CHAPTER II.

T H E ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC {continued).

29. DEVELOPMENT. (1) The expression for any region whatsoever may
be written in the form ax + bx ; where x represents any region.
For let z be any region. Now x + x = i.
Hence z =£ x + x
= zx + zx.
Now let a = zx + iixy and b = zx + vx, where and v are restricted by no
conditions.
Then ax + bx = (zx + ) x -f (zx -f vx) x = zx + zx = z.
Hence by properly choosing a and b, ax + bx can be made to represent
any region z without imposing any condition on x.
Again the expression for any region can be written in the form
(a + x) (b + x),
where x represents any other region. For by multiplication
(a + x) (b + x) — ab - ax -f bx = (a + ab) x + (b + ab) x = ax-\- bx.
This last expression has just been proved to represent the most general
region as far as its relation to the term x is concerned.
(2) Binomial expressions of the form ax + bx have many important
properties which must be studied. It is well to notice at once the follow-
ing transformations :
ax + bx = (b + x) (a + x);
~ (ax -f bx) =(â~ + x)(b-\- x)
= a~x + bx ;
(ax -f bx) (ex + dx) = acx + bdx ;
ax + bx + = (a + c) x + (b + c) x ;
ax + bx = ax + bx + ab.
46 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

(3) Let f (x) stand for any complex expression formed according to the
processes of this algebra by successive multiplications and additions of x and x
and other terms denoting other regions. Then ƒ ( ?) denotes some region with
a specified relation to x. But by (1) of this article f(x) can also be written
in the form ax + bx. Furthermore a and b can be regarded as specified by
multiplications and additions of the other terms involved in the formation of
f{x) without mention of x. For if a be a complex expression, it must be
expressible, by a continual use of the distributive law, as a sum of products
of which each product either involves or neither. Since a only appears
when multiplied by x, any of these products involving x as a factor can be
rejected, since xx = 0 ; also any of these products involving x as a factor can
be written with the omission of x, since xx ^= x. Hence a can be written in
a form not containing x or x. Similarly b can be written in such a form.
(4) Boole has shown how to deduce immediately from ƒ (x) appropriate
forms for a and b. For write f(x) = ax -f bx. Let i be substituted for x, then
ƒ ( ) = ai 4- bï = ai + 0 = a.
Again let 0 be substituted for x, then
/ ( 0 ) = a O + M)==0 + ò; = ò.
Hence ƒ (x) =f(i) x + / ( 0 ) x.
For complicated expressions the rule expressed by this equation shortens
the process of simplification. This process is called by Boole the develop-
ment otf(x) with respect to x.
The reciprocity between multiplication and addition gives the reciprocal
rule
ƒ(*)={ƒ(<>)+*}{ƒ(»•)+*}•
(5) The expressions f(i) and ƒ (0) may involve other letters y, z, etc.
They may be developed in respect to these letters also.
Consider for example the expression ƒ (x, y, z) involving three letters.
f(x, y} z) =f(i, y, z)x + / ( 0 , 2/, z) x,
f(i> > z)=f{% i> z)y+f(% 0, z)y,
f(i, i, z)=f(i, i, i)z+f(i} i, 0)0,
ƒ(*, 0, z)=f(i, 0, i)z+f{i, 0, 0 ) 1 ,
ƒ (0, y, z) = f (0, i,z) + / ( 0 , 0, *) %
, », ) =ƒ((), , i) z + / ( 0 , , 0) z,
f (0,0,*) = / ( 0 , 0 , ) * + 0,0, 0)0.
Hence by substitution
ƒ ( ?, y, z) = ƒ ( , , ) ays + / ( 0 , , ) xyz + ƒ ( , 0, ) xyz +f ( , , 0)
+ ƒ ( , 0, 0) + / ( 0 , , 0) xyz + / ( 0 , 0, ') ^ + / ( 0 , 0, 0)
30] DEVELOPMENT. 47

The reciprocal formula, owing to the brackets necessary, becomes too

complicated to be written down here.
Let any term in the above developed expression for ƒ (x, y, z\ say
/ ( 0 , i, 0) xyz, be called a constituent term of the type xyz in the develop-
ment.
(6) The rule for the supplement of a binomial expression given in
subsection (1) of this article, namely ~ {ax + bx) = ax -f bx, can be extended
to an expression developed with respect to any number of terms xy yy z, ....
The extended rule is that if
f{x,y,z, ...) = axyz ... + ...+gxyz...y
then ~ ƒ (x, y, z, ... ) = äxyz ... + . . . + /z- • •.
In applying this proposition any absent constituent term must be
replaced with 0 as its coefficient and any constituent term with the form
xyz... must be written ixyz... so that i is its coefficient.
For assume that the rule is true for n terms x, y, z... and let t be an
(w + l)th term.
Then developing with respect to the n terms x, y, z,...
f(x, y, z, ... t) = Aœyz...+ ... + Gxyz...,
where the products such as xyz ..., ..., xyz ... do not involve t, and
A =at + a't,..., G=gt + g't.
Then the letters a, a', ..., gy g' are the coefficients of.constituent terms
of the expression as developed with respect to the n+Jtrterms xy y, z,...t.
Hence by the assumption
~f(œ> ' z> - - • 0 = Axyz ... + ... + Gxyz ....
But by the rule already proved for one term,
A = ät + cl'l, ..., G=gt + g't.
Hence the rule holds for (n + l)th terms. But the rule has been proved
for one term. Thus it is true always.
30. ELIMINATION. (1) The object of elimination may be stated thus:
Given an equation or a subsumption involving certain terms among others,
to find what equations or subsumptions can be deduced not involving those
terms.
The leading propositions in elimination are Propositions XXI. and XXII.
of the last chapter, namely that, if z^œu + yv, then z^x + y; and if
z^ (x + u) (y + v), then z^rxy\ and their Corollaries that, xu + yv^x + y, and,
(x -f u) (y + v) ^ xy.
(2) To prove that if ax + bx = c, then a + 6 ^ ^ ab.
Eliminating x and x by the above-mentioned proposition from the
equation
= ax + bx, c^a + b.
48 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

Also taking the supplementary equation,

= + bx.
Hence from above
^ ä + b.
Taking the supplementary subsumption,
ab = * (ä + b)

Therefore finally
a + b ì e ì ab.
The second part can also be proved* by taking the reciprocal equation,
= (a 4- x) (b + x), and by using Prop. XXII. Corollary.
The same subsumptions, written in the supplementary form, are
ä - b = 4= üb.
(3) By Prop. XI. each of these subsumptions is equivalent to an equation,
which by Prop. VIII. can be put into many equivalent forms.
Thus a + b^c, can be written
= ( + b) ;
and this is equivalent to
äbc = 0,
And ^ ab, can be written
ab = abc ;
and this is equivalent to aba = 0.
(4) Conversely, if
4 a + b})
$aby ]
then it has to be shown that we can write ax + bx = ; where we have to
determine the conditions that x must fulfil. This problem amounts to
proving that the equation ax + = has a solution, when the requisite
conditions between a, b, are fulfilled. The solution of the problem is
given in the next article (cf. § 31 (9)).
The equation ax + bx = includes a number of subsidiary equations.
For instance ax = ex ; thence a + x = c + x, and thence ax = ex. Similarly
bx = cx} and bx = ex. The solution of the given equation will satisfy identi-
cally all these subsidiary equations.
(5) Particular Cases. There are two important particular cases of this
equation, when = , and when = 0.
Firstly, = . Then ax + bx = i.
* Pointed out to me by Mr W. E. Johnson.
30] ELIMINATION. 49

Hence a+ b^i.
But the only possible case of this subsumption is
a + 6 = i.
Also ab =£ , which is necessarily true.
Therefore finally, a + b = i, is the sole deduction independent of x.
Secondly, = 0. Then ax + bx = 0.
Hence a + b ^ 0, which is necessarily true.
Also ab 4 0. But the only possible case of this subsumption is ab = 0.
Therefore finally, ab = 0, is the only deduction independent of x. If
the equation be written ƒ (A?) = 0, the result of the elimination becomes
/ ( 0 / ( 0 ) = o.
These particular cases include each other. For if
ax + bx = ,
then ~ (ax + bx) = 0,
that is äx + bx = 0.
And a + b = is equivalent to ab = 0.
(6) General Equation. The general form ( )=-^ (x), where ( ) and
/ (x) are defined in the same way as f(x) in § 29 (3), can be reduced to
these cases. For this equation is equivalent to
(x)^r(x) + ( )^( ) = 0.
This is easily proved by noticing that the derived equation implies
( )^( ) = 0, ( ) = 0,
that is (x) ^yfr(x)y / (#) =£ (#),
that is (x) = / ( ) .
Hence the equation ( ) = ^ ( ) can be written by § 29 (4) in the form
{ (%) + (%) + ( ) / ( )} x + ( (0 0) + (0) / (0)] = 0.
Hence the result of eliminating from the general equation is
[ ( ') f (i) + ( ) * ( )} { (0) * (0) + (0) + (0)} = 0.
This equation includes the four equations
( ) (0) f ( ) ) = 0, ( ') (0) £ ( *) / (0) = 0,
(i) (0) / ( ) / (0) = 0, () (0) / ( *) / (0) = 0.
The reduction of the general equation to the form with the right-hand
side null is however often very cumbrous. It is best to take as the standard
form
ax + bx = CX + dx (1).
This form reduces to the form, ax + bx = c, when = d. For
ex + dx = (x + x) = c.
w. 4
50 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

The equation is equivalent to the two simultaneous equations

ax = ex, bx = dx]
as may be seen by multiplying the given equation respectively by œ and x.
Let the equation ax = cx be called the positive constituent equation,
and the equation bx = dx be called the negative constituent equation of
equation (1).
Taking the supplements
cL-\-x = c + x, b + x = d + x.
Hence multiplying by x and x respectively
âx — ex, and bx = dx.
So equation (1) can also be written
äx -f- bx = ex + dx ;
and the two supplementary forms give
äx + bx = ex + dx}
ax -{-bx = ex + dx.
The elimination of x can also be conducted thus.
Put each side of equation (1) equal to z.
Then ax + bx = zf
CX + dx = z.
Hence the following subsumptions hold,
a + b ^F z ^ ab ;
e + d^F z^ed.
Therefore a+ b^ed,
c+ d^ab.
Also similarly from the form, äx -f bx = ex + cte, we find the subsumptions
ä + ò 4= cd,
4- d ^= üb.
These four subsumptions contain (cf. § 31 (9), below) the complete result
of eliminating x from the given equation (1). The two supplementary forms
give the same subsumptions, only in their supplementary forms, but in-
volving no fresh information.
From these four subsumptions it follows that,
abed = abed = abed = abed = -0.
These are obviously the four equations found by the other method, only
written in a different notation.
30] ELIMINATION. 51

From these equations the original subsumptions can be deduced. For

abcd = 0 can be written
ab 4 ~ (cd),
and therefore ab =£ + d.
Similarly for the other subsumptions.
Also it can easily be seen that the four subsumptions can be replaced
by the more symmetrical subsumptions, which can be expressed thus,
(The sum of any two coefficients, one from each constituent equation)
^ (The product of the other two).
(7) Discriminants. All these conditions and (as it will be shown) the
solution of the equation can be expressed compendiously by means of certain
functions of the coefficients which will be called the Discriminants of the
equation.
The discriminant of ax = ex is + . Let it be denoted by A.
The discriminant of bx = dx is bd + bd. Let it be denoted by B.
Then A and will respectively be called the positive and negative
discriminants of the equation
ax + bx = ex + dx (1).
Now A = ~ (ae -f )= + ,
and B = - (bd + bd) = bd + bd.
Therefore, remembering that + z = 0 involves = 0, z = 0, it follows that
all the conditions between the coefficients a, 6, c, d can be expressed in
the form
AB = 0.
This equation will be called the resultant* of the equation
ax + bx = cx + dx.
It can be put into the following forms,
Z 4 5 , B^A, IB = Ä, BA = B, Ä+B = B, B+A=A.
I t is shown below in § 31 (9) that the resultant includes every equation
between the coefficients and not containing x which can be deduced from
equation (1).
The equation ax + bx = ex + dx when written with its right-hand side
null takes the form
Ax+Tïx = Q.
(8) Again let there be n simultaneous equations a1x=c1x,a2x=c2x,...i
anx — cnx, and let Alf A2, ... An be the discriminants of the successive
equations respectively; then their product 2... An is called the resultant
* Cf. Schröder, Algebra der Logik, § 21.
4—2
52 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

discriminant of the n equations. It will be denoted by (Ar), or more

shortly A. Similarly let there be n simultaneous equations \ = djX
b2x = d^x,... bnx — dnx ; and let Bu B2...Bn be the discriminants. Then
BjB2... Bn is the resultant discriminant of the n equations. It will be called
(Br) or B.
The n equations + ^ = cYx + djX,
a%x + ^ = ? + d^x,

Cl'jftC"7~ Uj^Ju^— " * (JjjiXy

involve the 2n equations just mentioned and conversely.

The functions A and are called the positive and negative resultant
discriminants of these equations.
Now = + 2 + ... + Ant
= + 5 , + ... + JBn.
Hence AB = S ArB8.
Now any equation djX = CrX may be joined with any equation b^c = dgX
to form the equation a^x + bsx — CrX + d^c. Hence all the relations between
the coefficients are included in all the equations of the type,
ÄrB8 = 0.
But these equations are all expressed by the equation
25=0.
This equation may therefore conveniently be called the resultant of the n
equations.
This is the complete solution of the problem of the elimination of a single
letter which satisfies any number of equations.
The single equation
Ax + Bx = 0,
is equivalent to the n given equations.
It must be carefully noticed that in this algebra the distinctions of
procedure, which exist in ordinary algebra according to the number of
equations given, do not exist. For here one equation can always be found
which is equivalent to a set of equations, and conversely a set of equations
can be found which are equivalent to one equation.
(9) More than one Unknown. The general equation involving two un-
knowns, x and y, is of the type
axy + bxy + cxy + dxy = exy +fxy + gxy + hxy.
This equation is equivalent to the separate constituent equations,
axy = exy =fxyy etc. Let a constituent equation involving x (as
distinct from x) be called a constituent positive with respect to x} and
30] ELIMINATION. 53

let a constituent equation involving x (as distinct from x) be called a

constituent negative with respect to x. Thus, axy = exy> is positive with
respect both to x and y ; bxy =fxy, is positive with respect to x. negative
with respect to y, and so on.
Let A, B, Gy 1) stand for the discriminants of these constituents. Thus
A = ae + = bf + bf, C=cg + D = dh + dh. Then the discriminant
A is called the discriminant positive with respect to x and , is the
discriminant positive with respect to x and negative with respect to y, and
so on.
The equation can be written in the form
(ay + by)x + (cy + dy)x = (ey +fy) x -f (gy + hy) x.
If we regard x as the only unknown, the positive discriminant is
(ay + by) (ey +fy) + (äy + by) (ey +fy),
that is Ay + By.
The negative discriminant is Cy + Dy.
The resultant is (Äy + By)(Cy+ By) = 0;
that is ACy+ BBy = 0.
This is the equation satisfied by when x is eliminated. It will be
noticed that A and G are the discriminants of the given equation positive
with respect to y, and and D are the discriminants negative with respect
toy.
Similarly the equation satisfied by x when is eliminated is
ÄBx+ ÖDx = 0.
The resultant of either of these two equations is
ÄBGD = 0.
This is therefore the resultant of the original equation.
The original equation when written with its right-hand side null takes
the form
Äxy + Bxy + Cxy + Dxy = 0 (1).
Again suppose there are n simultaneous equations of the above type
the coefficients of which are distinguished by suffixes 1, 2, ... n.
Then it may be shown just as in the case of a single unknown xy that all
equations of the type, ApBqGrDs = 0, hold.
Hence if J. stand for A^2... An, and for 2... Bn, G for 2... Cnì
and D for - . Ai, the resultant of the equations is ÄBGD = 0.
The n equations can be replaced by a single equation of the same form as
(1) above.
Also the equation satisfied by x, after eliminating only is
+ > =0,
54 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

where A and are the positive discriminants with respect to x> and
and D are the negative discriminants. The equation satisfied by is
ACy+BDy = 0,
where a similar remark holds.
(10) This formula can be extended by induction to equations involving
any number of unknowns. For the sake of conciseness of statement we will
only give the extension from two unknowns to three unknowns, though the
reasoning is perfectly general.
The general equation for three unknowns can be written in the form
(az + a'z) xy -f (bz -f b'z) xy + (cz + c'z) xy + (dz + d'z) xy
= (ez + ez) xy + (fz +f'z) xy + (gz + g'z) xy + Qiz + h!z) xy.
Then, ii A =ae + âë, A' = a e -f- ä'e, and so on, A is the discriminant
positive with respect to x, y, and z} and A' is the discriminant positive with
respect to x and y, but negative with respect to z\ and so on.
If x and y be regarded as the only unknowns, then the two discriminants
positive with respect to x are
{az + a'z) (ez + e'z) + (äz + a'z) (êz -f ë'z),
and (bz + Vz) (fz +fz) + (bz + b'z) (fz +f'z\
that is, Az + A'z, and Bz + B'z.
Similarly the two discriminants negative with respect to x are
Gz + Cz, and Dz + Bz.
Hence the equation for x after eliminating y is
(Äz + A'z) (Bz + B'z)x + (Cz+ G'z)(Bz + B'z)x=0,
that is (ÄBz + '2?'0) + ( Ö i b + 6 7 £) = 0.
The result of eliminating £ from this equation is
ÄÄ'BB'x + GCDD'x = 0.
Hence the equation for x after eliminating the other unknowns is of the
form, Px + Qx = 0, where P is the product of the supplements of the discri-
minants positive with respect to x, and Q is the product of the supplements
of the discriminants negative with respect to x.
The resultant of the whole equation is
ÄÄ'BB'GCDD'^0,
that is the product of the supplements of the discriminants is zero.
The given equation when written with its right-hand side null takes the
form
Axyz + A'xyz + Bxyz + B'xyz + Gxyz + Cxyz + Dxyz + ' = .
The same formulas hold for any number of equations with any number
of variables, if resultant discriminants are substituted for the discriminants
of a single equation.
31] ELIMINATION. 55

(11) I t is often convenient to notice that if

be an equation involving any number of variables, then any discriminant is

of the form
/ , i, i, ...\ /i9 i, i, ..A -fi, , , .. - / , , , ..

where is substituted for each of the unknowns with respect to which the
discriminant is positive and 0 is substituted for each of the unknowns with
respect to which the discriminant is negative.
(12) The formula for the elimination of some of the unknowns, say,
u, v, w,..., from an equation involving any number of unknowns, x, y, zt...
UyVyW,..., can easily be given. For example, consider only four unknowns,
x, y, z, t, and let it be desired to eliminate z and t from this equation, so that
a resultant involving only x and is left. Let any discriminant of the

(000
% ? % i \

0/ ' w ^ e r e ^ or
0 i s t 0 D e written ac-
cording to the rule of subsection (11). The equation can be written
[D ( , , i, ) xyz + D ( , , 0, ) xyz +1) ( , 0, , ) xyz + D (0, , , ) xyz
+ 5( , 0, 0, ) -f S (0, , 0, ) % + D (0, 0, , ) xyz + D (0, 0, 0, ) t
+ { 5 ( , , , 0) ^ + 5 ( , , 0, 0) ? + ...} * = 0.
Hence eliminating t, the resultant is
D ( , , , ) D ( , , , 0) + D ( , , 0, ) i) ( , , 0, 0)
^D(iOJ)i)D(i>OìiJ0)xyz+...-hD(OfOìOyi)D(OyO>0)0)xyz = 0.
Again eliminating z by the same method, the resultant is
5 ( ', i i, i) 5 ( , , , 0) 5 ( , , 0, ) S ( , , 0, 0)
+ S ( ', 0, , ) 5 ( , 0, , 0) 5 ( , 0, 0, ) 5 ( , 0, 0, 0)
+ 5 ( , , , ) 5 (0, , , 0) 5 ( , , 0, ) 5 (0, , 0, 0)
+ 5 ( 0 , 0, , ) 5 ( 0 , 0, ', 0 ) 5 ( 0 , 0, 0, t ) 5 ( 0 , 0, 0, 0) = 0.
It is evident from the mode of deduction that the same type of formula
holds for any number of unknowns.

31. SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN. (1) The solutions of

equations will be found to be of the form of sums of definite regions together
with sums of undetermined portions of other definite regions; for example
to be of the form a + vj) + v2c, where a, 6, are defined regions and vly v2 are
entirely arbitrary, including or 0.
Now it is to be remarked that (b + c), where is arbitrary, is as
56 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

general as vj) + v2e. For writing u = v1b + v2(b f be), which is allowable since
is entirely arbitrary, then
(b + c) = {vj) + v2 (b + be)} [b + c}
= vj) + v2 (bc + be)
= vj) + v2e.
Hence it will always be sufficient to use the form (b + c), unless v1 and v2
are connected by some condition in which case vj> -f v2c may be less general
than (b + c).
(2) ax = ex.
Then by § 30, (7) Ax = 0.
Hence by § 26, Prop. VIII. x = Ax.
But instead of x on the right-hand side of this last equation, (x + vA)
may be substituted, where v is subject to no restriction. But the only
restriction to which x is subjected by this equation is that it must be
incident in A. Hence x + vA is perfectly arbitrary.
Thus finally x = vA ;
where v is arbitrary.
(3) bx = dx.
From subsection (2) ; x = uB.
Hence x= + .
(4) + 6 = ex + cfö ; where AB = 0.
From the equation ax = ex, it follows that x = uA ;
and from bx = dx, that x = v + B.
Hence A = v + B.
Therefore v A = 0.
Hence v = wA.
Finally, x= + wJ. ;
where w is arbitrary.
This solution can be put into a more symmetrical form, remembering that
B+ A=A.
For x= (w + w) + wA= Bw +w(A + B) = wA + .
Hence the solution can be written
x = B + wAy\
x=A +wB.)
31] SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN. 57

Or x = wA -f w
x — wA + wB.j
The first form of solution has the advantage of showing at a glance the
terms definitely given and those only given with an undetermined factor.
(5) To sum up the preceding results in another form : the condition
that the equations ax = ex, bx = dx may be treated as simultaneous is
2 5 = 0.
The solution which satisfies both equations is
x= + uA.
The solution which satisfies the first and not necessarily the second is
x — uA.
The solution which satisfies the second and not necessarily the first is
x= that is x = u + B.
In all these cases is quite undetermined and subject to no limitation.
(6) The case ax + bx = c, is deduced from the preceding by putting d = c.
Then A =ac + äc, B=bc+bc.
The solutions retain the same form as in the general case.
The relations between a, b, are all included in the two subsumptions
a+ b^c^ab.
The case ax + bx = 0 is found by putting = d = 0.
The equation can be written
ax + bx = Ox + Ox.
The positive discriminant is aO + aO, that is a, the negative is b. The
resultant is ab = 0. The solution is
x = b + uä.
(7) The solution for n simultaneous equations can be found with equal
ease.
Let x satisfy the n equations
aYx + bxx = dx + djx,
a^x + bzX = c^x-h d<ß,

^ ~\~ OflX == -- ^ .
Then x satisfies the two groups of n equations each, namely
a^x ^= C\Xy a%x —
— c^x ... a^x ^ c^x j
and b-ß = dß, bß = d^c ... bnx = dnx.
58 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

From the first group

x = u1A1 = u2A2 = ... =unAn.
Hence x = uA ; where is not conditioned.
Similarly from the second group
x = v1B1 = v2B2 = ...=vnBn.
Hence x = vB, x — v + ; where v is not conditioned.
Therefore uA = v 4- B.
Hence vA = 0, that is v = wA.
So finally the solution of the n equations is
x = B + wA = wA + wB,\
x = A + wB = w A + wB ƒ
The group axx = , a^x = c^x, etc. can always be treated as simultaneous,
and so can the group of typical form bjX = drX.
The condition that the two groups can be treated as simultaneous is
AB = 0.
(8) It has been proved that the solution + uA satisfies the equation,
Ax+ Bx=Q, without imposing any restriction on u. It has now to be
proved that any solution of the equation can be represented by B + uA, when
has some definite value assigned to it.
For if some solution cannot be written in this form, it must be capable
of being expressed in the form m + wA + nÄB.
But Ax = Q, and AB = 0, hence, by substituting for x its assumed form,
nAB = 0. Thus the last term can be omitted.
Again, Bx = 0 ; and ÄB = 0, hence (m + ) (w + Ä ) = 0 ; that is
= 0. Hence m — p (w + B)} and therefore m=p +wB.
Therefore the solution becomes
x = m + wA = (p + w ) + w {A + 5 ) ,
= pB + B + wA = B + wA,
Thus the original form contains ail the solutions.
(9) To prove that the resultant AB = 0, includes all the equations to be
found by eliminating x from
Äx + Bx = 0.
For x = + wA satisfies the equation on the assumption that ÄB = 0,
and without any other condition.
Hence AB is the complete resultant.
It easily follows that for more than one unknown the resultants found
in § 30 are the complete resultants.
32] SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN. 59

(10) Subsumptions of the general type

ax + bx^cx + dx
can be treated as particular cases of equations.
For the subsumption is equivalent to the equation
ex + dx = {ex -j- dx) {ax + bx)
= acx + bdx.
Hence A = ac + c~ {ac) = ac + c = a + c,
B=bd + d-{bd) = bd + d = b + d,
A = {ä~ + ) = ,
B = d{b + d) = bd.
Therefore the resultant = 0 is equivalent to abed = 0. This is the
only relation between the coefficients to be found by eliminating x.
The given subsumption is equivalent to the two subsumptions
ax $ ex, bx 4= dx ;
that is, to the two equations
ex = acx, dx = bdx.
The solution of ax ^ ex is x — A = u{a + c).
The solution of bx ^ dx is x = -f- — + bd.
The solution of + ^ - dx
is x= + uA = bd + {a + c)
= ^ + *J. = * ( + ) + .
The case of n subsumptions of the general type with any number of
unknowns can be treated in exactly the same way as a special type of
equation.

32. ON LIMITING AND UNLIMITING EQUATIONS. (1) An equation

<f>{x, y, zt ... t)=\{r{x>y, z, ... t) involving the n unknowns x, y, z, ... t is
called unlimiting with respect to any of its unknowns {x say), if any
arbitrarily assigned value of x can be substituted in it and the equation can
be satisfied by solving for the remaining unknowns y, zy ... t ; otherwise the
equation is called limiting with respect to x. The equation is unlimiting
with respect to a set of its variables x, y, z, ..., if the above property is
true for each one of the unknowns of the set. The equation is unlimiting
with respect to all its unknowns, if the above is true for each one of its
unknowns. Such an equation is called an unlimiting equation.
The equation is unlimiting with respect to a set of its unknowns
simultaneously, if arbitrary values of each of the set of unknowns can be
simultaneously substituted in the equation.
60 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. I I .

I t is obvious that an equation cannot be unlimiting with respect to all its

unknowns simultaneously, unless it be an identity.
(2) The condition that any equation is unlimiting with respect to an
unknown x is found from § 30 (10). For let P be the product of the supple-
ments of the discriminants positive with respect to x and Q be the product
of the supplements of the discriminants negative with respect to x. Then
the equation limiting the arbitrary choice of x is, Px + Qx = 0. Hence if the
given equation be unlimiting with respect to x, the equation just found must
be an identity. Hence P = 0, Q = 0.
(3) The condition that the equation be unlimiting with respect to a set
of its unknowns is that the corresponding condition hold for each variable.
(4) The condition that the equation is unlimiting with respect to a set
x, y, z, ... of its unknowns simultaneously is that the equation found after
eliminating the remaining unknowns t, u, v> ... should be an identity. The
conditions are found by reference to § 30 (12) to be that each product of
supplements of all the discriminants of the same denomination (positive or
negative) with respect to each unknown of the set, but not necessarily of the
same denomination for different unknowns of the set, vanishes.
(5) Every equation can be transformed into an unlimiting equation.
For let the equation involve the unknowns x, y, z, ... t : and let the resultant
of the elimination of all the unknowns except x be, Px + Qx = 0.
Then x= Q + uP, and if be assigned any value without restriction, then
x will assume a suitable value which may be substituted in the equation
previous to solving for the other unknowns. Thus if all the equations of the
type Px +Qx = 0, be solved, and the original equation be transformed
by substitution of, x=Q+uP, y=S + vRy etc., then the new equation
between u, v, ... is unlimiting.
(6) The field of an unknown which appears in an equation is the
collection of values, any one of which can be assigned to the unknown
consistently with the solution of the equation. If the equation be un-
limiting with respect to an unknown, the field of that unknowTn is said to be
unlimited ; otherwise the field is said to be limited.
Let the unknown be x, and with the notation of subsection (5), let the
resultant after eliminating the other unknowns be Px + Qx = 0. Then
x = Q + uP. Hence the field of x is the collection of values found by
substituting all possible values for u, including i and 0. Thus every member
of the field of x contains Q; and P contains every member of the field,
since PQ = 0. The field of x will be said to have the minimum extension Q
and the maximum extension P .
33. O N THE FIELDS OF EXPRESSIONS. (1) Definition. The 'field
of the expression (x, y, z, ... t) ' will be used to denote the collection of
33] ON THE FIELDS OF EXPRESSIONS. 61

values which the expression (x, y, z, ... t) can be made to assume by

different choices of the unknowns x, y, z, ... t. If (œ, y, z, ... t) can be
made to assume any assigned value by a proper choice of x, y} z} ... t, then
the field of (x, y, z,... t) will be said to be unlimited. But if (x} y,z,...t)
cannot by any choice of xy y, z,... t, be made to assume some values, then the
field of (x, y y z, ... t) will be said to be limited.
(2)To prove that
axyz ...t + bxyz ...t 4- ... kxyz ...t,
is capable of assuming the value a + b +... +k. This problem is the same
as proving that the equation
axyz ...t + bxyz ... t + ... 4-kxyz ...t=a + b + ...+k,
is always possible.
The discriminants (cf. § 30 (11)) are
A =a + ab ... , B=b4-ab ... , ...K= k + ab ... .
Hence
Ä = a(b+c + ...k), B = b(a + c + ... + ) , ...K=k(a + b + c+...).
Hence the resultant AB ... = 0 is satisfied identically.
It is obvious that each member of the field of the expression must be
incident in the region a + b +c+ ...+k : for a + b+ + ... + is the value
assumed by the expression when i is substituted for each product xyz ...t,
xyz ...t, ... xyz ...t. But this value certainly contains each member of the
field.
(3) To prove that any member of the field of
axyz ...t+ bxyz ...t + ... + kœyz ...t
contains the region abc ... .
For let (x, y, zy... t), stand for the given expression. Then the region
containing any member of the field of (x, y, z,... t) by the previous subsection
is â + b-\-c-r ... + . Hence the region contained by any member of the
field of (x, y, z} ... t) is abc ... . Hence combining the results of the
previous and present subsections
a + b + 4-... H- : ( , , zy... t) ^= abc ... .
The field of ( } y, z ... i) will be said to be contained between the
maximum extension a4- b + ... 4-k, and the minimum extension ab ... .
(4) The most general form of p, where
a 4-6 + + ... + k^p^abc.k,
is p = abc ... k + u(a + b + c + ... + ) .
In order to prove that the fields of
(x, y, z, ...t) and abc ... 4- ( 4- b 4- 4-... ) ,
62 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

are identical, it is necessary to prove that the equation

(x, y, z, ... t) = abc ... + (a -f + + ... + ) ,
is unlimiting as regards .
The equation can be written
axyz... t + bxyz ...£ + . . . + kxyz ... t = aòc ... -f (a + ò + + ... ) .
The discriminants positive with respect to are (cf. § 30 (11))
a(a + b + c...+k)-{-a~. äbc ...k, that is, a + abc... &,
and b+ äbc ...k, c + äbc ... , ...k + äbc ... .
Their supplements are
E(b + c+ ...+k), ( + + ... + ) , c ( a + 6 - f ... +k), ... £ ( a + ò + c + ...).
Hence the product of the supplements is identically zero.
Similarly the discriminants negative with respect to are
abc ... & + ä ( ä + 6 + ... 4- ) , abc ... & + ò (ä + b + ... +&),
and so on. Their supplements are a(b+ c + ... +k), and so on. The
product of the supplements is identically zero. Hence (cf. § 32 (2)) the
. equation is unlimiting with respect to u.
Thus* the fields of (œ, y,z,...t) and of abc ...k + u(a + b + c+...+k) are
identical and therefore without imposing any restriction on we may write
(x, y, z,...t) = abc ... + (a + b + + ... + ) .
(5) The conditions that the field of ( , y,zf... t) may be unlimited are
obviously abc ... & = 0, a + b -f- + ... +k = i.
The two conditions may also be written
abc ... & = 0 = äbc ... .
(6) Consider the two expressions
axyz ...t + bxyz ...£ + . . . + kxyz ...i,
and OTUVW ...p + bYuvw ...p+ ... h^uvw ...p,
not necessarily involving the same number of unknowns. Call them
( , , .. ) and yjr(UyVfw...p). The conditions that the field of ( }y,z...t)
may contain the field of ^{ v, w ...p), i.e. that all the values which yfr may
assume shall be among those which may assume, are abc ... ^ ajb^ ... Aj,
and a + b + c... + ^ 1-\- 1 + 1+ ...+ .
The two conditions may also be written
abc ... 4(hbi ...&!,
äbc ... 4 «ÄCi... Äi.

* Cf. Schröder, Algebra der Logik, Lecture 10, § 19, where this theorem is deduced by another
proof.
33] ON THE FIELDS OF EXPRESSIONS. 63

(7) The conditions that the fields of (x, y, z ... t) and -^(u.v.w ...p)
may be identical are obviously
abc ... k = a1b1c1... /^,
äbc ...k = ä ^ C i . . . Aj.
(8) To find the field of ƒ (x, y,z... t), when the unknowns are conditioned
by any number of equations of the general type
( , , z... t) = yfrr(xf y,z... t).
Write p = ƒ(x, y,z ...t); and eliminate x, y, z ... t from this equation and
the equations of condition. Let the discriminant of the typical equation
of condition positive with respect to all the variables be Ar, let the dis-
criminant positive with respect to all except t be ., and so on, till all the
discriminants are expressed. Then the resultant discriminants (cf. § 30 (8)
and (9)) of these equations are A = (Ar)y B = U ( .), etc.
Also let f(x, y, z ...t) be developed with respect to all its unknowns, so
that we may write
p = axyz ...t + bxyz ... t + . . . .
The discriminants of this equation are pa+pä, pb+pb, etc. Hence the
resultant after eliminating x, y} z.. is
-{{pa + pâ)A) -{(pb + pb)£}...= 0,
that is, {p(â + Z ) +p(a + A)} {p(b + B) +p(b + B)}... = 0.
Hence p ( ä + Z ) ( o + 5 ) . . . + p ( a + 2 ) ( b + 5 ) . . . = 0.
Thus (cf. § 32 (6)) the field of p is comprised between
(a + A)(b + B)... and aA + bB+....
But apart from the conditioning equations the field of p is comprised be-
tween abc... and a + b + c+ Thus the effect of the equations in limiting
the field of p is exhibited.
The problem of this subsection is Boole's general problem of this algebra,
which is stated by him as follows (cf. Laws of Thought, Chapter ix. § 8) :
'Given any equation connecting the symbols x, y,... w, z,..., required to
determine the logical expression of any class expressed in any way by the
symbols œ, y... in terms of the remaining symbols, w, z} etc/ His mode of
solution is in essence followed here, w, z,... being replaced by the coefficients
and discriminants. Boole however did not notice the distinction between
expressions with limited and unlimited fields, so that he does not point out
that the problem may also have a solution where no equation of condition is
given.
A particular case of this general problem is as follows :
Given n equations of the type a^ + b^c = + d^c}
to determine z, where z is given by z = ex +fx.
Let the discriminants of the n equations be A and B} those of the
equation which defines z are GZ + êz, fo+fz*
64 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

Hence the resultant is ~~ (eAz + ëAz) ~ (fBz +fBz) = 0,

that is (ëf+f + eB)z + (ef+fA + eB)z = 0; where AB = 0.
Hence z = {ef+fA + eB) + {eA -VfB).
Another mode of solution, useful later, of this particular case is as
follows :
The solution for x of the equations is x = + vA, x — A + vB.
Substitute this value of x in the expression for z.
Then z=eB +fl + veA -f If = (eA +fl) v + (fB + eB) v.
I t is easy to verify by the use of subsection (7) that this solution is
equivalent to the previous solution.
(9) An example of the general problem of subsection (8), which leads
to important results later (cf. § 36 (2) and (3)), is as follows.
Given the equation Axy +Bxy \-Cxy + Dxy = 0, to determine xy, xy,
xy, xy, xy + xy, xy + xy.
Put z = xy, then by comparison with subsection (8) a = i, b = 0 = = d.
Hence (a + I)(b + B)(c + C)(d + D) becomes BCD, and aA+bB + cC + dD
becomes A.
Thus, remembering that ABCD=0,
xy = BCD + uA=A (BCD + u).
Similarly xy = ÄGB+uB = B (I CD + u),
xy = ÄBD + uC=G(ÄBD + u)t
xy=ÄBC + uD = D(ÄBC + u).
Also xy + xy = BC +u(A+D) = (A + D){BC +u},
xy + xy = TD+ii(B+C) = (B + C){AD + u}.
It is to be noticed that the arbitrary term of one equation is not identical
with the arbitrary term of any other equation. But relations between the
various us must exist, since xy-f xy + xy +xy = i.
(10) It is possible that the dependence of the value of an expression
f(x, y,z...t)on the value of any one of the unknowns may be only apparent.
For instance if f(x) stand for x + x, then f(x) is always for all values of x.
It is required to find the condition that, when the values of y, z, ...t are
given, the value of ƒ (x, y, z ... t) is also given.
For let f(x,y,z...t) = xf1 + xf2, where f and / 2 are functions of y, z ... t
only. Then on the right-hand side either i or 0 may by hypothesis be put
for x without altering the value of the function.
Hence f =f(x, ... t) = / 2 .
Thus f =f is the requisite condition.
34] ON THE FIELDS OF EXPRESSIONS. 65

Let f(xf y, z ... t) be written in the form

x (ayz .. + byz .. + ...) 4- x {a'yz ... t + b'yz ...£ + ...),
then the required condition is a = a', 6 = 2/, etc.

34. SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH MORE THAN ONE UNKNOWN.

(1) Any equation involving n unknowns, x, y, z ... r, s, t can always be
transformed into an equation simultaneously unlimiting with respect to a
set of any number of its unknowns, say with respect to x, y, z For let
Pj be the product of the supplements of the discriminants positive with
respect to xy and QY the product of the supplements of those negative with
respect to x. Then (cf. § 30 (11)) the resultant after the elimination of all
unknowns except x is,
Pxx + Qxx = 0.
Hence we may write, x = Qx+P1x1 = Q^-h P1xlf where xx is perfectly
arbitrary. Substitute this value of x in the given equation, then the
transformed equation is unlimiting with respect to its new unknown xY.
Again, in the original equation treat x as known, and eliminate all the
other unknowns except y.
Then the resultant is an equation of the form
(Rx + Sx)y + (Tx +Ux)y = 0,
where S, T, U can easily be expressed in terms of the products of the
supplements of discriminants of the original equation. The discriminants
in each product are to be selected according to the following scheme (cf.
§30(12)):
I S, T, Ü
au +, - , +, -
I +> +> -> ~
Now substitute for x in terms of xly and the resultant becomes
* + Q*y = 0,
where P2 and Q2 are functions of xx.

Solving, y = Q-2 + 2 2 = Q2V2 + 2 2;

where y2 is an arbitrary unknown.
If this value for be substituted in the transformed equation, then an
equation between x1} y2y z ... r, s, t is found which is unlimiting with respect
to xx and y2 simultaneously.
Similarly in the original equation treat x, y as known, and eliminate all
the remaining unknowns except z : a resultant equation is found of the type
( Vxxy + Vzxy + Vsxy + Vßy) z + ( + W&y 4- Wsxy f W4xy) z = 0;
W. 5
66 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

where the F's and W's are products of the supplements of discriminants
selected according to an extension of the above scheme. Now substitute
for x and y in terms of and y2) and there results an equation of the
type
i V + Q& = 0 ;
where P3 and Q3 contain x1} y2.
Solving, z = Q3 4- P3z3 = Q3z3 + P3z3i
where z3 is an arbitrary unknown. Then substituting for z, the transformed
equation involving xly y2ì z3... r, s, t is unlimiting with regard to x1} y2, z3
simultaneously.
Thus by successive substitutions, proceeding according to this rule, any
set of the unknowns can be replaced by a corresponding set writh respect
to which the transformed equation is simultaneously unlimiting.
(2) If this process has been carried on so as to include the n — 1 un-
knowns xy y, Z...S, then the remaining unknown t is conditioned by the
equation Pnt+Qnt = 0', where Pn and Qn involve wly y2...sn^1 which are
unlimited simultaneously.
Solving for t, t = Qn + Pntn = Qnïn + Pntn ;
where tn is an arbitrary unknown.
Thus the general equation is solved by the following system of values,
# = Q i + ^ V i , y = Q2 + ^ 2 > - - - s = 0^-1 + ^ - 1 ^ - 1 , t=Qn + Pntn:
where xly y2... tn are arbitrary unknowns.
(3) The generality of the solution, namely the fact that the field of the
solution for any variable is identical with the field of that variable as
implicitly defined by the original equation, is proved by noting that each
step of the process of solution is either a process of forming the resultant
of an equation or of solving an equation for one unknown. But since the
resultant thus formed is known to be the complete resultant (cf. § 31 (9)),
and the solution of the equation for one unknown is known to be the
complete solution (cf. § 31 (8)), it follows that the solutions found are the
general solutions.
It follows from this method of solution that the general solution of the
general equation involving n unknowns requires n arbitrary unknowns.
(4) Consider, as an example*, the general equation involving two un-
knowns,
+ + + dxy = exy +fxy -f gxy + hxy.
Let A, B, C, D be its discriminants.
Then x = CD + - (AB) x, = - (AB) x, + CDxu
^ ^ - ) ^ .
* Cf. Schröder, Algebra der Logik, § 22.
35] SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH MORE THAN ONE UNKNOWN. 67

Also (Äx + Cx) y + (Bx + Dx) y = 0.

Hence
y= Bx + Dx + (Ax + Cx) y2 = (Ax + Cx) y2 + (Bx + Dx) 2

= {{A + ABC) x, + (C + J. ÖD)^} 2/2 + {(^15 + Ä~BD)x1+(CD + ) ^ } y,.

As a verification it may be noticed that the field of y as thus expressed
is contained between A -f and BD. This is easily seen to be true, re-
membering that A BCD = 0.
(5) The equation involving two unknowns may be more symmetrically
solved by substituting (cf. § 32 (5))
x =~ + -( ) = Dû + ~( ) ,
= + -( ) V = BDv -f ~(ÄC)v.
Then and v are connected by the equation*,
ÄBCuv + ABDuv + ACDüv + BCDüv = 0.
This is an unlimiting equation: thus either or v may be assumed
arbitrarily and the other found by solving the equation.
Thus v = AB Du + BCDü + ~(ÄBCu + ACDu)p,
or u = ACDv + BCDv -f - ( Z ^ C u + ABDv) q ;
where p and q are arbitrary.

35. SYMMETRICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH TWO UNKNOWNS.

(1) Schröder*|* has given a general symmetrical solution of the general
equation involving two unknowns in a form involving three arbitrary un-
knowns.
The following method of solution includes his results but in a more
general form.
(2) Consider any unlimiting equation involving two unknowns. Let
A, B, C, D be its four discriminants. Then the equation can be written in
the form
A xy + Bxy + Cxy + Dxy = 0 (a).
Now put x = axuv + biiiv + cßv + d^v (/3),
= a2uv + b2uv + c2uv + d2uv (7).
Since the equation (a) is unlimiting (cf. § 32 (2)),
A~B = ÄC = BD = CD = 0.
* This equation was pointed out to me by Mr W. E. Johnson and formed the starting-point
for my investigations into limiting and unlimiting equations and into expressions with
limited and unlimited fields. As far as I am aware these ideas have not previously been
developed, nor have the general symmetrical solutions for equations involving three or more
unknowns been previously given, cf. §§ 35—37.
t Algebra der Logik, Lecture xii. § 24.
5—2
68 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

Also since the fields both of x and y are unlimited, then (cf. § 33 (5))
afi&dj = 0 = äib^di = a2b2c2d2 = a2b2c2d2.
Substitute for x and y from (ß) and (7) in (a), and write (p, q) for the
expression
A pq + Bpq + Cpq 4- Dpq.
Then the equation between and v is found to be
(ui> «2) uv + (6i,fr2)uv + (ci, Co)üv + (dlt d2)uv = 0 (&).
Equation (8) is the result of a general transformation from unknowns
and 2/ to unknowns and v.
(3) If the forms (ß) and (7) satisfy equation (a) identically for any two
simultaneous values of and v, then
( « i , «2) = 0 = (blf 2) = ( 1, Ca) = </> ( ^ , da).
Thus if the pairs ( , a2), ( 1} ò2), (Ci, c2), (d1} d2) be any pairs of simul-
taneous particular solutions of the original equation, then (ß) and (7) are
also solutions.
(4) Assuming that (a1} a2) ... (d1} d2) are pairs of simultaneous particular
solutions of (a), it remains to discover the condition that the expressions (/3)
and (7) for x and give the general form of the solution.
This condition is discovered by noting that the solution is general, if
when x has any arbitrarily assigned value, the field of y as defined by
equation (a) is the same as the field of as defined by (7) when and v are
conditioned by equation (/3).
Now equation (a) can be written
{Ax -J- Gx) + (Bx + ) = 0.
Hence the field of y as defined by (a) is contained between the maximum
extension (cf. §32 (6)) Ax+ Ox and the minimum extension Bx + Bx.
Now let Ax, Bx, GXy Dx be the discriminants of (ß) considered as an
equation between and v. Then
Ax = aYx + a^x, Bx — + , Gx = 4- c^c, Dx = dYx + d^x.
But by § 33 (8) the field of as defined by (7), where and v are
conditioned by (ß) is contained between the maximum extension
a2Ax + b2Bx + c2Gx + cLiDx,
and the minimum extension
(oa + Â*) (b2 + Bx) (c2 + Gx) (d2 + Dx) :
that is, between the maximum extension
( 2 -f 2 + + dxd2) x + { 2 + bj)2 + C& + cW2) x,
and the minimum extension
(äj + a2) (6j + b2) (Ci -f c2) {dx + d2) x + (0^ + a2) (6j + 62) (cx -4- c2) (cüj + d2) x.
35] SYMMETRICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH TWO UNKNOWNS. 69

If the field of y be the same according to both definitions, then

aids + bj>3 + cxc2 + dxd2 = -4 (e),
. H- 2 + + dxd2 = (7 (f),
(^i + a 2 )(6 1 4-6 2 )(c 1 + c2)(d1 + d2) = 5 ( ),
(a1 + a 2 )(ò 1 + 62)(c1 + c2)(d] + d2) = 5 ((9).
These equations can be rewritten in the form
2 + bj)2 + + dxd2 = A (e^,
«№ + \b2 + -f = G (fi),
aiäg + 2 + + cW2 = (^),
ä Ä + 2 + c 1 c 2 + H 1d 2 = D ( ).
It follows from their symmetry that if be given, the field of x as
defined by (ß) and conditioned by (7) is the same as the field of x as
defined by (a).
By adding and rjXi ax + b x + + dx = J. -f .
Hence äx dx = Ä .
By adding ( £ ) and ( )
â1 + îh + Ci + di = C +
Hence & ^ = CD.
Similarly, ä2b2c2d2 — AG, a2b2c2d2 = JBZ).
Thus if the conditions between A, Bt C, i) of subsection (2) are fulfilled,
then the conditions between a1} bL) c1} dx and a2y b2, c2, d2 of subsection (2)
are also fulfilled.
Hence finally if ( a b a2), (bu b2), (cly c2), (dly d2) be any pairs of simul-
taneous solutions of (a) which satisfy equations ( (^), (^), (^), then the
expressions (/3) and (7) for x and 3/ form the general solution of equation (a).
(5) Now take one pair of coefficients, say Oj and a2, to be any pair of
particular simultaneous solutions of the equations
Axy + Bxy 4- G'xy + Dxy = 0 (*),
and xy = A (X).
These two equations can be treated as simultaneous ; for the discriminants
of (X) are A} Ä, Ä, A. Hence the complete resultant of the two equations
is _ _ _ _
2(B + A)(C+A)(D + A) = 0t
that is lBCD = 0;
and this equation is satisfied by hypothesis. Thus ( ) and (\) can be
combined into the single equation
Axy + (B + A)xy + (G + A)xy + (I) + A)xy = 0',
70 THE ALGEBRA SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

that is, since = A G = 0,

Äxy + Axy -f Axy + (D + A)xy = 0.
Any solution of this equation gives xy = A, xy^B, xy^G, xy ^D\ and
hence any solution is consistent with equations ( (£), ( /j), (#r).
This equation is a limiting equation. By § 34 (5) it can be transformed
into an unlimiting equation.
Put x = A+k, y = A + l.
Then the equation becomes
Akl + ADkï = 0.
Let another pair of the coefficients, say b± and b2, be chosen to be any
particular solutions of the equations
Axy -f Bxy + Gxy + Dxy = 0,
xy = B.
These equations can be treated as simultaneous; and are equivalent to
the single equation _
Bxy + Bxy + (C + B)xy + Bxy = 0.
Any solutions of this equation give xy =£ A, xy = B, xy =£ (7, ^ =£ D.
To transform into an unlimiting equation, put x = + m, y = B + n.
Then the equation becomes
, + Own = 0.
Let another pair of the coefficients, say Cj and c2, be chosen to be any
particular solutions of the equations
Axy + Bxy -f Cxy + Dxy = 0,
= G.
These equations can be treated as simultaneous; and are equivalent to
the single equation
Gxy + (B+G)xy + Gxy + Gxy = 0.
Any solutions of this equation give xy ^ A, xy =£ = G,xy^ D.
To transform into an unlimiting equation, put x = G+p, y = G + q.
Then the equation becomes
BGpq + Cpq = 0.
Let the last pair of coefficients, namely dY and d2, be chosen to be any
particular solutions of the equations
Axy + Bxy + Gxy + Dxy = 0,
xy = D.
These equations can be treated as simultaneous; and are equivalent to
the single equation
(Ä+ D)xy + Dxy + Dxy + Dxy = 0.
35] SYMMETRICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH TWO UNKNOWNS. 71

Any solutions of this equation give

xy^A, xy^B, xy^Gy xy = D.
To transform into an unlimiting equation, put x — D + r, y = D + s,
Then the equation becomes

If the coefficients c^, a2...d2, have these values, then the equations (e),
(f), (77), ( ) are necessarily satisfied.
Hence finally we have the result that the most general solution of the
unlimiting equation
A xy 4- Bxy -f Gxy + Bxy = 0,
can be written
x = (A + k) uv + (B + ra) uv + Gpüv 4- Drub,
= (A + I) uv + Bnuv + (Ö + q) uv + Dsuv ;
where w, v are arbitrary unknowns, and and l, m and ? , p and g, r and s,
are any particular pairs of simultaneous solutions of
Ikl+ADkï = 0\
Bmn + BCmn =0,(

Z>rS+Z2)r5=0.)
Let these equations be called the auxiliary equations.
The auxiliary equations can also be written,
1 ( 0 = 0, ( , ) = 0, C<l>(p,q) = 0, ( , s) = 0.
(6) As an example, we may determine k, I, m, n, p} q, r, s so that the
general solution has a kind of skew symmetry; namely so that x has the
same relation to A as y has to D.
Thus put k = 0, l = A) = , n = C; q = G, p = B; s = 0, r = 5 . These
satisfy the auxiliary equations. Hence the general solution can be written,
remembering that = , GB — ,
= Auv + Buv + Cüv, x = Auv + Bitv + Güv + üv,
y = uv + Buv + Guv + Düv, = Buv -f Guv H- Düv.
Again, put = , I= 0; = 0, ? = ; = 0, g = ; = , 5 = 0. The
solution takes the skew symmetrical form
x = uv + Buv + Cut;, x = Buv + ' + uv ;
= Auv + uv + DuVy y = Auv + uv + Düv.
As another example, notice that the auxiliary equations are satisfied by
= w, I = w, m = w, n = w, p = w, q = w, r = w, s = m
72 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

Hence the general solution can be written

x = (A 4 w) uv + (B + w) uv -f Cwüv + Dwuv,
y—{A -\-w)uv + Bwuv + (0 -f w)uv + Dwüv;
where w, ; and w are unrestricted, and any special value can be given to w
without limiting the generality of the solution.
(7) The general symmetrical solution of the limiting equation can now
be given. Let Äxy + Bxy + Gxy + Dxy = 0 be the given equation.
By §34 (5), put x = CD + (A+B)X, y=BD + (A + C)Y;
where X and Y are conditioned by
ÂBCXY + ÄBDXY+ ACDXY + BCDXY= 0.
The general symmetrical solution for X and Y is therefore by (5) of this
section,
X = (A+B + C + k)uv + (I + B + l) + m)uv + A CDpüv + BGDrüv,
Y=(A + B + C+l)uv + ABDnuv + (Ä + G + D + q) üv + BGDsüv ;
where &, £; m, w; p, q; r, s are any simultaneous particular solutions of the
auxiliary equations
ABCkl+ABCDkì=0\
ABDmn + AB G Dm = 0,1
72) + A BGDpq = 0, |
5C2)rs + Z £ O i ) r s = 0.)
(8) As a particular example, adapt the first solution of subsection (6)
of this section. Then a general solution of the equation is
x = CD + (A + ) uv + ( + ) + ÄGD üv,
y = BD + (A+C)uv + ABDuv + (G 4- ^ 5 ) u v + BGDüv.
(9) If a number of equations of the type,
-fi (x> ) = Xi 0> )> fa (#, 2/) = %2 (#, y), etc.,
be given, then (assuming that they satisfy the condition for their possibility)
their solution can be found by substituting their resultant discriminants
(cf. § 30, (8), (9)) for the discriminants of the single equation which has
been considered in the previous subsections of this article.
(10) The symmetrical solution of an equation with two unknowns has
been obtained in terms of two arbitrary unknowns, and of one or more
unknowns to which any arbitrary particular values can be assigned without
loss of the generality of the solution. I t was proved in § 34 (3) that no
solution with less than two unknowns could be general. I t is of im-
portance in the following articles to obtain the general symmetrical
36] JOHNSON'S METHOD. 73

solution with more than two arbitrary unknowns. For instance take three
unknowns, u, v, w (though the reasoning will apply equally well to any
number). Let the given unlimiting equation be
Axy + Bxy 4- Gxy + Dxy = 0 (a).
Put
x — a2 uvw 4- bi uvw 4- d uvw 4- dx üvw \
+ Or!uvw 4- biuvw4- Ciuvw 4- d^üvw, /
, 7— \ (P)-
y = a2 uvw 4- 4- a2 uvw
+ a2'uvw+ +rf/ww. J
Consider x as a known, then the maximum extension of the field of y as
defined by (a) is Ax 4- Gx> and its minimum extension is Bx 4- Dx.
Also the maximum extension of the field of y as defined by (ß) is
^ 2. x 4- 2 0 ^ 2 . ü, and its minimum extension is (a\ + a2) x 4- (c^ 4- <x2). x.
Hence, if (ß) is the general solution of (a), the following four conditions
must hold
2 = A, S a Ä = , S ä ^ = , 2ä 2 ä 2 = D.
Also aly a2\ b1}b2... d/, d2'; must be pairs of simultaneous solutions of the
given equation (a).
36. JOHNSON'S METHOD. (1) The following interesting method of
solving symmetrically equations, limiting or unlimiting, involving any
number of unknowns is due to Mr W. E. Johnson.
(2) Lemma. To divide a 4- b into two mutually exclusive parts x and y,
such that x ^ a and y^b.
The required conditions are
x 4- = a 4- by ax = 0, by = 0, xy = 0.
These can be written xy 4- äxy 4- bxy + {a + b)xy = 0.
Hence by § 34 (5), = ab + = (5 4- ),| ... v
y = ä~b + bv = b(ä~ + v);)
where & (uv 4- üv) = 0 (2).
Solving (2) for v in terms of u, by § 31 (5), Ü = abü + (ä + b + u)w.
Substituting for v in (1) and simplifying,
x = a (b + *), = b (â~ + w).
(3) Let the equation, limiting or unlimiting, be
J # y 4- Bxy 4- C% 4- Dxy = 0 (3).
The resultant of elimination can be written A+B+C + D = i.
Also xy 4- xy and #?/ 4- % are mutually exclusive, their sum
= i = A + B+C + D,
and obviously from the given equation xy 4- 4 A 4- A xy + xy ^ + G.
74 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

Hence by the lemma

xy + xy= (A 4 D)(BO + u\ xy + xy = (B + C) (AD + ) (4).
The course of the proof has obviously secured that does not have to
satisfy some further condition in order that equation (4) may express the
full knowledge concerning xy + xy and xy -f xy, which can be extracted from
equation (3).
Also, as an alternative proof of this point, § 33 (9) secures that equation
(4) represents the complete solution for these expressions.
Again, by equations (4) xy - ^ BC -f , hence xy =£ + .
Also by equation (3), xy 4 A. Hence by § 28, Prop. XIV., xy ^ ( + ).
Similarly ^ ( + ).
Therefore by the lemma and equations (4) and simplifying
= ( + ) +
w
xy = D(BC + u)(A+p).\ "
Also, as before, it follows that equations (5) are a complete expression
of the information respecting xy and xy to be extracted from equation (3).
Similarly xy = (ÄD + u)(C +q),)
W
xy=C(AD + u)(B + q)ì '
Adding appropriate equations out of (5) and (6),
x= ( + ) + ) + (IB + ) ( + q),\
= ( + u)(5 +p)+ (AD + Ü)(B + q).\
This symmetrical solution with three arbitraries is the symmetrical
solution first obtained by Schröder (cf. loc. cit.).
(4) A simplified form of this expression has also been given by Johnson.
For ( + ) + )= ( + ) + \
and (15 + ) (C + q) = B (iDu + ) ( + q).
Hence
x = u{AD + Ap + BÄD(C + q)}+u{ABC(D+p) + BC + Bq}
= u{AD + Ap+BD(C + q)}+ü{AC(D + p) + BC + Bq\
= A(C+u)(D + p) + B(D + ü)(C + q).
Similarly = ( + ) (D + ) + (D + ) ( + q).
(5) This method of solution can be applied to equations involving any
number of unknowns. The proof is the same as for two unknowns, and the
headings of the argument will now be stated for three unknowns.
Consider the equation
Axyz + Bxyz + Gxyz + Dxyz + A'xyz + B'xyz + C'xyz + D'xyz = 0.. .(1).
37] SYMMETRICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH THREE UNKNOWNS. 75

The resultant is A + + + D + A' + B' + + D' = i.

Also from (1) xyz 4- xyz 4- xyz 4- xyz ^ A + D + B' -\- C',
xyz 4- xyz 4- ##0 4- £#z ^B + C + A' + D'.
Hence by the lemma, cf. subsection (2)
xyz + xyz + xyz + xyz = (A+D+B' + C')(BCÄ^D' 4-e),I
xyz 4- xyz + xyz 4-xyz = (B+C + A' + D') (ADB'C' 4- s).\ ^ ''
Again, from (2) and (1),
xyz + xyz 4 (B' + C') (BCA'D' + «),
ays 4- ^ 4 (J. + D) (BCA'D' + e).
Hence from the lemma, cf. subsection (2), and simplifying,
xyz + = { ' + ) (BCÄ'D' 4- e) (AD + m),)
(
* + xyz = (A+D)( AD' + )( '5'4-w).J ''
Similarly
xyz + xyz = ( 4- ) (ÄD&C + s) (I'D' 4- ti),)
( }
xyz + xyz = (A' + D')(ADB'C' + s)(BC + v)] '
Again, from equations (3) and (1),
xyz 4 A (BCA'D' 4- s) ( ' 4- w), ^ 4 D ( £ Ö 4 ' 5 ' 4- s) (5'C' 4- •»/).
Hence by similar reasoning to that above
xyz =A(BCÀD + s)(B'C'+ w)(D4- g), xyz = D (BCA'D'+ s)(2?'C"4- w)0Ï + g).
Similarly,
a!p = B , (-î / AÔ5'+A)(25 + m)(04-|)), = ^ ( Z ' ^ Ö ^ + e X Z S + mXÄ'+p),
öy* = 0(AB'CD4-«)(2'2 4- w)(5 4- 0, W* = (ÄB'C'D4- 5)(2'5'4-w)(Ö4-1),
xyz = ^ ' (ZÌ?'C"5 4- *) ( 4- 77) (D' 4- 0, * P = Jy (ÄB'C'D 4- 5)(50 4- ) (A' 4- 7).
By adding the appropriate equations we determine , , z.
This method is applicable to an equation involving n unknowns, and in
this case the solution will involve 2 n — 1 arbitraries.

37. SYMMETRICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH THREE UNKNOWNS.

(1) Consider the unlimiting equation
Axyz 4- Bxyz 4- xyz 4- Dxyz
4- A 'xyz 4- B'xyz 4- 'xyz 4- D'xyz = 0 (a).
The conditions that the equation is unlimiting are (cf. § 32 (3)),
ÄBCD^O^A^C'D' = ÄÄ'CC' = ' ' = ÄA'BB'= CC'DD\
Let the left-hand side of (a) be written (x, , z) for brevity.
76 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

Let the general solution of (a) be

x = awvw + biuvw + c&vw + diüvw \
+ CLiUVW + ^ + CiÏLVW + d^UVW,
y = a2uvw + b2uvw + c2uvw + d2uvw I .
+ a2uvw + b2uvw + c2üvw + d2'ww, f
= a3uvw + J3wiJw + c3uvw + dßvw
+ a3uvw -f b3uvw + c3üvw + d3ww;l
where w, v, w are arbitrary unknowns.
By substituting for #, 2/, £ from equations (ß) in equation (a) the con-
ditions that (ß) should be some solution of (a) without restricting u, v, w are
found to be,
(alt a2} 3) = 0 = (b1} b2} b3) = (c1} c2) c3) = (dl7 d2i d3)
= ( / , ', ')" = ("6/, b2, 63) = (" /, /, 3) = (rf/, d2\ d3).
Thus the corresponding triplets of coefficients must be solutions of the
given equation.
(2) It remains to find the conditions that (ß) may represent the general
solution of (a). Eliminate z from (a), the resultant is
ÄÄ' xy + BB'xy + GG'xy + BB'xy = 0.
By § 35 (10), the conditions that the first two equations of (ß) should be
the general solution of this equation are
SaA = A + ', 2= B + B', % 2 = Ö+C', SäjoL2 = D + D'.
Similarly eliminating from equation (a), the resultant is
Äßxz + A'B'xz + GBxz + G'Bxz = 0.
The conditions that the first and third of equations (ß) should form the
general solution of this equation are
=A + 2 , 3 = A'+ B\ la.a, = + D, S ^ ö , = '+ '.
Lastly, eliminating x from equation (a), the resultant is
ÄCyz + A'C'y + Byz + ' ' = 0.
The conditions that the second and third of equations (ß) should form
the general solution of this equation are
%a2a3 = A + , 2 2 3 = A' + C', Xä2a3 = £ + Xä2ä3 = ' + D'.
(3) Again, if y and z be conceived as given, the field of x as defined by
equation (a) is contained between the maximum extension
Ayz + A'yz -f Byz + B'yz,
and the minimum extension
Gyz + G'yz + Byz + B'yz.
But (cf. § 33 (8)) the field of x as defined by equations (ß) is contained
37] SYMMETRICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH THREE UNKNOWNS. 77

between the maximum extension 2cra (a2y + a2y) { 4- a3z\ and the minimum
extension \ + ä$/ + a2y + asz + a3z) ; that is, between the maximum ex-
tension
Saia 2 a 3 . yz + S a ^ â g . yz + '2a1a.2a3. yz + Sc^ä/^ . yz
and the minimum extension
(aY + ä2 + ä3).yz + Ii ( + â2 + a8) . yz
+ 11(0! + a2 + a s ) . yz + («! + a2 + a3) . ï/£.
Hence since the extensions as defined by (a) and (ß) must be identical,
we find by comparison
^ 2 3 = A, So^Os = ^/ = 0, %ä^öi2az =
Sa^gäg = A', ^ , = J9', ^ , = (7' S e ^ ä ^ = D'.
The symmetry of these equations shows that, if z and x be conceived as
given, the field of as defined by (a) is the same as that defined by (ß), and
that if x and be conceived as given, the same is true for z.
By adding the appropriate pairs of this set of equations it can be seen
at once that these eight conditions include the twelve conditions of sub-
section (2).
Hence finally equations (ß) form the general solution of equation (a), if
the triplets Ctif CL , d^y Oi, 0 , Ö3] . . . J & 1 , €t , C&3 ; are any simultaneous sets of
2 2 2

solutions of the given equation which satisfy the eight conditions above.
(4) Now following the method of § 35 (5), let alf a2i a3 be any
particular simultaneous solutions of the equations
», , z) = 0,
and xyz = A.
These equations can be treated as simultaneous and are equivalent to
the single equation
Äxyz + (B + A) xyz + + A ) xyz + (D + A) xyz
+ (Ä' + A) xyz + (B' + A)xyz + (C' + A) xyz + ( + A) xyz = 0.
This equation is in general a limiting equation. It can be transformed
into an unlimiting equation by writing (cf. § 32 (5))
x = (C + A.)(C' +A)(D+A)(5' + A) + -(ÄÄ'BB')Pl,
= ( + )( + ) + ) )+ -(ÄÄ'BB')p2>
z = (Ä'+A)(B + A)(C' + A)(& + A) + -(ÄBCD)pt.
The conditions in subsection (1) that the original equation may be un-
limiting reduce these formulae of transformation to
x = A-rplt y = A+p2) z= A+ps.
Then pup2i p3 satisfy the unlimiting equation
2 3 + A Bp^ps + ^ + A DpipsPs
+ ÄA'pipipt + ' + A C'p^pz + % = (1).
78 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC [CHAP. II.

Similarly put bY = + qlt 62 = 4 q2) b3 = B + q3, where qlt q2, q3 satisfy

the unlimiting equation
ÄBq&q, + Bqjq2q3 4- % q2q3 + BDqlq2q3
+ BA'q^q, + BB'q^q, + ~BC%q2qz + BD%q2q3 = 0 (2).
Similarly put c1=C + r1, c2 = 4- r2, c3 = G + r3, where r n ?*2, r3 satisfy
the unlimiting equation
ACr{r2r3 4- BTJi\f2r3 + Gf{ì\ì\ 4- CDr&rs
+ CÄ'rws + ' 2 3 + GG%r2r3 + CD'rws = (3).
And so on for the remaining triplets of coefficients, putting
di = D + *!, d2 = D + s2, d3 =D+s3>
a/ = 4 ' -f ^ ' , a2' = ^L ' 4- p / , ' = ' + p3,
W = & + qi', b2' = B' + Ç/, 6/ = B' 4- ?»',
c ^ C ' + r/, c2' = C"4-r2', c3' = 0 ' + r/,
d/ = D' 4- S/ 21 = D' + h', d3' = D' + s3'.
And the sets s1} s2, s3; pi,p2, p3; ...; s/, s2', 5 '; satisfy unlimiting equa-
tions formed according to the same law as (1), (2), (3). These other equations
will be numbered (4), (5), (6), (7), (8).
Let the equations (1)...(8) be called the auxiliary equations. When the
coefficients , a2, a3; blyb2,b3; ...; d/, d2} d3 have the values here assigned,
the eight equations of condition of subsection (3) are identically satisfied.
(5) Hence the general solution of the equation
A xyz 4- xyz 4- xyz + D xyz
4- A'xyz + B'xyz 4 xyz + Hx/yz = 0,
is given by
x = (A + p^ uvw 4- (B + qj) uvw + Gr^üvw 4- Ds&vw
4- {A' + pi)uvw4-(B'4-#i') ; 4- C'r^uvw 4-D's^üvw.
= (A + p2) uvw 4- Bq2uvw 4 (^ 4 r 2 ) MVW 4- Ds2uvw
4-(4'4-£>2')MVW + Bfq2uvw4-(C4- r2')uvw4-D's2'uvw,
z = (A 4- p 3 ) wvw 4- ( 5 4- g3) 4- ( 4- r 3 ) # 4- (D 4- s3) uvw
A 'p3'uvw 4- B'q3nvw 4- C'r3uvw + D's3uvw ;
where p1,p2,p3', qi, q2> ) • •; s^s^s/; respectively are any sets of par-
ticular solutions of the auxiliary equations (1), (2)...(8) These equations
can be written,
Ä£(pt,p2,p3y =& (1),
Bj>(qi,q2,q3)=0 (2),
( , 2, 3) = 0 (S),
D(j>(s1,s2,s3) = 0 (4),
37] SYMMETRICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS WITH THREE UNKNOWNS. 79

' < ', 2, /) = 0 (5),

5 > ( ? i ' , ?,',?.') = <> (6),
0 > ( r / , r 2 ' , r 3 ' ) = 0~ (7),
(81',82',8.0') = 0 (8),
where (œ, y, z) stands for the left-hand side of the given equation.
I t will be observed that we may put
p1 = q1=...=s1/ = tlt p2 = q2 = ... = s2' = t2, p3 = qi=.mm=s3' = t39
where t1} t2, tz form any particular solution of the given equation,
( > > z) = 0.
(6) The general solution of a limiting equation involving three un-
knowns is found, first by transforming it into an unlimiting equation accord-
ing to § 32 (5), and then by applying the solution of subsection (5) of the
present section.
(7) The method of reasoning of the present section and the result are both
perfectly general. Thus the general equation involving three unknowns can
be solved with a redundant unknown by the method of § 35 (10). Then by the
method of the present section the equation involving four unknowns can be
solved in a general symmetrical form. And the auxiliary equations will take
the same form : and so on for any number of unknowns.
(8) As an example consider the equations
yz — a, zx = b, xy =
These equations can be combined into a single equation with its right-
hand side zero by finding their resultant discriminants (cf. § 30 (9)).
The discriminants, cf. § 30 (11), of the first equation positive with respect
to x and y are a and a.
The discriminants of the first equation positive with respect to x and
negative with respect to y are ä and a.
The discriminants negative with respect to x of the first equation are the
same as those positive with respect to x.
Hence the following scheme holds for the discriminants :

Constituent xyz xyz xyz xyz xyz xyz xyz œ/yz

1st Equation ... \ a \ ä \ 'ä \ ä \ a \ ti i a \ a \

2nd Equation... \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \

3rd Equation... \ c \ c \ c \ c \ c \ c \ c \ c \

Resultant \ aj)C ^c ^bc abc abc abc abc abc

DiscrimmantsJ ' !
80 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

The resultant is
(ä + b + c) (a + b +c) (a + b + c) (a + b + c) (ä + b + c) = 0 ;
that is abc 4- ate + ate = 0.
This equation can be solved for in terms of a and
The positive discriminant is ~(ab + äb), that is + äö, the negative
one is ä + 6.
The resultant is at (a& + ab) = 0, which is identically true.
The solution is c = ab + (ab -f ab) = ab + .
Hence the solution for is found from
x =(a + b + c)(a + b + c) + u (abc + äbc-f äbc + ä~te) = b + + wate
= ò + + wä.
Similarly y = c + a + vb> z — a + b-{- ;
where u, v, w satisfy three unlimiting equations, found by substituting for
x, y} z in the original equations.
Thus substituting in yz = a, we obtain
a + be 4- abv + acw + bevw = ;
that is a + te + / = a, that is äte + aocvw = 0.
But äbc = 0. Hence the equation becomes abevw = 0.
Similarly ä b civu = 0 = äb cuv.
Thus u, v, w satisfy the equation äbc (uv + vw + wu) = 0.
Comparing this with the typical form (a) given in § 37,
A=äbc = B = C = A', n = 0 = B' = C' = D'.
Also a particular solution of the given equation is u = v = w = 0. Hence
from subsection (5)
u=(a + b + c)(UVW + ÜVW+ UVW)+UVW,
v =(a + b + c)(UVW+TJVW+ UVW) + WW,
w = (a + b + c)(UVW+TJVW+ UVW)+UVW.
Hence the general solutions for x, y, z are
x = b + c + uä = b + c + äUTW,
y = c + a + vb = c+a+ bTfVW,
z = a+b+wc = a-\-b + cUVW;
where U, V, W are arbitrary unknowns.

38. SUBTRACTION AND DIVISION. (1) The Analytical (or reverse) pro-
cesses, which may be called subtraction and division, have now to be
discussed,
38] SUBTRACTION AND DIVISION. 81

Let the expressions a — b and a -f- b satisfy the following general conditions :
I. That they denote regions, as do all other expressions of the algebra ; so
that they can be replaced by single letters which have all the properties of
other letters of the algebra.
II. That they satisfy respectively the following equations :
(a — b) -f b = a ; (a -f- b) x b = a.
(2)
Let x stand for a — b. Then x is given by the equation
x + b = a.
The positive discriminant is ai + , that is a, the negative is ab + ab.
The resultant is ä(ab + ab) = 0, that is ab = 0;
hence b =£ a.
The solution is x = ab + ab + ua = ab + ua.
Hence for the symbol a — b to satisfy the required conditions it is
necessary that b =£ a. Furthermore negative terms in combination with
positive terms do not obey the associative law. For by definition,
b + (a - b) = (a - b) -f b = a.
Also since 6 ^ a, and therefore b + a = a, it follows that
(b + a)— b = a — — - ua.
Therefore b + (a — b) is not equal to (b + a) — b.
This difficulty may be evaded for groups of terms by supposing that all
the positive terms are added together first and reduced to the mutually
exclusive form of § 27, Prop. X. Such groups of terms must evidently be
kept strictly within brackets. It is to be further noticed that the result of
subtraction is indeterminate.
(3) Again, for division, let x — a -r- b.
Then bx = a.
The positive discriminant is ab + > the negative is aO + <xO, that is a.
The resultant is a (ab + ab) — 0 ; that is ab = 0.
Hence a 4 b.
The solution is x = a + v (ab + ab) = a + väb = a + vb.
Factors with the symbol of division prefixed are not associative with
those with the symbol of multiplication prefixed (or supposed).
For b (a -7- b) = (a -r- b) b = a, by definition.
Also since ab = a,
(6a) -r-b = a-7-b = a + vb.
This difficulty can be evaded by suitable assumptions just as in the case
of subtraction. The result of division is indeterminate.
w, 6
82 THE ALGEBRA OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC. [CHAP. II.

(4) Owing to these difficulties with the associative law the processes of
subtraction and division are not of much importance in this algebra.
All results which might depend on them can be obtained otherwise*. They
are useful at times since thereby the introduction of a fresh symbol may
be avoided. Thus instead of introducing x, defined by x + b ••= a, we may
write (a — b), never however omitting the brackets.
Similarly we may write (a -f- b) instead of x, defined by bx = a.
But great care must be taken even in the limited use of these symbols
not to be led away by fallacious analogies.
For (a — b) = ab + ua ; with the condition b 4 a.
But {(a + c) - (6 + c)} = (a + c)~ (b + c) + u(a + c)
= abc + u(a + c).
These two symbols are not identical unless
abc = ab, and a + c = a.
From the first condition 4 ä + 6,
that is ac =£ ab
4 b ; since ab = b.
From the second condition ac = c.
Hence from the two conditions =£ b.
Again, (a -r- 6) = a + vb ; with the condition a 4 b.
But {( ) - - (be)} =ac + v ~(bc) = ac + v (b -f c).
These two symbols are therefore not identical unless
ac=a, and 6 + c = a6.
From the second condition bc = a + b = b, hence b 4 c. This includes the
first condition which can be written a 4 But a 4 ò. Hence the final
condition is 0 4 c.
(5) It can be proved that
- ( - ) = ( -6), - ( -7-6) = ( - 6 ) .
For both ( — b) and (ä -f- b) involve the same condition, namely b 4 ay or
as it may be written U^b.
Again, a-b = ab + va.
Therefore ~ (a — b) = (a~ + v) (a + 6) = a + ^6.
But ( -6) = + <6.
Therefore the two forms are identical in meaning.
Similarly - (a -r-ft)= (a — ò ).
* First pointed out by Schröder, Der Operationkreis des Logikkalküls, Leipsic, 1877.