BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Soap is one of the most popular detergents in personal care. According to Roman Legend, soap was
named after mount Sapo, an ancient site of animal sacrifices. After an animal sacrifices, rain would
wash the animal fat and ash that collected under the ceremonial alters down the slopes to the banks
of the Tiber River. Women washing clothes in the river noticed that if they washed their clothes in
certain parts of the river after a heavy rain their clothes were much cleaner (Ahmed, 2002). A soap-
like material found in clay cylinders during the excavation of ancient Babylon is evidence that soap
making was known as early as 2800 B.C. Inscriptions on the cylinders revealed that fats were boiled
with ashes, a soap making method. It is generally agreed that the Hebrew word “borith” which has
been translated as soap, is a generic term for any cleaning agent. By the second century A.D, the
Greek physician, Galen, recommended soap for both medicinal and cleansing purposes. In other
words, it is a substance, that when dissolved in water removed dirt from dirty materials (Oghome et
al, 2012). Historically, it has been claimed that the esteem of a country’s civilization is based on
consumption of soap. In the 18th century, because of the shortage of some raw materials, soap was
a highly priced luxury, and only wealthy people could afford it. It became handy to other people only
after the manufacture of sodium carbonate was developed. At the end of the 19th century, the first
soap powder for laundry was made using sodium silicate as a builder. Whereas the use of sodium or
potassium carbonate leads to a hard or soft soap, respectively, the chemical nature of the lipophilic
part of the soap plays by far the largest role in determining the performance of the finished soap
(Anzene and Aremu, 2007)

In the 1960’s, modern soap factories were established to meet the demand for high quality and
affordable soaps in Ghana. These factories include Unilever Limited in Tema, Appiah Minkah soap in
Kumasi and Lovable soap in Takoradi.

Between 1984 and 1989, there was a steady rise in the production of both toilet and laundry soap in
Ghana. Soap, is chemically a combination of Na+ or K+ ions and fatty acids. Over a hundred fatty
acids are known to exist today. Out of these hundred and over, forty are known to occur widely

Soap is produced via the saponification reaction (hydrolysis) of fatty acid triglycerides with a strong
base (usually potassium or sodium hydroxides), producing soap (potassium or sodium salts of fatty
acid) and glycerol. Soap quality depends on the composition of saponificated fatty acids, i.e.
saturated fatty acid give light open foam bubbles and solid, hard consistency, while unsaturated
fatty acids provide moisturizing, conditioning and nourishing properties (Strunz & Jopp, 2006).

Fatty acids are merely carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains. The hydrocarbon chains length
may vary from 10-30 carbons (mostly12-18). The non-polar hydrocarbon alkane chain is an
important counterbalance to the polar acid functional group. In acids with only a few carbons, the
acid functional group dominates and gives the whole molecule a polar character. However, in fatty
acids, the non-polar hydrocarbon chain gives the molecule a non-polar character. The oils use in
making soaps occurs in many varieties. More than hundred (100) are known to exist. Unfortunately,
not all these oils are suitable for soap production as many of them form fatty acids that cannot be
saponified. Usually, combinations of oils are use in soap production to give a high quality product.
Some components of these combinations may not undergo saponfication upon hydrolysis and
maybe left out as unreacted fatty acids in the soap.
Total Fatty Matter (TFM) is one of the most important characteristics describing the quality of soap .
It is defined as the total amount of fatty matter, mostly fatty acids, that can be separated from a
sample after splitting with mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid. The fatty acids most commonly
present in soap are oleic, stearic and palmitic acids and pure, dry, sodium oleate has TFM 92.8%,
while top quality soap noodles now increasingly used for making soap tablets in small and medium
size factories, are typically traded with a specification TFM 78% minimum, moisture 14% maximum.
But besides moisture, finished commercial soap, especially laundry soap, also contains fillers used to
lower its cost or confer special properties, plus emollients, preservatives etc., and then the TFM can
be as low as 50%. Fillers, which are usually dry powders, also make the soap harder, harsher on the
skin and with greater tendency to become 'mushy' in water and so low TFM is usually associated
with hardness and lower quality (Viorica et al, 2011)

PROBLEM STATEMENT
Total Fatty Matter (TFM) is one of the most important characteristics describing the quality of soaps
and it is always specified in commercial transactions. When one says healthcare and wellness, we
immediately think of food, nutrition and exercise. But what about external body care? How your
soap affects your wellbeing? Higher TFM ensures that soaps are least harmful to the skin and do not
cause dryness; in "bathing" bars. Less TFM means very harmful soap, that soap will grasp all the
moisture present in the skin making it dry. As skin becomes dry it may become more sensitive and
prone to rashes, infections and skin breakdown. This condition is sometimes referred to as xerosis.
Bathing soaps are classified into three grades, Grade 1: soaps should have 76% minimum TFM,
Grade 2: soaps should have 70% minimum TFM and Grade 3: 60% minimum TFM. For laundry soaps,
they are classified in two grades. Grade 1: 62% minimum TFM and Grade 2: 50% minimum TFM
according to Ghana Standards Authority (GSA, 2008). Simply put, higher the TFM of soap better is its
cleansing ability

MAIN OBJECTIVE
To determine the total fatty matter (TFM) content in selected soaps on the Ghanaian market.
 CHAPTER TWO
The traditional way of making soap from ash-derived alkalis has been an age-old craft in Ghana,
Nigeria and many West African countries (Nwoko, 1982). Ash derived alkalis offer inexpensive
alternatives to imported ones such as potassium and sodium hydroxide, etc. Agricultural wastes such
as plantain peels, cocoa pods, maize cobs, cassava peels and numerous others contain high levels of
potash. According to Onyegbado et al. (2002), when they are burnt in air, the resulting ashes contain
oxides of potassium and sodium which when dissolved in water yields the corresponding hydroxides
according to the following equations:

Na2O + H2O -------->2NaOH (1)

K2O +H2O -------->2KOH (2)

In soap making the properties of the fats and oils are important; the fatty acid composition in oil
determines its properties (Nwoko, 1982). The acids may be distributed at random in the
triglycerides. In the soap making, it is the fatty acid content that matters the most. The chain length
(C number) is usually cited and helps describe the molecule’s properties in relation to others in its
same series. Saturated fatty acids contain no double bonds. They are stiff molecules which tend to
increase the melting point of oils. Oil and alkali based soap making involves the hydrolysis of the
triacyl glyceride molecule of the fat into fatty acids and glycerol and the subsequent saponification
of the fatty acids by the alkali to form soap.

The various methods adopted in soap making may be thus classified:

1. Boiling the fats and oils in open kettles by open steam with indefinite quantities of caustic
alkali solutions until the finished soap is obtained ordinarily named full boiled soaps. These may be
sub-divided into (a) hard soaps with sodium hydrate as a base, in which the glycerine is recovered
from the spent lye; (b) hard soaps with soda as a base, in which the glycerine remains in the soap, e.
g., marine coconut oil soaps; (c) soft potash soaps, in which the glycerine is retained by the soap
(Webb, 1926).

2. Combining the required amount of lye for complete saponification of a fat therewith,
heating slightly with dry heat and then allowing the saponification to complete itself. This is known
as the cold process.

3. Utilizing the fatty acid, instead of the neutral fat, and combining it directly with caustic alkali
or carbonate, which is incorrectly termed carbonate saponification, since it is merely neutralizing the
free fatty acid and thus is not a saponification in the true sense of the word. In the methods outlined
the one most generally employed is the full boiled process to form sodium soap. The stock, strength
of lye, heat, amount of salt or brine added, time of settling, etc., are all influencing factors (Webb.
1926). The total fatty matter determination is crucial in the soap development process since it
defines the quality of the soap and helps in soap grading. It is the water-insoluble fatty material
obtained by decomposing the soap with a mineral acid under the specified conditions or the total
amount of fatty matter, mostly fatty acids, that can be separated from a sample after splitting with
mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid. Poor quality soaps can cause skin discomforts such as acne,
eczema, hives, rashes, skin irritation and possibly lead to cancer (Butler, 1997).Although soap is
effective in removing grime and is relatively inexpensive, alkaline soaps or those with high content of
percentage free alkali can cause skin irritation, dryness and scaling which can predispose the skin to
fungal attacks (Butler, 1997). This is because the excess alkali will saponify the fats and oils, normally
found on the skin as a protective coat, to form soluble soap and therefore get washed away, thereby
rendering the skin dry.

FATTY ACIDS
The basic structure of fats was established nearly a century and one-half ago when Chevreul found
that they were –composed of fatty acids and glycerol. A little later Gusserow separated saturated
from unsaturated acids by differential solubilities of their lead salts. Fats are essential constituents of
all forms of plant and animal life, and are consequently widely distributed. However, the plants and
animals that produce oils and fats in sufficient quantity to constitute a significant source are few.
The largest of these comprises the annual plants sucli as flax, soybean, cotton, peanut and castor
bean. These grow in temperate climates requiring cultivation and production can be varied. The
second source of vegetable oils is the oil bearing trees such as coconut, palm, olive, and tung. These
grow in the warm or temperate climates. The commercial land animal fats come largely from hogs,
sheep and cattle. (Gardner, 1931) Milk fats are nearly all used for food.

The sea contributes a considerable volume of oil. Among the most important sources are sardine,
menhaden, herring and whale, including sperm whale. The natural fatty acids are generally aliphatic
compounds with a carboxyl group at the end of a straight carbon chain. Nearly all of them have an
even number of carbon atoms. The acids differ from one another in the number of carbon atoms
and the number and position of the double or unsaturated bonds (Von Mikusch and Fraeier, 1941)

Lauric and all longer chain acids are solids at room temperature. The most widely distributed and the
most commercially important are palmitic and stearic acids. Commercial stearic acid in its different
grades consists of roughly equal parts of these two acids (Peter and Mark, 1950) The unsaturated
acids differ from one another in the number of carbon atoms, the number of double bonds, the
position of the double bonds, and the geometry of the double bonds. All of the unsaturated acids,
with the exception of elaidic, are liquid at room temperature (Peter and Mark, 1950)

FATTY ACIDS IN SOAPS

Soap is a function of acids and fatty acids are functions of fats and oil. In the simplest sense, oils that
are solid at room temperature are hard whereas those that are liquid at room temperature are soft.
The degree of hardness and softness differs according to their sources and other parameters. Oils
that are hard contributes to hardness and/or lather in soap. Oils that are soft contribute to
conditioning.

The main conditioning fatty acids are oleic (1 unsaturated bonds), linoleic (2 unsaturated bonds) and
linolenic (3 unsaturated bonds). The more unsaturated bonds, the better the conditioning and the
more easily it is absorbed by the skin, but the softer the oil is in soap, the more prone to oxidation.
Making soap therefore means choosing a combination of oils with different degrees of hard/soft,
conditioning and lather, to get the particular product that fits best and provides the best result
(Oghome et al., 2012). According to Oghome et al., (2012), the chief fatty acids in soap making are
lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid. They are obtained from mutton
tallow, beef tallow (animal fats), palm oil, and palm kernel oil. Lauric acid is a saturated fatty acid
whose single bond helps in soap hardening. It also has good cleansing agent and supports foaming.
As they increase in size from lauric to stearic, the melting point of the oil increases. Saturated fatty
acids in soap have good cleaning properties. Unsaturated fatty acids are liquids. They tend to have
good cleaning power, but lather poorly. These fatty acids also tend to make milder soaps (Web,
1926)

The percentage of palmitoleic acid is between 0.00-2.20 percent. This acid is unsaturated. It makes
soap to be mild, have good cleaning power but foams poorly (Oghome et al., 2012).

LAURIC ACIDS

Lauric acid, or dodecanoic acid, is a saturated fatty acid with the molecular formula CH3
(CH2)10COOH. It is the main acid in coconut oil and in palm kernel oil, and is believed to have
antimicrobial properties. It is also found in human milk (5.8% of total fat), cow’s milk (2.2%), and
goat milk (4.5%). "Approximately 50% of the fatty acids in coconut fat are lauric acid (Linstrom and
Mallard, 2014). Lauric acid is a medium chain fatty acid (MCFA), which has the additional beneficial
function of being formed into monolaurin in the human or animal body. Monolaurin is the antiviral,
antibacterial, and antiprotozoal monoglyceride used by the human or animal to destroy lipid coated
viruses such as HIV, herpes, cytomegalovirus, influenza, various pathogenic bacteria including listeria
monocytogenes and heliobacter pylori, and protozoa such as giardia lamblia. Some studies have also
shown some antimicrobial effects of the free lauric acid. (Gunstone, 2007)

Steric Acids
Stearic acid is a waxy crystalline solid melting at 69.6oC. It is practically insoluble in water [0.00029 g
/ 100 g of water at 20oC], fairly soluble in chloroform [0.5g / 100ml] and decreasingly soluble in CS2,
C6H6, CCl4, CH3CH2OH and CH3 – O – CH3. It has melting point of 69.30oC, boiling point of 3830oC,
and specific gravity of 0.847 and neutralization value of 197.23

STEARIC ACID

occurs in most fruit flesh and seed fats and in marine animal oils. It has also been reported to
comprise more than 1% of carnabua wax. Palm oil contains 2 to 6% of this acid; Most so called
yellow oils (Cotton seeds, Corn, Soyabean, Peanut, Sesame, Sunflower, Kapole) contain 2 to 8%, milk
fats – 5 to 15%) lard 10 to 12%, tallows – 14 to 30%, Cocoa and Shea butters – 30 to 35%. (Gunstone
et al, 2007). It is a principal constituent of most commercially hydrogenated gats and constitutes as
much as 90% of completely hydrogenated corn and soyabean oils. Also used as plasticizer, softener,
water – proofing agent, polishing agent and oiling agent, antisatatic agent in textile industry,
lubricant in metal machining, mold releasing agent in tile making and used as addictive for
Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and PVC etc. Potassium salts of fatty acids with excess stearic acid give
a slow drying lather for shaving soap. Derivations of stearic acid are used in manufacture of soaps,
Metallic salts, Stearoyl chlorides, Bromide, Steramide, Stearonitrile, Stearyl alcohol. (Beare-Rogers,
et al, 2001)

Myristic acid Myristic acid, also called tetradecanoic acid, is a common saturated fatty acid with the
molecular formula CH3 (CH2)12COOH. Molecular weight: 228.37092 [g/mol]. In purified form it is
white solid insoluble in water, with melting point at 53.9 °C and boiling point at 250 °C at 100 mmHg.
A myristate is a salt or ester of myristic acid. Myristic acid is named after the nutmeg Myristic.
Besides nutmeg, myristic acid is also found in palm kernel oil, butter fat and is a minor component of
many other animal fats (IUPAC, 2001). In fruit, it is present in high amounts only in dried and fresh
coconut 9.5 g . It is present in small quantities in a few cereals (corn, with a 0.28 g/100 g of edible
portion, is the richest source). It is used as ingredient in soaps, cosmetic and shaving creams, often in
the form of the ester isopropyl myristate. (Akoh and Min, 2008)

OLEIC ACIDS
Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is
odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. In chemical terms, oleic acid
is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid. It has the formula CH3 (CH2)7CH=CH
(CH2)7COOH (Thomas, 2000). Fatty acids like oleic acid occur as their esters, commonly triglycerides,
which are the greasy materials in many natural oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid compose the majority
of olive oil, although there may be less than 2.0% (Grossi, 2014), as free acid in virgin olive oil, with
higher concentrations making the olive oil inedible. Oleic acid (in triglyceride form) is included in the
normal human diet as a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Oleic acid as its sodium salt is a major
component of soap as an emulsifying agent. It is also used as an emollient. Small amounts of oleic
acid are used as an excipient in pharmaceuticals, and it is used as an emulsifying or solubilizing agent
in aerosol products (Smolinske and Susan 1992). Oleic acid is also used to induce lung damage in
certain types of animals, for the purpose of testing new drugs and other means to treat lung
diseases. (Julien et al, 1986)

PALMITIC ACIDS

Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is the most common fatty acid
(saturated) found in animals, plants and microorganisms (Gunstone, 2007). Its chemical formula is
CH3 (CH2)14COOH. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from palm trees (palm
oil), but can also be found in meats, cheeses, butter, and dairy products. Palmitate is a term for the
salts and esters of palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and release
agents. These applications utilize sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by saponification
of palm oil. Because it is inexpensive and adds texture to processed foods (convenience food),
palmitic acid and its sodium salt find wide use including foodstuffs. Sodium palmitate is permitted as
a natural additive in organic products (Anneken, 2006.) Hydrogenation of palmitic acid yields acetyl
alcohol, which is used to produce detergents and cosmetics.

RAW MATERIAL FOR SOAP MAKING

Alkalis Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is the strongest of the alkalis and inexpensive. It has
excellent dissolving properties, is a very strong saponifier and has added advantage of being strongly
bactericidal. It is, however, highly corrosive to metals especially aluminium and extreme care must
be taken when handling as it can cause severe burns to the skin (Oghome et al., 2012). Sodium
metasilicate, although a strong alkali, is non-caustic and therefore much less corrosive than sodium
hydroxide. Trisodium phosphate (TSP) is a good emulsifier and saponifier has strong dispersive
properties and has the ability to soften water by precipitating the salts. Although somewhat
corrosive, it is often incorporated in soaps (Thomsson, 1922). Soap formed using soda and potash is
soluble in water, unlike those from the other bases and they constitute the soap of commerce.
These reagents are always used in sufficient quantity to combine with the whole of the fatty acids
contained in an oil or fat, though doubtless, by the use
Soap is made from animal fats and vegetable oils, mixed with a caustic
chemical called sodium hydroxide (also known as lye). The sodium hydroxide
reacts with the oil to make soap. Detergents are generally made from
synthetic compounds.

How Do Soaps and Detergents Work?

Washing clothes, hands or crockery and cutlery needs to remove two kinds
of dirt – water-soluble dirt and greasy or oily dirt. Water on its own can
dissolve some water-soluble dirt but can’t dissolve grease or oil (see ‘Why
oil and Water don't Mix’).

Soaps and detergents act in two ways – by Making Water ‘Wetter’ (less
likely to stick to itself and more likely to stick to the dirt), and by mixing
the oil or grease into the water so it can be rinsed away.

Making Things Wet

Float a rubber band on the surface of a bowl of water. Drop a scraping of

soap into the middle of the rubber band – it should pull out into a circle. Try
it with a tiny drop of washing up liquid.

The water molecules on the surface of the water all attract each other
strongly, creating a layer at the surface that is ‘stronger’ than the rest of the water. This is
called ‘surface tension’, and is how insects like water boatmen can move over the surface of ponds.
The soap or detergent reduces the surface tension, so the connections between the water molecules
outside the rubber band are stronger than those inside. This pulls the rubber band outwards into the
largest shape it can be – a circle.

Cut the end off a rubber band to make a U shape, float it in a bowl of water, and drop a scraping of
soap into the U – this should make the ‘boat’ move forward. Try it with a tiny drop of washing up
liquid.

Because the soap or detergent is reducing the surface tension inside the boat, the stronger surface
tension ahead of the boat pulls it forwards.

Something that lowers the surface tension of water makes the water less likely to stick to itself and
more likely to stick to other things like dirt. It is called a ‘surfactant’ or ‘wetting agent’.

Removing Oil and Grease

Soaps and detergents remove oil and grease, because the molecules have two different ends, one
that likes water (hydrophilic), and the other that likes oil (hydrophobic). The hydrophobic end buries
itself in the oil and grease, forming droplets of oil or grease in water surrounded by detergent
molecules (an oil-in-water emulsion), which can be rinsed away.

Put some water into a bottle and pour in a little oil – the oil will float on the surface. Shake it up –
the oil will mix into the water temporarily, but then separate. Add in a bit of washing up liquid and
shake it up again – the oil will disperse through the water and not separate out. Try it again with
laundry liquid or powder, dishwasher liquid or powder, or soap. Which is better at emulsifying the
oil?

Something that makes oil and water mix is called an emulsifier (see ‘Making an Emulsion’ and ‘Ice
Cream: Colloidal Chemistry’).

Laundry liquids and powders often contain other ingredients as well as detergent. These include
scents, enzymes (in biological powders and liquids), optical brighteners and bleaches.

Cut three cubes of egg white, all the same size. Put one in a glass of water, the second in a glass of
water with some biological laundry detergent, and the third in a glass of water with some non-
biological laundry detergent. Leave for a few days – what happens?

Biological laundry powders and liquids contain enzymes to break down biological stains like food or
blood. The enzymes in the biological laundry detergent break down the egg white, whereas the egg
white in the water and non-biological detergent should not change.

Soap and Hard Water

Hard water is water that has forms (salts) of calcium and magnesium dissolved in it (see ‘Soft and
Hard Water: Making More Bubbles’).

Put a bit of grated soap into a bottle with some hard tap water (or water with Epsom salts added),
put the lid on tightly and shake the bottle. Try it again with some soft tap water (or some distilled
water, or water from a dehumidifier tank), then try it again using washing up liquid (detergent)
instead of the soap.

The soap will make more bubbles with the soft water than with the hard water, because it reacts
with the calcium and magnesium salts to form ‘scum’, which is insoluble in water. This means there
is less soap for making bubbles, or for cleaning. The calcium and magnesium salts still react with the
detergent (but do not form scum), leaving less detergent for making bubbles. People in hard water
areas have to use more soap and detergent than people in soft water areas.

Introduction Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning,
which historically comes either in solid bars or in the form of a viscous liquid. Soap consists
of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained by reacting common oils or fats with a
strong alkaline in a process known as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed by the base,
yielding alkali salts of fatty acids (crude soap) and glycerol. The general formula of soap is Fatty end
water soluble end CH3-(CH2) n – COONa Soaps are useful for cleaning because
soap molecules have both a hydrophilic end, which dissolves in water, as well as a hydrophobic end,
which is able to dissolve non polar grease molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water
effectively holds particles in colloidal suspension so it can be rinsed off with clean water. The
hydrophobic portion (made up of a long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic
end dissolves in water. The resultant forms a round structure called micelle. Therefore, it allows
water to remove normally-insoluble matter by emulsification. Commercial production of soap The
most popular soap making process today is the cold process method, where fats such as olive oil
react with strong alkaline solution, while some soapers use the historical hot process. Handmade
soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is sometimes used to consume the
alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed, leaving a naturally moisturizing soap
and not pure detergent. Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added ‘at trace’ (the
point at which the saponification process is sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to
thicken), after most of the oils have saponified, so that they remain unreacted in the finished soap.
Fat in soap Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium Tallowate, a common
ingredient in much soap, is derived from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils,
such as palm oil, and the product is typically softer. An array of saponifiable oils and fats are used in
the process such as olive, coconut, palm, cocoa butter to provide different qualities. For example,
olive oil provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils
provide hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient. Smaller amounts
of unsaponifable oils and fats that do not yield soap are sometimes added for further benefits.
Preparation of soap In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be required
for saponification. Cold-process soap making takes place at a sufficient temperature to ensure
the liquification of the fat being used. Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used
right away because the alkali and fat saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-
process soap making. Hot-process soap making was used when the purity of alkali was unreliable.
Cold-process soap making requires exact measurements of alkali and fat amounts and computing
their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the finished product is mild and skin-friendly.
Hot process In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled together at 80–100 °C until
saponification occurs, which the soap maker can determine by taste or by eye. After saponification
has occurred, the soap is sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding salt, and the excess
liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is then spooned into a mold. Cold process A cold-process soap
maker first looks up the saponification value of the fats being used on a saponification chart, which
is then used to calculate the appropriate amount of alkali. Excess unreacted alkali in the soap will
result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough alkali and the soap are greasy. The
alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted if they are solid at room temperature.
Once both substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F (37-43°C), and are no more than
10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined. This alkali-fat mixture is stirred until “trace”. There are
varying levels of trace. After much stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a thin pudding.
“Trace” corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential and fragrance oils are added at light trace.
Introduction to the experiment Soap samples of various brands are taken and their foaming capacity
is noticed. Various soap samples are taken separately and their foaming capacity is observed. The
soap with the maximum foaming capacity is thus, said to be having the best cleaning capacity. The
test requires to be done with distilled water as well as with tap water. The test of soap on distilled
water gives the actual strength of the soaps cleaning capacity. The second test with tap water tests
the effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on their foaming capacities. Objective: To compare the foaming
capacity of various soaps. Theory: The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of the
soap and its concentration. This may be compared by shaking equal volumes of solutions of different
samples having the same concentration with same force for the same amount of time. The solutions
are then allowed to stand when the foam produced during shaking disappears gradually. The time
taken for the foam to disappear in each sample is determined. The longer the time taken for the
disappearance of the foam for the given sample of soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing
action. Requirements: Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes, 100ml measuring cylinder, test tube
stand, weighing machine, stop watch. Chemical Requirements: Five different soap samples, distilled
water, tap water. Procedure: 1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1, 2,3,4,5. Put
16ml of water in each flask and add 8 Gms of soap. 2. Warm the contents to get a solution. 3. Take
five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water. Repeat the process for each soap solution
in different test tubes. 4. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for a minute. Do the
same for all test tubes and with equal force. 5. Start the timer immediately and notice the rate of
disappearance of 2mm of froth. Observations: The following outcomes were noticed at the end of
the experiment Test Tube no Vol. of soap solution Vol. of water added Time taken for disappearance
of 2mm 1. Dove 8ml 16ml 11’42” 2. Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28” 3. Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10” 4. Santoor
8ml 16ml 15’32” 5. Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40” Result The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in
the order: Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux From this experiment, we can infer that
Santoor has the highest foaming capacity, in other words, highest cleaning capacity. Lux, on the
other hand is found to have taken the least amount of time for the disappearance of foam produced
and thus is said to be having the least foaming capacity and cleansing capacity. Test for hardness in
water Test for Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in the water supplied Test for Ca2+ in water H2O +NH4Cl +
NH4OH + (NH4)2CO3 No precipitate Test for Mg2+ in water H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4 No
precipitate The tests show negative results for the presence of the salts causing hardness in water.
The water used does not contain salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water provided is soft and thus,
the experimental results and values hold good for distilled water and tap water.

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