and employee
perceptions. The supervisors spend time with employees to learn what is important to
them. Knowledge gained from being with employees helps supervisors develop policy
and strategy supportive of employee needs.
Separation-Intent as change. Preparing for change is a method for equipping a
supervisor with options to compensate the negative effects of change. High employee
turnover is change that can weaken organizational strength. Supervisors can scan a
working environment for potential interruptions to employee perceptions (Chiu et al.,
2005). Supervisors who understand and communicate accurate images of organizational
climate foster enhanced job satisfaction and intentions of remaining employed with a
company.
Conclusions
Examples of the relationships between leader style and employee intent to
terminate employment are found in the review of the literature (Hayden & Madsen,
44
2008). Interruptions, or distinguishable work-change events, to perceptions of
organizational culture can correlate to employee decision-making processes ending in
Separation-Intent. Alignment of worker perceptions and organizational values relates to
stronger feelings of self-worth and increased intentions of remaining with an employer.
The affirmation process between supervisor and worker, the act of connecting a worker
with an organization’s culture, reduces intentions to separate employment.
An infusion of organizational culture and worker perceptions is not complicated
(Kanter, 2005). The infusion process is through supervisors making an effort to know
people’s names. The supervisors foster fun, friendly, supportive, and collaborative
environments. Simple conversations intermixed with organizational work structures
relate to confident, supported employees.
Reasons for terminating employment with less than 12 months of tenure are not
understood. Research has been conducted on the relationship of perception of
organizational culture and employee turnover (Lee et al., 1996). However, researchers do
not know the strength of Employment-Length and OC-Perception on Separation-Intent.
Summary
Costs of not controlling employee turnover in the fast-food industry are more than
$10 billion per year. Turnover rates of unskilled fast-food employees ranged 50% to
120% during the years 2000 to 2008 (Ongori & Agolla, 2008; Turnover and Retention,
2008). An annual turnover rate of 50% is reflective of approximately four million fast-
food workers quitting their jobs (NOBSCOT Corporation, 2006). Therefore, reducing
employee turnover is important for fast-food owners.

45
The variables in this study were explored in the review of the literature. The three
variables discussed in the review of the literature were OC-Perception, Employment-
Length, and Separation-Intent in context of employee turnover. Organizational culture
perception refers to an individual’s ability to see and interpret an organization’s culture.
Supervisor skills in transferring organizational precepts from corporate to
individual levels require socially and emotionally intelligent ability (Larrabee et al.,
2010; Poskey, 2009). Emotionally connected employees are less likely to separate
employment. Infusion of friendly, supportive, and collaborative cultures correlates to
positive employee perceptions of an organization, decreasing Separation-Intent.
Researchers do not understand the effect of the strength of Employment-Length
and OC-Perception on employee turnover, indicating a gap in the literature. Management
intervention in the first 12 months of employment is critical for retention (Kochanski &
Sorensen, 2008; Peterson & Luthans, 2006). A key factor is determining the period in
which an employee adopts an employer’s culture. Supervisor involvement in an
assimilation process is critical to the successful commencement to multiple years of
employment.
Separation-Intent is the result of a psychological decision-making process of
interpreting organizational culture congruence (Lee et al., 1999). Events interrupting an
employee’s perception and expectations of a job correlate to unbalanced feelings between
personal values and organizational culture (DiPietro, Sumeetra, & Milman, 2007).
Interruptions to an employee’s perceptions are cumulative, gaining in intensity with each
event.
46
Knowing the background information revealed in the review of the literature is
important for understanding the problem of employee turnover. Published data were
collected on the three variables OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and Separation-
Intent. The strength of the relationship among variables in the context of employee
turnover was studied. The method to be used when examining the relationship among
variables will be discussed in Chapter 3.

47
Chapter 3: Method
A review of the literature for this quantitative correlational study was presented in
Chapter 2. The discussion pertained to the germinal, key, and current literature on
subjects associated with employee turnover. The review of the literature was necessary
to understand the purpose of the study. The purpose of this quantitative correlational
study is to examine the degree to which a relationship exists among perception of an
organization’s culture (OC-Perception), length of employment (Employment-Length),
and intent to separate from a business (Separation-Intent) among entry-level fast-food
workers located in the southwestern United States.
The research method and design are discussed in the first section of Chapter 3.
The appropriateness of a quantitative method is also addressed. Chapter 3 contains an
explanation of the appropriateness of correlational design for understanding relationships
among variables. Following this is a discussion of the population, sampling, data
collection, internal and external validity, and data analysis.
Research Method and Design Appropriateness
A quantitative method is appropriate when the object of the study is to compare
relationships among variables, the units of analysis (Cone & Foster, 2006; Cooper &
Schindler, 2007; Neuman, 2006). In contrast, qualitative methods are used when answers
to open-ended questions are sought and theory is developed. The focus of this research
was to find the strength of relationships among variables. Therefore, the quantitative
method is appropriate to study the problem.
The specific problem was fast-food owners do not know how the perception of
organizational culture and length of employment relate to employee turnover. A survey

48
tool was used to collect responses intended to measure the variables. Responses to
survey questions intended to measure OC-Perception were plotted on ordinal agree-
disagree 7-point Likert-type scales (Cooper & Schindler, 2007).
Responses to questions relating to Employment-Length were measured by ratio
answers in months employed. Responses to the questions relating to the dependent
variable, Separation-Intent, were measured by nominal yes/no answers to questions of
whether the worker had looked for or responded to job offers elsewhere. Therefore, a
quantitative method was appropriate for this research because the data were measurable.
The alternative was a qualitative research method. In qualitative methods,
researchers conduct in-depth studies in search of new theories (Cooper & Schindler,
2007; Creswell, 2008). Theories of Separation-Intent, OC-Perception, Employment-
Length, and employee turnover already exist. The relationship of OC-Perception and
Separation-Intent, as they apply to employees with less than 12 months tenure, were
analyzed using existing theory.
A correlational design was used to examine relationships among variables
(Cooper & Schindler, 2007). When relationships among variables correlate, the concept
is considered adequately measured (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). Another type of
quantitative design is comparative (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). Comparative designs are
used to determine an association among variables (Neuman, 2006). Because the
association among the variables in this study was already known, a correlational design
was appropriate for studying the strength of relationships among variables.
The variables in this study were relational, not implying a causal relationship
(Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh, & Sorensen, 2009). The dependent variable changes as a
49
relationship to, but is not necessarily caused by, changes to the independent variables
(Cooper & Schindler, 2007; Neuman, 2006). The independent variables in this study,
OC-Perception and Employment-Length, were measured variables and were therefore not
manipulated, moderated, or controlled (Neuman, 2006). Factors relating to Separation-
Intent were compared to measurements of Employment-Length and OC-Perception.
Research Question
A research question was created to understand the relationship among variables
relating to problems of employee turnover. A single research question was appropriate
when testing the relationship among variables (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). The question
is as follows: Is there a relationship among OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and
Separation-Intent? Variances of the relationships between variables were analyzed to
measure the significance of variable relationships.
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a declarative sentence of relationships among variables (Cone &
Foster, 2006). The tested relationships among variables are derived from the research
question or questions. In this study, a single research question was asked. The wording
and format of the research question relates to how the hypotheses were formed.
Therefore, hypotheses are predictions of combinations of independent and dependent
variables.
The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to examine the
relationship among two independent variables and one dependent variable. Therefore,
the hypotheses formed are relational, or correlational, hypotheses (Cooper & Schindler,
50
2007). The variables in correlational hypotheses are relational; changes in one variable
do not necessarily cause changes in another. No causal claim was made in this study.
Hypotheses must be correctly formatted because the order of the wording is
reflective of the purpose of the study (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). For the purpose of this
study, three variables were examined. Each of the three variables was tested in two or
more hypotheses. Additionally, the formatting of the hypotheses was an indicator of how
the conclusions of the study were formatted.
To test the research question, six hypotheses were developed. Each of the first
four hypotheses was designed to test relationships between an independent variable (OC-
Perception or Employment-Length) and the dependent variable (Separation-Intent). The
final two hypotheses were designed to test the relationships among both independent
variables and the dependent variable.
hypotheses was designed to test the relationship between OC-Perception and Separation-
Intent. The relationship was tested with one null hypothesis and one alternate hypothesis.
Separation-Intent.
Separation-Intent.
51
second set of hypotheses was designed to test the relationship between Employment-
Length and Separation-Intent. The relationship was tested with one null hypothesis and
one alternate hypothesis.
independent variables, OC-Perception and Employment-Length, with Separation-Intent .
Population and Sampling
A sample is a representative selection of a population (Cooper & Schindler,
2007), and a population is the unit of study, or the entire collection of elements to be
measured. The benefits of collecting data on a sample instead of from the entire
population include lower cost, greater accuracy of results, quicker data collection, and
direct availability of the sample. The test of a sample is how well it represents the
characteristics of the population.

52
In this study, the sample was a selection of fast-food workers from the southwest
United States. The purpose was to collect a large enough sample to eliminate systematic
variance (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). Systematic variances are those factors that can
cause data to move away from the characteristics of the population. The southwest
United States includes Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah, west Texas, and the
southern counties of California (Orange, Riverside and San Bernardino).
The participants, or sample, received notification of the survey through college
newspapers and online classified advertisements, such as Craig’s List and Facebook.
Therefore, the decision on the part of the potential participant on whether to take the
survey was voluntary. The anticipated sample, a minimum requirement of 100 for this
quantitative correlational study, was recruited through unrestricted non-probability
sampling, meaning the selection will not be random (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). The
assumption was that any member of the population is a viable sample participant.
The sample group, like the population, was composed of unskilled front-line fast-
food restaurant employees. Workers in each group are typically between the ages of 16
and 34 and in direct contact with customers (Career Guide to Industries, 2010; Schlosser,
1998). Examples of fast-food restaurants are retail establishments such as coffee houses
and hamburger and chicken outlets. The sample was an accurate representation of the
population because the demographics of each are the same (Cooper & Schindler, 2007).
Data Collection
Data were collected on each of the three variables through the use of an online
survey posted on a commercially available web site. The newly developed survey was
53
developed to collect data on OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and Separation-Intent.
Existing surveys for collecting data on these variables do not exist.
Survey distribution. Potential participants were informed of the survey through
college and university newspapers and online sites such as Craig’s List and Facebook.
Potential participants were instructed to access a web site in the form of
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/[CODE]. The notification headline in the
advertisements was Notice to employees of fast-food restaurants as Line 1, You’re invited
to take an online survey designed to test your feelings of your workplace and co-workers
for Line 2, followed by the web address (Appendix C). Distribution of the notices of the
survey was in the southwestern portion of the United States.
The use of an online survey was preferred because the distribution and collection
of paper surveys was not feasible. The use of an online process ensured quick delivery of
the survey to the intended sample and accurate data collection. The fast-food
demographic is comfortable in online environments and in taking online surveys (Kaifi,
Mujtaba, & Williams, 2009).
Survey format. The survey (Appendix A) was divided in six sections. The
sections included instructions, employment certification, time employed as a fast-food
worker (Employment-Length), feelings about the job (OC-Perception), looking to the
future (Separation-Intent), and a thank you page. Each section served a particular
purpose. The instructions section contained the informed consent (Appendix B) with
embedded answer logic, which allowed participants to continue taking the survey if they
answer agree to the stipulations presented, including certification the participant is 18
years of age or older. Similarly, the goal of the second section was to allow participants
54
to continue taking the survey if they certified employment by a fast-food type restaurant
(a fast-food definition was presented in the instructions).
Informed Consent and Confidentiality
An account of the author’s name and school affiliation, the title of the study, and
the purpose of the study appeared in the first paragraph of the section on informed
consent. In the second paragraph was a notation of what the survey entails (answering
questions) and that participation was voluntary. Instructions were provided for the
purpose of informing potential participants that in taking, or not taking, the survey there
is no loss or penalty, that responses are confidential, and there are no foreseeable risks.
The wording of the informed consent is presented in Appendix A and Appendix B.
The message on informed consent was intended to assure participants that results
of the study were confidential and that data was protected. Confidentiality is an ethical
expectation (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). No personal identification, other than
certification the participants were 18 years old and were employed by fast-food
restaurants, was requested or gathered. The use of surveymonkey.com, a commercially
available web site, to distribute the survey and collect data also ensured confidentiality.
Wording on confidentiality in the survey instructions appeared as follows: The results of
this study may be published but your identity will remain confidential and your name will
not be disclosed to any outside party.
The data collected were stored in an Excel file on a computer and backup service
through Carbonite.com, a secure online data storage service. The purpose of these
storage methods was to protect the confidentiality of the data because each is password
protected, and the password was known only to authorized personnel. Data were
55
temporarily available to the statisticians at BOLD-ed.com. After statistical review was
complete, personnel of the BOLD-ed.com organization deleted all data from their
computers. Raw data will not be published in the dissertation.
The sample data collected through surveymonkey.com will be secure and the
identity of participants will remain unknown. Data collected will be stored for three
years on a computer and backup service on Carbonite.com, a secure online data storage
service, then destroyed. Authorized personnel will destroy the data by digitally erasing
the Excel files on the computer and back-up service.
Data collection for the three variables. The three variables were represented in
Sections 3 through 5 of the survey. The sections were divided in such a way to facilitate
data measurement and analysis. For example, the question designed to collect data on
Employment-Length, ratio type data (order and unique origin), were divided into six
time-spans: 0–3 months, 4–6 months, 7–9 months, 10–12 months, longer than one year
but less than two, and longer than two years. Subsequent answers to questions on OC-
Perception and Separation-Intent were segregated by time spent on the job with a current
employer.
Section 4 was a series of five assessment questions presented on a 7-point Likert
scale with a range from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree (Cooper & Schindler, 2007;
Likert, 1961). Type of data collected on OC-Perception was ordinal (order but no unique
origin). The assessments were grouped by overall feeling about the job, feelings about
co-workers, shift-leads, and managers, as well as comparative feelings about the job now
compared to when the participants first started working for their employers. Grouping
the assessments by feelings about working relationships with co-workers, shift-leads, and
56
managers can facilitate segregation of data to proximity of worker to boss. Data on OC-
Perception, for the purposes of this survey, were collected on feelings of a culture as
friendly, supportive, and collaborative (Chiu et al., 2005).
Section 5 was comprised of four yes/no statements designed to collect nominal
type data (no order and no origin) on Separation-Intent. The statements appeared as
follows: I am actively looking for employment elsewhere, I have responded to job offers
from other employers, I have searched for job openings on the internet or in a
newspaper, and I have talked with friends or family about quitting my job. Data collected
on separation intent are an accurate predictor of actual termination (Brewer et al., 2009).
Lastly, Section 6 was the end of the survey with the statement Thank you for your
participation. Your part in the survey is now complete. Again, if you have any questions
about the survey instructions, please contact me at DuaneDike1@email.phoenix.edu.
The page could be reached by any of three ways, including answering disagree to the
informed consent statement, answering no to the current status as a fast-food employee
certification statement, or by completing the survey.
Data Analysis
The segregating of questions by each of the three variables streamlined data
collection, measurement, and analysis. Data were collected and separated by individual
questions and statements or by variables. Sub-sections of the data collected on OC-
Perception were also segregated. For example, data on feelings of the workplace were
collected on co-workers, shift-leads, and managers.
The type of data collected, the research method, and the number of independent
and dependent variables were indicators of the data analysis tools required (Cooper &
57
Schindler, 2007). The data analysis tools used in this study were deployed to measure
correlational relationships of the variables. The type of data collected for Employment-
Length was ratio, for OC-Perception was ordinal, and for Separation-Intent was nominal.
Data collected on each of the three variables were plotted using descriptive
statistics, such as mean, mode, and standard deviation. Descriptive statistics are used for
non-statistical tests of the hypotheses. Statistical analyses were run to test each of the
hypotheses.
The statistical tests used in this study included the Spearman Rho and factor
analysis (Cone & Foster, 2006; Kanji, 2006). The Spearman Rho is effective for studies
in which the relationships between two variables are compared. For example, HO1 and
HO2 and alternate H1 through H4 were comparisons of two variables.
An additional data analysis test was factor analysis. Factor analysis is effective
for studies comparing the results of the relationships of multiple variables (Darlington,
1997). HO3 and H5 are multiple variable tests. The use of factor analysis shows patterns
in the relationships of the data. The important distinction of each analysis tool is that it
was intended to measure the relationship between variables.
Collecting data from an entire population of fast-food workers was impractical.
However, a large enough sample was needed to ensure the data were not random. The
minimum sample size required for a quantitative, correlational study to represent the
population is 100 (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). This number was calculated using a
sample size calculator and assuming a population of fast-food workers in the United
States at 8.5 million, a margin of error of 10%, a confidence level of 95%, and a response
distribution of 50% (Sample Size Calculator, 2011).

58
Validity and Reliability
Internal validity. Internal validity refers to reasonable inferences about the
population from the data (Millsap & Maydeu-Olivares, 2009). The assumption was data
collected using the research instrument would accurately represent the views and
perceptions of the population. In this study, data collected from fast-food workers were
assumed to be representative of workers in the hospitality and leisure industry.
Threats to internal validity are controllable. Potential threats are denoted as
history, testing, instrumentation, regression, and mortality (Cooper & Schindler, 2007;
Millsap & Maydeu-Olivares, 2009). History threats are intervening variables not part of
the intended research design, and they can skew results. For example, a mass layoff
occurring during the survey period could affect answers to questions on perception of
organizational culture and separation intent.
The testing threat is the effect of previous survey taking experience. For example,
a non-related survey taken by participants at the same time as this survey could affect
how participants respond. Participants learn by experience how to answer questions
more accurately. Closely related to the testing threat is the threat of regression (Cooper
& Schindler, 2007; Millsap & Maydeu-Olivares, 2009). If participants respond in
extreme ranges (1 or 7 on a 7-point scale) on non-related surveys, they tend to rate closer
to the mean on subsequent surveys.
The instrumentation threat is caused by survey instrument inconsistencies.
Questions must be consistently phrased to be accurately measured on a Likert-like 7-
point scale. Protecting against instrumentation threats is achieved by establishing start
and end dates when the survey is effective, which affirms instrumentation validity.
59
To protect against instrument threat, questions were written in similar style and
language for clarity of intended message (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). Survey activation
period was four weeks to protect further against instrument threat error. Two pilot tests
of the survey were run to control instrument threat.
In one, questions were presented to an expert in the field of human resources for
that expert’s input and advice. In the second, five workers in the fast-food industry were
selected to take the survey and asked to write comments on anything in the survey not
understood. The purpose of the pilot studies was to test the accuracy of survey questions
as being representative of the three variables in accordance with definitions presented in
the review of the literature.
The mortality threat occurs when potential participants decide not to participate in
the study after having already begun (Ary et al., 2009). The loss of potentially low or
high scores by participants dropping from the study could skew results. Of the internal
validity threats discussed, the mortality threat was considered to have a possible effect on
results from this study because the number of samples collected was less than the
statistically required 100. Because the sample count was less than 100, application of the
results of the data to the population was limited (see Chapter 5). Although there was no
guarantee results were not influenced by these threats, the likelihood of threat was low.
Unskilled, fast-food workers are typically between the ages of 16 and 34. This age group,
as a generational characteristic, is comfortable with online and internet applications, like
taking online surveys (Kaifi et al., 2009).
External validity. External validity is the generalization of approximate truth
(Trochim, 2006), and it is the applicability of research conclusions from one group to
60
other groups, in other times, in other places, with other treatments (Ary et al., 2009). For
the test of external validity for this study, it was assumed the findings are generalizable to
non-fast-food establishments. The sample of front-line fast-food workers was considered
representative of the food preparation and serving related population.
Fast-food employees are generally young (between the ages of 16 and 34), part-
time, and transient with goals of another career after completing school or sometime later
in life (Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers, 2010). The fast-food
demographic is similar in makeup to workers in merchandise, retail, and theme parks. If
the study sample is too limited, the application to larger populations could also be limited
(Cooper & Schindler, 2007). The assumption in this study was fast-food workers are in
the same general population as retail and theme park workers. No research suggests the
pools differ.
Threats to external validity occur when generalization to other populations could
be wrong. The three major threats involve people, places, and times (Trochim, 2006).
Protecting against threats to external validity was not achieved because the sample was
not complete (less than 100). In this study, the survey was administered to workers of
fast-food restaurants in the southwestern United States. Although not practical to study
samples from other regions and times, the assumption was results were generalizable
across similar demographics in the United States if minimum samples could be collected.
The locations where participants physically take the survey cannot be controlled
and may be considered threats to external validity. Because experimental settings in
online survey-based studies cannot be controlled, assumptions must be made to the
generalizability of results. By protecting against the internal validity threat of instrumentation, the
external validity threat of not being able to control the locations where participants take the survey is also
61
controlled. Protecting against instrumentation threats is achieved by confining the survey
to a select period and by wording questions in such ways to generate accurate responses
(Cooper & Schindler, 2007; Millsap & Maydeu-Olivares, 2009).
Reliability of the instrument. The administration of pilot studies can help
protect against instrumentation internal validity errors. Pilot studies are processes in
which the logical flow of a data collection tool is tested before the full study is
administered. In the current study, the data collection tool is an online survey (Cone &
Foster, 2006). The collection of data on OC-Perception was dependent on the
participants’ ability to place a response of how they felt about working conditions on a 7-
point Likert scale.
Two pilot studies were conducted. The first was to present the survey to a
professional in the field of human resources for that professional’s review. The
professional was provided with a copy of the survey and the problem and purpose
statements. The human resources professional was asked to assess if the questions were
worded in ways the professional believed would accurately represent the feelings of
participants.
The second pilot study was the administration of the survey to five fast-food
workers (entry level, unskilled workers). Pilot data was not included in the study results
(Cone & Foster, 2006). After taking the survey, participants in the pilot study were asked
to comment whether they felt the questions were understandable. The participants were
also asked if they believe they were able to communicate their feelings with the data
collection scale presented accurately. Another purpose of this pilot study was to test the
online mechanics of the survey logic.

62
Summary
The specific problem was fast-food owners do not know how length of
employment and perception of organizational culture relate to the rate of employee
turnover. To understand this problem, a quantitative method, correlational design
research study was conducted (Cooper & Schindler, 2007; Neuman, 2006). A
quantitative method, correlational design was appropriate because relationships among
variables were studied, and survey results were quantifiable (measureable on agree-
disagree, yes/no, and ratio scales).
Six hypotheses were developed from the research question. A hypothesis is a
declarative sentence of relationships between variables. A survey was developed to
gather data on each variable (OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and Separation-
Intent) to allow testing of the hypotheses. Internal and external validity threats, and
reliability of the instrument were examined.
The sample consisted of fast-food workers. Pilot testing of the survey instrument
and proper application of the method and design protected against the threats. Statistical
tests to measure the relationship among the variables included the Spearman Rho and
factor analysis (Cone & Foster, 2006; Darlington, 1997; Kanji, 2006).
Chapter 3 was a description of the methods used for gathering data. Findings
from the research will be presented in Chapter 4. Chapter 4 will also include data
collected and organized and statistical tests run.

63
Chapter 4: Results
The purpose of the current quantitative, correlational study was to examine the
degree to which a relationship existed among (a) perception of organizational culture
(OC-Perception), (b) length of employment (Employment-Length), and (c) intent to
separate from a business (Separation-Intent) in entry-level fast-food workers. For the
purposes of the current study, the definition of fast-food workers is customer contact
counter and food preparation personnel in eating places offering limited service (Food
and Beverage Serving and Related Workers, 2010). The data on OC-Perception, an
independent variable, were comprised of the participants’ responses on a 7-point Likert-
type scale with anchors of strongly disagree and strongly agree. Using the scale, the
participants indicated their perceptions of their workplace as friendly, supportive, and
collaborative (Dolcos & Daley, 2009; Ellett, 2009; Hayden & Madsen, 2008). The data
on Employment-Length, an independent variable, were comprised of the participants’
self-reports of how many months they had worked with their company.
Chapter 4 includes an analysis of results from a survey offered online to front-line
fast-food workers in the southwest United States. The current research involved two pilot
studies (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). In the first pilot study, a professional in the field of
human resources reviewed a draft of the survey, the problem statement, and the statement
of purpose. The human resources professional received instructions to evaluate whether
he believed the questions on the survey pertained to the problem and purpose statements
and whether he thought the participants would understand the survey questions.
The human resources professional thought the questions were understandable and
validated that the questions pertained to the problem and purpose statements, but he
64
suggested one change to the wording on the assessment scale. For consistency, he
suggested changing the 7-point scale anchors from strongly disagree and agree strongly
to strongly disagree and strongly agree. The change in wording took place before the
participants received the survey.
In a second pilot study, five workers in the fast-food industry responded to the
survey and provided comments on the survey readability and their understanding of the
survey content. The five pilot participants received instructions to (a) take the online
survey, (b) pay attention to survey wording, and (c) e-mail their comments on whether
they believed the questions were worded to accurately represent their feelings (Cone &
Foster, 2006). Four of the five pilot study participants answered all questions but none
submitted comments. The resulting assumption was that the pilot participants were able
to complete the survey because the questions were presented in a logical and
understandable manner. The data from the pilot study were not included in the study
results.
The survey was designed to yield measurements of the strength of the
relationships among the variables as tested with six hypotheses (Cooper & Schindler,
2007). The independent variables were Employment-Length and OC-Perception. The
dependent variable was Separation-Intent. Chapter 4 includes a presentation of the data
analysis methods and results.
The structure of the data analysis was based on the content of the research
question (Cone & Foster, 2006; Darlington, 1997; Kanji, 2006). The purpose of the
research question was to understand the relationship among the variables pertaining to
problems of employee turnover (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). The research question was
65
as follows: Does a relationship exist among OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and
Separation-Intent? Factor analysis and Spearman Rho were used to understand the
significance of the relationships among and between variables.
Sample and Population Demographics
Fast-food workers are typically young (i.e., between the ages of 16 and 34) and
unskilled (Career Guide to Industries, 2010). Fast-food workers are employed at retail
outlets with limited menu, counter service, and food preparation. Fast-food workers are
typically under the age of 18, but for the purposes of the current study, the participants
had to certify they were 18 years of age or older by checking a box on the survey.
Participants who answered no to the question about whether they were 18 years or older
were unable to continue with the survey.
Data collected on the aspects and perceptions of a sample can be considered an
accurate representation of the population if an adequate sample size is obtained. In the
current study, 15 samples were collected instead of the 100 required to statistically
represent the perceptions of the population. The results of the current study do not
statistically and accurately represent the potential responses of the population.
Data Analysis Procedures
The data analysis tools used in the current study measured the relationships
among the variables. The data collected for the variable of Employment-Length were
ratio, for OC-Perception, the data were ordinal, and for Separation-Intent, the data were
nominal (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). Descriptive statistics were calculated for each
variable. Data collected on each of the three variables were plotted with descriptive
statistics and the descriptive results were displayed for each of the hypotheses.
66
Testing of each hypothesis occurred through statistical analysis. The statistical
tests used in the study were the Spearman Rho and factor analysis (Cone & Foster, 2006;
Kanji, 2006). The Spearman Rho is effective for studies involving comparisons of the
relationships between two variables. In the current study, H0 1 and H0 2 and alternate
HA1 through HA 4 involve comparisons of two variables.
Additional data analysis test included factor analysis. Factor analysis is effective
for studies involving comparisons of the relationships among multiple variables
(Darlington, 1997). In the current study, H03 and HA5 involve multiple variable tests.
The use of factor analysis was intended to show patterns in the data.
Data collection challenges. Initially, data collection was going to be onsite in a
fast-food chain. An agreement was made with a district manager of a large fast-food
chain to distribute the survey web address through employee communication channels via
the organization’s human resources department. The purpose was to connect directly
with fast-food employees via human resources personnel to assure employees did not feel
coerced by managers. Distribution logistics and dates were finalized with the district
manager. However, the district manager cancelled the agreement.
Losing the fast-food chain as a source for sample participants necessitated
developing new ways to communicate the survey to the sample. Fast-food workers are
typically between the ages of 16 and 34 (Career Guide to Industries, 2010; Schlosser,
1998). Therefore, the decision was made to advertise in methods most likely to be seen
by potential sample participants, such as college newspapers and web sites, and social
advertising media. For example, Facebook, a social media web site, has over 500 million
active users of which 50% log on to the site in any given day (Press Room Statistics,
67
2010). Of Facebook users, 46% are between the ages of 18-34 (Parfeni, 2009). The
average age of a community college student is 29 (College Admissions, 2010).
Advertisements for the survey were placed in the following college newspapers
and news web sites: Riverside Community College, California State University San
Bernardino, Arizona State University, the community colleges in the greater Phoenix,
Arizona region, and the University of New Mexico. Additionally, tear-off flyers were
posted on the campuses of the University of California Irvine, California State University
Fullerton, Riverside Community College, Moreno Valley Community College, and
Norco Community College. The estimated potential number of students reached by the
advertisement to participate in the study was 197,000 (College Navigator, 2011). To
increase the sample size, additional advertisements for survey participants were placed in
the San Bernardino region of Crag’s List, an online social advertising web site, and on
Facebook under the category fast-food workers (see Appendix C).
After 4 weeks of the survey being available on the Internet (September 10, 2010
to October 12, 2010), a total of 20 participants had taken the survey. Of the 20
participants, 15 responded to all survey statements and questions. For the participants’
responses to statistically and accurately represent the potential responses of the
population, at least 100 participants were needed to take the survey (Cooper & Schindler,
2007).
Hypotheses
Six hypotheses assisted in testing the research question. The first four hypotheses
were designed to test relationships between an independent variable (i.e., OC-Perception
or Employment-Length) and the dependent variable (i.e., Separation-Intent). The final

68
two hypotheses were designed to test the relationships among both independent variables
and the dependent variable.
Hypotheses cannot be proven, but it is possible to support the validity of an
alternate hypothesis by disproving or rejecting a null hypothesis (Leedy & Ormrod,
2005). The current study included the following three null hypotheses:
H10: There is no statistically significant relationship between OC-Perception and
Separation-Intent.
H20: There is no statistically significant relationship between Employment-Length
H30: There is no statistically significant relationship among OC-Perception,
Each set of hypotheses was designed to test certain relationships between or among the
variables presented in the research question.
The data collection instrument, a survey posted on a commercially available web
site and designed specifically to gather data on the three variables, was divided into three
sections, each corresponding to a variable. Questions pertaining to the participants’
feelings or perceptions about their working relationships with others assisted in
measuring the variable of OC-Perception. Organizational culture, as defined in the
current study, pertained to the friendly, supportive, and collaborative nature of
coworkers, shift-leaders, and managers. The participants’ indicated their perceptions on a
7-point Likert-type scale with anchors of strongly disagree and strongly agree.
The question, How long have you been employed by your current employer? was
designed to measure the variable of Employment-Length. The participants had the

69
following response options: 0–3 months, 4–6 months, 7–9 months, 10–12 months, more
than 1 year, less than 2 years, and more than 2 years. Four items were developed to
measure Separation-Intent. The four statements were: (a) I am actively looking for
employment elsewhere, (b) I have responded to job offers from other employers, (c) I
have searched for job openings on the internet or in a newspaper, and (d) I have talked
with friends or family about quitting my job. The participants could respond yes or no to
each question. Four yes responses to the Separation-Intent questions indicated a strong
likelihood the participant would terminate employment. Four no responses indicated a
strong likelihood the participant would not terminate employment.
Intent.
Separation-Intent.
Separation-Intent.
second set of hypotheses was designed to test the relationship between Employment-
70
independent variables (i.e., OC-Perception and Employment-Length) and the dependent
variable (i.e., Separation-Intent).
Findings: Descriptive Statistics
A total of 15 participants responded to the survey. The participants had a mean
Employment-Length between 1 and 2 years and both a median and mode employment
length of more than 2 years (see Tables 1 & 2). The participants had a mean OC-
Perception score of 5.17 on a scale of 1 to 7 and a 55.4% likelihood of separating from
their positions of employment. The histograms of Employment-Length (see Figure 1),
OC-Perception (see Figure 2), and Separation-Intent (see Figure 3) illustrate that all three
variables were not normally distributed.

71
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics: Employment-Length, OC-Perception, and Separation-Intent
Employment Separation
Length OC-Perception Intent
M 4.87 5.17 .27
Median 6.00 5.40 2.00
Mode 6 3.40(a) -2.00(a)
SD 1.64 1.15 3.20
Variance 2.70 1.31 10.21
Skewness -1.43 -.34 -.13
SE of Skewness .58 .58 .58
Kurtosis 1.03 -1.13 -1.75
SE of Kurtosis 1.12 1.12 1.12
Range 5 3.40 8.00
Minimum 1 3.40 -4.00
Maximum 6 6.80 4.00
Note. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown.
Figure 1. Histogram: Employment-Length.

72
Table 2
Selected Descriptive Statistics: Summary by Variable
Total Responses % of Total

3-1 Employment Length
0-3 months 1 6.7%
4-6 months 1 6.7%
7-9 months 1 6.7%
10-12 months 1 6.7%
Longer than 1 yr < 2 3 20.0%
2 years or longer 8 53.3%
Total 15 100.0%
(scale 1 through 7) Mean

Total OC-Perception 5.17
4-1 Feeling at Work 4.50

4-2 Feelings about
coworkers 5.46
4-3 Feelings about shift-
leaders 5.19
4-4 Feelings about manager 5.03
Yes Response No Response % Yes

Total Separation-Intent 31 25 55.4%
5-1 Actively looking 7 7 50.0%

5-2 Responded to offers 5 9 35.7%
5-3 Searched for jobs 9 5 64.3%
5-4 Talked about quitting 10 4 71.4%
73
Figure 2. Histogram: Organizational culture perception.
Figure 3. Histogram: Separation-Intent.

74
Findings: Inferential Statistics
Separation-Intent.
Testing of two hypotheses took place using the Spearman Rho correlation because
the variables were not normally distributed. The results indicate a significant and
negative relationship between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent, rs = -.46, p = .04.
The results indicate the data explain approximately 21% of the variance, rs2 = .21.
The data led to the rejection of the null hypothesis that there is no statistically
significant relationship between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent (see Table 3).
The results further indicate the existence of a significant and negative relationship
between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent, rs = -.63, p = .008. The results
indicate the data explain approximately 40% of the variance, rs2 = .40.
Table 3
Spearman Rho Correlation Matrix
Organizational Culture-
Perception Separation-Intent
r p r p
Employment- .57 .02 -.63 .008
Length
Organizational -.46 .04
Culture-
Perception
Statistical support exists for two of the alternate hypotheses, H11 and H21.
H11: There is a negative relationship between the dependent variable, Separation-

75
Intent, and the independent variable, OC-Perception.
H21: There is a negative relationship between the dependent variable, Separation-
Intent, and the independent variable, Employment-Length.
Before conducting further analysis on the dependent variables of Employment-
Length and OC-Perception, a principal component analysis was conducted to determine
whether Employment-Length and OC-Perception were different factors (Principal
Components and Factor Analysis, 2011). Principal component analysis is used to reduce
the number of variables and to classify variables. The results of the factor analysis were
such that Employment-Length and OC-Perception consisted of a single component,
making additional analysis unnecessary (see Table 4). The statistical technique of
principal component analysis is not an effective measurement for sample sizes fewer than
the statistical minimum of 100 for this type of study. The hypothesis that there is no
relationship among the independent variables of Employment-Length and OC-Perception
and the dependent variable of Separation-Intent could not be tested.
Table 4
Component Matrix: Principal Component Analysis
Component 1
Employment-Length .86
Organizational Culture-Perception .86
Note. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. 1 component extracted.
Summary
The current study results were not unexpected, but the number of participants
(i.e., 15) was less than the 100 necessary for statistical generalizability of the results to
the population (Cooper & Schindler, 2007). A larger sample size would have provided
76
the necessary data for statistical application of findings to the population. However, the
small p-values in the results of the Spearman Rho are an indication of correlational
significance even with a relatively small sample size (see Table 3). The p-value for the
correlation between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent was .008 and for the
correlation between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent was .04. A p-value of less than
.05 is an indication of statistical significance of the correlation, even with a small sample
(Batterham & Hopkins, 2006).
The current study included three null hypotheses developed to answer the
research question.
Separation-Intent.
The results indicate the existence of a significant and negative relationship
between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent (rejection of H10) and a significant and
negative relationship between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent (rejection of
H20). The hypothesis that there is no relationship among the independent variables of
Employment-Length and OC-Perception and the dependent variable of Separation-Intent
could not be tested. The results of the principal component analysis indicated
Employment-Length and OC-Perception consisted of a single component, making
additional analysis unnecessary.

77
Conclusion
Chapter 4 included a detailed account of the data gathered from the surveys of 15
fast-food restaurant workers. The study involved the application of the methodology
discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 included presentation of the data in four tables and
three figures as well as summary data for each of the three variables. The presentation of
the results shows comparisons of means and standard deviations by variable. The results
led to the rejection of two of the three null hypotheses (i.e., H01 and H02).
Chapter 5 includes a discussion of the findings presented in Chapter 4. The focus
of the discussion is the conclusions for each hypothesis. The chapter includes
recommendations for further research based on the results of the current study.
78
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
From 1999 to 2006, between 65-80% of newly hired fast-food workers terminated
employment in less than 1 year (Weber, 2006). The statistics indicate that, with a 50%
overall turnover rate, more than 2 million newly hired workers might quit their jobs in
less than 1 year. For example, in a retail outlet with 20 employees, more than 10 workers
might quit each year, and of the 10 newly replaced workers, five might quit after less than
1 year of employment.
The specific problem is fast-food restaurant owners do not know how perception
of organizational culture and length of employment are related to the rate of employee
turnover (Hayden & Madsen, 2008). Newly hired employees begin their jobs
anticipating responsibility, but within 1 to 2 months, morale decreases, and the
employees are no longer happy on the job (DelCampo, 2006). Employees who remain
employed longer than 1 year start to have decreased intentions to quit their jobs.
The reasons why newly hired employees’ perceptions of organizational culture
change from positive to negative are unknown. As workers’ perceptions of
organizational culture change, the workers might consider terminating employment
(Detert et al., 2007; Neininger et al., 2010). The current study was an attempt to examine
the relationship between organizational culture perception (OC-Perception), length of
employment (Employment-Length), and intent to separate (Separation-Intent) among
entry-level fast-food workers.
The purpose of the current quantitative, correlational study was to examine the
degree to which a relationship exists among OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and
Separation-Intent among entry-level fast-food workers. Chapter 5 includes a summary

79
and analysis of the study findings described in Chapter 4. The current study research
methods included the Spearman Rho and factor analysis to determine the strength of the
relationships between and among the variables (Cone & Foster, 2006; Kanji, 2006).
The results led to the rejection of two null hypotheses and supported two alternate
hypotheses. A total of 20 participants took part in the survey, but 15 completed all
sections. Chapter 5 includes the following sections: (a) findings and interpretations, (b)
hypotheses, (c) discussion of findings, (d) summary of the major findings, (e)
recommendations, (f) suggestions for further research, (g) summary, and (h) conclusion.
Findings and Interpretations
The study involved running two statistical tests on the survey data. The Spearman
Rho is designed to test the relationship between one independent variable and one
dependent variable. The results of the Spearman Rho led to the rejection of two of the
three null hypotheses (i.e., H10 and H20). Before conducting further analysis on the
dependent variables of Employment-Length and OC-Perception, factor analysis was
conducted to determine whether Employment-Length and OC-Perception were different
factors. The results of the principal component analysis indicate Employment-Length
and OC-Perception consisted of a single component, making additional analysis
unnecessary.
Hypotheses
Six hypotheses assisted in testing the research question. The first four hypotheses
were designed to test relationships between an independent variable (i.e., OC-Perception
or Employment-Length) and the dependent variable (i.e., Separation-Intent). The final

80
two hypotheses were designed to test the relationship between both independent variables
and the dependent variable.
Intent.
Separation-Intent.
Separation-Intent.
The results of the Spearman Rho statistical test led to the rejection of H10. The
results indicate support for H11 (i.e., a significant and negative relationship exists
between Separation-Intent and OC-Perception). The results are consistent with previous
research as presented in Chapter 2. Based on the findings, no modifications to the theory
on the relationship between perceptions of organizational culture and employee turnover
are necessary.
Relationship between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent.
The second set of hypotheses was designed to test the relationship between
Employment-Length and Separation-Intent.
The results of the Spearman Rho statistical test led to the rejection of H2O. The
81
results indicate support for H21 (i.e., a significant and negative relationship exists
between Separation-Intent and Employment-Length). The results are consistent with
previous research as presented in Chapter 2. Based on the findings, no modifications to
the theory on the relationship between length of employment and employee turnover are
necessary.
independent variables (i.e., OC-Perception and Employment-Length) and the dependent
variable (i.e., Separation-Intent).
Before conducting further analysis on the independent variables of Employment-
Length and OC-Perception, factor analysis was conducted to determine whether
Employment-Length and OC-Perception were different factors. The results of the
principal component analysis indicated Employment-Length and OC-Perception
consisted of a single component, making additional analysis unnecessary. The
hypothesis that there is no relationship among the independent variables of Employment-
Length and OC-Perception and the dependent variable of Separation-Intent could not be
tested. The existence of a relationship among the three variables was not supported or
disproved.
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Discussion of Findings by Order of Significance
The results of the study indicate the existence of a single variable relationship
between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent and between Employment-Length and
Separation-Intent. No results indicate a relationship between the two independent
variables and the dependent variable. As discussed in Chapter 2, the existing theories
pertain to single variable relationships between perception of organizational culture and
employment length on employee turnover (LaRue et al., 2006; Madaus et al., 2008;
O’Connor, 2006; Yamamura et al., 2010).
Most research, as shown in Chapter 2, is on single variable relationships with
employee turnover, but some evidence of multiple variable effects exists. Positive
interactions between supervisors and workers are associated with positive impressions of
organizational culture and increased employee retention. Negative working relationships
are a strong indicator of the decision to terminate employment, but job dissatisfaction
alone is not a major cause of job separation (Yamamura et al., 2010). Researchers such
as T. W. Lee et al. (1999, 2004) and Severt et al. (2007) have found that the relationship
between supervisors and workers improves over time, adding credence to the argument
that employment length, combined with favorable perceptions of organizational culture,
can lead to increased retention and decreased separation intent.
In the current study, it was not possible to test the null hypothesis that no
relationship exists among the independent variables of employment length and
organizational culture perception and the dependent variable of separation intent because
the sample size was too small for statistical inference. The findings pertaining to the
relationship between the three variables do not add to the body of literature on employee
83
turnover. The current study findings support literature on single variable relationships
between perception of organizational culture and separation intent and between length of
employment and separation intent.
The results did not indicate the existence of an inferential relationship among the
three variables (i.e., OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and Separation-Intent), but the
findings as reported in the descriptive statistics gathered from the 15 participants’
answers are noteworthy. A total of 55.4% of the responses to questions pertaining to
Separation-Intent were affirmative, indicating positive Separation-Intent for the entire
sample, regardless of tenure. All participants were less likely to perceive their managers
as friendly, supportive, and collaborative than to perceive their shift leads and coworkers
as friendly, supportive, and collaborative.
The findings are important for leaders because the results indicate a statistically
significant and negative relationship between perceptions of organizational culture and
intent to separate. A review of the literature showed affinity between leaders and
employees correlates to increased employee retention and positive perceptions of a job,
culture, and coworkers (Ahmad, 2010; Lee et al., 2004). Positive relationships between
leaders and workers are associated with higher employee cultural assimilation (Faulkner
& Laschinger, 2008; Lim, 2008; Mintzberg et al., 2003). Relationships between leaders
and employees and between employees become strong through executive support of
casual conversations among employees and between leaders and employees. Workers
who know each other and their managers tend to assimilate positively into an
organization.
Business leaders must understand the relationship between stable employment

84
and organizational performance (LaRue et al., 2006; Peterson & Luthans, 2006). The
current study findings might help business owners understand how supervisors’ style and
relationships with their employees at a local (e.g., store) level affect the rate of employee
turnover and productivity (Murphy et al., 2009). Understanding the relationships
between (a) perception of organizational culture and separation intent and (b)
employment length and separation intent might help fast-food industry leaders develop
training programs to reduce employee turnover. Preventing turnover in the early stages
of employment can equate to longer employment overall.
The current study findings are important for all members of society because
unproductive labor costs associated with training and assimilating new employees
decrease when voluntary turnover decreases (Murphy et al., 2009; Weber, 2006). The
cost to attract, hire, and train a new employee in the fast-food industry is estimated to be
between $5,000 and $10,000 (McKay et al., 2007). Consumers might benefit from lower
prices made possible because of reductions in employers’ training costs.
The findings of the current study pertain directly to the research question. The
research question was as follows: Does a relationship exist among OC-Perception,
Employment-Length, and Separation-Intent? The results indicate significant and
negative relationships exist between (a) perception of organizational culture and intent to
separate and (b) length of employment and intent to separate. As perceptions of
organizational culture improve, separation intent decreases (Ahmad, 2010; Lee et al.,
2004). If organizational leaders can influence newly hired employees to remain
employed past the first few months, the employees will be more likely to remain with the
organization for more than 1 year (Chong, 2007; Dolcos & Daley, 2009; Gould, 2009).
85
Summary of Major Findings
Costs associated with employee turnover in the fast-food industry are estimated at
$10 billion each year. The number equates to between $50,000 and $100,000 of annual
replacement costs for a fast-food restaurant with 20 employees and a 50% turnover rate
(McKay et al., 2007). Employees who are happy at work and have good relationships
with their bosses are less likely to quit their jobs (Chiu et al., 2005).
The development of six hypotheses assisted in testing the research question: Does
a relationship exist among OC-Perception, Employment-Length, and Separation-Intent?.
The study findings led to the rejection of two null hypotheses and the support of two
alternate hypotheses. Specifically, the results indicate significant and negative
relationships exist between perception of organizational culture and intent to separate and
between length of employment and intent to separate. Local store supervisors who have
direct contact with employees are most responsible for communicating the cultural
message of an organization (Luscher & Lewis, 2008). Industry leaders must understand
that, when employees expect friendly, supportive, and collaborative cultures but are
confronted contrary realities, they are more likely to consider terminating employment.
86
Recommendations
How leaders can apply results to their businesses. The current study findings
indicate that front-line supervisor behavior is an important factor for retaining employees
(Murphy et al., 2009). Supervisors are the main connection point between the
organization and workers, and supervisors must be able to accurately transfer the precepts
of organizational culture to newly hired employees to ensure employee perceptions of the
organization are positive.
Fast-food restaurant owners might benefit from understanding the relationship
between an employee’s perception of an organization and a supervisor’s leadership style
at the local outlet level. A benefit of understanding such a relationship could be a
reduction of employee turnover among front-line workers. Employees who are
dissatisfied with working relationships in the early stages of employment are more likely
to consider terminating employment. If supervisors project images of organizational
culture that match employee expectations, employees are more likely to remain with the
organization beyond the first few months of employment. When leaders retain
employees past the first few months of employment, the employees become more likely
to remain with the organization for more than 1 year.
To retain employees, leaders should establish management training programs to
ensure front-line supervisors are (a) aware of the effects of their behavior on employee
turnover and (b) capable of communicating intended organizational culture to workers.
Training methods can be formal or informal. Formal methods of training include
company training and development programs. Informal methods include the behavior of
leaders and other supervisors (Heathfield, 2009; Watts, 2010). When employee
87
expectations of a job are the same as their supervisors’ organizational messages, the
likelihood that minor job disturbances will frustrate the employees decreases, improving
employee morale and reducing turnover.
Implications to leadership in the organization. Leaders’ behavior correlates to
employee perceptions of organizational culture. A leader’s job is to communicate a
friendly, supportive, and collaborative working environment (Dolcos & Daley, 2009).
Leaders who fail to communicate such a culture jeopardize employee job satisfaction.
When employees become less engaged in an organization’s culture, interruptions
to perceptions of the culture are more likely to lead to intentions to separate from
employment. Employee perceptions can move from positive to negative within 1 to 2
months after being hired. A main attraction to employees is the culture of an
organization. When perceptions of an organizational culture change from the initial,
attractive perceptions of the culture, employees are more likely to terminate their
employment (Lee et al., 1999).

88
Implication to leadership globally. Employees who have good relationships
with their leaders typically remain employed longer than employees without such
positive relationships. Good relationships between leaders and employees exist in
friendly, supportive, and collaborative cultures (Detert et al., 2007; Dolcos & Daley,
2009). Local area supervisors are frequently the main connection between an
organization and its employees. The behavioral transfer of emotions applies to any
organization with entry-level, unskilled workers.
Suggestions for Further Research
Four suggestions for future research emerged from the study results. The first
suggestion is to change the method of soliciting participants by selecting employees from
a particular chain of fast-food restaurants. The second suggestion is to conduct an
examination of the relationship among perception of organizational culture, ownership
type, and separation intent. The third suggestion is to conduct an examination of the
relationship among perception of organizational culture, perception of parental
leadership, and separation intent. The second and third recommendations involve
replacing the current study variable of employment length. The fourth suggestion is to
study the relationship of team membership to employee turnover.
An alternative method of survey distribution, the first suggestion, is to request that
human resources representatives from fast-food restaurant chains distribute the survey
web address directly to employees in an effort to gather the minimum number of
participants necessary for the results to be statistically representative of the population of
hospitality and leisure employees. In the current study, advertisement of the survey web
address took place in college newspapers and social media web sites in the southwest
89
United States geographic region. Changing the methods of sampling participants and
distributing the survey might necessitate changes to the selection of geographic region
and to the designation of the sample population.
The second suggestion, to study the relationship among perception of
organizational culture, ownership type, and separation intent, involves replacing the
current study variable of employment length with ownership type. Such a study would
be an examination of the effect of the difference in leadership style (e.g., franchise-owned
as opposed to company-owned fast-food restaurants) on employee turnover. A review of
the literature reveals different leadership styles between supervisors in franchise- and
company-owned restaurants (Peterson & Luthans, 2006).
The third suggestion, to study the relationship among perception of organizational
culture, perception of parental leadership, and separation intent, involves replacing the
current study variable of employment length with perception of parental leadership style.
Parental leadership, as used in this context, is how workers perceived their parents’
leadership style.. The purpose of such a study would be to determine whether employees
remain employed with a company for longer periods when their perceptions of
organizational culture and leadership style correlate positively with their perceptions of
parental leadership style (Ferguson, Grice, Hagaman, & Kaiping, 2006). The literature
reviewed for the current study involved discussions of the effect of shocks or
interruptions to employees’ perceptions of organizational culture. Employees whose
perceptions of organizational culture are similar to the intended organizational culture are
less likely to terminate employment (Lee et al., 1999). A similar relationship might exist
90
among parental leadership style, perception of organizational culture, and separation
intent.
The fourth suggestion, to study the relationship of team membership to employee
turnover, is based on findings from the descriptive statistics for the variable OC-
Perception (see Table 2). Participants rated their feelings of co-workers, on average, at
5.46 compared to feelings of their managers at 5.03. The difference between the two
means is .43 on a 7 point scale with a results range from 3.40 to 6.80 (difference of 3.40).
Future study could be conducted to examine the importance of allowing social
communities of workers as related to employee morale and intention to terminate
employment.
Summary and Conclusion
Summary. The current quantitative, correlational study was an examination of
the relationships among perception of organizational culture, length of employment, and
employee turnover. Two statistical tests were run on data collected from 15 surveys
submitted through a commercially available web site. The results indicate significant and
negative relationships exist between perception of organizational culture and intent to
separate and between length of employment and intent to separate. Before conducting
further analysis on the dependent variables of Employment-Length and OC-Perception,
factor analysis was conducted to determine whether Employment-Length and OC-
Perception were different factors. The results of the principal component analysis
indicated Employment-Length and OC-Perception consisted of a single component,
making additional analysis unnecessary.
The results indicate (a) positive perceptions of organizational culture are

91
negatively correlated with intentions to terminate employment and (b) the longer
employees are employed, the less likely they are to consider terminating employment.
The knowledge gained from the current study adds to the existing knowledge about
employee-employer relationships (Lee et al., 2008). Management theorists recognized
the relationship between leadership style and organizational culture. Cultures that
employees perceive as friendly, supportive, and collaborative are associated with higher
valuations of job satisfaction and lower employee turnover (Chiu et al., 2005). Local
supervisors are a direct connection between workers and organizational purpose of a
business entity.
Through their behavior, leaders influence employees’ intentions to remain
employed with an organization (Gould, 2009). The current study results reveal that
supervisors are likely responsible for high turnover rates among their direct reports.
Manager training programs with content on how to communicate the culture of the
organization might equip leaders with the knowledge necessary to reduce employee
turnover. Environments with low turnover are associated with productive employees
(Poskey, 2009). Local store managers are often the only connection between an
employee and the company.
Conclusion. The current study involved discussions pertaining to the problem
statement as presented in Chapter 1. The problem was fast-food restaurant owners do not
understand how length of employment and perception of organizational culture are
related to employee turnover (Hayden & Madsen, 2008). Chapter 2 included a review of
the literature on theories of employee turnover. Chapter 3 contained descriptions of the

92
study methodology, and Chapter 4 included the study results. Chapter 5 contained a
discussion on the interpretation of results.

93
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Appendix A: Fast-Food Employee Survey

111
112
113
114
115
116
117
Appendix B: Informed Consent

118
Informed Consent: Participants 18 years of age and older.
The message below appeared on the opening screen of the online survey used to
collect data for this study (Appendix A). To proceed to the questionnaire, the participant
had to first check a box marked I Agree in reference to this message. Participants took
the survey anonymously.
Dear Participant,
My name is Duane Dike and I am a student at the University of Phoenix working

on a doctoral degree in management. I am conducting a research study entitled
Quantitative Correlational Study of Employment-Length, Organizational Culture
Perception, and Employee Turnover in Fast-Food Restaurants. The purpose of this study
is to examine the degree to which a relationship exists among perceptions of an
organization’s culture, length of employment, and intent to separate employment.
Your participation will involve answering questions presented in this online

survey. Approximate time to take this survey is 10 minutes. Your participation in this
study is voluntary. If you choose not to participate or to withdraw from the study at any
time, you can do so without penalty or loss of benefit to yourself. The results of the
research study may be published but your identity will remain confidential and your
name will not be disclosed to any outside party.
In this research, there are no foreseeable risks. Although there may be no direct
benefit to you, a possible benefit of your participation is the additional knowledge for
business leaders of why employees terminate employment.
If you have any questions concerning the research study, please contact me at
duanedike1@email.phoenix.edu.
As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:
1. You may decline to participate or withdraw from participation at any time without
consequences.
2. Your identity will be kept confidential.
3. Duane Dike, the researcher, has thoroughly explained the parameters of the research
study and all of your questions and concerns have been addressed.
4. If the interviews are recorded, you must grant permission for the researcher, Duane Dike,
to digitally record the interview. You understand that the information from the recorded
interviews may be transcribed. The researcher will structure a coding process to assure
that your anonymity is protected.
5. Data will be stored in a secure and locked area. The data will be held for a period of
three years, and then destroyed.
6. The research results will be used for publication.
119
“By clicking on the agree box below, you acknowledge that you understand the
nature of the study, the potential risks to you as a participant, and the means by which
your identity will be kept confidential. By checking the agree box, you also indicate that
you are 18 years old or older and that you give your permission to serve as a voluntary
participant in the study described.”
If you choose to withdraw from the study after beginning the survey, exit by
closing surveymonkey.com and all information completed to that point will be erased and
not included in the study.
Answer the questions as honestly as possible for the feelings you have about your
current job.
120
Appendix C: Advertisement Copy

121
Notice to employees of fast-food restaurants
You’re invited to take an online survey designed to test your feelings of your workplace
and co-workers.
Logon to http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/[CODE].

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Quantitative Correlational Study of Organizational Culture Perception,

Employment Length, and Employee Turnover in Fast-Food Restaurants

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

Jean R. Perlman, JD,DBA, Mentor

Jules Klagge, Ph.D., Committee Member

Kimberly Blum, Ph.D., Committee Member

Accepted and Signed: 4

This quantitative correlational study was an examination of the relationships among

perception of organizational culture, length of employment, and employee turnover. The

specific problem is fast-food restaurant owners do not know how perception of

anticipating responsibility, but within 1 to 2 months, morale decreases, and employees

organizational culture are negatively correlated with intentions to terminate employment

This dissertation is dedicated to my family who put up with me as I disappeared

to attend to my studies. They are, in no particular order, Laure, my wife, Carrie, my

First on my list is Dr. Jean Perlman, my mentor, who patiently accompanied me

the journey without the support of my boss, Robyn Vossen.

influenced me in how I think about leadership.

me through the logistical maze of the program.

List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xii

List of Figures .........................................................................................................xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 1

Background of the Problem ....................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................... 4

Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................. 5

Significance of the Problem ....................................................................................... 6

Significance of the study. ................................................................................... 6

Significance of the study to leadership. .............................................................. 6

Nature of the Study .................................................................................................... 6

Research method. ................................................................................................ 7

Design appropriateness. ...................................................................................... 7

Research Question ..................................................................................................... 8

Relationship between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent. ............................ 8

Relationship between Employment-Length and Separation-Intent. ................... 9

Relationship among Employment-Length, OC-Perception, and Separation-

Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................. 9

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature......................................................................... 18

Title Searches, Articles, Research Documents, and Journals .................................. 18

Employee Turnover ................................................................................................. 19

Studies on interruption theory. ......................................................................... 20

Interruption theory as a paradigm shift. ............................................................ 22

Job related and not job related interruptions..................................................... 23

Perceptions and perspectives. ........................................................................... 26

Leader role in controlling interruptions. ........................................................... 27

Organizational Culture ............................................................................................. 29

Organizational culture assimilation. ................................................................. 29

Organizational culture and employee turnover................................................. 31

Leader role in setting organizational culture. ................................................... 32

Corporate and local level organizational culture. ............................................. 34

Training and organizational culture. ................................................................. 36

Termination as transfer from one organization to another. .............................. 38

Supervisor intervention and training. ............................................................... 39

The first 12 months of employment.................................................................. 39

Length of employment and compensation. ....................................................... 41

Intent as a predictor of separation. .................................................................... 42

Supervisor input and Separation-Intent prevention. ......................................... 42

Separation-Intent as change. ............................................................................. 43

Chapter 3: Method ................................................................................................... 47

Research Method and Design Appropriateness ....................................................... 47

Research Question ................................................................................................... 49

Relationship between OC-Perception and Separation-Intent. .......................... 50