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DOI 10.1007/s00170-017-0142-3
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
A review identifying the effectiveness of minimum quantity
lubrication (MQL) during conventional machining
B. Boswell 1 & M.N. Islam 1 & Ian J. Davies 1 & Y. R. Ginting 1 & Ai Keem Ong 1
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Received: 1 December 2016 / Accepted: 6 February 2017
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# Springer-Verlag London 2017
Abstract Government legislation and public opinion are the
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main drivers behind the movement of manufacturing compa-
nies towards sustainable production. Fundamentally, compa-
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nies want to avoid future financial penalties and the industry is
therefore under pressure to adapt new techniques and practices
in order to become environmentally friendly. The cost effi-
itc w.
ciency of metal cutting operations is highly dependent on
accuracy, excellent surface finish and minimized tool wear
and, to this end, has traditionally made abundant use of cutting
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fluid in machining operations. However, these cutting fluids
have been a major contributor to environmental and health
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issues. In recent years, an enormous effort to eradicate these
adverse effects has been made with one important focus being
the implementation of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL).
In the present work, the authors have reviewed the current
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state of the art in MQL with a particular focus on drilling,
turning, milling and grinding machining operations. Overall,
it is concluded that MQL has huge potential as a substitute for
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conventional flood cooling.
Keywords Flank wear . Minimum quantity lubrication .
Sustainability . Effectiveness . Consumption . Financial
penalties
* M.N. Islam
m.n.islam@curtin.edu.au
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University, GPO Box
U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
1 Introduction
The effectiveness of traditional machining processes is
highly dependent on the presence of cutting fluid in order
to decrease cutting temperatures and cutting forces.
Unfortunately, these cutting fluids are well known to cause
environmental and health issues. In an effort to eradicate
these adverse effects, several avenues of research have
been explored with one major focus being that of minimum
quantity lubrication (MQL) which is also known as near-
dry machining (NDM) [1, 2] or micro-lubrication [3]. The
first use of the phrase “minimum quantity lubrication” in
the literature appears to have been by Weck and Koch in
1993 in relation to the lubrication of bearings [4].
Following this, the first research on MQL relating to ma-
chining operations was in 1997 for grinding [5] and shortly
afterwards for cutting [6]. Figure 1 shows the rapid growth
in MQL publications since the early 2000s with more than
100 articles being published during 2015 as compared to
just one article in 2000 [7]. The growth in patents related to
MQL has also shown a similar trend with the first patents
being granted in the late 1990s and more than 400 patents
having been granted to the present time. MQL was initially
considered with regard to contact lubrication, e.g. roller
bearings [8, 9] and piston rings [10, 11], but since the early
2000s has tended to focus on lubrication in machining pro-
cesses. Increasing research has been conducted into its ef-
fectiveness when used for difficult-to-machine materials
such as titanium with more than 80 articles having been
published in this area since 1999 [12].
MQL has been receiving worldwide attention due to its
low oil consumption and general provision of excellent
machining performance, which has been reported to be
comparable to that of traditional flood cooling, if not better
[13–15]. The quantity of lubricant used in MQL was found
Fig. 1 Number of papers published on “minimum quantity lubrication”
[7]
to vary considerably between various studies. For example,
according to Tschätsch and Reichelt, the range of cutting
fluid consumption is between 50 ml/h and 2 l/h [16] where-
as other studies have reported even lower amounts of 10–
100 ml/h [17–19], which is still extremely low compared to
conventional flood cooling, where the typical rate is ap-
proximately 1200 l/h [19]. Typically, MQL is presented
to the cutting zone via an atomized spray, allowing the
lubricant to enter the cutting interface. The amount of lu-
bricant entering the interface may be adjusted by altering a
single air source. Evaluation of the MQL with respect to
flood end milling by M. Rahman et al. [20] showed that
25,260 ml/h liquid coolant could be replaced by 8.5 ml/h
vegetable oil with comparative effectiveness. The purpose
of this review is to provide readers with a clear understand-
ing of the feasibility of MQL as a substitute for conven-
tional flood cooling in machining operations.
The increasing interest to further improve MQL has given
rise to new technologies that complement the machining pro-
cess, e.g. the inclusion of nanoparticles in MQL fluids [21, 22]
and the combination of cooled air with MQL [23]. More than
50 articles have been published on MQL incorporating nano-
particles since 2008 [24] with a continuing rise in publications
which confirms the ever-growing attention that MQL has re-
ceived in the past years.
Out of nearly 600 papers considered by the authors during
the course of this work, more than half were focussed on the
four main types of machining, namely, drilling, turning, mill-
ing and grinding. It should be noted that whereas the term
machining is normally limited to drilling, turning and milling
operations, the influence of MQL on grinding was also con-
sidered in this work due to the process control issues being
similar together with the presence of chip formation. Of these
four main categories, grinding was the most popular (29%)
and followed by milling (26%) and then turning (24%) and
drilling (21%). This demonstrates that the MQL studies were
distributed relatively evenly in terms of machining types,
which, once again, confirms the high applicability of MQL.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
2 Economic concerns
The high consumption of cutting fluids results in extremely
high costs worldwide. For example, the cost of purchasing and
disposing of cutting fluids in the USA has been estimated at
48 billion dollars per year [25]. In Germany, the cost has been
estimated at 1 billion German Marks [26] whereas the associ-
ated cost in Japan is 71 billion yen per year including 42
billion yen just for disposal costs [27]. The high cost of cutting
fluids is further confirmed by claims reported from various
companies. For example, it was reported that the management
of cutting fluid or coolant costs more than four times that of
the cutting tools and represents at least 16% of the product
cost [28, 29]. This surprisingly high price is supported by
studies made by different countries including America,
Germany and Spain [30]. The factors that contribute to the
high cost include system costs, personnel costs for material
monitoring and maintenance, in addition to investment costs
for splitting plants and water purification [31]. Further costs
are also incurred in the process of drying wet chips as recy-
clers only accept dry chips [28]. Manufacturers who are able
to save on cutting fluid costs and its associated equipment, in
addition to the production of clean chips, can reap the benefits
of extra profits. For example, according to Unist Inc. [32], one
of their customers reported that the company earned an extra
10 cents per kilogramme of dry chips when compared with
wet chips. It is apparent considerable savings can be made by
machining dry or near dry condition. To repeat the benefits of
NDM, it is necessary to have good knowledge of the cutting
process, which is explained in [33].
In order to achieve lubrication in dry machining conditions,
researchers have examined the application of coated cutting
tools, with it being agreed that dry machining is possible in the
presence of appropriate tool coatings [34, 35]. For example,
Dudzinski et al. studied the developments towards dry and
high-speed machining of Inconel 718 alloy and concluded
that, with the application of physical vapour deposition titani-
um aluminium nitride (PVD (Ti, Al)N)-coated tools, dry cut-
ting of Inconel 718 at higher cutting speeds up to 100 m/min
was achievable [36]. While dry machining is applicable in the
turning and milling operations of most materials, dry drilling
remains an issue. This is supported by a summary made by
Kutz [37] on the applicability of dry machining based on
machining processes and workpiece materials. The main
problem associated with dry drilling is the clogging of chips
in the drill flutes, which can result in drill failure. This phe-
nomenon was clearly shown in an experiment by Dasch et al.
where the absence of a cooling effect during the dry drilling of
aluminium produced temperatures in excess of 350 °C, which
would soften the aluminium and also compromise many
carbon-based coatings [38]. Furthermore, many of the drill
flutes eventually became clogged with aluminium and the
drilling torque increased leading to drill fracture. Such a result
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
confirmed the significance of heat removal in the machining
process. Excessive heat generation was also reported in the
case of dry grinding when Hadad and Hadi investigated the
surface grinding of S34700 hardened stainless steel and
AA6061 aluminium alloy using dry, MQL and conventional
flood cooling techniques [39]. A comparison was made with
respect to the maximum surface temperature rise for all
cooling techniques. In the case of stainless steel, dry machin-
ing yielded the highest temperature rise (960 °C) followed by
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MQL (average of 565 °C) and flood cooling (305 °C). These
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results have been supported by other research that has identi-
fied the difficulty of removing or reducing the generation of
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heat in dry machining conditions. It is these types of concern
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that have driven manufacturers to investigate various methods
for introducing a cooling effect in dry machining such as
through MQL.
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3 MQL characteristics
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It is important that MQL fluid possesses the following prop-
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erties due to the requirements for sustainability and low oil
consumption:
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Biodegradable
& High lubrication
& High stability
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The two most common cutting fluids used in MQL appli-
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cations are vegetable-based oils and synthetic esters, owing to
their superior biodegradability [18, 40, 41]. Khan and Dhar
outlined the six main advantages of vegetable-based oils com-
pared with conventional metal working fluids as follows [42]:
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1. The molecules, being long, heavy and dipolar in nature,
create a dense homogeneous and strong lubricating film
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that gives the vegetable oil a greater capacity to absorb
pressure.
2. The lubricating film layer provided by vegetable oils, be-
ing intrinsically strong and lubricious, improves work-
piece quality and overall process productivity reducing
friction and heat generation.
3. A higher flash point yields opportunities for increased
rates of metal removal as a result of reduced smoke for-
mation and fire hazard.
4. The higher boiling point and greater molecular weight of
vegetable oil result in considerably less loss from vapor-
ization and misting.
5. Vegetable oils are non-toxic to the environment and bio-
logically inert and do not produce significant organic dis-
eases and toxic effects.
6. No signs or symptoms of acute or chronic exposure to
vegetable oil mist have been reported in humans.
These advantages were reflected in various studies on mill-
ing [43], drilling [44, 45] and turning [42, 46, 47]. As for
synthetic esters, similar properties were observed including
high boiling temperature, flash point and low viscosity, thus
leaving a thin film of oil on the workpiece, which aids in
corrosion resistance [40]. Some studies showed that the appli-
cation of synthetic oil outperformed vegetable and mineral
oils [48]. Other than cutting fluid, an extra medium is neces-
sary to transport the lubricant effectively into the cutting zone
(tool/work interface). The most common medium used is pres-
surized atmospheric air with pressures ranging from 3 to 7 bar
[28, 49, 50]. However, in recent years, researchers have ven-
tured into the hybrid effect of cooled air with MQL in order to
enhance its cooling ability [23, 51]. Compared to conventional
flood cooling, MQL is a sustainable technique especially with
regard to its environmental aspect due to its reduced oil con-
sumption and energy consumption.
3.1 Types of MQL delivery systems
Based on selected literature [2, 28, 52], a summary of different
types of MQL delivery systems has been presented in Fig. 2.
There are two major delivery methods for MQL—one is an
external application and the other is an internal application as
mentioned in [33]. In the case of the external application, a
mixture of compressed air and oil is fed via an external nozzle
to the cutting zone from a chamber. In contrast to this, there
are two possible methods for the external application of oil
and air or aerosol (Fig. 3):
& Ejector nozzle: The compressed air and oil are supplied to
the ejector separately, and mixing occurs just after the
nozzle.
& Conventional nozzle: The aerosol is prepared in an exter-
nal atomizer and then transported to a conventional
nozzle.
The internal delivery system of MQL is also known as a
through-tool application, where the delivery of MQL is made
through the spindle. There are two different configurations
available (Fig. 4):
& Single channel: The oil and compressed air are mixed
before being supplied through the cutting tool to the
workpiece/tool zone.
& Dual channel: The oil and compressed air are delivered in
different channels and are only mixed before the holder of
the cutting tool.
Out of the four combinations mentioned earlier, the dual-
channel internal system was reported to be the ideal
Fig. 2 MQL delivery systems
configuration, especially for drilling and boring operations
[53–55]. For example, Zeilmann and Weingaertner analysed
the drilling temperature of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy under
MQL conditions using different delivery methods (internal
and external) [53]. It was reported that the maximum temper-
ature increase measured in the case of internal MQL was 50%
lower than that of externally applied MQL. The main issue
with external application is that the supplied aerosol will not
be able to penetrate into the hole during machining. Besides
that, as the compressed air and oil are mixed close to the tool
in a dual-channel internal system, the supplied aerosol is af-
fected only by the rotation of the spindle for a short distance,
providing a better response in discharging the aerosol such as
reduced dispersion and dropouts, as well as producing mist
with larger droplet sizes when compared to that from an ex-
ternal mixing device [28].
Fig. 3 The principles of ejector nozzle and conventional nozzle in MQL
external applications (redrawn from [2])
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 4 The principles of single channel and dual channel in MQL internal
applications (redrawn from [19])
4 Effectiveness of machining with MQL
Workpiece materials and types of machining process play an
important role in determining the effectiveness of a machining
performance when MQL is used. Therefore, categorizing with
respect to material being machined can provide a better com-
parison of the effectiveness of MQL relative to the process.
4.1 Turning and milling of aluminium
The main problem identified by researchers in the machining of
aluminium alloys is material adhesion with the amount of cut-
ting fluid determining the level of material adhesion to the
cutting tool surface. Bhowmick studied the application of
MQL with aluminium and magnesium alloys and pointed out
the presence of such an adhesion issue [14]. It was reported that
a large amount of adhered material was observed on the rake,
clearance and flank faces of cutting tools during the high-speed
milling of aluminium-silicon (319 Al) alloy in a dry environ-
ment, whereas a moderate amount of adhered material was
observed under MQL conditions with flood cooling resulting
in the least amount of material adhesion. Similar results were
reported by Sreejith in an experiment on turning 6061 alumin-
ium alloy where the amount of material adhering to the cutting
tool surface was noted to be higher in MQL machining com-
pared to flood cooling [56]. To solve the previously mentioned
problem, a more in-depth study on the adhesion of aluminium
alloy during machining was conducted by Yoshimura et al.
where it was observed that an increase in cutting speed could
reduce the amount of adhered material [57].
Another solution proposed by researchers is the application
of diamond-like coating (DLC) and diamond coating tools, as
both coatings have an extremely low friction coefficient and a
low affinity for aluminium alloys. A comparison was made for
DLC-coated and DLC-uncoated tools in the end milling of
A7075 aluminium alloy with a significant improvement being
noted for the case of DLC-coated tools [58]. Fortunately, the
effect of material adhesion towards machining performance is
not highly significant. Despite experiencing material adhesion
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
in the turning of 6061 aluminium alloy, it was reported that the
application of MQL managed to reduce tool wear [56]. This
was confirmed by Tsao who investigated the milling of
A6061P-T651 aluminium alloy [59] where it was noted that
the application of sulphurous boric acid ester cutting fluid in
MQL conditions reduced the average flank wear by 12.5%
compared to dry milling. Aware of the positive results in terms
of tool wear, Lacalle et al. recommended the application of
MQL for the high-speed milling of aluminium alloys [60].
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Apart from tool wear reduction, the surface quality of the
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workpiece was found to be improved under MQL conditions.
Diciuc and colleagues studied the effect of different lubrication
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methods (MQL, flood cooling and dry) on the surface rough-
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ness of a milled 7175 aluminium alloy workpiece [61]. Based
on the experimental results, the lowest surface roughness value
was achieved under MQL conditions in low (118 to 170 mm/
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min) and high (268 mm/min to 375 mm/min) feed rates.
4.2 Turning and milling of steel
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Various studies have shown the positive effects of MQL in the
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turning of steels. For example, Sohrabpoor et al. used four
different cooling conditions when turning AISI 4340 stainless
steel workpieces: dry, air cooling, wet and MQL (where soluble
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oil was the cutting fluid used in wet and MQL conditions) [62].
Based on the results, the best performance was obtained under
MQL conditions with respect to surface roughness and flank
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wear (Fig. 5). The lower growth of flank wear in MQL turning
can be explained by the heat reduction at the tool-chip interface
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as the mist produced in MQL has a higher interface penetration
ability compared to wet cooling [62]. This result was confirmed
by Dhar and colleagues who conducted a series of experiments
with regard to the turning operations for both AISI 4340 and
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AISI 1040 steels [63]. It was reported that the heat reduction
contributed to maintaining the sharpness of the cutting edge,
thus providing a longer tool life, reduced tool wear, better sur-
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face finish and better tolerances. Furthermore, the chips pro-
duced from the turning of AISI 1040 steels under MQL condi-
tions with a flow rate of 60 ml/h portrayed desirable properties
such as being smoother, lighter in colour and with no trace of
built-up edge (BUE) formation [63–65]. Ginting et al. conclud-
ed that, compared to traditional coolant, MQL can reduce the
machining process cost of AISI 4340 steel since it requires less
power and a shorter machining time [47].
Similar to turning, there was also a reduction in tool wear
when milling steel workpieces. A machining test involving
the milling of ASSAB HH718 steel reported reduced flank
wear under MQL cooling conditions, especially at lower
speed, feed and depth rates [66]. Overall, it was concluded
that the performance shown was comparable to that from
flood cooling with it being noted that the direction of the
MQL nozzles is particularly important in the evaluation of
tool wear as it is imperative that lubrication occurs between
Fig. 5 Effect of lubrication on machinability characteristics of AISI 4340
stainless steel turned parts for three different machining conditions: a
surface roughness and b flank wear, with it being noted that MQL
machining outperformed machining in dry, air cool and wet
environments (redrawn from [62])
the chip and rake face [66]. With regard to surface quality in
the milling of steels, it was concluded that cooling conditions
did not affect burr height whereas the geometry of the milling
cutter tool did [67].
4.3 Turning and milling of difficult-to-machine materials
Studies on the turning of difficult-to-machine materials under
MQL conditions have produced mixed results. The main de-
bate sparked amongst the studies was based on the cooling
and lubricating abilities of MQL. A study on the milling and
turning of Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb intermetallic alloy under different
cooling conditions (wet cooling, dry and MQL) was conduct-
ed [68]. The only significant improvement observed under
MQL conditions was in respect to surface roughness (Fig. 6)
whereas wet machining was the ideal cooling condition in
terms of tool wear/life (Fig. 7) [68]. Difficult-to-machine ma-
terials are becoming increasingly popular due to their superior
properties including exceptional strength and high corrosion
resistance [69]. Some common examples of these materials
are titanium alloys, nickel-based alloys and iron-based alloys
[70, 71]. However, the metallurgical changes made to these
materials have also reduced their machinability. The main
challenge faced by manufacturers in the machining of
difficult-to-machine materials is the generation of high tem-
peratures. Harder materials usually produce a higher machin-
ing temperature when compared to softer materials as they
possess a higher specific cutting energy, higher friction and
deformation [72].
Fig. 6 Surface roughness of turned parts under different cooling
conditions (redrawn from [68])
Park et al. showed that MQL experienced intermediate
flank wear compared with both dry and wet machining with
its pattern being similar to that of dry machining [73]. Such a
result can be explained by the significantly better cooling ca-
pability of wet machining compared to both dry and MQL
conditions. However, Wang et al. argued that MQL has a
similar cooling and lubrication ability as for flood cooling
[74]. They studied the effect of different cooling conditions:
wet, dry and MQL in the continuous turning and interruptive
turning of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy. MQL exhibited the best
overall performance in both continuous and interruptive turn-
ing, especially for two slot interrupted cutting and continuous
Fig. 7 Effect of lubrication conditions on the turning properties of a
RCMT 1204 M0-SM S05F coated tool: a maximum flank wear (cutting
speed 50 m/min; feed rate 0.1 mm/rev; depth of cut 0.3 mm) and b tool
life (feed rate 0.1 mm/rev; depth of cut 0.3 mm) (redrawn from [68])
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
cutting at a higher feed rate and cutting speed. It was sug-
gested that these positive results were obtained due to the
better lubrication ability of MQL compared to flood cooling
[74]. However, Boswell and Islam found that, compared to
MQL, flood produces a better surface finish whilst cryogenic
cooling improved tool life on a turning test of titanium alloy
[75, 76].
In addition to titanium alloys, nickel-based alloys have also
been investigated under MQL conditions. A nickel copper
alloy (MONEL alloy K-500) was studied under different
cooling conditions [77]. From comparison of dry and MQL
conditions, it was concluded that MQL was a better cooling
condition as it had the ability to lower the surface roughness
and cutting force by 38 and 59%, respectively [78]. It was
further explained that the improvement in surface roughness
or surface quality is a result of lower cutting temperature [79].
In comparison to the suggestion of Wang et al. [74], MQL
exhibited a cooling effect only in the turning experiment of
Waspaloy conducted by Beno et al. [80] as evidenced by the
absence of a significant reduction in the aspect of cutting
force, which could only be explained by the lack of
lubrication.
Park et al. investigated the face milling of Ti-6Al-4V tita-
nium alloy using a series of eco-friendly machining technol-
ogies including MQL, cryogenic machining with liquid nitro-
gen, combination of cryogenic and MQL and laser-assisted
machining (LAM) [73, 81]. Results from these green tech-
niques were then compared to dry and flood cooling. The
main outcome of the experiment was a comparison of the
electric power consumption by all machining methods
(Fig. 8). The electric power consumption was found to be
maximum under wet machining conditions (2.75 kW) and
followed by LAM, cryogenic, dry and MQL with the power
consumption of MQL being only 1.53 kW. The high power
consumption of wet machining can be explained by the appli-
cation of a pump for delivering and recycling cutting fluids.
As for MQL, it is suggested that the minimal tool wear ob-
served was the key factor leading to the lowest power con-
sumption [73].
Thamizhmanii and Hasan conducted an experiment on the
milling of Inconel 718 with the conditions being vegetable-
based MQL and dry milling with the cutting tool being super
hard cobalt [82]. It was reported that the cutting tool travelled
longer under the condition of MQL with a flow rate of
37.5 ml/h providing the optimum surface roughness and flank
wear of the material. Moreover, the reduction in flank wear led
to a tool life increase of 43.75% compared to dry milling [82].
4.4 Drilling of aluminium
Coated drills have also receiving great attention in deep hole
drilling of aluminium alloy [83]. For example, Bhowmick and
Alpas investigated the effect of a low-friction coating drill
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
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Fig. 8 Influence of cooling method on electric power consumption at a
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cutting speed of 76.4 m/min (redrawn from [73])
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such as diamond-like carbon (DLC) under H2O/MQL condi-
tions at a rate of 30 ml/h with positive results [84]. Another
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example was that of Fox et al. who studied the influence of
different coatings under MQL conditions on the drilling of
aluminium silicon B319 cast alloy with diamond-coated and
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low-hydrogen DLC drills exhibiting the best performance in
the drilling of 50 holes with the latter being the best whilst
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drilling 500 holes [85]. In an attempt to reach 7000 holes, tool
failure was experienced by the diamond-coated drill after
4300 holes whereas the low-hydrogen DLC-coated drill
succeeded with minimum tool wear. However, several studies
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have also shown positive results without the use of coated
drills. Davim and colleagues [86] investigated the effect of
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different cooling conditions on the drilling of AA1050 alu-
minium with the cutting tools and lubricants being uncoated
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K10 carbide drills and emulsion oil, respectively, under MQL
conditions. Comparing the results with those recorded under
flood cooling, it was reported that the performances were
comparable. This was confirmed by additional experiments
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conducted by Braga and colleagues [87] who compared an
uncoated K10 carbide drill and diamond-coated carbide drill
under both MQL and flood cooling conditions. Mineral oil
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was used in the application of MQL whereas soluble oil was
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supplied in the latter. It was shown that the diamond-coated
drill did not present any advantages when compared to the
uncoated carbide drill and that both were subjected to similar
amounts of flank wear. In fact, a higher feed force value was
observed during the use of the diamond-coated drill due to the
presence of adhered chips on the tool nose.
4.5 Drilling of steel
Similar to the MQL drilling of aluminium alloys, the dril-
ling of steels using MQL has been found to yield positive
results. For example, the drilling of AISI 1040 steel with
high-speed steel (HSS) drills under MQL conditions was
found to improve the accuracy with an average temperature
reduction of 10% at the tool chip interface in addition to
providing the best hole surface texture [88]. Zeilmann
et al. conducted drilling tests on AISI P20 steel using car-
bide drills with different drilling conditions being applied
during machining, namely dry, emulsion and MQL [89].
Continuous drilling was adopted for the emulsion case
whereas a pecking cycle was used for both dry and MQL
conditions with an advance of 1.5 mm followed by a retreat
out of the hole. The adoption of a pecking cycle was under-
taken to avoid microchipping and facilitate chip evacuation.
Figure 9 shows the plastic deformation experienced by the
workpiece during drilling with the plastic deformation ex-
perienced under dry conditions being larger near the begin-
ning and bottom of the hole. The emulsion technique and
MQL were found to be comparable near the beginning of the
hole, but the plastic deformation experienced under emul-
sion cooling was larger at the end of the experiment. This
difference can be explained in terms of the penetration of
cutting fluid. At the beginning, the cutting fluid had no
problem penetrating the cutting zone under emulsion con-
ditions, but this became increasingly difficult as the exper-
iment progressed. Positive results were also observed in a
deep hole drilling experiment with the tool life being im-
proved in the machining of plain carbon steel using water-
based lubricant [90].
4.6 Drilling of difficult-to-machine materials
A new group of automotive materials known as austempered
ductile iron (ADI) is categorized as a difficult-to-machine ma-
terial due to its impressive strength and hardness. A study on
the drilling of ADI was conducted under dry, flood and MQL
conditions by Meena and Mansori [91] with MQL being
found to offer good machining performance in terms of aver-
age torque, average thrust force, average surface roughness
and flank wear width, although not to the same extent as those
obtained from conventional flood cooling (Fig. 10). Rahim
and Sasahara evaluated the effects of both synthetic esters
and palm oil-based MQL in the drilling of Ti-6Al-4V titanium
alloy and compared the results to those obtained from dry
milling [44]. The main result of the research was the excellent
improvement in terms of tool life with the improvement made
from both synthetic esters and palm oil-based MQL [44].
Another study on the drilling of Ti-6Al-4V aluminium alloy
examined the drilling temperatures under different conditions
[53] with internal emulsion exhibiting the smallest maximum
temperature. Brinksmeier et al. investigated the effect of MQL
on chip removal in drilling Ti-6Al-4V [92]. In addition, the
maximum temperature obtained from internal MQL was 50%
lower than that of externally applied MQL. This result was
confirmed by Brinksmeier and Janssen who recommended the
application of internal MQL for the machining of multilayer
composite materials comprising carbon fibre reinforced plas-
tic (CFRP), titanium and aluminium alloys [54].
Fig. 9 Average plastic deformation measured near the beginning and
bottom of the holes (redrawn from [89])
4.7 Grinding of aluminium
Due to the adhesive property of aluminium, grinding can be
challenging as any chips generated tend to clog the grinding
wheel [93]. Contrary to the good surface quality reported in
milling experiments [61], the surface quality of AA6061 alu-
minium alloy in MQL grinding was found to be unsatisfactory
with the surface roughness being between that of conventional
flood cooling and dry grinding. Furthermore, under lower
removal rates, it was observed that the surface quality obtain-
ed from dry grinding surpassed that of MQL [39]. Aware of
Fig. 10 Effect of cooling
conditions on a average torque, b
average force, c average surface
roughness and d flank wear width
(redrawn from [91])
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
this issue, researchers have indicated that a silicon carbide
(SiC) grinding wheel is ideal for aluminium alloys as the ap-
plication of a SiC grinding wheel tends to lower forces and
surface roughness [39, 94]. This result is attributed to the
easily fractured SiC, which provides new cutting edges with
minimum tool wear (i.e. self-sharpening effect) during grind-
ing [95]. Other than the type of grinding wheel, the optimiza-
tion of cutting parameters is essential in the grinding of alu-
minium alloys. A study on the effects of cutting parameters on
the abrasive belt grinding of LY12 aluminium alloy was car-
ried out with an increase in belt speed tending to decrease the
surface roughness of the workpiece whereas an increase in
workpiece travel speed or grinding depth led to a higher sur-
face roughness [96].
4.8 Grinding of steel
A wide range of steels was investigated under grinding MQL
conditions by Barczak et al. [13] and included common steels
such as EN8, M2 and EN31, with a common alumina grinding
wheel being used. It was reported that a comparable perfor-
mance, if not better, can be achieved under MQL condition
compared to flood cooling. However, MQL is not suitable for
very hard materials [13], which can be explained by the high
heat generated from grinding. A thermal analysis of MQL on
the grinding process was made with it being observed that
MQL provided good lubrication but was lacking in the
cooling aspect compared to conventional flood cooling [97].
This result was confirmed by Yamin et al. in an experimental
investigation of MQL grinding of AISI 1080 steel [98]. Mao
et al. also noted the same trend based on the grinding of AISI
52100 hardened steel under dry, wet and MQL conditions
with different cutting fluids, namely pure oil and a mixture
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
of oil and water [99]. The workpiece temperature was mea-
sured under all conditions with the results being presented in
Fig. 11.
The peak temperatures for wet and dry grinding were found
to be 192 and 561 °C, respectively, with the peak temperature
of MQL grinding being 90–130 °C lower than dry grinding. It
is also apparent that there was no significant improvement
with the application of oil-water cutting fluid in MQL com-
pared to MQL using pure oil with only a small (40 °C) de-
ia /
crease in peak temperature for the former compared to the
Tr m
latter [99]. This result indicates that, unlike drilling of alumin-
ium alloys, the addition of water did not significantly improve
s .co
the grinding of steel. Therefore, instead of focusing on the
l
types of lubricant, Hadad et al. focused on the type of grinding
wheel whilst investigating the temperature and energy parti-
tion for the MQL grinding of a hardened 100Cr6 steel work-
ge du
piece under three cooling conditions: dry, wet and MQL
[100]. A water-miscible fluid (5% concentration) was selected
for conventional wet cooling whereas an additional mineral oil
Pa F
and hydrocracked oil were used during the MQL tests with the
MQL flow rate being in the range of 20–100 ml/h under an air
h PD
pressure of 4–7 bar. Two types of grinding wheels were used,
namely resin bond cubic boron nitride (CBN) and aluminium
oxide, with the results showing that with the appropriate pa-
itc w.
rameters, MQL grinding is not only applicable but in fact
provides for a better performance compared to conventional
flood cooling (Fig. 12). Based on that experiment, the ideal
St w
parameters for the MQL grinding of hardened 100Cr6 steel
are found to be CBN wheel with mineral oil-based MQL at an
u //w
oil flow rate of 100 ml/h and an air pressure of 4 bar. The
application of a CBN wheel also lowered the energy partition
of the workpiece to a maximum of 31% under the same MQL
conditions with this being explained in terms of the higher
Fd tp:
thermal capability of the CBN superabrasive [100].
4.9 Grinding difficulties using MQL
t
PD h
Concerning the grinding of challenging materials, Payne ex-
plained that it is of utmost importance that the coolant be
delivered into the cutting zone [101]. Moreover, the optimiza-
tion of parameters such as type of abrasive, coolant, cutting
speed and feed rate is essential in order to avoid damaging the
workpiece [101]. There is very limited literature available for
the grinding of difficult-to-machine materials, especially un-
der the application of MQL conditions. However, Sadeghi
et al. performed an extensive evaluation on the MQL grinding
of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy [102]. An extensive range of var-
iables were applied including work speed, depth of cut and
cooling conditions whilst additional parameters that were
evaluated under MQL conditions have been shown in
Table 1. It was observed that MQL grinding yielded a larger
surface roughness compared to flood cooling (Fig. 13) and
that MQL with vegetable oil resulted in a particularly large
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Table 1 Grinding conditions
Grinding mode Plunge surface grinding, down cut
Grinding wheel Al2O3 (91A46I8AV)
Grinding machine FAVRETTO MB100 CNC surface grinder
Wheel speed (Vs) Vs = 15 m/s
Workpiece speed (Vw) Vs = 20, 30, 40 m/s
Depth of cut (DOC) a = 0.002, 0.005, 0.007 mm
Environments Wet and MQL
Conventional wet grinding fluid Soluble oil (Blaser BC35) in a 5% concentration
MQL flow rate Q = 20, 40, 50, 60, 70, 100, 140 ml/h
Air pressure P = 3, 4, 5, 6 bar
Fig. 11 Influence of cooling condition on the grinding temperature of MQL oil Vegetable oil, synthetic oil, Behran cutting oil 34 and Behran cutting oil 53
AISI 52100 hardened steel (redrawn from [99])
Workpiece material Ti-6Al-4V (50 mm × 20 mm × 10 mm)
Dresser Six point diamond dresser
surface roughness. However, a slight variation was recorded Dressing depth Total depth of dressing (ad) = 0.03 mm
when synthetic oil was used as the MQL cutting fluid [102].
Dressing speed Vd = 5 mm/s
Due to its less than satisfactory performance, researchers have
been focusing on advanced techniques such as using nanopar- As used by Sadeghi et al. [102]
ticles as additives for MQL cutting fluids [103] and cryogenic
pneumatic mist jet (CPMJ) cooling [104]. Setti et al. per-
formed an experiment using water-based Al2O3 fluid under
performance compared to conventional cooling techniques.
This trend was highlighted in the literature with MQL being
the ability of MQL droplets to reach the internal hole surfaces,
providing both lubrication and cooling effects [105]. Based on
MQL conditions for the grinding of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy concluded to be applicable in the major machining operations: the available research, it was shown that the amount of cutting
[103] with an MQL flow rate of 18 ml/h and a pressure of turning, milling and drilling, for steel workpiece materials. fluid used in the machining of aluminium alloys significantly
1.5 bar with two volume fractions of Al2O3 nanofluids (1.0 However, it is important to note the ideal parameters required influences the amount of material adhesion on the cutting tool.
and 4.0%). The results showed that the grinding force
in order to achieve satisfactory machining performance under Therefore, dry machining is not advisable for aluminium and
(Fig. 14) and surface roughness (Fig. 15) were significantly MQL conditions, especially for drilling operations. For MQL its alloys as dry machining involve zero cutting fluid. On the
enhanced under the application of a nanofluid compared with drilling, a pecking cycle is advisable in order to avoid chip other hand, positive results were obtained in the milling and
conventional MQL using coolant and water [103]. clogging and eventual tool failure. This can be explained by turning of aluminium alloys with MQL despite the adhesion
Fig. 13 Effect of cooling
condition on surface roughness
5 Summary of machining using MQL
for the grinding of Ti-6Al-4V
titanium alloy as function of
The general lack of adhesion problems during the machining workpiece speed: a 20, b 30 and c
of steels would suggest that MQL can result in improved 40 m/min and depth of cut: d 2, e
5 and f 7 μm (redrawn from
[102])
Fig. 12 Influence of grinding wheel type and cooling condition on the
surface roughness of a 100Cr6 hardened steel (depth of cut 30 μm;
workpiece speed 2000 mm/min; wheel speed 30 m/s) (redrawn from
[100])
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
ia /
Tr m
Fig. 14 Effect of MQL cutting fluid on grinding force for a Ti-6Al-4V
s .co
titanium alloy (wheel speed 10.89 m/s; table speed 3 m/min; depth of cut
l
10 μm) (redrawn from [103])
issue, especially in the aspects of tool wear and surface rough-
ge du
ness. As for drilling processes, although it was shown that the
DLC-coated drill is compatible for the drilling of aluminium
alloys under MQL condition, uncoated K10 carbide drills
Pa F
would suffice by pairing it with appropriate lubricants, i.e.
low-viscosity lubricants.
h PD
The machining of difficult-to-machine materials is more
complex mainly due to their higher hardness, and this is rec-
ognized within the literature. Despite having a considerable
itc w.
number of studies performed for the MQL turning of difficult-
to-machine materials, researchers were not able to arrive at a
consensus with regard to the cooling and lubricating proper-
St w
ties of MQL systems. Nevertheless, some improvements were
observed with MQL, especially in the milling of difficult-to-
u //w
machine materials, with the main improvements being with
regard to tool wear and tool life. For drilling and grinding
experiments, MQL showed intermediate results with several
studies indicating that MQL was usually better than dry ma-
Fd tp:
chining but that conventional flood cooling ultimately
outperformed MQL.
In general, MQL is an effective technique for machining.
t
PD h
However, the extent of its effectiveness is dependent on
Fig. 15 Effect of MQL cutting fluid on surface roughness for a Ti-6Al-
4V titanium alloy (wheel speed 16.34 m/s; table speed 15 m/min; depth of
cut 10 μm) (redrawn from [103])
various factors including workpiece material, type of machin-
ing operation, machining and other parameters associated with
MQL such as flow rate, compressed air pressure, type of lu-
bricant and delivery method. However, in spite of this, there
were two consistent conclusions obtained from the application
of MQL:
1. Tool wear improvement: Compared to conventional flood
cooling, tool wear improvement [59, 106] was consistent
in most studies taking into account the differences in ma-
terials and machining types.
2. MQL is better than dry machining: Other than the machin-
ing of low hardness steels, MQL outperforms dry machin-
ing in the previously mentioned materials. This can be
explained by the application of cutting fluids, since lubri-
cation and cooling are the main functions of cutting fluids.
Therefore, the absence of cutting fluids in dry machining
is not ideal.
Based on the reviewed literature, there is still a debate
concerning the cooling and lubrication capabilities of MQL.
Some researchers have suggested that MQL lacks a cooling
effect [97–99] while others have suggested the opposite point
of view [74, 78]. These inconclusive results act as a key mo-
tivator to the advancement of MQL, which will be discussed
in the next section.
6 Advancements in MQL
Although MQL is proven to be a good alternative for tradi-
tional flood cooling, its cooling and lubricating effects are still
in question. Therefore, researchers have been exploring ways
to enhance the effectiveness of MQL by improving both its
cooling and lubricating effects as shown in Fig. 16 as pro-
posed by the current authors.
6.1 MQL with additives
Since MQL involves only a small amount of lubricant, it is
essential to make sure that the lubrication provided is suffi-
cient. Lubrication is important as it can affect the life of a
cutting tool as well as the surface quality and tolerance of
the machined workpiece [107]. Therefore, researchers have
investigated the addition of nanofluid [21, 108, 109] and ionic
liquid [110–112] in order to study their effect and
performance.
6.2 MQL with nanolubricants
Nanolubricants or nanofluids are defined as suspensions of
nanoparticles in a base fluid, and they can be designed or
engineered based on the desired properties. The four design
Fig. 16 Advancements in MQL
parameters are nanoparticles, base fluid, additives and scale
[113]. The addition of these nano-sized particles not only per-
mits penetration to the cutting interface but also increases the
heat transfer capability as the nano-sized solids generally have
a much higher thermal conductivity compared to liquids [113,
114] as shown in Table 2.
The thermal behaviour of nanofluids containing various
nanoparticles has been widely researched including Al2O3
[115], TiO 2 [116, 117], SiC [118] and NiFe2 O 4 [119].
Overall, it has been observed that the thermal conductivity
of the MQL increases as the concentration of nanoparticles
increases, although the linearity of the relationship is still in
question [120].
Another advantage offered by nanofluids is the lubrication
mechanism of nanoparticles. Nanofluids have higher lubricity
as the nanoparticles provide for several beneficial mechanisms
including the formation of a surface-protective film, rolling
effect, polishing effect and mending effect, whereupon the
nano-sized particles can be deposited on the “damaged” sur-
face in order to compensate for the loss of mass [121–123].
Aware of the multiple benefits offered by nanofluids, con-
siderable research has been carried out to better understand the
effectiveness of nanoparticles as an additive to lubricants for
contact lubrication applications [124–126]. As an extension to
that, the effects of nanofluids in MQL applications have re-
cently been investigated and have yielded positive results. A
summary of the effects of various nanoparticles in machining
is presented here:
& MoS2-paraffin oil/soybean oil [108]: Better performance
was shown with higher concentrations of nanoparticles. A
minimum friction coefficient of 0.22 and a reduction of
53% in energy consumption were observed with these
nanolubricants whilst wheel life was enhanced.
& MoS2-paraffin oil/soybean oil [109]: A reduction of 45–
50% in the force-ratio and 48–55% in abrasive wheel wear
was observed with these nanolubricants.
& Graphite-LB2000 vegetable-based oil/PriEco 6000 unsat-
urated polyol ester [127]: Graphite oil-based nanofluid
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Table 2 Thermal conductivity at room temperature of typical solids
and liquids used in MQL with nanolubricants
Material Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Carbon nanotubes 3000
Aluminium oxide 40
Water 0.60
Vegetable oils 0.18
Source: [113]
MQL led to a reduction in cutting force and temperature
compared to dry cutting and conventional MQL in turn-
ing. Increasing the mass fraction of nanographite caused a
reduction in the cutting force and temperature, irrespective
of the base oil type. However, with the same mass fraction
of graphite nanoparticles, LB2000 exhibited a lower cut-
ting force and temperature especially at high cutting
speeds.
& Al2O3-pure water [21]: Addition of nanoparticles led to a
reduction in the tangential grinding force and grinding
force ratio. The peak temperature within the cutting zone
of nanofluid MQL grinding was approximately 40 °C
lower than for normal MQL grinding.
&
MoS2-paraffin oil/soybean oil [114]: MQL with nanopar-
ticles showed an energy ratio coefficient and specific
grinding energy of 41.4 and 35%, which was lower com-
pared to conventional MQL (52.1 and 45.5%,
respectively).
& ZrO2-oil [114]: The presence of these nanoparticles en-
sured satisfactory cooling performance while the presence
of MoS2 showed satisfactory lubrication performance.
The cooling effects of 2 vol% nanoparticles was consid-
ered ideal.
& MOS2-ECOCUT HSG 905S [128]: The quality of the ma-
chined surface was improved when 0.5 wt% of nanopar-
ticles was added to the MQL as opposed to either pure oil
or any other nanoparticle concentrations.
& MoS2-Eraoil KT/2000 commercial vegetable oil [22]: The
minimum initial tool wear and surface roughness were
obtained using nanofluid MQL at a 40 ml/h flow rate as
compared to conventional MQL and dry cutting.
It is apparent from the previous research that the addition of
nanoparticles to MQL fluid has proven successful. Significant
improvements can be seen in various parameters including
energy consumption [108, 114], cutting and grinding forces
[21, 109, 114], temperature [127], tool wear [22] and surface
quality of the workpiece [22, 128]. Recently, a hybrid of MoS2
and carbon nanotube (CNT) nanoparticles was investigated by
Zhang et al. in the MQL grinding of Ni-based alloy [129] with
it being reported that a 6% mass fraction of MoS2/CNT nano-
particles with a ratio of 2:1 offered better lubrication compared
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
with pure nanoparticles. However, this approach is relatively
new, and in order to obtain maximum efficiency in machining
processes, research on the compatibility between base fluid
and nanoparticles, nanofluid and workpiece material, in addi-
tion to the lubrication system set up, still needs to be
investigated.
Despite providing positive effects in machining, there are
concerns expressed by manufacturers towards the use of
nanofluids. Although one of these is economic in aspect, for-
ia /
tunately, the price of nanofluid is similar to that of the base
Tr m
fluid. For example, the cost of nanolubricant containing
0.5 wt% MoS2 concentration is only 2.5% higher compared
s .co
to the standard lubricant, which is a good trade-off when tak-
l
ing into account the improved performance [128]. Perhaps, a
more important concern is the toxicology of nanoparticles.
Ironically, the advantageous size of nanoparticles in machin-
ge du
ing operations is an issue affecting human health as these
particles can be easily transferred to the human body through
inhalation or transdermally. Once inside the human body, the
Pa F
nanoparticles will translocate to other tissues and organs,
resulting in damage [130–133]. As there are countless vari-
h PD
ables involved in the engineering of nanoparticles, there is no
regulatory framework yet available to accommodate this is-
sue. Nevertheless, it is advised to use the smallest feasible
itc w.
concentration of nanoparticles in order to minimize any tox-
icity [134].
St w
6.3 MQL with ionic liquid
u //w
Studies have also been made on ionic liquid (IL), which is an
organic salt with low melting point (<100 °C), as an additive
for MQL applications [110, 135]. With its excellent lubrica-
tion properties, ILs have had extensive research in the area of
Fd tp:
sliding/rolling between different material pairs, for example,
steel to steel [136, 137], steel to aluminium [138–140] and
titanium to steel [141, 142]. In addition, the low volatility of
t
PD h
ILs has encouraged researchers to extend their study into
MQL applications as a step towards green machining [143].
However, the application of IL-based MQL is relatively new
and there is limited literature available. Davis et al. recently
reported a 60 and 15% reduction in tool wear in the machining
of titanium when compared with dry machining and conven-
tional flood cooling, respectively [110]. A milling experiment
on AISI 1045 carbon steel has also been conducted with it
being reported that the surface roughness of the workpiece
under the application of IL-based MQL was comparable with
that of flood cooling whereas MQL without the addition of IL
yielded higher surface roughness [111]. Positive results on
surface roughness have also been noted in the
micromachining of Al 5052 aluminium alloy [112].
The biggest similarity in the aforementioned experiments is
the amount of IL involved with between 0.5 and 1 wt% of IL
typically being added into the base oil for MQL applications.
This is a significant point as it shows that even a small amount
of IL is sufficient to affect the cutting performance in machin-
ing processes, thus highlighting that IL has the potential to
improve the effectiveness of MQL. However, similar to the
case of nanoparticles, the two main concerns associated with
IL are economic and ecological in nature. It has been pointed
out that the price of IL is relatively high with a typical range of
€23 to €100/kg [144]. With respect to ecology, it is proving
challenging for researchers to study its toxicology as the IL
can be significantly engineered based on the desired properties
[145]. Some reports have stated that the toxicity found in IL
was comparable or even greater than that of common solvents
such as methanol, acetone and ethanol [146–148]. However,
such a view is not unanimous between researchers [149] and it
is believed that the contradictory results can be attributed to an
inadequate testing methodology.
6.4 MQL with cooled air/gas
As mentioned earlier, it has been demonstrated that the
cooling properties of MQL are not sufficient [150, 151] with
this being attributed to the common medium used in
transporting lubricant droplets, namely, room-temperature
compressed air. To counter this issue, researchers have started
to combine cooled air/gas and MQL with promising results
[152, 153]. Impingement delivery of MQL has been investi-
gated in an attempt to improve the cooling effect as shown the
need for further investigation [154].
6.4.1 MQL combined with a Ranque-Hilsch vortex tube
The Ranque-Hilsch vortex tube (RHVT) is widely used in
various operations including thermal tests, dehumidification,
gas liquefaction, ice production and mixture separation whilst
also providing cooling and heating applications in machining
processes [23, 155]. RHVT comprises one or more inlet noz-
zles, allowing the flow of compressed air. The separation of
gas takes place in the tube whereupon two streams with dif-
ferent temperatures (hot and cold) will be divided towards
different exits [156]. One of the big advantages of RHVT is
that it does not involve any moving parts and its functionality
requires no chemicals or electricity, thus requiring little in the
way of maintenance [23, 155].
Researchers have evaluated several aspects associated with
RHVT including its cooling performance [157] as well as
influential parameters such as length-to-diameter ratio [158,
159] and types of air [160]. Based on the available literature,
significant improvements have been observed in a comparison
between the cutting tool temperatures with and without the
application of RHVT. For example, it was found that the max-
imum performance of RHVT resulted in a temperature differ-
ence of 97 °C [157] with this decrease in temperature also
leading to the minimization of BUE and thus providing a
better-quality product for soft materials [161]. Furthermore,
tool wear can be reduced by the application of RHVT cooling,
especially for higher cutting speeds [162].
In accordance to the aforementioned benefits, researchers
have proposed the combination of MQL and RHVT cooling
with a suitable mixture of air and liquid. It is believed that, if
successful, the combination of both techniques will provide a
higher pressure with better lubrication, thus prolonging tool
life [23, 163]. This has led to promising results for the case of a
finite element modelling (FEM) and computational fluid dy-
namics (CFD) study into the tool tip temperature. It was ob-
served that the maximum interface temperature under the con-
dition of combined MQL and RHVT cooled air was only 10%
higher than that of wet machining, which suggested the pos-
sibility of tool failure to be low [164]. In an experiment on end
milling involving MQL and cooled (−5 °C) air, a comparable
surface finish and a low cutting force were observed as had
been the case for conventional wet milling of aluminium alloy
[153].
However, overall, there is very limited research available
concerning this technique. Therefore, future work incorporat-
ing different materials and machining processes is suggested
in order to allow a more thorough evaluation on the effective-
ness of combined MQL and RHVT cooling.
6.5 Cryogenic MQL
Cryogenic MQL (CMQL) is a combined lubrication system
involving the techniques of cryogenic cooling and minimum
quantity lubrication. Similar to the approach of combined
MQL and RHVT cooling, the main theory behind this tech-
nique is to cool the workpiece. Upon reviewing the available
literature for both combined MQL and RHVT and CMQL, it
is obvious that the main difference between the aforemen-
tioned techniques is the method used in the transportation of
cold air. As the name implies, RHVT is used in the method of
MQL and RHVT [153, 164] whereas a refrigeration system is
used in CMQL [165, 166].
Cryogenic cooling has been studied extensively in different
machining processes including milling [167, 168], turning
[169, 170], drilling [171] and grinding [172] with positive
results. However, the combination of cryogenic cooling and
MQL has only recently been explored. Based on studies made
on the machining of titanium alloys, CMQL showed a signif-
icant reduction in temperature (cutting temperature and ma-
chined workpiece), cutting forces, surface roughness and tool
wear [51, 173]. These positive results are seen in other studies
with Zhang et al. reporting a significant improvement in lo-
calized flank wear during the hard milling of H-13 steel [165]
whilst a 124% improvement in tool life for the machining of
Inconel 718 under CMQL conditions has been noted when
compared to dry machining [166]. Other than practical exper-
iments, computer-aided analysis has been performed to
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
evaluate factors that may affect the performance of CMQL
with the following parameters being suggested for optimum
performance: lower temperature, higher flow of cold air, 8.5-
mm inlet diameter and 3-mm outlet diameter (for nozzles)
[174].
6.6 MQL combined with carbon dioxide
Another similar approach that has been studied involves the
combination of MQL and CO2 at low temperature with the
aim of creating a frozen layer of oil at the contact interface. In
order to achieve an ideal frozen layer thickness, a CO2 flow
rate of typically 40 l/min is applied at 238 K following the
application of oil by MQL. It has been noted that this new
approach can result in improved surface finish and lower
wheel wear compared to conventional flood grinding in addi-
tion to requiring approximately half the energy compared to
dry grinding [175, 176]. A similar approach involving super-
critical CO2 and soybean oil was carried out in the rough
turning of Inconel 750 with the main reason behind the use
of supercritical CO2 being to counter the issue of limited heat
dissipation offered by compressed air. Supercritical CO2 has
excellent solubility for aliphatic and most aromatic hydrocar-
bons and thus can carry a wide range of metalworking lubri-
cants in solution [151, 177]. The results obtained from the
experiment were extremely promising with an increased tool
life and material removal rate together with a reduced tool
wear rate [152].
Despite yielding positive results, the use of CO2 for ma-
chining operations is controversial due to it being one of the
primary greenhouse gases. It is apparent that the increased
concentration of greenhouse gases may result in further rises
in global temperature, which is undesirable [178]. Whereas
the use of alternative gases such as nitrogen has been sug-
gested by some researchers [179], others have countered oth-
erwise with Lozowski [180] stating that there will be no con-
tribution to the greenhouse effect if the CO2 is initially with-
drawn from the environment and then returned to the environ-
ment following its use. Such an argument was supported by a
life cycle assessment that showed a lower overall environmen-
tal impact for supercritical CO2 compared with aqueous met-
alworking fluid [181]. Furthermore, reusing waste CO2 is en-
couraged in order to reach a net reduction of the respective
global warming potential (GWP) [182].
6.7 Summary of MQL developments
To determine the effectiveness of various types of MQL de-
velopment, four main parameters were looked at in terms of
machining: tool wear, tool life, surface quality and cutting
forces. Based on the trends shown in Table 3, MQL containing
nanofluids (MQL + NP) is the most promising method,
whereas the other four methods have their own strengths and
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Table 3 Comparison between
the different types of MQL Types of MQL/improvement
developments
Tool wear
Tool life
Surface quality
Cutting forces
weaknesses. However, this result is not totally conclusive as
ia /
there exist significant gaps in the literature for MQL + IL,
Tr m
MQL + RHVT, CMQL and MQL + supercritical (SC) CO2.
Therefore, this gap in the available research needs to be min-
s .co
imized by focusing on the aforementioned MQL techniques.
l
7 Conclusions
ge du
The effectiveness of MQL for machining has been presented
in this review drawing on the substantial available literature.
Pa F
In terms of machining effectiveness, MQL has shown to have
great promise with traditional machining operations, namely
h PD
turning, milling and drilling. Improvements resulting from the
use of MQL were reported for various aspects of machining,
such as tool wear, surface roughness, cutting temperature and
itc w.
cutting force. In addition, workpiece materials of aluminium
and its alloys, steels and even difficult-to-machine materials
have had their cutting process helped by using MQL.
St w
The MQL significant reduction in cutting fluid has the
ability to largely reduce the hazards caused by conventional
u //w
flood cooling towards the environment. In addition, the use of
MQL also provides a financial incentive, due to its low oil
consumption and the availability of clean chips for selling.
Recent developments in MQL include the introduction of
Fd tp:
nanoparticles and ILs into MQL cutting fluids, as well as
hybrid MQLs by combining cooled air/gas such as RHVT
cooled air and supercritical CO2 with MQL. These develop-
t
PD h
ments have shown to be successful in terms of increasing the
lubricity and cooling effect of a MQL system. As previous
research has shown that the lack of a significant cooling effect
was found to be the main disadvantage of standard MQL
during machining, it is recommended that further research
needs to be carried out on hybrid MQL systems such as
MQL and RHVT.
It was apparent from the lack of reviews on nanoparticle
toxicology that additional research concerning the toxicology
of nanoparticles (and ILs) is urgently required as industrial
applications of nanofluid-based MQL and MQL + RHVT will
increase dramatically in the near future. On that note, several
future avenues of research are recommended for
consideration:
1. The addition of pure nanoparticles into MQL cutting fluid
has proven to be successful. Significant improvements
MQL + NP MQL + IL MQL + RHVT CMQL MQL + SC CO2
✓ ✓ ✓ 8.
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 9.
✓ ✓ ✓ 30. Hinduja S (2004), Proceedings of the 34th International
were reported in energy consumption [108, 114], cutting
forces [21, 109, 114], temperature [127], tool wear [22] and
surface quality of the workpiece [22, 128]. Recently, a
study was made involving a hybrid of nanoparticles,
MoS2 and CNT, in a grinding experiment of nickel-based
alloy and it was shown that the addition of hybrid nano-
particles led to improved lubricity compared to either of the
pure nanoparticle [129]. Therefore, the authors recommend
the further investigation of hybrid nanoparticle additives.
2. To improve the cooling effect of MQL, researchers have
combined it with cooled air including CPMJ and RHVT,
in addition to supercritical CO2, and have obtained prom-
ising results. From considering the available literature, the
authors have found great potential in the combination of
MQL and RHVT. Future investigation of end milling
using MQL and RHVT is suggested, due to turning hav-
ing previously been the main focus.
3. One final area of MQL that needs further consideration is
the determination of the optimum operating conditions
such as nozzle distance from workpiece, flow rate, angle
of nozzle to the workpiece and operating pressure.
The authors have no doubt that MQL will have a promising
future despite it not yet being widely adopted.
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Int J Adv Manuf Technol
DOI 10.1007/s00170-016-9883-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Application of cutting fluids in machining of titanium alloys—a
review
Rukmini Srikant Revuru 1 & Nageswara Rao Posinasetti 1 & Venkata Ramana VSN 2 &
ia /
Amrita M 2
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Received: 13 September 2016 / Accepted: 12 December 2016
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# Springer-Verlag London 2017
Abstract Titanium alloys are widely used in aerospace, bio-
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medical, and other engineering areas due to their superior
properties. However, machining of titanium alloys has always
h PD
been a challenge due to the high temperatures and tool wear
rates. Dry machining has a limited range of permissible cut-
ting conditions and is hence not suitable for industrial produc-
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tion. As a solution, flood cooling using cutting fluids is con-
ventionally used to reduce the cutting temperatures. However,
it is often discouraged in light of the associated environmental
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and health hazards. In order to achieve sustainable machining,
different strategies for applying the cutting fluids are devel-
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oped. Some of the prominent methods include minimum
quantity lubrication (MQL), minimum quantity cooled lubri-
cation (MQCL), and cryogenic cooling. This paper provides a
comprehensive review of the available recent literature on
Fd tp:
such studies. Each of these techniques and results obtained
in the studies has been discussed with emphasis on the advan-
tages and limitations of each method. Major conclusions
t
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drawn are that coated carbides are better and machinability
is greatly affected by the microstructure of the material.
MQL certainly improved compared to other methods while
cryogenic or super cooled cutting fluid application (MQCL)
has been found to be better for specific situations. Use of
nanofluids for titanium is not very popular among the
researchers.
* Rukmini Srikant Revuru
rrsrikant@gmail.com; rukmini.revuru@uni.edu
1
Department of Technology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar
Falls, IA 50614, USA
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GIT, GITAM University,
Visakhapatnam, AP, India
Keywords Titanium alloys . Machining . Cutting fluids .
MQL . MQCL . Cryogenic cooling
1 Introduction
With the advancements in material science, newer materials
with enhanced properties are being produced. Based on the
requirements, alloys with properties like high strength and
hardness are replacing the conventional metals and alloys in
various engineering applications. While such materials are
functionally useful, they pose problems during machining.
Increased strength and hardness of the materials generate
high temperatures during machining and accelerate tool wear
[1]. Such materials are known as “difficult-to-machine” mate-
rials. Titanium and nickel alloys are the most popularly used
difficult to machine engineering materials. Titanium alloys are
extensively used in the aerospace, structural, biomedical, and
defense applications due to their superior properties like high
fatigue strength, high yield strength, high strength to weight
ratio, resistance to high temperatures, biocompatibility, and
high corrosion resistance [2]. Though pure titanium is a soft
metal, its alloys have superior properties comparable to nickel
alloys. Still, the density of the alloys is low, almost similar to
aluminum. This makes the alloys useful for aerospace appli-
cations. Due to the high hardness and strength, high tempera-
tures are produced in the machining of titanium alloys [3, 4].
Further, titanium alloys retain their strength even at high tem-
peratures, up to about 550 °C. As these alloys have very low
thermal conductivity, heat generated in machining is not dis-
sipated and is contained in the tool, leading to early tool fail-
ure. About 80% of the heat generated is conducted to the
cutting tool [5, 6]. This problem aggravates at higher cutting
speeds, where higher temperatures are produced. Also, high
amount of spring back is experienced by these materials due to
the low modulus of elasticity. This leads to greater deflection
of thin-walled structures resulting in tool vibration, chatter,
and poor surface finish.
It is reported in literature that optimum cutting speed for the
alloy is about only 60 m/min while using tungsten carbide/
physical vapor deposition (PVD)-coated tools [1, 7, 8], which
are supposed to be the best tools for machining titanium alloys
[9]. For uncoated carbide tools, the cutting speeds are less than
50 m/min, at a feed rate of 0.5 mm/rev. At higher speeds and
feeds, the tool life is very short and results in poor surface
finish. For instance, machining at speeds over 90 m/min had
tool life less than 10 min [10]. Machining at low speeds and
feeds results in reduced productivity.
As temperature is a major factor in machining of titanium
alloys, diffusion and cater wears are dominant mechanisms
responsible for tool failure. Further, titanium is highly reactive
with the tool materials leading to increased wear of the tool
[11]. This renders some of the hard tools like cubic boron
nitride (CBN) not suitable for these alloys [12]. Tools like
tungsten carbide have tool life of less than 5 min in dry ma-
chining of titanium alloys. Hence, tools with coatings are pop-
ularly used for machining titanium alloys. Tools with compos-
ite coatings were also used in literature, but the single-layer/
single-phase coatings outperform the composite coatings [13,
14] due to their higher thermal stability. Since machining is
usually done at lower cutting speeds, titanium alloys have
high tendency to strain harden and lead to built up edge
(BUE) during the course of machining [15]. BUE causes poor
surface finish and dimensional control of the machined parts.
Owing to the above reasons, machining of titanium alloys is a
major challenge. Over the last few years, a considerable
knowledgebase is formed by the contributions of various re-
searchers on machining of titanium alloys.
2 Lubrication in machining of titanium alloys
Due to the wide spread use of titanium alloys and their poor
machinability, machining of the alloys has received due atten-
tion. Various techniques are employed in machining of these
alloys. Figure 1 shows the classification of various approaches
usually adopted in conventional machining of titanium alloys.
Different alloys of titanium are studied in the literature
(Table 1). Table 1 gives the percentages (w/w) of the elements
present in the alloy, the rest of the composition being titanium.
It may be noticed that a majority of studies have concentrated
on Ti6Al4V because of its wide usage.
2.1 Dry machining
Dry machining refers to machining without the use of any
coolant. Many times, dry machining is encouraged due to
the disadvantages of the coolants. However, dry machining
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 1 Classification of machining processes for titanium alloys
results in high cutting temperatures and cutting forces, leading
to short tool life. Various researchers have studied the efficacy
of dry machining of different alloys having different machin-
ability levels [16]. Usually, coated tools are preferred over
uncoated carbide tools for machining of titanium alloys, as
explained earlier. Sharif and Rahim [17] compared the perfor-
mance of coated (TiAlN coating) drills with uncoated drill bits
while drilling Ti6Al4V at different cutting speeds of 25, 35,
45, and 55 m/min. It was observed that uncoated tools had tool
life less than 1 min, compared to coated tools which had about
8-min tool life at cutting speed of 25 m/min. It was reported
that a micro layer of Al2O3 has formed on the tool as a pro-
tective mask from the atmosphere. This provided insulation to
the tool, besides acting as a layer of lubricant. This helped in
achieving longer tool life. Cantero et al. [18] studied the dril-
ling of the same alloy using TiN-coated tools at cutting speeds
of 50 m/min and feed of 0.07 mm/rev. In this study, the con-
centration was on the quality of the holes and tool wear. It was
observed that attrition and diffusion wear led to tool damage
over time. Since drilling was done at dry conditions, high
temperatures were reached, which was evident from chip
combustion. Chip combustion took place between 4 and
6 min of machining. It was observed that parts of the tool
coatings were lost due to heat. The study suggests that dry
machining is suitable only for a small time. Average surface
roughness of about 2.5 μm was reported at the end of tool life.
In a slightly different study, Armendia et al. [19] compared the
machinability of Ti6Al4V and Ti54M alloys under dry ma-
chining using uncoated tools. Machining was done at constant
feed of 0.1 mm/rev and depth of cut of 2 mm at different
cutting speeds of 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 m/min. Least tool
wear was observed at 60 m/min, almost similar amount of
wear for both materials. At higher speeds, Ti6Al4V gave
higher tool wear. It was noted that tool life was about
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 1 Different titanium alloys that among the available alloys of titanium, Ti6Al4V is used in and Lazoglu [30] machined Ti6Al4V using tungsten carbide
studied by researchers Titanium alloy Number of Composition (%)
studies over 50% of the applications worldwide [23, 24]. end mill to study the forces and temperatures in micro milling.
Al Sn Zr Mo W Si V Others The mechanical properties of titanium alloys depend on the Machining was done at depths of cut of 100 and 150 μm, feed
β-phase content. β-phase content influences the tool wear of 5, 10, and 15 μm/rev and speed of 10,000 rpm. Similar
BTi-6431S 1 6.13 3.0 3.0 1.28 0.38 0.12 – Nb-0.14 mechanism playing a critical role in the tool failure. Joshi conditions were used to simulate the process for prediction
Ti1023 2 3 – – – – – 10 Fe-2 et al. [25] machined three titanium alloys with different β- of cutting temperatures. It was reported that high feeds lead
Ti17 2 5 2 2 4 – – – Cr-4 phase contents such as α, α + β, and β-rich alloys with coated to high temperatures, over 250% compared to low feeds. The
Ti40 1 – – – – – 0.2 25 Cr-15 carbide tools. The wear mechanisms were investigated with results are similar to those claimed by Sun et al. [9]. In this
Ti54M 2 5 – – 0.6 – – 4 Fe-0.4 scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive x-ray study, Ti6Al4V was machined at 30–100 m/min. The work
– – – –

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Ti5553 3 5 5 5 Cr-3 analysis of the tool surface. Abrasion wear, abrasion wear with draws some interesting conclusions. It was observed that the

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Ti55531 1 5 – – 5 – – 5 Cr-3, Zr-1 BUE, and plastic deformation of tool were found to be prom- temperatures are least at 80 m/min. This was supported by an
Ti54M 2 5 – – 0.6 – – 4 Fe-0.4 inent in these three alloys, respectively. Also, diffusion wear argument that the higher the speeds, the amount of work piece
– –

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Ti6246 2 6 2 4 6 was observed in all the cases. Sacristan et al. [26] analyzed the material sticking to the tool decreases and thus friction is re-

l
Ti6Al4V 56 6 – – – – – 4 Fe-0.25, machinability of α + β Ti6Al4V alloy with different contents duced. This leads to lower temperatures. Beyond 80 m/min,
O2-0.2 of oxygen. Two different contents of oxygen, 1200 and the effect of speed on work piece adhering to tool is weakened
TiAl 1 Variable – – – – – – – 2000 ppm were considered. Machining was carried out at and hence temperatures increased. Higher feed rates increased

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Ti-43.5Al-4Nb-1Mo-0.1B 1 43.5 1 Nb-4, different cutting speeds of 50–70 m/min, feed of 0.5 mm/ the temperatures and surface roughness. Zhang et al. [31]
B-0.1
rev, and depth of cut of 3 mm. Cutting forces, chip morphol- found that apart from tool wear, machining of titanium alloys
Pure titanium 1 – – – – – – – O2 < 0.5
ogy, and tool wear were studied in machining. It was observed at higher speeds leads to increased residual stresses in the

Pa F that higher oxygen content led to poor machinability by al-

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15 min for Ti6Al4V. In another work, Armendia et al. [20]
studied the machinability of three titanium alloys, namely,
Ti6Al4V, TIMETAL® 54 M, and Ti6246. Ti6246 showed
itc w.
followed different trends with change in cutting speeds.
Cutting temperatures were found to be primarily responsible
for increased tool wear. It was reported that while abrasion
most 15%. This was attributed to the increased hardness and
yield strength of the alloys with higher levels of oxygen con-
tent. Higher levels of diffusion wear were observed in high
oxygen alloy. Similar results were obtained by Barkia et al.
products. The combined role of tool wear and speeds was
confirmed through microstructure analysis. It was shown that
higher cutting speeds lead to higher rates of tool wear and thus
increased residual stresses. The results were validated using
numerical analysis. Zhu et al. [32] investigated the relation

highest tool wear due to its hardness. The other two alloys wear was prominent in machining Ti55531, adhesion, coating [27]. In this study, Ti40 (1600 ppm of oxygen) and Ti60 alloys between tool wear and chip morphology while machining
had similar mechanical properties but TIMETAL® 54 M delamination, and diffusion were prominent in Ti6Al4V (3200 ppm of oxygen) were tested. It was found that higher Ti6Al4V alloy at a speed of 80 m/min, feed of 0.1 mm/tooth
was more machinable. This leads to an inference that mechan- (Fig. 2). It was pointed out higher strength of Ti55531 com- levels of oxygen content lead to increased shear stress and and depth of cut of 0.8 mm. It may be noted that cutting
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ical properties alone do not dictate the machinability. The pared to Ti6Al4V make it more difficult to be machined. This yield strength. Since temperatures produced in machining conditions chosen are close to the conditions claimed to be
difference in machinability of the two alloys was attributed behavior increased with increase in cutting speed and rake are primarily due to shear, this can have a major role in the optimal by Sun et al. [9]. Contrary to other works which report
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to microstructural changes due to heat treatment. It was ob-
served that β annealing of the alloys led to more tool wear and
cutting forces compared to other heat treatment processes.
Also, it is advocated that as Ti54M has finer micro structure,
Fd tp:
angle of the cutting tool. machinability characteristics. In a study carried out on phase crater and diffusion wear to be the most influential mecha-
Khanna and Sangwan [22] carried out a similar work to transformations of the alloy during machining, Zhang et al. nisms, this work reported that flank wear was dominant.
investigate the machinability of heat treated Ti6Al4V, Ti54M [28] focused on modeling of stress distribution using Johnson- This was attributed to the chipping of the tool due to high
and Ti1023 alloys. Friction coefficient, forces and tempera- Cook’s model. It was found that phase transformations influ- chatter. It was found that tool wear decreases the chip curl

better machinability, and hence can be a good replacement of tures were measured. It was found that at all the considered ence the chip fracture characteristics of the alloy and hence the and increases the tool/chip contact area. This, in turn, leads
Ti6Al4V in many applications. Similar results were obtained cutting conditions, the machinability followed the order of cutting temperatures. It may be noted that chip flow is greatly to increased friction and temperature which further decreases
by Nouari and Makich [21] who studied the mechanics of Ti1023 (solution treated and aged) > Ti1023 annealed > affected by the mechanical properties of the work materials. the tool life. Wagner et al. [33] studied the relationship be-
t

Ti54M β annealed > Ti6Al4V annealed > Ti54M annealed.

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machining Ti6Al4V and Ti55531. The study was aimed to
understand the effect of cutting parameters through the anal-
ysis of chip formation. Cutting forces and temperatures
Fig. 2 BSE micrograph of tool used to machine. a Ti6Al4V b Ti55531 [21]
So, the regular Ti6Al4V alloy that is often annealed for in-
creased hardness has very low machinability. It may be noted
Hence, difference in chip fracture characteristics implies
change in the mechanical properties of material, with the cut-
ting parameters being constant. This is in line with the previ-
ous research that suggested influence of the phase on the
properties and machinability of titanium alloys.
Vijay and Krishnaraj [29] studied the effect of cutting con-
ditions on peripheral milling of Ti6Al4V alloy in dry machin-
ing. An uncoated carbide tool was used for machining at dif-
ferent cutting conditions selected through L16 orthogonal ar-
ray. Machining was done in a range of 30–60 m/min of cutting
speed, 0.01–0.025 mm/rev feed, and 2–3.5 mm depth of cut.
Depth of cut was found to be the most influential parameter on
cutting force, followed by feed rate. Optimal values of cutting
speed as 40 m/min, depth of cut as 2 mm, and feed of
0.01 mm/rev were recommended for low cutting forces and
better surface finish. It may be noted that the recommended
values are the least values in the selected ranges. Mamedov
tween chip formation, cutting process and tool wear for
Ti6Al4V and Ti5553 alloys while machining at speed in the
range of 35–65 m/min, depth of cut at 3 mm and feed at
0.2 mm/tooth. Serrated chips were observed at all cutting con-
ditions for both the alloys. This is an interesting observation,
which is not in line with other works reporting BUE at lower
speeds and serrated chips at higher speeds. No change in the
material properties of the chip were observed at low cutting
speeds, but at higher cutting speeds, changes in the material
properties and phase of the material were observed. Also, chip
thickness decreased with increase in cutting speed. An analyt-
ical model was proposed to quantify stresses, temperatures,
and friction. The study suggested that high cutting speeds
can alter the properties of the product due to high tempera-
tures. Similar results were reported by Sun et al. [9], Sima
[34], and Nithyanandam et al. [35]. A unique aspect in the
work by Sutter and List [36] is that machining is carried out
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
at very high speeds in the range of 3000–4000 m/min. It was
observed that at lower speeds in the range, softening of metal
takes place due to high temperatures and in the median of the
speeds, strain hardening dominates the thermal effects and
hence forces do not reduce. At the highest values of speed,
small fragments are expelled from the work piece and hence,
cutting forces get reduced again. It was shown that cutting
speed is the most influential parameter, followed by feed.
Though the work suggests that higher speeds may be benefi-
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cial for machining titanium alloys, this inference cannot be
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applied for regular machining, as the speeds are very high
and beyond the regime of regular machining.
s .co
In another study on high-speed machining, Wang and Liu
l
[37] machined Ti6Al4V at different cutting speeds ranging
from 50 to 3000 m/min and constant feed of 0.1 mm/tooth
to find the influence of cutting speed on forces. Serrated chips
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were observed up to 2500 m/min and then discontinuous chips
were obtained. It was observed that higher cutting speeds are
required to attain lesser cutting forces, but since cutting speeds
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increase the temperature, dry machining at high cutting speeds
is not practical for titanium alloys. In a slightly different study,
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Wu and Zhang [38] studied the effect of feed rate in end
milling of Ti6Al4V at cutting speed of 150–450 m/min, feed
of 1–10 m/min, and depths of cut as 0.5–2.5 mm. It was
itc w.
observed that cutting forces increased with cutting conditions.
Beyond cutting speed of 350 m/min, the cutting forces de-
creased due to thermal softening of the work piece.
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Rashid et al. [39] machined Ti6Al4V at constant cutting
conditions to study the tool wear mechanisms. Machining
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was carried out at speed of 150 m/min, feed rate of
0.214 mm/rev, and depth of cut of 1 mm. Length of cut was
varied from 95 to 110 mm. It was observed that adhesion,
attrition, and diffusion led to increased crater wear. Diffusion
Fd tp:
of carbon, tungsten, and cobalt was observed from the tool to
the flowing chip; this was followed by plastic deformation of
the tool due to high temperatures. Wagner and Duc [40]
t
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Fig. 3 Surface defects on machined surfaces [42]
studied milling of Ti1023 with toroidal tool to investigate
the influence of cutting conditions on cutting forces and tool
wear. Cutting speeds were selected in the range of 20–120 m/
min and feed in the range of 0.05–0.3 mm/tooth. It was ob-
served that cutting forces and tool wear increase with the
cutting conditions, in line with previous works. It has been
reported that radial depth has to be kept lesser than tool radius
to increase tool life and has to be larger to increase the material
removal rates. This is because, as the depth decreases, stresses
and temperatures are lowest and hence tool life increases.
Prasanna et al. [41] studied the influence of cutting param-
eters in dry drilling of Ti6Al4V. holes were drilled in plates of
0.4-mm thickness at different speeds of 2000, 3500, and
5000 rpm and feeds of 5, 10, and 15 mm/min. Forces and
form accuracy of the holes were measured and Taguchi’s anal-
ysis was carried out to identify the most significant parameter.
It was reported that lower feeds produced higher thrust forces
due to the increased machining time and hence was most
influential. Also, titanium alloys react with carbide tools at
higher temperatures. However, accuracy of the hole deterio-
rated with increase in feed rate due to increased tool wear.
Cutting speed was found to be the most significant for hole
quality. Through ANOVA and gray relation analysis the opti-
mal settings were found out to be feed rate of 10 mm/min and
speed of 5000 rpm. Yang and Liu [42] studied the influence of
cutting parameters (cutting speed = 20–110 m/min,
feed = 0.02–0.05 mm/tooth, depth of cut = 0.5–2 mm) in
milling of Ti6Al4V alloy and tried to optimize the parameters.
Machining was carried out under different levels of speeds,
feeds, and depths of cut designed through Taguchi’s method.
Different surface defects like feed marks, scratches, adhered
material particles, etc. were observed on the machined sur-
faces (Fig. 3). It was found that feed marks and scratches
increased with feed rates. Cutting temperatures increased with
speed. Best surface was obtained while machined at high cut-
ting speed, low feed, and small depth of cut. However,
adhesion and debris of microchips were observed at high cut-
ting speeds.
It may be noted that in almost all the reported works, dry
machining of titanium alloys is characterized by high temper-
atures and tool wear. It is generally reported that higher cutting
speeds severely affect tool wear/product quality. Hence, the
permissible cutting conditions in machining the alloy are lim-
ited for long tool life, leading to low productivity. This leads to
the investigations on techniques to improve the machining
process by reducing friction and temperature.
2.2 Cutting fluids
The conventional approach to restrain cutting temperatures
and associated problems is the application of cutting fluids
[43]. Cutting fluids are usually applied with the nozzle pointed
at any of the three different directions, namely, behind the
chip, on the rake face, or on the flank face (Fig. 4). The cutting
fluid reaches the interface of the tool/chip through capillarity,
forms a thin film and prevents the adhesion of the chip on the
rake face of the tool [44]. This reduces friction and consequent
heating. However, since the temperature is very high in the
machining of titanium alloys, the cutting fluid evaporates be-
fore it reaches the tool/chip interface. To compensate for the
loss due to evaporation, flood lubrication has been adopted in
many studies.
2.2.1 Flood lubrication
Flood lubrication is the conventional method of applying cut-
ting fluids in machining. Typically, flow rate of over 100 L/h
is adopted. The cooling is mainly due to convention of the
heat from the machining zone and a small quantity of the
coolant may reach the tool/chip interface, depending on the
direction of the coolant application. Among the various types
of cutting fluids available, generally, water-based emulsions
are applied in flood lubrication due to the high heat transfer
capabilities and economy [43]. Narutaki et al. [45] used flood
lubrication of water-based emulsion while machining titanium
Fig. 4 Directions of application
of cutting fluids
Nozzle
Work piece
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
alloys with diamond tool. It was reported that cutting speeds
of 3.33 m/s (200 m/min) were possible in flood lubrication. It
was emphasized that coolant plays a critical role in the pro-
cess. It was observed that at lower speed conditions, the inter-
actions of the tool and work piece were not significant.
Abrasion wear was found to be the major contributor of tool
wear. Since abrasion wear is mainly due to friction, it may be
inferred that flood lubrication cooled the work piece (evident
by reducing diffusion wear), possibly by conduction and con-
vection, but did not provide the required lubrication.
Nambi and Paulo [46] machined Ti6Al4V alloy using ce-
ramic inserts containing 80% Al2O3 and 20% TiC. Cutting
fluid containing 75% water was applied as a coolant compared
to 95% of water that is normally used with water-soluble
fluids. But, in this study, higher content of oil was used to
improve the lubrication in machining. Machining was done
at different cutting conditions with and without the application
of the cutting fluid. Cutting speeds of 45, 90, and 135 m/min,
feed rate of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.32 mm/rev, and depths of cut of 0.5
and 0.75 mm were chosen. It was reported that tool life has
increased by over 30% with the application of cutting fluid
compared to dry machining. Though attrition and adhesion
wear lead to the failure of cutting tool, the wear was much
less compared to the dry machining. In dry machining, diffu-
sion wear was higher due to higher temperatures. Better sur-
face finish was observed with the application of the cutting
fluid. This was attributed to the lesser chances of adhesion
wear. BUE was not noticed in wet machining. Further, per-
missible speeds and feeds are much higher with the applica-
tion of cutting fluids.
Though flood lubrication is usually sufficient for effective
cooling in machining of titanium alloys, high-pressure coolant
delivery systems are preferred [47]. It is often reported that the
low pressure of regular coolant may not be sufficient to break
through the vapor blanket formed by the prevalent high tem-
peratures and hence sufficient cooling may not be obtained.
Since the increase in flow rate and velocity of the jet increases
the heat transfer coefficient, higher pressures result in faster
heat dissipation and are more advantageous. Further,
Nozzle
Tool
Nozzle
Shear plane
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
pressurized jet helps in chip breaking and prevents excessive
contact of the chip with the rake face of the tool, thus reducing
the friction. It is interesting to note that even jet cooling may
not completely lubricate the machining zone and many times
abrasion and diffusion wear of the tool were reported. In order
to achieve effective lubrication, Ezugwu et al. [48] studied the
surface integrity of Ti6Al4V samples machined under differ-
ent cutting conditions and high pressures of coolants.
Machining was done at cutting speeds of 175, 200, 250, and
ia /
250 m/min, feed rate of 0.15 mm/rev, and depth of cut of
Tr m
0.5 mm. High-pressure coolant was supplied at 11 and
20.3 MPa, resulting in 18.5 and 24 L/min flow rates, respec-
s .co
tively. The flow rates were chosen to ensure chip-breakage. It
l
was reported that the surface finish was below the rejection
criteria in all the cases (Fig. 5). Micro-structures were exam-
ined to detect plastic deformation, but no plastic deformation
ge du
was found. It may be observed that the cutting speeds are
higher than what are usually permitted for the machining of
the alloys. Preventing plastic deformation at the chosen cut-
Pa F
ting speeds is a major contribution of the work. This was
attributed to the softening of the machined surface under high
h PD
coolant pressures and efficient cooling. On the other hand,
conventional cooling hardened the material due to the
quenching effect.
itc w.
Da Silva et al. [11] also applied the coolant at increased
pressures while machining Ti6Al4V. At high pressures, flow
rates of 16.9, 18.5, and 20.3 L/min were obtained (for pres-
St w
sures of 7, 11, and 20.3 MPa, respectively), while the conven-
tional flood lubrication was maintained at 2.3 L/min. The
u //w
coolants were applied through a nozzle directed at the back-
side of the chip. Machining was done at different cutting
speeds of 175, 200, 230, and 250 m/min. Tool flank wear,
cutting forces, and surface roughness were monitored. Flank
Fd tp:
and nose wear are found to be dominant with the polycrystal-
line diamond (PCD) tools. Among the two forms, nose wear
was found to be most influential. Nose wear was found to
t
PD h
increase with increase in cutting speed in all cases. Tool wear
was found to decrease with increase in the coolant pressure
and flow rate. For instance, in Fig. 6, tool profile while ma-
chining at 7 MPa (a) was compared with 11 MPa (b). Among
Fig. 5 Surface roughness in different lubricating conditions [48]
the considered flow rates, the 20.3 L/min flow rate resulted in
minimum tool wear. However, the phenomenon was domi-
nant at low cutting speeds and at high speeds, the effect of
coolant pressure was not clear. Similar results were obtained
for surface finish and cutting forces.
Hadzley et al. [49] performed a similar study on Ti6Al4V
alloy and the results were substantiated using finite element
analysis. Coolant pressures were taken as 7, 11, 15, and
20.3 MPa. Cutting forces, temperatures, and chip formation
were simulated at constant cutting conditions. The flow of the
cutting fluid was directed at the rake face of the tool through a
channel in the tool holder. It was reported that the cutting
forces and temperatures decreased with increase in the pres-
sure of the coolant due to reduction in friction (Fig. 7). Also, it
was reported that while conventional coolant supply resulted
in continuous chips, increased pressure of the coolant pro-
duced segmented chips. As discussed earlier, this is helpful
for curtailing friction in the machining zone.
Ayed et al. [50] rough machined Ti17 alloy using tungsten
carbide tools under cooling with conventional flood lubrica-
tion and high-pressure water jet supply. Jet was directed be-
tween tool rake face and chip. This assisted in chip breaking
and reduced friction. It may be noted that when applying the
coolant on the rake face, the cutting fluid jet has to overcome
the effect of the chip flow in order to reach the secondary shear
zone and provide lubrication. Such lubrication is only possible
under high speeds and pressures of the coolant jet. It was
observed that cutting temperatures in flood lubrication were
very high and caused premature tool failure. With the high-
pressure coolant, the tool life increased by four times.
Diffusion wear was significantly low under high-pressure
coolant system. Crater wear was found to be more influential
than the flank wear in such systems. This may be because of
the pressure not sufficient to reach the machining zone to
prevent crater wear by forming a lubricating film on the rake
face. In another study, Ayed et al. [51] applied high-pressure
water jet as coolant while machining Ti17 alloy using uncoat-
ed carbide tools. Cutting speed was varied from 50 to 100 m/
min and water jet pressure was varied from 50 to 250 bar. The
effect of water jet was dominant at low speeds. At 100 bar
pressure, tool life was about nine times compared to dry ma-
chining. It was also suggested that cutting speeds may be
increased while using water jet, up to about 15% and thus
increase the productivity. This is in line with the results
claimed by Ezugwu et al. [48].
Bouchnak et al. [52] machined Ti5553 alloy using a high-
pressure coolant jet. Jet pressure was varied and results were
compared with flood and dry machining. It was shown that
higher productivity can be obtained through high-pressure jet
cooling as higher cutting speeds are possible. This also led to
better chip fragmentation and longer tool life. Surface finish
was found to have increased. The results were attributed to the
thermo-mechanical action of the coolant jet leading to reduced
Fig. 6 Tool profiles at different
coolant pressures. a 7 MPa. b
11 MPa [11]
coefficient of friction and hence, reduced cutting forces and
temperatures. It is reported in almost the works using the high-
pressure jet that the application of the jet helps in softening the
work piece, thus lowering the cutting forces. A summary of
research on dry machining and flood cooling in machining of
titanium alloys is provided in Table 2.
Improved performance has led to the widespread applica-
tion of the cutting fluid as high-pressure jets. This leads to
increased consumption of cutting fluids causing serious envi-
ronmental concerns. The effects of the fluids on workers’
health, problems in handling and disposal of the fluid, envi-
ronmental pollution, etc. have been a major concern for many
industries [53]. Several industries spend huge amount of mon-
ey for the safe disposal of cutting fluids. The ingredients in
cutting fluids like the EP additives and emulsifier make the
cutting fluid non-biodegradable. This often calls for special
treatment before disposal and increases the disposal costs [54].
Due to the microbial contamination and effect of toxic in-
gredients in cutting fluids, nearly 80% of the occupational
infections and diseases like dermatitis are caused [55].
Though individual ingredients may be safe, the chemical re-
actions on formulation of the fluids give rise to compounds
that are complex and allergenic. International Agency for
Fig. 7 Cutting temperatures at different coolant pressures [49]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Research on Cancer (IARC) reported that cutting fluids con-
taining petroleum-based additives can cause skin cancer [43].
Due to the hazardous substances and less biodegradability
cutting fluids cause several health problems like lung cancer,
respiratory disorders, and various dermatological diseases.
Apart from the disposal problems, the reported growth of
bacteria in cutting fluids is alarming. Aerobic bacteria grow
exponentially in the cutting fluids in both storage and working
conditions. The bacterial species is identified to be
Pseudomonas. Being an opportunistic bacterium, though not
invasive, Pseudomonas has a tendency to aggravate in case of
an injury or burns. There are about 70 species in
Pseudomonas, majority of which have the ability to break
down the oils (which can crucially affect the cutting fluid).
The organisms utilize the carbon present in the oils as their
source of nutrition and deteriorate the oil into inorganic com-
pound. Pseudomonas has the ability to survive in hostile con-
ditions and is not suppressed even by biocides (it is common
to find Pseudomonas even in hospital disinfectants) [56].
Further, the use of biocides in the cutting fluids is subjected
to several constraints imposed by the environmental regula-
tions of various organizations and needs special treatment
during disposal. Addition of different additives like chlorinat-
ed paraffin to increase chemical stability, viscosity, flame re-
sistance, etc. further aggravate the problem of disposal. These
additives change to dioxin on heating and can lead to uncon-
trolled burning. Hence, such cutting fluids are classified as
hazardous compounds [57]. With the increasing need for
implementing green and sustainable manufacturing practices,
the application of cutting fluids is often discouraged.
In an interesting study by Shokrani et al. [58], power con-
sumption was estimated in both dry and flood lubrication con-
ditions while machining Ti6Al4V. It was stated that flood
lubrication consumed 40% more power compared to dry ma-
chining, due to the power consumption of the coolant pump.
This is contrary to the belief that cutting fluids reduce the
cutting forces and hence power consumption. It may be worth
mentioning that the study used regular conventional flood
lubrication and the quenching of the work piece may have
increased the forces and hence the power consumption. This
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 2 Summary of research on dry machining/flood cooling of titanium alloys was reported that the formulated fluid had better properties speed reported in this work is far higher than the cutting speed
Reference(s) Lubrication Cutting Salient features Observations/contributions Inferences/remarks compared with the water based emulsion. The formulated flu- permitted for dry machining (60 m/min).
fluid id had about 50% lesser wear and low adhesion characteristics Liu et al. [65] studied tool wear rate/pattern and wear mech-
compared to the water based emulsion. Fluid with 0.5% con- anisms of three different tools—uncoated inserts (R1), tools
[17] Dry – Compared PVD TiAlN gave better performance Al2O3 formed a lubricating layer centration of the ester had a friction coefficient of 0.15 and with different coating materials—nc-AlTiN/a-Si3N4 (R2), and
and TiAlN
tools least adhesion mechanism. An adsorption film was observed nc-AlCrN/a-Si 3 N 4 (R 3) in dry and MQL machining of
[18] Dry – Used TiN coated Chips were combusted and coating Dry machining not suitable for production on the work surface that prevented the direct contact and re- Ti6Al4V. Flow rate of 16 mL/h was maintained for the
tools was lost duces friction. It may be noted that the developed coolant had MQL condition. Machining was done at constant cutting con-
[20] Dry – Compared three Ti6246 was more machinable Machinability depends on micro structure
alloys for and grain structure. Not just hardness sulfur-based extreme pressure additives, which can sustain ditions of cutting speed as 120 m/min, feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev

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machinability high normal loads and provide better lubrication. However, depth of cut as 1.2 mm. It was reported that MQL condition

Tr m
[25] Dry – Compared tool Similar mechanisms observed Though phase changes affect machinability, these additives are harmful to environment and need to be improved tool life compared to the dry condition for all the
wear similar forms of tool wear—abrasion,
mechanisms of adhesion, and diffusion are found. Almost all treated for disposal. three inserts (Fig. 8) due to the cooling and lubricating effects.

s .co
different phases the works on dry machining observed these Prakash and Ramana [62] applied MQL for machining It was observed that MQL helps to form a lubricating layer

l
three forms of tool wear Ti6Al4V. Palm oil-based cutting fluid was supplied at rate of between the tool rake face and chip. This helps to reduce the
[26] Dry – Studied Higher ppm led to higher hardness Oxygen levels decreased the machinability
machinability and strength
100 mL/h. The results were compared with dry and flood friction. It is interesting to note that the study used tools with
Ti with lubrication. Machining was carried out using uncoated and composite coatings. These coatings are not preferred in dry

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different coated carbide tools. It was reported that tool wear and surface machining, but evidently have good performance in MQL
oxygen levels
roughness remarkably decreased compared to the dry and machining. It was reported that adhesive wear is the dominant
[9], [30] Dry – Studied Higher feeds increased the [30]-Machining was done at very high speed—
temperatures temperatures by over 2 times 10,000 rpm, feeds were given in micrometers flood lubrication. It may be noted that cutting conditions were tool wear mechanism in all the three inserts. The lubricant in

Pa F with different
feed rates
different for dry, flood, and MQL. For dry machining, cutting
speed was 63 m/min, feed was 0.206 mm/rev, and depth of cut
MQL provided a protective layer and reduced the friction
considerably. It is also reported that in MQL, the R2 tool was
h PD
[9], [33], Dry – Studied effect of No change at low speeds, but higher High temperature was probably responsible for
[34], [35], cutting speeds led to change in material the changes. High values of cutting conditions 0.6 mm. For flood cooling, speed was 79 m/min, feed was affected only by adhesion wear but R3 tool was affected by
[41], [42] parameters on properties and phases not suitable. For this reason and exacerbated 0.274 mm/rev, and depth of cut was 1 mm, whereas for MQL adhesive, diffusion, and oxidation wear.
work surface tool wear, cutting conditions are kept low speed, feed and depth of cut were 99 m/min, 0.343 mm/rev, Rahim and Sasahara [66] applied palm oil in MQL
[45], [46] Flood Water-based Studied the effect Abrasion and attrition are main forms Diffusion reduced on account of reduced
itc w.

emulsion of cutting of tool wear, diffusion decreased. temperatures, but abrasion remained due to and 1.6 mm, respectively. It is encouraging to observe that (MQLPO) for machining titanium alloys. The results were
parameters on Longer tool life with use of cutting inadequate lubrication even at 1.5 times the cutting conditions compared to dry ma- compared with MQL synthetic ester (MQLSE), air blow,
tool wear fluid chining, MQL gave better results. In a similar study, Shyha and flood lubrication. Cutting forces, temperatures, and tool
[11], [47], Flood-pressurized Water-based Used Tool wear and surface roughness High-pressure jet helped to break through the
St w

[48], [49], jet emulsion high-pressure reduced with increase in pressure vapor blanket formed at the high temperature et al. [63] investigated the effect of applying vegetable oils in wear were monitored. It was found that the palm oil gave the
[50] jet, instead of zone. Further high-pressures increase the machining Ti6Al4V. Castor oil-based cutting fluid was used minimum cutting forces compared to other conditions. Similar
u //w

regular flood momentum of the coolant and lead to better as the coolant. Machining was done at three levels of cutting results were obtained for temperatures and tool wear (Fig. 9).
cooling heat transfers. Higher cutting speeds may be
used while employing high-pressure jet
conditions, the highest being speed of 120 m/min, feed of Adhesion, attrition, and abrasion wear were found to be the
0.2 mm/rev, and depth of cut of 1 mm. Different cutting tools dominant mechanisms for tool failure. Interestingly, both the
and fluids were used for the study. The effect of different oils gave similar tool life of about 314 s. This was attributed to
Fd tp:

phenomenon is not very prominent in metals like steels, but
for titanium alloys, where the temperatures are very high, this
is significant. The study suggested that flood lubrication is not
t
PD h
field. MQL can be applied in two forms, drop-by-drop or mist process parameters was established through ANOVA analysis. the lubrication provided by both the oils. Adhesion, attrition,
form, the second one being popular. In the mist method of It was found that surface roughness was mainly affected by and abrasion forms of tool wear were found in all the
application, the fluid is atomized by missing with compressed feed rate, while tool wear was affected by cutting speed. Tool

always economical. If only the power consumption of the
pump is considered, then high jet cooling requires more power
than flood cooling. Hence, carbon foot print evaluation of
cutting fluids discloses several surprising facts. Due to the
associated problems, the use of cutting fluids is limited by
different environmental agencies and the industries are
looking for alternatives to replace the cutting fluids, without
sacrificing the benefits [59].
2.2.2 Minimum quantity lubrication
Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) is a strategy of apply-
ing low quantity of the cutting fluid as coolant in machining.
This eliminates the disposal issue as almost all the quantity of
the fluid is evaporated. Though flood lubrication was initially
preferred in machining of titanium alloys due to the high tem-
peratures generated, MQL is slowly finding its way in to the
air and is applied as an aerosol spray. This increases the sur-
face area of the lubricant exposed to the work piece and helps
in better cooling. Further, cooling enhanced due to the high
velocity of air and hence better heat transfer coefficient of the
air/lubricant mixture. Several brands of commercial equip-
ment are available in the market for regulating the flow rate
and pressure of the applied lubricant.
Due to environmental issues, MQL with vegetable-based
oils is preferred over the regular MQL. Vegetable oils are more
readily biodegradable compared to the mineral oils and do not
pose problems to the exposed workers. Use of different veg-
etable oils like canola oil, palm oil, sesame oil, sunflower oil,
etc. is reported in literature [60]. Some works profess the ap-
plication of synthetic fluids. Yang et al. [61] used phosphate-
based ester to formulate a cutting fluid. The tribological be-
havior of the fluid was characterized using the standard ball-
on-disk apparatus with the disks made up of Ti6Al4V alloy. It
wear was found to be consistently low compared with dry
machining. It is reported that ceramic tools showed premature
breakage and are hence not suitable for machining titanium
alloys. PVD-coated tools were reported to be the best tools in
terms of surface finish and tool wear.
Revankar et al. [64] machined Ti6Al4V with PCD tools
under dry, flood lubrication, and MQL. It was reported that
MQL results in lesser surface roughness and can accommo-
date higher levels of cutting conditions (leading to better ma-
terial removal rate) compared to dry machining. Taguchi tech-
nique was used to optimize the results and it was found that
cutting speed of 150 m/min, feed rate of 0.15 mm/rev under
MQL was optimal for least surface roughness of the machined
product. It was reported that since MQL provides better lubri-
cation, it helps in reducing the friction and temperature gen-
eration. This helps in reducing the hardening of the work piece
and improves the tool life. It may be noted that the optimal Fig. 8 Tool life under dry and MQL conditions [65]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
ia /
Tr m
s .co
l
Fig. 9 Tool wear under different lubricating conditions [66]
conditions. Thermal cracks were found on the tool edge, but
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they did not lead to tool failure. This work observes that
though MQL is effective in reducing the forces and tempera-
tures, it is not clear whether MQL has a significant effect on
Pa F
tool life. Similar observations were made by Liu et al. [67]
who analyzed friction and temperatures in end milling of
h PD
Ti6Al4V under different cooling conditions such as MQL,
high-pressure air, and dry machining. Machining was done
at cutting speed of 60, 150 m/min, feed rate of 0.05 mm/tooth,
itc w.
and depth of cut of 1 mm. Compared to dry machining, both
MQL and high-pressure air cooling reduced friction drastical-
ly. MQL and high-pressure air outperformed dry machining at
St w
lower cutting speed. The coefficient of friction was about 0.35
in case of dry machining, 0.3 in high-pressure air, and 0.15 in
u //w
case of MQL. As a consequence, the cutting temperatures
were lowest with MQL. It was observed that MQL leads to
the formation of a thin film at the tool/chip interface and re-
duces the sliding friction between tool and chip. However, at
Fd tp:
higher cutting speed, all the three conditions had similar
effect.
In another work, Rahim et al. [68] commented that tool life
t
PD h
can increase by over four times while using MQL, in compar-
ison to dry machining. In this work, synthetic ester-based
MQL was used and it is reported that formulated fluid reduced
the cutting temperature, force, and tool/chip contact length.
Tool/chip contact length is a major contributor to the friction
at chip/tool interface and plays a significant role in the crater
wear of the tool. It may be noted that this work did not use
vegetable oil-based MQL. Wakabayashi et al. [69] investigat-
ed the effect of MQL with atomized water-soluble cutting
fluid in machining of Ti6Al4V. The results were compared
with drop-by-drop lubrication and dry machining. It was re-
ported that while drop-by-drop lubrication provided better
tool life compared to dry machining, mist cooling was the
most effective. Among the considered types of cutting fluids,
synesthetic ester-based fluid gave the best performance. It
may be noted that in this study, regular cutting fluid was used,
not the vegetable oil-based coolant. In a similar study, Lv et al.
[70] applied pneumatic mist MQL while machining Ti40 alloy
using Ti(C,N)–Al2O3-coated cemented carbide tools. Milling
was done at different speeds of 30, 60, 80, and 100 m/min,
feed rate of 0.1 mm/tooth and 1-mm depth of cut. The study
focused on the assessment of wear behavior of the tools. The
results were compared with the regular flood cooling. It was
observed that PMJIC gave lesser cutting temperatures com-
pared to the flood lubrication. The effect was more pro-
nounced at higher cutting speeds. This eventually led to re-
duced tool wear and enhanced tool life (Fig. 10). Abrasion and
adhesion were found to be the dominant mechanism of tool
wear responsible for tool failure. No delamination of the coat-
ing layer was observed in the tools in MQL. This is similar to
the earlier discussed works that suggest use of coated tools,
especially composite coatings, in machining of titanium al-
loys. Compared to flood cooling, MQL reduced all forms of
wear, except cracks. Like the results reported by Rahim and
Sasahara [66], the cracks did not lead to catastrophic failure of
the tool.
Garcia and Ribeiro [71] milled Ti6Al4V using coated
cemented carbide inserts under MQL conditions using a veg-
etable oil-based cutting fluid, dry machining, and flood lubri-
cation with water-soluble cutting fluid for comparison.
Machining was done at different cutting speeds and feeds. It
was reported that MQL resulted in lesser surface roughness
and longer tool life under similar cutting conditions as com-
pared to dry/flood lubrication. Adhesion and abrasion were
observed to be the most influential mechanisms of tool wear.
Similar observations were reported by Hoyne et al. [72] and
Sun et al. [73]. It may be noted that in almost all the works on
MQL, diffusion wear is not reported to be influential. This is
due to the control of cutting temperatures through proper
lubrication.
Yang et al. [74] carried out an interesting study involving
the use of tools with microgrooves on the rake face and ma-
chined Ti6Al4V alloy under MQL. Different microgrooves
were tested to find out the optimal geometry of groove
Fig. 10 Tool wear under different lubrication methods [70]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
(Fig.11). It was reported that tool with microgrooves 29 μm in
depth, 59 μm in width, with 53-μm spacing and 250 μm far
from the main cutting edge helped to reduce adhesion and thus
reduce the cutting temperatures and forces compared to other
considered choices. It was advocated that reduction in
tool/chip contact length, in addition to MQL, was the reason
for improved performance. Though it is not highlighted in the
paper, the geometry of the grooves may have acted as fins on
the rake surface of the tool and helped to cool the tool faster. It
is interesting to note that the tools with microgrooves per-
formed better in MQL, compared to dry machining.
Bermingham et al. [75] studied milling of Ti6Al4V under
different conditions: laser-assisted milling, dry milling, flood
lubrication using a water-soluble cutting fluid (27 L/min),
MQL with a vegetable oil (4 mL/h) and hybrid laser + MQL
method. Laser was used to thermally soften the work piece. In
the hybrid technique, MQL was applied with two nozzles at
the back of the tool. Tool wear was monitored at different
cutting speeds of 69, 90, and 104 m/min (Fig. 12). It was
reported that at regular cutting conditions prescribed by the
manufacturer, flood lubrication (27 L/min) and MQL (4 mL/
h) were effective, but as the cutting speed increased, tool wear
was rapid. Laser-assisted machining led to increased diffusion
and adhesion wear. At high speeds, the application of laser had Fig. 12 Tool wear at different cutting speeds [75]
a negative effect on tool life, while at low speeds, the improve-
ment over dry machining was negligible. This is because the
material gets plastically deformed due to the laser flows over other materials advocate the superiority of MQL. For instance,
the rake face. This increases adhesion wear when the material Da Silva et al. [76] observed that MQL helps in extending the
is eventually dislodged. Hybrid method was found to be ef- tool life compared to flood lubrication. This gap may be due to
fective at high speeds compared to all other techniques as the properties of the lubricants considered for MQL, concen-
MQL in the method could remove the heat generated and thus tration levels, and flow rates, which are not often reported.
reduce thermal-related tool wear. Tool life improved by over Nevertheless, researchers have always tried to improve the
five times compared to regular laser-assisted machining. performance of the MQL lubricants. Davis et al. [77] included
It may be noted from literature, that MQL is not always 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (BMIM-
effective in machining of Ti6Al4V, while works reported for PF6), a low melting point salt, in MQL lubricant. Pure-grade
titanium rods were machined at speed of 120 m/min, feed rate
of 0.05 mm/rev, and depth of cut as 0.1 mm with uncoated
CBN tools. It may be recalled from earlier discussion that
CBN tools are not always preferred due to their affinity to
reaction with titanium at high temperatures. Hence, the results
from this study are interesting and allow wider range of cut-
ting tools. The tool wear and cutting forces obtained with use
of formulated fluid were compared with dry machining and
regular MQL. It was found that tool wear reduced with the
new formulation by about 60% compared to dry cutting and
15% compared to regular MQL, whereas cutting forces
showed deviation of less than 10%. It is reported that forma-
tion of lubricating film has helped in reducing the tool wear.
Kolahdouz et al. [78] studied the surface integrity of gam-
ma TiAl alloy machined in dry and MQL conditions (semi
synthetic oil at flow rate of 50 mL/h), with cutting speed of
600 m/min for MQL and 300 m/min for dry machining, feed
Fig. 11 Cutting tool with grooves [74] being constant at 0.005 mm/tooth, and depth of cut as 5 mm. It
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
was reported that MQL led to lesser energy consumption com-
pared with dry machining and the parts machined under MQL
had better fatigue resistance, due to increased subsurface hard-
ness. Plastic deformation was observed in both cases of lubri-
cation, but for MQL, the depth of deformation was small.
Also, MQL resulted in a better machined surface with lesser
burrs.
Usually, the cutting fluids either in flood lubrication or
MQL are applied in a single direction. In a striking approach,
ia /
Banerjee and Sharma [79] machined Ti6Al4V using uncoated
Tr m
cemented carbide tools for machining of Ti6Al4V alloy at
constant cutting conditions (speed = 76 m /min,
s .co
feed = 0.24 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 1 mm) and supplied
l
the cutting fluid in three different directions at flow rate of
36 mL/h in each nozzle. Air pressure was maintained at 2.8
and 5.8 bar. The first nozzle supplied the lubricant at the back
ge du
of the chip, second nozzle on the rake face, and third nozzle on
the flank face. Both neat oils and water miscible cutting fluids
were used and compared. It was found that supply of the
Pa F
coolant at the rake face and back of chip were beneficial in
terms of cutting forces and surface finish. It was proposed that
h PD
localized flow and control of the lubricants in MQL is more
beneficial than the regular strategy. Higher pressure was found
to be more advantageous. At the considered cutting condi-
itc w.
tions, neat oils were found to give better performance com-
pared to water miscible cutting fluids.
It is interesting to note that cutting speeds are not always
St w
high with the application of MQL. Sarıkaya and Güllü [80]
studied the application of MQL in machining Ti6Al4V under
u //w
different cutting speeds of 30, 40, and 50 m/min, constant feed
of 0.15 mm/rev and depth of cut 0.1 mm. Different process
parameters like type of cutting fluid, flow rate, and cutting
speed were optimized in the study using Taguchi’s method.
Fd tp:
Different flow rates of 60, 120, and 180 mL/h were consid-
ered. It was found that vegetable-based cutting fluid, 180 mL/
h flow rate and cutting speed of 30 m/min was the optimal
t
PD h
conditions for minimum tool wear. It may be observed that
lowest speed and highest flow rate are obtained as optimal
conditions. This hints towards the need for a better lubricant.
It may be noted that on a work on MQL, Maruda et al. [81]
added a chemical additive called Crodafos O4A-LQ-(MH) to
the emulsion and applied it in machining. Over 80% improve-
ment in surface finish was obtained. It is reported that the
additive helped in formation of a more stable lubricating layer.
Such strategies may be used to enhance the properties of the
lubricant.
Inclusion of nano/microparticles in the coolants can in-
crease the cooling capabilities of the cutting fluid. Mao et al.
[82] added Al2O3 nanoparticles in cutting fluid. Upon testing
with pin-on-disk apparatus, the friction coefficient was found
to decrease by about 34%. It is proposed that the nanoparticles
in the formed lubrication film share the normal load and re-
duces the friction. Also, the particles produce a ball-bearing
effect by separating the sliding surfaces and reduce the fric-
tion. As the particles separate the surfaces, the plastic defor-
mations caused by shear strength are caused in the nanofluids
film but not on the sliding surfaces. This mechanism can dras-
tically reduce the plastic deformation of the tool. It may be
recalled that plastic deformation, adhesive, and abrasive wear
are the main causes for tool failure in machining of titanium
alloy, other than diffusion wear. With the ball-bearing effect,
the forms of wear will be drastically reduced. Also, the vis-
cosity of the fluids increases on nanoparticle inclusion. This is
another reason for improved lubrication. Nguyen [83] tested
the performance of nanofluids with vegetable oils as base
fluids and nanographite/nanohexagonal boron nitride inclu-
sions. The nanoparticles were selected as they are solid lubri-
cants with lamellar structure. The structure helps in sliding of
the layers over each other and reduces friction. The results
were compared with MQL with pure oil and dry machining
of Ti6Al4V. It was observed that the MQL with nanoparticles
resulted in lesser tool wear and forces. In another work,
Nguyen et al. [84] investigated the effect of vegetable oil-
based MQL with graphite platelets in milling Ti6Al4V. It
was advocated that in view of the micro-sized diameter of
the platelets (though the thickness is in nanoscale), the parti-
cles are not harmful to humans and can be safely used. It was
found that the tool flank wear decreased with the application
of nanofluids in MQL compared to pure oil and dry
machining.
In a similar work, Moura et al. [85] used two solid lubri-
cants (MoS2 and graphite) microparticles as inclusions in a
synthetic cutting fluid by 20% w/w. The coolant was supplied
in MQL as mist in machining of Ti6Al4V using TiAlN-coated
tools. The average particle size of graphite was 40 and 20 μm
while MoS2 had size of 6 μm. Tool life, surface finish, cutting
forces, and temperatures were measured. It was reported that
tool wear reduced considerably with the inclusion of the par-
ticles (Fig. 13). It is advocated that tool life improves due to
the possible penetration of the solid lubricant in the tool/chip
interface. Cutting forces and temperatures reduced as a result.
Highest temperature was observed in case of dry machining,
followed by flood lubrication. Least temperature and tool
wear were observed for MoS2. Among the considered graph-
ite sizes, the lesser size had a better effect.
Setti et al. [86] carried a similar work on grinding of
Ti6Al4V alloy under MQL with inclusions of nano Al2O3
and CuO as both are known for their high thermal conductiv-
ities and cooling abilities. Different concentrations of nano-
particles, not more than 1% were dispersed in water with the
help of a surfactant. Different flow rates of 50, 100, 150, 200,
and 250 mL/h were considered in MQL. It was observed that
over 30–50% reduction in normal force could be obtained for
the nanofluids under MQL compared to dry machining.
Higher tangential forces in dry machining cause grain break-
out, reducing the material removal rate and wheel life.
Fig. 13 Tool wear progression [85]
Santosh et al. [87] mixed different concentrations (5, 10,
15 wt%) of hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) with water and
applied in MQL for in machining Ti6Al4V using TiAlN-
coated tools at different feed rates. Cutting temperatures were
compared with those obtained in dry machining. Cutting tem-
peratures drastically decreased with the application of
nanofluid compared to dry machining, but the decrease in
temperature was almost similar for 10 and 15% concentra-
tions. Hence, 10% was reported as the optimal concentration
for sustainable machining.
In almost all the studies reported on application of MQL in
machining titanium alloys, MQL was found to be advanta-
geous compared to flood and dry lubrication in terms of per-
formance and ecology. Lesser cutting forces, lesser tempera-
tures, better tool life, and surface finish were observed with the
application of MQL. Use of MQL is highly recommended as
this strategy eradicates many of the environmental and dispos-
al issues, especially when the cutting fluid is vegetable oil-
based. Inclusion of micro/nanoparticles in the cutting fluids is
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
found to increase the performance of the cutting fluids in
MQL. It may be noted that nanofluids are not recommended
in flood lubrication due to the high cost and low biodegrad-
ability [88].
Before moving to the next section, it will be interesting to
discuss about the work carried out by Duschosal et al. [89].
Performance of MQL was tested for different tools and inner
channels in milling cutter. The channels had orientations of
45°, 60°, and 75°. The internal channels helped in the flow of
the lubricant from a central channel to the cutting edge.
Though the work concentrated on finding the optimal channel
orientation, it gave some interesting inference which can be
used for MQL of titanium alloys. It was found the aerodynam-
ic shape of the tool played a significant role in the cooling.
Also, it was found that pressure of the MQL jet had a major
role in the lubrication. These results are useful for MQL and
other forms of cooling like cryogenic cooling. A summary of
some of the works on MQL in machining of titanium alloys in
provided in Table 3.
2.3 Cryogenic cooling
Cryogenics is the science of study and application of materials
below −150 °C. Nitrogen is popularly used in this technique
as it is abundant and non-toxic [90, 91]. In order to eliminate
the effects of heat and temperature in machining, liquid nitro-
gen is applied at −196 °C. The application of liquid nitrogen at
the low temperature (known as cryogenic cooling) carries
away the heat and also provides a cushioning layer between
the tool/chip interface, thus reducing the friction. Cryogenic
machining is especially helpful to eliminate the failure of tool
due to chipping and plastic deformation. Cryogenic cooling is
found to effectively reduce the cutting temperatures, even at
high cutting speeds. Further, the jet of cryogenic fluid helps to
break the chip and thus reduce the chip contact length. Lately,
cryogenic cooling is gaining prominence in cooling titanium
machining process [92].
In some works, cryogenic cooling is compared with MQL
using cooled lubricant (known as minimum quantity cooled
lubrication (MQCL)). This technique is not well explored for
titanium alloys, and only a few papers are available. This
technique has been shown to be effective in reducing the tem-
peratures and facilitate chip breaking due to the low tempera-
tures of the lubricant [93]. Deiab et al. [94] compared different
lubrication techniques in machining of Ti6Al4V alloy. Dry
machining, flood cooling, MQL, MQCL, and cryogenic
cooling were compared at different cutting speeds (90 and
120 m/min) and feeds (0.1, 0.2 mm/rev). The coolants for
MQL and MQCL were prepared using rapeseed oil as a sus-
tainable option. It was observed that while MQL/MQCL were
better at lower cutting speeds, cryogenic cooling was a better
option at higher cutting speeds over 90 m/min (Fig. 14).
Similar trends were observed in energy consumption and
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 3 Summary of research on MQL/MQCL cooling of titanium alloys leads to better results. Also, the formed lubricating film is
Reference(s) Lubrication Cutting fluid Salient features Observations/contributions Inferences/remarks stable at low temperatures. It is interesting to note the obser-
vation that the type of lubricant has little effect on the tool
[62], [63], MQL Vegetable Tested MQL at different MQL found to be more effective MQL provides better lubrication due to the wear rate. It was suggested that coated tools are better than
[64], [65] oils cutting conditions than dry machining/flood cutting fluid reaching the tool/chip the uncoated tools in machining the alloys. At this point, it is
lubrication especially at higher interface and forming a strong
cutting conditions lubricating film. In flood cooling, most
worth mentioning about the work carried out by Maruda et al.
of the action is due to convectional [101]. They focused on assessing the influence of droplet size
cooling on the cooling abilities of lubricants in MQCL. A specially
[66], [67], MQL Vegetable Studied tool wear with Adhesion, abrasion, and attrition MQL helps in better cooling through formulated mineral oil-based lubricant, called EMULGOL

ia /
[70] oils MQL wear found. Though thermal control of friction. However, many was used in the study. It was observed that the droplet size

Tr m
cracks were observed, they did
not lead to tool failure
times, the lubricant in MQL is not
capable of completely eliminating the
decreased with increase in air flow and thus the number of
damage due to temperatures droplets increased. This led to increased wetting surface area.

s .co
[71], [72], MQL Vegetable Tool wear mechanisms Abrasion and adhesion were MQL helps in better cooling through An interesting observation was made that the mass flow rate

l
[73] oils were studied observed. control of friction of the emulsion has no influence on the diameter of the drop-
[74] MQL Vegetable Formed special tools with Grooves helped to reduce the Tool/chip length is a major contributor to let. Also, increasing the nozzle distance decreased the droplet
oils grooves on the rake tool/chip contact length, hence the friction. Further, the grooves may diameter. These results are useful to set the air flow rate and

ge du
surface reduced friction have acted as fins to dissipate the heat
nozzle position to achieve good lubrication in MQCL/MQL. It
from the tool
Fig. 14 Tool wear at different lubrications [94] may be noted that the results are in line with the results
[75] MQL Water-based Used laser to thermally Laser + MQL helped in Application of pure laser as a softening
emulsion soften the work piece. significant reduction of forces mechanism increased adhesion wear and claimed by Duchosal et al. [89].

Pa F Compared with dry,

flood, laser (without
led to failure Davoudinejad et al. [102] simulated dry and cryogenic
h PD
MQL) forces, and stresses among the considered alternatives. The
[79] MQL Neat oils and MQL supplied through Higher pressure and localized Application of the fluid on the back of the
results were validated with finite element analysis. Similar
water-- three different nozzles in control of the fluid gave chip and rake face was found to be the
based three directions beneficial results best approach was followed by Sun et al. [98] who compared the
emulsions cryogenic cooling in machining of Ti5553 alloy with flood
itc w.

[80] MQL Vegetable MQL applied at different Optimal conditions were selected Lowest values were obtained as optimal lubrication and MQL. Nearly 30% reduction in cutting forces
oils cutting speeds values. Hints towards the need of
was reported with the use of cryogenics compared to MQL.
improved lubricant in MQL
St w

This was explained to be due to lesser adhesion on the rake

[82], [83], NanoMQL Variable Nanoparticles were Nanofluids helped in better Nanofluids provide a stronger lubricant
[84], [85], dispersed in oils and reduction of wear, forces and layer and help in better lubrication. Also, face of the tool in cryogenic cooling. Highest reductions in
u //w

[86], [87] nanofluids were applied temperatures compared to the nanoparticles provide ball-bearing forces were observed at low feed rates due to smaller cutting
as lubricants MQL effect and reduce the normal loads on the temperatures and better cooling due to longer cutting time.
surfaces Also, lesser tool wear was observed while using cryogenic
[94], [95] MQCL Vegetable Cutting fluids were cooled MQCL gave better performance MQCL uses cutting fluids with reduced Fig. 15 Progression of tool wear [96]
cooling.
Fd tp:

oils and applied in MQL in terms of tool wear and other temperatures and hence helps in better
parameters cooling of the machining zone. It has all Park et al. [99] tested cryogenic cooling, nano-MQL (ester-
the advantages of MQL, with the based cutting fluid with nanoparticles) and flood lubrication in cooling in machining of Ti6Al4V by using TiAlN-coated car-
advantage of cooled lubricant machining of Ti6Al4V. Also, the effect of internal and exter- bide inserts and validated the results using experimentation. It
t

nal spray methods of the cryogenic coolant was examined.

PD h

was reported that coefficient of friction is lower with cryogen-

surface roughness. In a similar work, Raza et al. [95] ma-
chined Ti6Al4V using uncoated carbide tools under MQL,
MQCL, dry, cooled air, flood, and cryogenic cooling.
Machining was done at 90 and 120 m/min cutting speed. At
lower speed, MQCL gave the best performance in terms of
tool wear, other than flood lubrication. Micro chipping and
abrasion are least in MQCL. BUE was very small for
MQCL, due to improved lubrication. Diffusion wear was very
low for MQCL due to reduced temperatures. However, at
higher speed, cryogenics outperformed other options. This
could be because of the high temperatures prevalent, which
could not be controlled by other means. In all cases, cooled air
led to higher abrasion than the other methods, due to the ab-
sence of a lubricant. Summary of MQCL research is included
in Table 3.
Kanyak et al. [96] compared dry machining, MQL, and
cryogenic cooling in machining of three different NiTi alloys.
It was found that cryogenic cooling resulted in consistently
lesser tool wear compared to the other two techniques. As
shown in Fig. 15, tool wear increased in MQL after 4 min of
machining. This is contrary to the belief that MQL lubricates
the tool/chip interface. The reason for increase in tool wear
was attributed to chipping of the tool nose. Abrasive wear
mechanism was found to be prominent on the tool. Abbasi
and Pingfa [97] studied four different types of cooling sys-
tems: flood lubrication with water miscible fluids, neat oils,
MQL and cryogenic cooling in machining Ti6Al4V alloys
with coated carbide cutting tools. Cutting temperatures,
forces, and stresses on tool edge were observed. It was report-
ed that cryogenic cooling led to lowest cutting temperatures,
Tool wear and cutting forces were measured in all cases. It
was observed that nanoMQL + internal cryogenic cooling
improved tool life by over 32% compared to flood lubrication.
Cutting forces were also found to be low with this cooling
method. It may be noted that in this lubricating system devel-
oped, cryogenic cooling reduces the temperatures, while
nano-MQL provides the necessary lubrication. Lin et al.
[100] applied water-soluble oils both internally and externally
on the tool and compared the results with cryogenic MQL
(−16 °C) in machining Ti6Al4V alloys at different speeds:
70, 90, and 110 m/min. Chip morphology, cutting forces, cut-
ting temperatures, surface roughness, and tool wear were mea-
sured in all the cases. Tool wear was found to be similar for
internally applied cutting fluid and cryogenic cooling. It was
hypothesized that the lubricating strategy developed resulted
in smaller droplets compared to other lubrications and hence
ic cooling. However, low values of cutting speed, viz. 40 and
50 m/min were considered. This study uses composite coat-
ings on the tools, which are not commonly used. In an inter-
esting work, Strano et al. [103] machined Ti6Al4V using three
different tools, viz., uncoated tungsten carbide tool, tungsten
carbide with TiAlN coating, and third tool with the TiAlN
layer hardened by cryogenic cooling. Machining was done
at speeds from 60 to 79 m/min at low speed; all the three tools
gave similar performance. However, with increase in speed,
the uncoated tool failed. At highest speed, the second tool
failed due to delamination of coatings. However, the third tool
sustained the speeds. Adhesive wear was observed for all
tools. Similar results are reported by Thamizhmanii et al.
[104].
Bordin et al. [105] compared cryogenic cooling and dry
machining of Ti6Al4V. Two jets of liquid nitrogen were
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
ia /
Tr m
s .co
l
ge du
Pa F
h PD
itc w.
St w
Fig. 16 Tool wear mechanisms [105]
u //w
focused on the rake and flank faces of the tool. Tool wear and
surface roughness were monitored in the study. It was reported
that adhesion was the dominant mechanism of tool wear,
Fd tp:
followed by abrasion (Fig. 16). Cooling by the liquid nitrogen
on the rake face reduced the thickness of adhered layer and
reduced crater wear compared to dry machining. Also, cryo-
t
PD h
genic cooling provided better surface finish compared to dry
machining. Shokrani et al. [106] applied cryogenic cooling at
different flow rates to cool Ti6Al4V machining process.
Machining was done at different cutting conditions.
Taguchi’s technique was used to minimize the number of ex-
periments. It was reported that cryogenic cooling at 20 kg/h
drastically reduces tool wear at the considered cutting condi-
tions. It is suggested that as tool wear is low with cryogenic
cooling, higher cutting speeds can be used for reasonable tool
life and attain increased productivity.
Lee et al. [107] performed cryogenic cooled milling
Ti6Al4V with preheated work piece. It was reported that as
cutting forces increased in preliminary experiments due to
work piece hardening at cold temperatures, preheating was
adopted. Preheating decreased the forces by about 65% com-
pared to dry machining. Tool life increased by 50% in cryo-
genic cooling and by 90% in cryogenic + preheating
compared to dry machining. Also, curved chips were ob-
served with preheating leading to reduced friction. Priarone
et al. [108] studied the machinability of Ti-43.5Al-4Nb-1Mo-
0.1B alloy with coated/uncoated carbide tools, CBN and PCD
cutting tools under flood lubrication and cryogenic cooling at
constant cutting conditions (speed = 80 m /min,
feed = 0.1 mm, depth of cut = 0.25 mm). Six percent emulsion
was chosen as the cutting fluid. Under conventional cooling,
uncoated tools had least tool life of 2 min, while PCD tool has
life of 14 min. It is important to mention that such small values
of tool life are obtained as the authors chose the limiting value
of flank wear as 0.1 mm, whereas the ISO suggested general
value is 0.6 mm. In all tools, abrasive wear was observed. In
case of cryogenic cooling, PCD tools had life of about 30 min.
The superior performance of PCD tools was attributed to the
high thermal conductivity of tools which prevents accumula-
tion of heat in the tool.
Sun et al. [109] studied the effect of cryogenic cooled air
while machining Ti6Al4V at two cutting speeds, 150 and
220 m/min. Compressed air was sent at −196 °C. It may be
noted that higher speeds than the usual practice are seen to
estimate the performance of the lubrication. The results were
compared to dry machining. Severe wear and BUE was
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
observed in dry machining. This was attributed to the chemical Ahmed et al. [112] drilled titanium ASTM B265 grade 2
reaction of the tool (uncoated carbide) with titanium. This phe- material with PVD-coated carbide inserts under flood lubrica-
nomenon was found to be more significant at higher cutting tion and cryogenic cooling at different speeds and feeds.
speed. This was attributed to decreased plastic deformation be- Cutting temperatures, thrust force, and surface roughness
cause of cryogenic cooling. With the help of cryogenic cooling, and hole quality (form features) were measured. It was report-
tool life could be increased by about 37% at cutting speed of ed that cryogenic cooling reduced the temperatures up to 59%;
150 m/min. The cause for failure of tool at this speed was flank however, cutting forces were high and poor hole quality was
wear, whereas, at 220 m/min, tool failed due to plastic defor- observed. The extreme cooling was supposed to have caused
mation in dry machining. With the use of cryogenic cooling, dimensional/form inaccuracies. Research related to cryogenic
plastic deformation was suppressed and tool life increased by cooling in machining of titanium alloys is summarized in
over 100%. The reason for increased tool life was attributed to Table 4.
reduced chip contact length that results in reduced tempera- From the available works, it can be seen that cryogenics
tures. This has also led to reduced cutting forces. demonstrate satisfactory performance in terms of tool wear
Machai et al. [110] applied CO2 snow (−80 °C) at rake face, and cutting temperatures. However, extreme cooling causes
flank face, both rake and flank faces, combination of CO2 some disadvantages like hardening of the work piece. This is
snow + MQL (biodegradable oil at 30 mL/h) and flood lubri- reported to cause increased cutting forces and poor dimension-
cation while cutting grooves in β-titanium alloy. Cutting al quality of the work piece. Hence, cryogenic cooling is not
forces, tool wear, and temperatures were monitored. Up to always looked upon as a solution for cooling in machining of
cutting speed of 140 m/min, cutting force decreased with in- titanium alloys.
crease in speed due to thermal softening. But beyond 140 m/
min, force increased. CO2 snow cooling on flank face gave
best results compared to other approaches. Since compressed 3 Conclusions
CO2 is cheaper than liquid nitrogen, the practicality of the
results was advocated. In a similar study, Biermann et al. Titanium and its alloys are extensively used in different engi-
[111] machined two different alloys of titanium, viz., neering and biomedical applications. Among the available
Ti6Al4V and high-strength titanium alloy Ti6246 using alloys, Ti6Al4V is used in a majority of the applications and
MQL, flood lubrication, and cryogenic cooling with CO2 a large quantum of literature is devoted to the studies on this
snow at −79 °C. It was reported that cryogenic cooling result- alloy. Based on the literature, the following conclusions may
ed in lesser tool wear while machining Ti6Al4V but had no be drawn:
effect above cutting speed of 80 m/min. Hence, a combination
of cryogenic and MQL was applied to reduce tool wear. This 1. Due to the high hardness and low thermal conductivity
resulted in a smoother chip underside and reduced friction. of the alloy, high temperatures are generated during
Table 4 Summary of research on cryogenic cooling of titanium alloys
Reference(s) Cutting Salient features Observations/contributions Inferences/remarks
fluid
[96], [97], Liquid Liquid nitrogen was Cryogenic cooling provided better Cryogenic cooling helps in better chip breaking and
[98], [99] nitrogen applied at high lubrication compared to other effectively reduces the friction, apart from providing the
pressures forms necessary cooling. Almost all the works reported
adhesive and abrasion wear, but no record of diffusion
wear can be observed
[107] Liquid Work piece was Preheated work piece was used. This Preheating of the work piece led to thermal softening of the
nitrogen preheated before led to reduction of cutting forces work piece and resulted in reduced cutting forces. This
cutting was necessary to reduce the hardening effects of
cryogenics on the work piece
[111] Liquid Cryogenics, Cryogenics were found to not much At higher temperatures, the effect of hardening is more
nitrogen cryogenics + MQL effective at high temperatures, so a dominant
+ were applied and combination was used
emulsion tested
[112] Liquid Drilling was done with The surface of holes was damaged Extreme cooling causes work hardening and can damage
nitrogen PVD tools under due to extreme cooling the work surface
cryogenic cooling
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
machining and the heat is contained in the cutting tool.
This leads to increased tool wear and poor quality of the
work piece.
2. Coated tools are preferred over uncoated tools due to
better protection of the tool from reacting with the work
material. Uncoated tools are sometimes reported to have
tool life less than 1 min.
3. The composition of the alloy, microstructure, metallur-
gical phase of the material, and method of processing of
ia /
material greatly affect the machinability. Finer micro
Tr m
structure leads to greater machinability of the alloys.
4. Due to poor machinability, low cutting speeds, feeds,
s .co
and depths of cut are permissible in machining of titani-
l
um alloys. Usually, speeds less than 60 m/min are pre-
ferred. Some works have reported that cutting speed of
80 m/min is advantageous. Higher values of feed lead to
ge du
damaged surface and are not preferred. Depth of cut has
to be kept low for increased tool life. This leads to de-
creased productivity. Hence, several researchers have
5. Pa F
worked on finding solutions to the problem.
Cutting fluids are conventionally used to cool the ma-
h PD
chining zone. However, low pressure jets cannot pene-
trate through the vapor formed due to high temperatures.
6. Use of pressurized jet of cutting fluid is recommended in
itc w.
literature to reduce the temperatures.
7. Though cutting fluids cool well, not much lubrication is
provided as most of the coolant is not directed to the
St w
machining zone. Also, cutting fluids cause several health
and environmental issues.
u //w
8. As an alternative, MQL is used as a strategy to cool and
lubricate the machining zone. The reported works advo-
cate better performance of MQL compared to dry ma-
chining and flood lubrication. The cutting fluid in the
Fd tp:
MQL reaches the tool/chip interface through capillarity
and forms a film at the interface. This helps in lubrication
and reducing temperatures.
t
9.
PD h
It is often reported that conventional lubricant in MQL is
not effective enough to combat the friction and associat-
ed effects. Hence, several blends of cutting fluids, in-
cluding vegetable oils and synthetic fluids, are devel-
oped for MQL.
10. Addition of micro and nanoparticles was found to be
advantageous compared to regular fluid. Nanoparticles
like CuO and Al2O3 and solid lubricants like graphite is
found in literature. However, due to high cost, the use of
nanofluids is often restricted.
11. MQCL is a variant of MQL which is reported to have
promising results compared to MQL. Better cooling ca-
pabilities help in reducing the problems associated with
machining of titanium alloys.
12. Cryogenic cooling is an effective alternative to the cut-
ting fluids/MQL. Better tool life and surface finish of the
product, lesser forces, etc. are observed with the use of
cryogenic cooling. Chip breaking is effective in cryogen-
ic cooling and results in smaller chip contact length,
reducing friction.
13. Hardening effects of cool N2 jet lead to increased hard-
ness of the work piece and hence produces higher cutting
forces. Further, cryogenic cooling causes issues like di-
mensional inconsistencies and poor product quality due
to extreme cooling.
Future work may be directed towards newer blends of lu-
bricants for MQL and design of new tools for sustainable
machining of titanium alloys.
Acknowledgements This research was carried out as a part of the work
on sustainable machining of turbine blades sponsored by Experimental
Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR-NSF).
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Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol
DOI 10.1007/s00170-016-8431-9

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Machining of aluminum alloys: a review

Mário C. Santos Jr 1 & Alisson R. Machado 2,3 & Wisley F. Sales 3 &
Marcos A. S. Barrozo 4 & Emmanuel O. Ezugwu 5

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Received: 17 November 2015 / Accepted: 25 January 2016

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# Springer-Verlag London 2016

Abstract The use of aluminum alloys in manufacturing indus- characteristics of machinability of aluminum alloys is essential

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try has increased significantly in recent years. This is because
primarily to their ability to combine lightness and strength in a
to provide industry and researchers with information that allows
them to make the right decisions when they come to machining
h PD
single material. Concomitant to this growth, the machining of this fantastic material. The purpose of this review is to compile Fig. 1 Average use of aluminum in the car industry [5]
aluminum alloys has enormously increased in volumetric pro- relevant information about the characteristics of machinability
portions—so that the chip volume represents up to 80 % of the of aluminum alloys into a single document. Hall-Héroult process) [6, 7]. Alloys can be formed through 2 Different workable alloys
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original volume of the machined material in certain segments of reaction with chemical elements such as copper, zinc, manga-
the industry, like aerospace. In this context, knowledge of the Keywords Aluminum alloys . Cutting forces . Cutting nese, silicon, magnesium, iron, etc. to give primary aluminum Aluminum alloys are divided into workable alloys, i.e., those
temperature . Surface integrity . Cutting tools . Cutting fluids new mechanical properties [8]. that undergo hot or cold mechanical working process, and cast
St w

Aluminum alloys have been employed in aircraft construc- alloys, i.e., where the final shape of the part is obtained by
* Wisley F. Sales
wisley@ufu.br tion since 1930, mainly those of classes 2xxx, 7xxx, and 6xxx casting process. To classify workable and cast alloys, the
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1 Introduction [9, 10]. These alloys are responsible for most of the machining Aluminum Association uses numerical designations that iden-
Mário C. Santos, Jr activities in the aerospace and automotive industries [11, 12], tify the class, the main alloying element, and modifications of
mcezarjr@ifes.edu.br Aluminum (Al) is the third most abundant metal in the earth’s since they present a high strength-to-weight ratio and can ad- the alloy within the class [3, 6]. Table 1 exemplifies the des-
crust and in its natural form is combined with oxygen and vantageously substitute steel and cast iron in the fabrication of ignation system adopted for workable aluminum alloys. Cast
Fd tp:

Alisson R. Machado
alissonm@mecanica.ufu.br other elements [1]. It has a face-centered cubic (FCC) struc- parts [2, 13]. Their low weight reduces the environmental im- aluminum alloys are classified by a similar process.
ture, has high ductility at ambient temperature, and is relative- pact caused by energy consumption [14]. Among the main Compared to ferrous alloys, aluminum alloys are generally
Marcos A. S. Barrozo
ly easy to machine [2]. Compared to other engineering metals, applications of aluminum alloys are the fabrication of car considered to have good machinability. However, their ductil-
t

masbarrozo@ufu.br
PD h

aluminum has a low melting temperature about 660 °C [3]. wheels, panels, and structures using 6061 alloy [11], pistons, ity is responsible for increasing the machining forces, for poor
Emmanuel O. Ezugwu
Since around 1886, when Al alloy was first produced by the brake discs, brake drums, and piston sleeves using SiCp (silicon surface finish and difficult chip control, while the high con-
provost@afit.edu.ng; eoezugwu@gmail.com
Hall-Heroult method of electrolytic reduction, aluminum pro- carbide hard particle) or Al2O3p (aluminum oxide hard particle) tents of silicon in aluminum-silicon alloys are responsible for
duction rose from just over 45,000 tons to more than 25 mil- reinforced 6061 aluminum alloy [15] or aluminum-silicon al- the high wear rates of cutting tools [26].
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Federal Institute of lion tons today [4]. A good reference of the growth of alumi- loys containing up to 20 % Si [16]; aircraft structures made of
Technology of Espírito Santo, BR 101 Norte–Km 58, São num production is its application in the automotive industry. 7050-T7451 aluminum alloy [17]; fittings, gears, and shafts
Mateus, ES CEP: 29932540, Brazil
Figure 1 illustrates the growth of the quantity of aluminum made of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy [18, 19]; skin of aircrafts 3 Characteristics and properties of aluminum and its
2
Mechanical Engineering, Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, used per vehicle over the last 50 years, an eightfold increase, made of 2024-T3 aluminum alloy [20]; and rocket chamber alloys
Curitiba, PR, Brazil
and according to Ducker Worldwide cited by Drive made of 2014 aluminum alloy [21]. In addition, Bishop et al.
3
Laboratory for Teaching and Research in Machining, School of Aluminum (http://www.drivealuminum.org/vehicle-uses/ [22] and Ozcatalba [23] reported out that sintered alumi- Aluminum alloys have about one third of the density and
Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia, POB
593, Av. João Naves de Ávila, 2121, Uberlandia, MG CEP
passenger-vehicles), today figures are about 180 kg per num alloys, due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and modulus of elasticity of steels, high thermal and electrical
38400-902, Brazil passenger vehicle with an estimation of 70 % increase up to specific characteristics, are attractive materials for the au- conductivity, high corrosion resistance [5], high friction coef-
4
School of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia,
2025 (or 250 kg per vehicle). tomotive industry. Other applications are distributed in the ficient, excellent formability, low melting point, high magnet-
Av. João Naves de Ávila, 2121, Uberlandia, MG CEP: 38400-902, After production, aluminum can be found in the primary civil construction; in electrical, electromechanical, elec- ic neutrality, and a wide range of possible surface treatments
Brazil state or in the form of alloys with other chemical elements. tronic, and packaging industries [24]; and in the production [8, 27]. Table 2 presents some of the physical and mechanical
5
Air Force Institute of Technology, Nigerian Air Force Base, Primary aluminum is produced by electrolysis of aluminum of nanostructures of high mechanical strength and thermal properties of several aluminum alloys and different materials
Kaduna, Nigeria oxide (alumina) at a temperature range of 950 to 980 °C (the stability, as is the case of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy [25]. for comparison.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 1 Main series of workable aluminum alloys according to the high module of elasticity, low ductility, and high thermal con-
Aluminum Association [3]
ductivity [41, 42] and can enable an unreinforced aluminum
Series Main alloying elements with higher modulus, lower thermal expansion coefficient,
improved tribology characteristics, and higher hardness.
1XXX Commercially pure aluminum >99 % purity (non-heat treatable) The designations indicating the treatments to which alloys
2XXX Copper (heat treatable) are subjected are as fabricated (F), annealed (O), strain hard-
3XXX Manganese (non-heat treatable) ened (H), solutionized (W), and thermally treated (T).
4XXX Silicon (non-heat treatable) Numbers after the letter indicate a specific treatment [8]. For
5XXX Magnesium (non-heat treatable) instance, H1—only strain hardened, H2—strain hardened and
are presented, raising the main problems and indicating right
decisions to have the process under control.
4.1 Forces and stresses in the machining of aluminum
alloys
Cutting forces in the machining of aluminum alloys are usu-
ally low compared to those of ferrous alloys due to their lower
mechanical strength, which may generate 70 % lower specific
Increasing the feed rate and/or depth of cut increases the
areas of the primary and secondary shear planes, hindering the
shearing of the material and increasing the machining forces
[19, 49, 50]. Even so, the stresses on the secondary shear plane
may be about 30 % lower than those on the primary shear
plane, since higher temperatures occur in the former [53].
Tool geometry, particularly rake angle and nose radius as
well as the geometric changes caused by wear and by built-up
edges (BUE), strongly influences the machining forces of alu-

ia /
6XXX Magnesium and Silicon (heat treatable) partially annealed, T1—cooled from a high-temperature cutting pressures than in the machining of steels [43]. minum alloys. An increase in the rake angle, whether through

Tr m
7XXX Zinc (heat treatable) forming process and naturally aged to a stable condition, and However, it should be noted that this difference is minimal the fabrication process or the presence of a BUE, reduces
8XXX Other elements T2—cooled from a high-temperature forming process, strain among aluminum alloys and depends on their chemical com- chip-tool contact in the interface region, which in turn reduces

s .co
9XXX Not used hardened, and naturally aged to a stable condition [27]. position and physical properties [44–46]. the machining forces [59, 60]. Shankar et al. [25] reported

l
Any thermal or mechanical treatment or even the addition signs of strain hardening in the interface region with reduction
of chemical elements that increase the hardness and mechan- of the rake angle when machining 6061-T6 aluminum alloy.
The mechanical properties of aluminum alloys, particularly ical strength of an aluminum alloy reduce the chip-tool contact This may be the cause of the increase in cutting resistance in

ge du
hardness and strength, are markedly improved by precipita- 4 Machinability of aluminum alloys area and may thus reduce the machining forces [26, 47, 48]. response to a diminishing rake angle. Cutting edges with large
tion of the elements in heat-treatable aluminum alloys and by This reduction will, of course, compensate the effects of the radius generate small rake angles at the beginning of cutting—
hardening in mechanically workable alloys [9, 34–36]. Lee To understand machining is essential to be familiar with the increase in mechanical strength and the reduction in contact at which moment the cutting forces increase [61]. Flank wear

Pa F
et al. [37] claim that the 6061 aluminum alloy, a typical
AlMgSi (aluminum-magnesium-silicon) alloy, is an age-
h PD
hardening alloy that can be strengthened appreciably by heat
treatment. The aluminum alloys of the 2XXX, 6XXX, and
7XXX series stand out among the group of heat-treatable al-
itc w.
chip formation process, very well discussed by Trent and
Wright [26] in their masterpiece Metal Cutting Principles.
When ductile materials (such as aluminum) are machined, a
large chip-tool contact area is formed and the chip thickness
ratio is high which contribute to augment cutting forces, ma-
area. In some aluminum alloys, hard particles in proportions
of up to 15 % vol. and aging processes, provided the latter do
not cause coalescence of the precipitates, may reduce cutting
forces by at least 10 % [11, 48]. Increasing the cutting speed
normally reduces the machining forces, regardless of the
can generate excessive machining forces, as reported by Tang
et al. [17] during the milling of aluminum alloy 7050-T7451,
since flank wear increases the workpiece-tool contact area
(Fig. 3).
When machining aluminum alloy, flank wear can be re-

loys, while the aluminum alloys of the 1XXX, 3XXX, 4XXX, chining power, and heat generation and generate long and strength of the aluminum alloy [11, 49, 50], since the shear duced, surface finish improved, and machining forces mini-
and 5XXX series, such as the 1100-H12, 3003-H12, and stringy chips as well as poor surface finishing. On the other stress in the primary shear zone and in the flow zone at the mized by improving the sharpening technique of cutting edges
5052-H12 alloys, stand out among the group of mechanically hand, the shear strength is relatively low which even with secondary shear region decreases with increasing cutting [16] or by reducing the surface roughness of the diamond
St w

workable alloys [38]. large chip-tool contact areas, machining aluminum is consid- speed due to an associated increase in cutting temperature coating (CVD, chemical vapor deposition) tools after
Another way to increase mechanical strength, stiffness, and ered relatively easy. This item will present and discuss the [51–53]. Although high cutting speeds contribute to lowering polishing [62]. Coated or solid diamond cutting tools, due to
u //w

wear resistance is by adding oxides, carbides, and nitrides to
the aluminum matrix, such as Al2O3p, SiCp, or TiN (titanium
nitride), in various proportions [6, 18, 30, 39]. The aluminum
matrix composites, such as SiCp, Al2O3p, aluminum silicates,
Fd tp:
main response machining parameters, which are relevant to machining forces, in high-speed cutting (HSC), excessive in- their high hardness and low chemical affinity for aluminum,
understand the behavior of aluminum alloys in machining. crease in deformation rates may increase the machining forces and hence low adhesiveness, contribute to reduce machining
The following aspects will be covered: forces and stresses, [2, 54–56] (Fig. 2). forces, as reported by Roy et al. [61] when machining of pure
power consumption, temperature, surface integrity, recom- Other situations that may lead to augmented machining aluminum with several types of tool materials: (1) as received,

and graphite [40], possess light-specific density, high strength, mended cutting tools, tool wear, and cutting fluids and chip forces with increasing cutting speeds are excessive flank (2) TiC (titanium carbide)—CVD, (3) TiN—CVD, (4) Al2O3
low coefficient of thermal expansion, good wear resistance, control. In each topic, the viewpoints of several researchers wear due to the presence of hard particles in the Al alloy (aluminum oxide)—CVD, (5) AlON (aluminum oxynitride),
[18]. This is in agreement with Lahres et al. [57] during the (6) TiB2 (titanium diboride)—PVD, and (7) diamond—
t
PD h

dry milling of the AlSi10Mg casting alloy where sticking HFCVD (hot filament chemical vapor deposition) (Fig. 4).
Table 2 Mechanical properties
of some aluminum alloys and a Alloy Ultimate strength Yield strength Elongation % Hardness of the workpiece material to the tool’s cutting surface was
free-machining steel [17, 28–33] (MPa) (MPa) (50 mm) pronounced. However, this problem may be minimized by 300
the application of minimum quantity lubrication or oil-jet 360 Fxmax
6061 (L) 365 342 (0.2 % off) 11.5 HV121 (200 g) 270
lubrication [58]. 320 Fymax Temperature
6061 (T) 352 326 (0.2 % off) 12.4 HV125 (200 g) 250
280 Fzmax

Cutting Force (N)

6061 SiCw (silicon carbide 608 454 (0.2 % off) 2.3 HV167 (200 g)

Temperature (°C)
whisker) (L) 4 240 220
6061 SiCw (T) 418 353 (0.2 % off) 1.8 HV179 (200 g) Fx Fz
200
200

Cutting Force (N)

6061 5 % SiCp (L) 371 347 (0.2 % off) 11.2 HV128 (200 g) 3
160 175
6061 5 % SiCp (T) 347 331 (0.2 % off) 9.5 HV132 (200 g)
6061 10 % SiCp (L) 378 352 (0.2 % off) 10.7 HV134 (200 g) 2 120 150
6061 10 % SiCp (T) 354 336 (0.2 % off) 8.6 HV138 (200 g) 80 125
1
7050-T7451 510 455 (0.2 % off) 10 HV162 (200 g) 40 100
2011-T3 379 296 (0.2 % off) 10 BHN 95 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
0 Flank Wear (mm)
SAE12L14: steel 613 414 10 BHN 67 0 60 120 180 240 300
Cutting Speed (m/s)
Fig. 3 Effects of flank wear on cutting forces and temperature in milling
L longitudinal direction, T transversal direction, HV hardness Vickers, BHN Brinell hardness number Fig. 2 Cutting force variation with cutting speed [54] of aluminum alloy 7050-T7451 [17]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

140 400
Vc = 400 m/min
The cutting power depends on the loads on the shear varying from 10 to 20 %; and high cutting speeds, cutting
Feed = 0.1 mm/min Fx planes, which in turn depend on the mechanical strength temperatures tend to rise abruptly [53, 73] as the hard particles
120 350
Depth of cut = 0.5 mm Fz and on the presence of free-cutting elements in the alloys, produce intermittent friction against the tool surface [26]. The
100 Machining time = 30 s in addition the cutting conditions employed [52]. cutting speed generally increases the machining temperature 300
Cutting Forces (N)

Increasing the cutting speed (it promotes sufficient soft- because it increases the shear plane deformation rate [52, 65].
80 ening of the alloy and prevents sticking in the cutting An increase in the feed rate, provided it does not cause an 250

Temperature (°C)
region), the rake angle, and the hardness up to a given excessive increase of the effective chip-tool contact area—
60 value, as well as adequate lubrication, tends to reduce the which generates greater heat dissipation between the tool— 200
cutting power. Oil-jet cooling or even the presence of workpiece interface—contributes to the elevated temperature

ia /
40 free-cutting elements such as Pb (lead), Bi (bismuth), In [53]. Figure 6 illustrates this behavior. 150 f = 0.04 mm/rev

Tr m
(indium), or Sn (tin) in proportions of 0.10 to 1.0 % wt., On the other hand, in the drilling of 2024-T351 aluminum f = 0.16 mm/rev
20 100
combined with adequate cutting speeds in aluminum alloy alloys (finite element simulations), Nouari et al. [68] observed f = 0.28 mm/rev

s .co
drilling, can result in a significant reduction of the power that although the feed rate increased, there was no tendency f = 0.40 mm/rev
50

l
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 since they promote lower adhesiveness and facilitate chip for stabilization of the temperature at the chip-tool interface
Coating Tolls removal [64]. (Fig. 7). This is likely due to the increase in machining forces 0
Fig. 4 Behavior of the cutting forces generated by different cutting tools The cutting power tends to increase with increasing feed and changes in thermal conductivity and chip morphology, 0 100 200 300

ge du
in turning of aluminum [61] rates and the machined length, since the machining forces tend which are common occurrences in the drilling process. Cutting Speed (m/min)
to increase in both situations—in the latter due to the increase Alteration of tool geometry such as wedges with large rake Fig. 7 Influence of the feed rate and cutting speed on the temperature in
4.2 Power generated when machining aluminum alloys in tool wear. This situation was reported by Braga et al. [65] (e.g., 100–250) and clearance angles up to given levels (e.g., drilling of the AA 2024-T351 [68]

Pa F
The cutting forces generated when machining aluminum al-
h PD
loys is about one third of that when machining steel; converse-
ly, the energy required is much higher due to the need to
operate at extremely high cutting speeds [43]. However, the
specific cutting energy is very low because large volumes of
itc w.
when drilling aluminum alloy with 7 % wt. Si.
4.3 Temperature generated when machining of aluminum
alloys
40–70), low friction coefficients, and the presence of free-
cutting elements such as lead (0.17 % wt.) inhibit excessive
increase of machining temperature since these conditions fa-
cilitate chip flow over the tool rake face [26, 64, 74]. It has
been found that increasing the cutting speed improves the
for instance, the thermal conductivity of aluminum and its
alloys is higher, then the heat generated spreads quickly for
the whole workpiece body and increases its temperature at
sufficient values to promote warping, depending on the work-
piece fixture system. Aiming to eliminate this undesirable

Cutting temperature is not a major problem in the machining action of free-cutting elements by facilitating their melting,
material are removed due to the high feed rates and cutting of aluminum alloys, because their low melting point is not which improves their chip lubrication, removal, and embrit- effect, the cutting fluid with high coolant ability needs to be
speeds employed in order to achieve higher productivity [2, able to alter the mechanical properties of cutting tools [66]; tling effects [64]. However, tool geometric changes such as applied at high flow rates in order to maintain the wok material
St w

54, 55]. Rao and Shin [63] confirmed these results during in other words, it is not able to cause high tool wear rates [67], those caused by flank wear increase the cutting temperature at a few Celsius degrees above the room temperature. This
high-speed face milling of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy. although tool life is still controlled by the cutting temperature since they increase the shear plane cutting forces and favor the problem is rather common when milling at high cutting speeds
u //w

The specific cutting energy tends to increase as the hard-
ness and mechanical strength of machined materials increases
and decreases as the feed rate and cutting speed increase, since
the former increases the material removal rate while the latter
Fd tp:
[68]. However, an increase in cutting temperature to a given appearance of a third source of heat between the clearance with PCD (polycrystalline cubic diamond) tools, for example,
level may generate microstructural alteration, residual stresses surface and the machined workpiece [17, 52]. in engine heads, blocks, and transmission cases, among
in the surface layer, tolerance errors, and distortions and ac- Although the cutting temperature is lower comparing with others.
celerate tool wear and sticking of the work material onto tool work materials like alloyed steels, titanium and nickel alloys,

decreases the cutting force. This behavior was confirmed by edges [67]. Higher temperatures can also increase the ductility 4.4 Surface integrity in the machining of aluminum alloys
Ng et al. [19] in the orthogonal cutting of 7075-T6 aluminum of the material, which produce longer chips [23] and promote
alloy (Fig. 5). 750
chemical interaction between aluminum and the tool coating In the machining of aluminum alloys, the main limiting factor
t
PD h

material to promote inter-atomic diffusion [61]. According to of the material removal rate (feed rate and depth of cut) can be
40 Specific Cutting Energy 10 m/min Yousefi and Ichida [54], the heat generated increases the cut- 700 the surface integrity [75–78]. Normally, surface roughness in
Specific Cutting Energy 150 m/min ting temperature as the cutting speed increases. This may ap- the machining of aluminum is considerably influenced by the
Specific Cutting Energy (GPa)

proach the melting temperature of the work material, depend- alloy’s hardness and microstructural characteristics [79, 80].

Temperature (K)
30 y (10 m/min) = 67.995x
-0.5199
ing on the mechanical properties of the aluminum alloy [69]. 650 300 m/min Generally speaking, the higher the hardness of the machined
2
R (10 m/min) = 0.8957 Workable aluminum alloys with silicon contents varying from 600 m/min alloys, the lower their surface roughness [11, 73, 81], since
-0.3159 900 m/min
y (150 m/min) = 16.107x 5.5 % wt. to 12 % wt. have recorded temperatures from 350 to 1800 m/min hardness reduces sticking on the tool’s cutting surface.
2 600
20 R (150 m/min) = 0.9441 750 °C in several machining processes [70, 71]. Tang et al. 2400 m/min However, when hardness is the result of hard particles embed-
Cutting Edges Radius
[17] observed a significant increase in residual stress on the ded in the aluminum matrix, e.g., proportions of 20 % vol.
surface of machined parts due to increased flank wear 550 SiCp [18] and 15 % vol. SiC and 12 % wt. Si [50], there may
10 resulting from the elevation of the machining temperature. be BUE formation and random pullout of hard particles from
The highest cutting temperatures are obtained in the ma- the matrix, which adhere to or scratch the machined surface
chining of aluminum alloys with higher mechanical 500 [43]. The high chemical affinity of aluminum alloys for ma-
0 0 0.002 0.006 0.01 0.014 0.018
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 strength—workable or cast [72, 73]—preferentially situated Chip Thickness (mm) terials such as TiC, TiN, TiB2, Al2O3, and AlON causes the
Undeformed Chip Thickness (nm) in the secondary shear zone, in regions distant from the cutting Fig. 6 Influence of chip thickness and cutting speed on the temperature
machined material to accumulate on the surface of the tool.
Fig. 5 Effect of undeformed chip thickness and cutting speed on specific edge [17]. Moreover, in the combined presence of high me- in the secondary shear zone for 7075-T6 aluminum in a half immersion This tends to worsen the surface roughness of this material
cutting energy of an aluminum alloy [19] chanical strength; percentages of Si, SiCp, and Al2O3p up-milling [53] during machining due to the constant release of particles
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
adhering to the surface of the machined workpiece [61]. This the problem. Warping can also depend on other factors such as
occurs in the dry, flood cooling, and MQL (minimum quantity the alloy’s properties and geometry, the tool material, and
lubricant) conditions [58]. especially the type of operation and the cutting conditions
The undesirable effects of ductility and BUE on the surface employed.
finish of aluminum alloys, i.e., high roughness values and
large burrs, can be minimized by selecting suitable cutting
tools and conditions such as high cutting speeds, diamond- 4.5 Cutting tools for machining of aluminum alloys
based tools with low chemical affinity to aluminum [57, 61],
intense use of cutting fluid, large rake angles, low feed rates, The tools employed for machining aluminum alloys range
ia /
and larger tool nose radius [74, 82, 83]. These situations favor from high-speed steels, straight grade (K) of cemented car-
Tr m
chip flow on the cutting tool surface and inhibit the formation bides (mainly fine grained) due to its low chemical affinity
of BUE [84]. However, Hamade and Ismail [2] do not recom- for aluminum, which considerably improves the surface fin-
s .co
mend the use of high cutting speeds in the drilling of alumi- ish, and diamond-based tools [43]. The latter tool consider-
l
num alloys because they may increase the material’s ductility ably reduces the adherent layer accumulated on the tool edge
as a result of rising temperatures, which may cause clogging in the chip flow direction [86]. K10 grade is recommended for
of the drill grooves. Ciftci et al. [84] observed when machin- turning, milling, drilling, and boring of silicon aluminum al-
ge du
ing aluminum alloys with high SiCp contents, also observed loys [87]; K20 for interrupted cutting with abrupt temperature
poor surface roughness at higher cutting speeds due to flank changes; and K01 for cutting aluminum alloys with abrasive
wear and the release of hard particles. This behavior is strong- particles [88]. Liew et al. [35] assert that the K20 grade is
Pa F
ly dependent on the size and distribution of the hard particles.
The addition of about 0.5 % wt. of a suitable free-cutting
widely used in the machining of aluminum and other non-
ferrous metals. In their cutting tests on the aluminum alloy
h PD
element to aluminum alloys, such as tin or bismuth, combined Al 2014-T4, they used cutting tools with a rake angle of 6°.
with high cutting speeds has proved effective in reducing sur- Today, the new ISO 513 [89] standard designates the letter N,
face roughness values during machining since this combina- instead of K, for the class of these cemented carbide tools used
itc w.
tion embrittles the chip and facilitates its sliding over the tool in the machining of non-ferrous aluminum alloys. Thus, the
surface [85]. However, cutting fluid has proved more effective aforementioned K01, K10, and K20 tools are now designated
in reducing surface roughness values than the addition of free- N01, N10, and N20, respectively.
St w
cutting elements [64] (Fig. 8). Cutting speeds varying from 600 to 800 m/min and rake
Another common problem in the machining of aluminum angles from 6° to 20° can be employed in the turning of alu-
u //w
alloy is warping, as mentioned when discussing the cutting minum alloys without hard particles and with cemented car-
temperature (item 4.3). This occurs mainly in the milling of bide tools. Toropov et al. [87] used K10 with rake angles of
very robust or thin-walled workpieces, as in the case of aircraft −5°, 0°, 5°, 10°, and 20° and a cutting speed of 800 m/min
components and engine cylinder blocks. There are no scien- during turning of Al6061-T6 (magnesium and silicon alumi-
Fd tp:
tific reports available to address the cause or propose solu- num alloys). The two latter angles showed smaller burr height
tions, thus representing a challenge for professionals in this than the three formers.
area. However, it is not difficult to imagine that the problem is Rake angles of 0° to 7° and cutting speeds of 20 to 450 m/
t
PD h
caused by excessive loadings associated with high tempera- min are recommended for aluminum alloys containing about
tures. Therefore, measures to reduce cutting loads and ma- 12 to 15 % vol. of hard particles (SiCp and Si), regardless of
chining temperature should help in minimizing or eliminating the type of tool material [26]. Manna and Bhattacharayya [50]
performed turning tests with a maximum cutting speed of
Surface Roughness 225 m/min in the Al/SiC (12 % wt. Si and 15 % vol. SiCp)
7
2500 RPM 5000 RPM using an uncoated tungsten carbide K10 (now N10) with a
7500 RPM 10000 RPM rake angle of 5°. Coelho et al. [72] performed drilling and
Roughness ( m)
5 reaming with a cutting speed between 37.7 and 75.4 m/min
using natural diamond, PCD, and K10 (N10) in aluminum
alloy with 7 % wt. Si; 2.8 % wt. Si and in the reinforced
3
MMC (metal matrix composites) wrought aluminum alloy,
AA2618 (15 % vol. SiCp). Ciftci et al. [84] performed turning
1 tests in the Al-2014 alloy matrix composites containing 8 and
0 16 % vol. SiCp using K10 (N10) inserts (5° rake angle) and
B319 (wet) B319(0.5%Bi) (dry) B319 (0.5%Sn) (dry) cutting speeds ranging from 20 to 80 m/min. Kamiya and
Fig. 8 Effect of drill speed and lubricant condition on the surface Yakou (2008) [90] carried out turning tests with a maximum
roughness of modified aluminum alloys [64] cutting speed of 1.5 m/s using K10 (N10) carbide cutting tool
inserts with 5° rake angle in the aluminum alloy 4032-T651
(11.5 % wt. Si) and Al 12 % wt. Si.
Tools with positive geometries and deep flow grooves,
such as helical drills with helix angles of about 40° to 48°
and point angles of 118° to 140°, should be used for drilling
aluminum alloys in order to facilitate chip flow and prevent
material from sticking to the drill’s rake face [43, 67, 68].
Hamade and Ismail [2] reported that standard twist drills with
a helix angle of approximately 30° are used in drilling hard
aluminum alloys and high (quick) helix drills having helix
angles of approximately 40° are used for drilling lower
strength aluminum alloys. Wain et al. [91] used a HSS
(high-speed steel) twist drill with 118° point angle and 37.5°
helix angle for the drilling of casting aluminum alloy A319
(6 % wt. Si). Dasch et al. [70] have chosen two-flute, high-
helix, 118° point angle HSS drills and three-flute, 30° helix,
130° point angle of carbide drills to conduct drilling tests in
the cast aluminum alloy B319 (6.5 % wt. Si). Dasch et al. [64]
used a drill with three-flute, 30° helix, 130° point angle, solid
carbide drills for drilling of aluminum alloy containing 5–
7.5 % wt. Si.
Diamond-based tools have proved to be very efficient in
the machining of aluminum alloys in general and can reach
cutting speeds exceeding 600 m/min [26, 87]. For machining
of high-mechanical-strength aluminum alloy even without
hard particles, usually a rake angle of 0° is used [92].
Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools are more suitable for
machining alloys containing 10 % vol. to 20 % vol. of ceramic
particles or Si contents varying from 12 % wt. to 21 % wt.
because they are resistant to thermally activated wear mecha-
nisms [16, 93], since they can reach a three to fourfold in-
crease in hardness than ceramic particles such as SiCp [94]
and can be about fourfold harder than a cemented carbide tool
(K10). Moreover, the thermal conductivity of cemented car-
bide tools is about fourfold lower than that of PCD tools, thus
generating higher cutting temperatures [72].
In view of the need for more complex tools that cannot be
manufactured by the conventional solid diamond tool fabrica-
tion methods, diamond-coated tools—due to their high hard-
ness at high temperatures, low friction coefficient, low adhe-
siveness, high thermal conductivity, and chemical stability—
have been identified as promising technologies to improve the
machinability of aluminum alloys. These latest tools minimize
BUE, abrasive wear, and cutting forces and provide good
surface finish as well as enhance tool life [15, 70, 95].
Yoshikawa and Nishiyama [96] used K10 or K20 (today
N10 or N20) cemented carbide (rake angle 6°) as a substrate
for diamond layer (CVD) for turning aluminum alloys with
12 % wt. Si and 18 % wt. Si using a cutting speed of 600 m/
min. Itoigawa et al. [97] used a sintered diamond tool with 0°
rake angle and a K10 (N10) grade of carbide tool with 5° rake
angle for turning aluminum-silicon alloy (AlSi5) at a cutting
speed ranging from 200 to 800 m/min. The latter showed a
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
specific force smaller than the former. These results could be
an indication that the rake angle is an important variable here.
Chattopadhyay et al. [98] used several cutting tool mate-
rials with different tool surface qualities in dry turning of an
aluminum alloy. They reported that the HFCVD (hot filament
chemical vapor deposition) diamond-coated tool had the low-
est level of deterioration although it did not produce the best
surface quality. This corroborates once again that the low
chemical affinity of diamond with the aluminum alloy is the
prevailing factor in improving the machinability.
Nanocrystal diamond coatings are more resistant and cause
less adhesion of material to the cutting surface than microcrys-
tal coatings, since they present lower roughness, lower stress
concentrations, lower crack propagation ability, and higher
adhesiveness to substrates due to random grain growth. In
addition, they can provide similar levels of surface roughness
as those of solid PCD in the machining of aluminum alloys
with silicon contents of about 18 % wt. [99]. Other types of
coatings that have ensured good machinability of aluminum
alloys containing silicon are TiN/TiCN (titanium carbon ni-
tride) coatings with a hardness of about 3000 HV250 [100].
Karakas et al. [101] during milling of Al-4 % Cu/B4Cp com-
posites (20 vol%. B4Cp: boron carbide hard particle and
80 vol% Al-4Cu) used the following tools: (a) uncoated K20
(N20), (b) K20 (N20) triple-coated (TiCN + Al2O3 + TiN)
CVD, and (c) K20 (N20) double-coated (TiN + TiAlN, titani-
um aluminum nitride) CVD. All these tools with a rake angle
of 0° were tested under a maximum cutting speed of 286 m/
min. The cutting tool (b) showed the lowest levels of flank
wear.
Due to their high affinity (solubility) for aluminum alloys,
ceramic tools containing nitrides such as TiN, TiAlN, CrN
(chromium nitride), Si3N4 (silicon nitride), and Ti [61, 67]
are not recommended for machining aluminum alloys, since
they encourage adhesion and the formation of BUE [12, 60].
4.6 Tool wear when machining of aluminum alloys
The greatest problem of cutting tool wear occurs in the ma-
chining of aluminum alloys containing hard particles (Al2O3p,
SiCp, and Si) [67]. With other alloys, even using less resistant
tools such as high-speed steel, a good tool life can be attained
at a cutting speed of about 300 m/min [26].
The intermittent contact of hard particles against the cutting
surface causes high machining temperatures that lower the
resistance of cutting tools thereby accelerating adhesive and
abrasive wear mechanisms [26]. The disintegration of tool
particles occurs next to the cutting edge. Normally, the pro-
portion of hard particles of silicon carbide in workpiece ma-
trices varies from 10 to 20 % of the alloy volume [18] and its
hardness can be about 1.5-fold higher than that of a K01
cemented carbide tool [88]. This will drastically lower the
machinability of aluminum alloys. Narahari et al. [102]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
reported that the amount of SiCp has a significant effect on the
cutting tool performance and also affects the initial rapid flank
wear, even when using PCD tools. Coelho et al. [72] reported
high levels of flank wear in the drilling of aluminum alloys
containing hard particles of silicon and silicon carbides using
PCD tools (Fig. 9).
Flank wear rate increases with the size and proportion of Si
precipitates and hard particles (Al2O3p and SiCp) in the matrix
of aluminum alloys [85, 96]. However, soft matrices that fa-
ia /
cilitate the release of precipitates produce less wear [43]. The
Tr m
control of silicon particle size and distribution in the matrix of
cast aluminum alloys depend on the cooling rate [75].
s .co
The low melting point of aluminum and its alloys leads to
l
relatively low machining temperatures, thus practically
inhibiting the development of thermally activated wear mech-
anisms or processes such as diffusive wear, superficial plastic
ge du
deformation by shearing at high temperatures, and plastic de-
formations of the cutting edges under high compressive stress-
es [26, 52].
Pa F
The type of wear that prevails in a specific machining op-
eration depends on the tool material, the machined workpiece,
h PD
and the cutting conditions employed. Flank wear is common
when machining alloy and is normally developed by adhesive
and abrasive wear mechanisms [18, 61]. This behavior was
itc w.
also observed by Sreejith [58]. Abrasive wear mechanism is
caused by the presence of hard particles in the cutting region,
which may originate from the matrix containing hard precip-
St w
itates or from the cutting tool itself, when hard particles are
detached by attrition wear mechanism. The combination of
u //w
high cutting speeds and high SiCp contents of about 15 %
vol. may accelerate the process of flank wear to levels above
that acceptable in K10 cemented carbide tools [47] (Fig. 10).
However, the use of diamond-based tools rather than the
Fd tp:
straight grade of cemented carbide (WC-Co) or coatings of
the types TiC, TiN, Al2O3, AlON, and TiB2 can significantly
reduce adhesion on the clearance surface, thus reducing flank
t
PD h
wear [57, 61].
90
AA2618 + 15 vol% SiCp - MMC
Hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy (LM25 TF)
Max Flank Wear ( m)
Hypereutectic Al-Si alloy
60
30
0 drilling, catastrophic drill failure due to sticking and accumu-
1 10 100 1000
Number of Holes
Fig. 9 Flank wear evolution when drilling Al-Si alloys and MMC using
PCD tipped drills [72]
Feed: 0.5 mm/rev
Flank Wear (mm)
0.6
Depth of cut: 0.5 mm
0.4 Length: 50 mm
0.2
0 and Sn contents of 0.09 % wt. and 0.02 % wt., respectively, in
20 40 60 100 150 180
Cutting Speed (m/min)
Fig. 10 Influence of cutting speed on flank wear in turning A356 alloy
with K10 carbide tool [50]
Although flank wear is the main type of wear observed
when machining aluminum alloys, there are reports of crater
wear and notch wear when machining pure aluminum con-
taining 12 % wt. Si using TiC- and TiN-coated carbide tools
[61]. Liang et al. [99] reported these failure modes when ma-
chining of aluminum A390 alloy containing 18 wt% Si using
PCD tools. Ciftci et al. [84] reported similar failure modes and
notching in single point continuous turning of 2014 Al (16 %
wt. SiCp) using cubic boron nitride (CBN) with 0° rake angle.
All of these failure modes can be associated with adhesive and
abrasive wear mechanisms [103]. Albeit rare, Roy et al. [61]
reported wear of chemical origin accelerated by the increase in
machining temperature at high cutting speeds in the machin-
ing of pure aluminum containing 12 % wt. Si using Al2O3,
AlON e TiB2-coated tools, with erosion of the coating due to
the transfer of material at the chip-tool interface [104]. Ng
et al. [75] carried out face-milling tests using cemented car-
bide tools with 0.05 mm also with 0.30 mm of flank wear with
the minimum flank wear the machined surface was clean,
however, with the worn tool workpiece material smearing
was observed on the machined surface. According to the au-
thors, this phenomenon is generated because the increase of
the cutting edge radius of the carbide tool as the flank wear
progresses. However, when face milling with PCD tools, they
did not found smearing phenomenon even with a large flank
wear land. Smearing is a side flow effect when there is a lateral
flow of work material due to improper tool geometry, cutting
parameters, tool wear, or all of these actuating together.
Unexpected peeling off (delamination) of coating materials
due to high friction coefficients at the chip-tool interface at
high cutting speeds have been reported as the main failure of
coated tools in the machining of aluminum alloys [99].
Peeling off occurs as a result of low adhesion between the
coating and substrate, which is not able to resist the force of
friction at the chip-tool interface. One way of preventing this
problem is to use diamond coating or solid diamond tools with
extremely fine grains [99] and bigger rake angles. These will
generate lower cutting forces in the interface region [105]. In
lation of material in the drill grooves causes increased torque
and temperature. This is the predominant factor leading to the
destruction of cutting tools [70].
Wear rates when machining aluminum alloy can be re-
duced by adding free-cutting elements, improving the cutting
conditions, and using suitable tool material and applying ad-
equate lubrication/cooling. Mills and Redford [106] suggest
the addition of copper, tin, bismuth, and lead associated with
low cutting speeds and feed rates. Dasch et al. [64] used Pb
225
drilling 319 alloy with 6 % wt. Si to increase the drill produc-
tivity by about ninefold. However, the use of cutting fluid
produced greater increase in productivity, i.e., about 100-fold.
Hamade and Ismail [2] recommended cutting speeds lower
than 15 m/min and feed rates of less than 0.3 mm/rev to drill
aluminum-silicon alloys with high silicon contents using high-
speed steel drills. For turning operations, Manna and
Bhattacharyya [50] suggested using cutting speeds of about
60 to 100 m/min and feed rates of 0.5 mm/rev to minimize
flank wear. Kannan and Kishawy [18] obtained a reduction in
flank wear of approximately 50 % with a coated cemented
carbide tool by reducing the cutting speed from 240 to 60 m/
min when turning A356 aluminum alloy (20 % vol. SiCp).
Liang et al. [99], when machining aluminum-silicon alloy
A390 (18 % wt. Si) using the following tools: (1) uncoated
WC—6 wt% Co (cobalt) insert, (2) WC—6 wt% Co insert,
coated with ~35 μm nanostructured diamond film, and (3)
polycrystalline diamond cutting, reported lower levels of flank
wear with the latter two tools. Karakas et al. [101] during
milling of aluminum alloy (20 % vol. B4Cp) with (1) uncoated
K20 (N20), (2) uncoated K20 (N20) + triple coating of (TiCN
+ Al2O3 + TiN) CVD, and (3) K20 (N20) + double coating of
(TiN + TiAlN) CVD always found lower levels of flank wear
with the latter tool regardless of the cutting speed used.
4.7 Cutting fluid in the machining of aluminum alloys
Cutting fluids prevent excessive heating and sticking to the
cutting surface (lubrication/cooling) when employed in the
machining of Al alloys. They also prevent flank wear and
spalling, reduce the surface roughness of the workpiece, im-
prove machining accuracy, protect the surfaces against oxida-
tion and corrosion, and facilitate the release of chips from the
tool’s rake face [58, 61, 67, 107]. Due to the easy release of
chips enhanced by the cutting fluid, Dasch et al. [64] reported
a considerable reduction in torque when drilling of aluminum
alloy (ductile matrix) with 7.5 % wt. Si hard particles. Kannan
and Kishawy [18] and Jayal et al. [108] used cutting fluids and
recorded reduction of flank wear in the machining of alumi-
num alloys (ductile matrix) containing 20 % vol. SiCp and up
to 18 % wt. Si, respectively, due to the lubrication and cooling
capacity of the cutting fluid which ensures for better control of
the machining temperature. In view of the various benefits of
cutting fluid, Yoshimura et al. [86] and List et al. [104] sug-
gested that aluminum alloys with high levels of ductility
should not be dry machined. Braga et al. [65] during drilling
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
of aluminum-silicon alloy used soluble oil at a concentration
of 4 % with a flow rate of 2.4 m3/h.
Both the cooling and lubrication action of cutting fluids
contribute to reduce sticking and accumulation of material
on the cutting surfaces, as Sreejith [58] observed in the ma-
chining of 6061 aluminum alloy, since the former reduces
softening of the material and the latter diminishes friction on
the cutting surface [49, 59], thereby reducing flank wear, ma-
chining forces, and torque in the machining of soft aluminum
alloys or even alloys containing hard particles such as 20 %
vol. SiCp [18, 70].
Although dry machining is not recommended, lubrication
and cooling characteristics can be applied economically by the
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) method [84, 97, 109,
110], with a flow of 10 to 60 ml/h of cutting fluid. This cutting
fluid may be emulsion or synthetic ester. For example, with
EP (extreme pressure) additives, applied at an air flow rate of
72 m3/h and a pressure of 4.5 bar [65, 75], Sreejith [58] found
lower wear rates when turning of 6061 alloy with MQL than
with oil-jet lubrication, while Kishawy et al. [66] reported
lower flank wear when milling A356 aluminum alloy with
the MQL method (Fig. 11).
Greater dimensional accuracy and heat exchange can be
achieved by spraying a mist of oil film on water (OoW) on
the machined surface [97]. However, authors like Klocke
et al. [111] do not consider the application of MQL in
drilling processes advantageous. Nevertheless, there are
signs that this depends on the cutting conditions. Kelly
and Cotterell [67] drilled 5080 aluminum alloy and report-
ed a reduction of the feed force with MQL at a high cutting
speed and low feed rate conditions, while flood coolant
application yielded better results than MQL at lower speed
and high feed rate conditions.
Other ways to improve the machinability of aluminum
alloys, i.e., minimize sticking to the cutting surface of the
tool, even with small amounts of cutting fluid, would be by
using tools with a low friction coefficient such as diamond
and by adding free-cutting elements that substitute the flow
zone, such as 0.5 to 1 % wt. of In, Pb, and Bi, mainly for
120
100
Flank Wear ( m)
80
60
Flood Coolant
40 Dry Cutting
MQL
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Total Length of Cut (m)
Fig. 11 Flank wear behavior when milling A356 aluminum alloy with
uncoated carbide inserts under different lubrication/cooling conditions
(vc = 5000 m/min) [66]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
aluminum alloy with high silicon contents, e.g., higher
than 7.5 % wt. Si [64, 68, 70, 84]. Although high cutting
speeds applied to alloys with high Si contents promote
greater tool wear, they are an important factor for the effi-
ciency of free-cutting elements, since they increase the
machining temperature and facilitate melting of these ele-
ments at the chip-tool interface.
As for the type of cutting fluid, mineral oil emulsion (sol-
uble oil), and synthetic fluid, specially formulated fluids are
ia /
recommended for continuous cutting with high-speed steel
Tr m
tools and mineral oil emulsion and synthetic fluid for
cemented carbide tools. In the case of milling, tapping, and
s .co
drilling, both with carbide and high-speed steel tools, mineral
l
oil or synthetic oil is recommended [67]. In micro-milling of
6061-T6 aluminum alloy, Chern and Chang [112] used min-
eral neat oil. However, in continuous cutting of highly abra-
ge du
sive alloys such as those containing 10 % vol. or 20 % vol.
SiCp, a 20 % concentration of water-based emulsion with 5 %
sulfur and 6 % phosphorus additives has shown good results
Pa F
[18]. Kerosene applied at high cutting speeds was used to
obtain a good mirror polish in milling [83]. To facilitate chip
h PD
removal in drilling, 2 to 8 % water-soluble oil is recommended
and applied at a volume of 330 cm3/s and a pressure of 44 KPa
[107].
itc w.
4.8 Chip control in the machining of aluminum alloys
St w
Chip controlling is a major problem when machining of
aluminum alloys [11]. This highly deformable material
u //w
produces continuous thick chips, which are difficult to
break up [26]. These continuous chips in the form of long
ribbons can become entangled in the workpiece and impair
its surface quality [67]. In drilling, they can cause produc-
Fd tp:
tion stoppages as a result of drills breaking due to clogging
of their grooves [26, 107].
Tool geometry and type of coating, cutting conditions, and
t
PD h
workpiece mechanical properties strongly influence the chip
formation process when machining of aluminum alloy [52].
Softening heat treatments of aluminum alloys tend to produce
more continuous chips [24]. The presence of high silicon con-
tents in aluminum alloys, such as 12 % wt. Si, tends to pro-
duce shorter, fragmented, and more curved chips [61, 107].
Lower cutting speeds and rake angles, high feed rates, and
depth of cut improve chip control, because the chip becomes
more brittle due to its greater thickness and lower curvature
radius [49]. A more effective chip breaking can be achieved
when machining with tools made of materials such as WC +
6 % Co (K10) and TiC, TiN, Al2O3, AlON, or TiB2 coatings
which exhibit a greater chemical affinity for aluminum than
diamond [61, 112].
As stated earlier, measures to improve chip control may
impair other characteristics of machinability, such machining
force, surface finish, and tool wear. Therefore, any measure
adopted for effective chip control should benefit other ma-
chining characteristics. In this context, Kelly and Cotterel
[67] suggested using sharpened tools with large rake angles,
polished rake faces, and control of the cutting speed. Trent and
Wright [26] recommended the addition of alloying elements
such as copper, which promote the formation of short seg-
mented chips in aluminum alloys. Dasch et al. [64] suggested
the addition of up to 5 % wt. of free-cutting elements such as
lead, bismuth, tin, or antimony, which can embrittle the chip
due to their low solubility in the aluminum matrix at elevated
temperatures encountered at higher cutting conditions. The
cutting conditions, in some situations, may worsen chip
control.
5 Final comments and remarks
Machining of aluminum and its alloys is not usually a
difficult task. Major problems are encountered only in al-
loys containing high Si contents (above 7.5 % wt.) or hard
SiCp or Al2O3p particles. Normally, the forces are relative-
ly low, as are the cutting temperatures and energy con-
sumed, providing high productivity. The greatest challenge
may be to achieve good chip control, tight dimensional
tolerances, good surface finish, and minimal warping.
These problems are usually a consequence of the high duc-
tility of this material and its tendency to stick to the surface
of cutting tools. This is also responsible for a common
problem in the drilling of these materials, which stick to
the surfaces of the drills, particularly of high-speed steel
and cemented carbide (but much less on drills coated with
PCD), clogging their grooves, increasing the torque, and
possibly leading to tool failure.
The correct choice of cutting tools, cutting conditions and
lubrication, and cooling systems is essential for a successful
operation. The most recommended tools are high-speed steel,
N grade of cemented carbide, and synthetic diamond—PCD
(both solid and coating). The latter presents the lowest coeffi-
cients of friction against aluminum (0,2) and therefore the
fewest problems with sticking. The recommended geometries
are highly positive, depending on the alloy and the process.
The wear type is normally flank wear, but crater wear may
also occur or even notch wear in some alloys containing hard
particles. The predominant wear mechanisms are adhesion
(attrition) and abrasion, the latter occurring due to the presence
of hard particles in the aluminum matrix or originating from
the tool itself, pulled out by attrition. The use of cutting fluid
in the form of flood cooling or MQL will favor all the ma-
chining parameters of the material.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to
CAPES, CNPq, and FAPEMIG (Brazil) for their financial support of this
work.
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Int J Adv Manuf Technol
DOI 10.1007/s00170-016-9298-5
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Potential of alternative lubrication strategies for metal cutting
processes: a review
Muhammed Nadeem Sharif 1,2 & Salman Pervaiz 3 & Ibrahim Deiab 4
ia /
Tr m
s .co
l
Received: 4 March 2016 / Accepted: 4 August 2016
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# Springer-Verlag London 2016
Abstract In the last many decades, the usage of cutting fluid is a
Pa F
common technique for improving the machinability of metals.
The application of cutting fluid during the machining phase sig-
h PD
nificantly influences the environmental burden of the process.
The disposal of these cutting fluids imposes threat to the envi-
ronment due to their high noxiousness and non-biodegradable.
itc w.
Several researchers in the metal cutting sector have focused their
work to improve the economic and ecological conditions of the
machining process by reducing the consumption of the cutting
St w
fluids. There is a need to explore different green and innovative
techniques to facilitate cooling and lubrication during the ma-
u //w
chining phase. The conventional cutting fluids not only have
environmental and health restrictions, but also they are costly
due to the strict regulations for disposal. In this paper, sustainable
nature of different cutting fluids has been investigated. The paper
Fd tp:
also provides a detailed review of the cooling strategies with
respect to their environmental impact on human’s health and
developments in eradicating the usage of conventional cutting
t
PD h
fluids has also been reviewed. Furthermore, different environ-
ment friendly cooling strategies, mainly minimum quantity of
lubrication (MQL), and cryogenic arrangement have been
* Salman Pervaiz
sxpcad@rit.edu
1
School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan
Campus, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
2
Department of Prep Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum
& Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Rochester
Institute of Technology – Dubai, P.O. Box 341055, Dubai, United
Arab Emirates
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering,
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
reviewed in the literature, and it is found that there is a giant
scope of further research work to optimize these cooling strate-
gies in order to make them functionally applicable.
Keywords Cooling strategies . Minimum quantity
lubrication . MQL . Cryogenic cooling . Engineering alloys .
Sustainability
1 Introduction
Machining some highly developed engineering materials is
generally associated not only with high machining cost but
also less production of materials because of extreme heat
emulsion at the cutting zone [1]. Such elevated at the cutting
zone can cause change in dimensions and early collapse of the
cutting tools. It also ruins the product’s surface reliability with
induced tensile residual stresses and micro-cracks along with
speedy rusting and corrosion [2, 3]. The application of cooling
strategies serves a vital part in machining operations. Most of
the operations are not able to work out effectively without
them. When a coolant is applied during a machining phase,
it can enhance cutting tool’s life and dimensional accuracy. It
also decreases the cutting temperatures and surface roughness,
so the power consumption becomes less, making more pro-
duction [4, 5].
Various conventional cutting fluids (oil based) are used to
cut down the cutting temperature of the machining metals.
Basically, the cutting fluids are applied while cutting metals
to cut down the heat generated at the tool chip interface and
workpiece friction [6]. The magnitude of the crater wear and
the integrity of the cutting edge are commonly influenced by
chip formation and curl, so when a coolant is applied during
machining it affects the chip formation and curl. In general,
when temperature is reduced, it not only cuts down the wear
results but also enhances tool life. On the other hand, by re-
ducing the workpiece temperature, the shear stress gets in-
creased. This point towards the increase in cutting force and
reduced life of the tool [7]. Seah et al. [8] conducted turning
experiments on AISI 4340 steel using uncoated tungsten car-
bide tools with water-soluble lubrication. The study was fo-
cused on tool wear measurements. The study observed hardly
any considerable difference among the coolant used and dry
cutting technique cases. The study proved to bother flank and
crater wear in a few cutting circumstances. The study also
examined that in comparison to dry cutting the usual cooling
action can worsen the surface roughness [9].
Simon et al. [10] performed experiments when machining
Titanium at low speed with demineralized water and used
auger analysis to examine the cutting effect on a chlorinated
fluid. It was observed that chlorine film is made on the surface
of workpiece. It was also concluded that machining Titanium
with chlorinated cutting fluid cannot be sustained. Also, some
very serious health and environment-related hazards are ob-
served in the industry while applying these usual cutting fluids
[11]. A cutting fluid is used in machining processes for tool
and the workpiece lubrication. It also carries away the exces-
sive heat created. These fluids can enhance the life of the tool
and its surface integrity. Moreover; during drilling (a machin-
ing operation) particularly, cutting fluids remove chips from
the drilled hole which otherwise can result in drill breakage
[12, 13]. All these fluids produce contamination in nature,
water and soil. The reason is the chemical breaking down of
the fluids at high temperature and when they are disposed of.
Moreover, they cause genetic and skin problems to the
worker’s health. Those hazards come as fumes, smoke, odours
and physical contact with bacteria. It also requires additional
floor space and extra systems to pump, store, filter, chill and
recycle [14]. To some firms, the costs associated with cutting
fluids epitomize a big expanse of the total machining costs. A
number of investigators observed that the prices linked to
these cutting fluids are comparatively more than to the cutting
tools [15]. They recorded a large amount of cutting fluid con-
sumptions in countries like the USA: 100 million gallons/year
and 75,491 tons in Germany. It is estimated that almost 16 %
of total industrial expenses are related to cutting fluid cost, and
during machining hard materials, they can reach up to 20–
30 % [16]. Different environmentally cooling techniques have
been reported in the literature in order to make machining
processes sustainable, biodegradable, non-toxic and to miti-
gate heating effect at the cutting zone.
These days, dry machining has gained remarkable attention
in order to promote green manufacturing in the industry. The
improvement in tool coating technology eliminates the usage
of cutting fluids completely in some machining processes. Out
of all these limitations, these fluids are still needed in many
processes because of their capability to overcome friction,
bonding tendency between work and tool materials, difficulty
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
of chip and the heat removal [17, 18]. However, in dry cutting,
the removal of chip and dust particle is a difficult process.
Further research work is required in this technique.
Therefore, a middle way is needed to achieve machining pro-
cesses in order to promote improved tool life and better sur-
face integrity. While dry machining is not applicable in some
processes and is not economical, another method can be ap-
plied that is named as minimum quantity of lubricant (MQL).
It is applied to minimize the amount of cutting fluid for ma-
chining processes. Lugscheider et al. [19] implemented this
technique very effectively. Therefore, a most favourable way
out to lubricate conditions can be found between dry cutting
and conventional flood cooling in some applications. In con-
sideration of this, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) is a
practical way out to compensate the demerits of dry and flood
cooling machining processes. The efficacy of MQL process
can be well seen in turning [20], milling [21] and drilling [22].
In MQL technique, a little amount of cutting oil is applied as
misty particles to the cutting zone. The well-directed penetra-
tion of oil particles reduces friction at the cutting interface and
results in reducing the temperature, surface roughness and the
cost [23]. When machining Ti6Al4V, the MQCL (minimum
quantity lubrication + cool air) cooling technique performed
better than dry cutting condition and study found that cutting
temperature in MQCL approach was decreased by 26.6, 17.9
and 17.5 % for 90, 120 and 150 m/ min cutting speeds, re-
spectively [24].
Davim et al. [25] have performed an experimental study
under dry, minimum quantity lubricant and flood-lubricated
conditions on aluminium (AA 1050) drilling. The research
utilized orthogonal arrays of different feeds, cutting speeds
and varied forms of lubrications. In order to confirm the va-
lidity of the proposed parameters, how much they contribute
an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. The test
proved that by selecting properly the range of cutting param-
eters, it is not impossible to achieve same results as to flood
lubricated conditions by using MQL. Rahim and Sasahara
[26] performed MQL-assisted experiments and used vegeta-
ble oil and synthetic ester. The experiment showed that the
arrangements based on palm oil MQL executed better results
than synthetic ester. Zeilmann and Weingaertner [27] used
MQL assisted machining experiments on Titanium alloy
(Ti6Al4V) by consuming uncoated carbide and TiALN, CrCN
and TiCN-based coated drills. The study reported that the per-
formance of internal MQL system is superior to MQL
(external) system. Wang et al. [28] performed machining tests
using titanium alloy under dry, flood and MQL arrangements.
It has been observed that, at higher cutting speeds, MQL per-
formed comparatively superior to conventional flood strategy
that can be linked to improved lubrication capability, but re-
sults were found more encouraging for interrupted cutting
setup. Cia et al. [29] also conducted MQL-assisted machining
experiments using end milling operation. The study
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
incorporated different oil flow rates ranging from 2 to 14 ml/h.
The study observed relatively higher diffusion wear rate for
lower oil flow rates when compared with higher oil flow rate.
Klocke et al. [30] machined high performance titanium alloys
using high pressurized coolant stream. The research work re-
vealed that temperature at the cutting tool was reduced up to
25 and 50 % tool wear improvement has been achieved. Yasir
et al. [31] investigated the machining performance of Ti6Al4V
using coated cutting tools under MQL arrangements with
ia /
coolant flow rates ranging from 50 to 100 ml/h. The study
Tr m
was conducted using three cutting speed levels of 120, 135
and 150 m/ min. At higher flow rates, improved tool life was
s .co
observed for cutting speed of 135 m/min.
l
Solid materials (nano-sized) are themselves lubricants or an
additive for lubricant. They used Molybdenum disulphide
(MoS2), graphite, boron nitride and polytetrafluoroethylene
ge du
(PTFE) as dry powders or coating materials for solid lubri-
cants [32–33]. Generally, these lubricants cut down the cutting
forces and roughness on the surface during the machining test
Pa F
[34–36]. These solid lubricants can be combined with oil-
based lubricants as well. During grinding processes, MQL
h PD
lubricant with MoS2 nano-sized particles was introduced
[37]. There MoS2 grinding lubricant revealed exceptional re-
sults on cutting forces despite its low dissociation temperature
itc w.
at 350 °C, in rusting environments. Park et al. [38] have de-
veloped a potential MQL lubricant with exfoliated
nanographene particles. They used vegetable oil mixed with
St w
exfoliated nanographene particles in a high-speed mixer. The
resulting nano-enhanced MQL-based cutting lubricant was
u //w
assessed for its tribological and cutting behaviours. The fric-
tional performance of the proposed approach was examined
carefully under different speeds and lubricants. The study also
conducted ball milling cutting experiments with MQL-based
Fd tp:
nanographene upgraded lubricant to illustrate an extraordinary
betterment by reducing tool wear rate along with edge
chipping at the cutting edge of tool.
t
PD h
Su et al. [39] conducted cutting tests on titanium alloys
under milling operation. The study analysed different cooling
and lubrication methodologies by monitoring tool wear. The
experiment exposed that compressed cold nitrogen gas with
oil mist (CCNGOM) method have excellent results and
resulting extended tool life. Yildiz et al. [40] reported that
cryogenic coolants could control cutting temperature at cut-
ting zone very effectively by providing improved tool life.
Sun et al. [41] employed cryogenic-assisted compressed air
to machine titanium alloys and reported that tool wear reduce
significantly by using this strategy. Bermingham et al. [42]
developed and utilized a cooling methodology based on cryo-
genic arrangements and reported that heat generation was ef-
ficiently controlled. Sharma et al. [43] reported that LN2 tech-
nique produced excess cooling on the workpiece surface; this
may result in the embrittlement of workpiece material. Shane
et al. [44] numerically estimated cutting temperatures with
respect to cutting speeds using finite element modeling ap-
proach. The results clearly pointed out at the efficient control
of the cutting temperature in case of liquid nitrogen when
compared with conventional emulsion-based cooling.
The literature review proposes that minimum quantity lu-
brication offers effective solution to make machining process
workable. The paper investigates the environment-friendly
cooling strategies, mainly minimum quantity of lubrication
system (MQL) as a potential replacement of conventional flu-
id cooling strategy. It is found in the literature that there is a
giant scope of further research work to optimize these cooling
strategies in order to make them functionally applicable for
machining high performance alloys.
2 Lubrication/ cooling requirements in machining
processes
2.1 Heat generation in machining process
Heat is produced in the metal cutting operation because of the
material’s plastic deformation in primary shear zone and to
overcome friction at the tool–chip interface in the secondary
deformation zone. During machining, heat can be dissipated
by the conduction into the cutting tool, workpiece and chip
formed and by the convection through cutting fluid applica-
tion. The large amount of the heat flows through the chip, and
an amount is directed into the work material. That part is
superior for low rates of metal removal and small shear zone
angles, but less significant for high rates of metal removal
[45]. Abukhshim et al. [46] reported that the physical and
chemical properties of the workpiece and cutting tool mate-
rials have a controlling influence on the heat generation in the
primary and secondary deformation zones. They also found
that temperature gradient depends more on cutting conditions,
tool geometry and cutting fluid. During the machining phase,
major zones of heat generation are shown in Fig. 1.
Heat generation has a controlling influence on the machin-
ing performance of a cutting operation. Tool wear rate and tool
life are directly related to the temperature in the cutting zone.
Due to the complex nature of the mechanics involved in ma-
chining, cutting temperature distribution is difficult to mea-
sure and predict. Another issue is that material properties of
workpiece and cutting tool vary with changing temperature in
the cutting zone. The cutting process is tightly coupled togeth-
er thermally and mechanically making the problem to be
solved with multi-physics approach. Several researchers have
focused their work to investigate cutting temperature either
experimentally or numerically. A finite element-based compu-
tational model was developed by Majumdar et al. [47] in order
to verify the temperature circulation in a metal cutting process.
Their model showed similar temperature distribution, and they
Fig. 1 Heat production zones in
orthogonal cutting (adopted from
Abukhshim et al. 2006 [46])
proved that the maximum temperature generation occurred at
the tool–chip interface.
NG et al. [48] performed turning experiments on hardened
die steel and AISI H13 by employing PCBN cutting tool. The
study used infrared pyrometer and finite element formulation
to measure the cutting temperature at the cutting zone. A good
agreement was found between experimental and numerical
data, and the modeling approach revealed the point of highest
temperature on the cutting tool. Groover et al. [49] found
increase in the cutting temperature by increasing cutting speed
and feed rate when machining engineering steel with
cemented carbide tool. Hong and Broomer [50] used cryogen-
ic chip cooling method to machine AISI 1008 steel. The study
reported that maximum temperature was reduced by 26 %.
Silva et al. [45] have performed an experiment of orthogonal
cutting of aluminium and found that the contact length of the
cutting interface is affected by the cutting tool temperature.
O’Sullivan and Cottrell [51] performed turning experiments
on Al 6082-T6 alloy using carbide tools. They calculated ma-
chined surface temperature by using thermocouples. The re-
sults showed that, by increasing the cutting speed, there can be
a decrease in machined surface temperature. This cut down
was credited to the elevated material removal rate. This rate
resulted in the dissipation of more heat by the chip and thus
resulting less heat generation on the workpiece.
Kitagawa et al. [52] performed machining test in high
speed turning of Inconel 718 and milling of titanium alloys.
The study employed embedded thermocouple technique to
measure the cutting temperature. This technique involved in-
sertion of thermocouples in the tool or workpiece by drilling
holes. It was observed that ceramic Inconel tool material pair
at speed of 150 m/min showed 1200 °C temperature.
Similarly, carbide Ti-6Al-6V-2 Sn tool material pair at speed
of 500 m/min revealed 1100 °C temperature. Chen and Tsao
[53] employed inverse heat conduction method (IHCM) to
calculate the heat flowing into the rake face of the cutting tool.
This technique used thermocouple to measure the interior tem-
perature variations. The study showed that this technique has
drawbacks of inserting thermocouple in hole and low response
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
time. Abukhshim et al. [46] used thermal imaging camera to
measure the cutting temperature in high speed cutting of super
alloys. They observed heat production, heat partition and tem-
perature mapping in metal cutting process. The temperature
calculation in metal cutting was projected by analytical and
numerical models. It was reported that extrapolation of cutting
temperatures is a challenging task in machining. This was due
to abundant practical difficulties in the cutting process, so
there is a need to explore and develop advanced numerical
models to envisage the contact geometry with modified pen-
etrating and sliding regions.
2.2 Temperature distribution at tool chip interface
Komanduri et al. [54] studied the temperature circulation in
metal cutting on the joint effect of tool chip edge of the fric-
tional heat source and the heat source of shear plane in the
primary shear zone. The researchers used numerical values of
model developed for normal machines made of steel embed-
ded with a carbide tool and aluminium which had diamond of
a single crystal. They found that maximum temperature rise
was from the tool tip in the steel machine and in the alumin-
ium machine close to the tool tip. This example was credited
because of the dissimilarities in the heat properties of the
workpiece and tool. The model is validated by matching the
results in the analytical form with the results of experimental
one, as shown in Fig. 2.
H. Ay. et al. [55] performed an experimental study of ma-
chines comprising of copper and 6061 aluminium and AISI
1045 steel, as workpiece material. The investigators utilized
some uncoated carbide inserts as a cutting tool. They moni-
tored variations in the tool and workpiece temperature in or-
thogonal cutting. They used both thermocouples and infrared
thermo-vision. The combining outcomes are depicted from
the infrared and thermocouple tests for cutting 1045 steel al-
loys, as shown in Fig. 3. It is observed that the tool showed
extreme temperature at rake face.
Silva et al. [45] reported that a change in the tool hardness
and the extreme temperature at the tool rake face is distant
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 2 The temperature rise in the Fig. 4 a Temperature contours
tool chip and workpiece: a steel on the rake face of a tool. b
machine with carbide tool Temperature contours for
(conventional), b single-crystal machining copper [45]
diamond tool (aluminium) [54]
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Chou et al. [56] and Groover et al. [57] reported that tool
s .co
failures happen mostly around the tool’s principal zone. It
l
includes the areas of tool cutting edge, flank wear, crater wear
and BUE formation. The above studies proved that the ex-
treme production of heat takes place, in a machining route,
ge du
tool face and chip edge. Minton et al. [58] developed a meth-
odology to provide a mechanism of cooling the inner area to
the cutting insert while machining titanium. The study mea-
Pa F sured swarf and coolant temperature by using tools which
were coated and uncoated with diamond for machining grade
h PD
2 CP titanium. Figure 5 shows the experimental setup utilized
in the study and change in coolant temperature observed dur-
ing the machining.
itc w.
Liu et al. [59] observed that, due to high temperatures, there
is creation of crater wear on the tools rake face at high-speed
face grinding of hardened steel which utilizes an Alumina-
St w
based ceramic and cemented carbide tool. Casto et al. [60]
found the same results when the 1040 steel alloy was turned
u //w
through ceramic tools. Thus, a proficient coolant application
which intends to have a cooling effect on tool–chip edge near-
by the rake face of the tool can be capable to alleviate the heat
production at cutting zone. Liao et al. [61] have performed an
Fd tp:
experiment on end milling of titanium alloys with different
cutting speeds by cemented carbide tools. They observed that
the rise of cutting temperature and strain hardening were due
t
PD h
to the low cutting speed. It was studied that, during milling of
from the cutting geometry. This metallographic change occurs the material, but it is different for different materials, as shown Inconel 718 at low cutting force with increased speed, the tool
in various materials cutting conditions and due to ductility of in Fig. 4. life improved. At medium cutting speed, the material becomes
soften because of thermal stability property of γ′ precipitation
of titanium alloys. It was observed that if the cutting speed is
enhanced, a majority of the chips were soldered on either sides
Fig. 3 Temperature distribution
in VC7 TENA 332 insert when of the slot and inhibited the chip flow. This apart, the nickel
machining AISI 1045 Steel: a alloy’s toughness will increase with an increase in the temper-
rake face, b flank face [55] ature at 650 °C, as shown in Fig. 6.
It was found during the high speed machining of titanium
alloys, there were two main causes like the high cutting tem-
perature and dumping of chip. Furthermore, it was observed
that machining of titanium alloys (Inconel 718) with cemented
carbide tools proved better. Besides, in milling operations,
feed does not have a noteworthy effect on temperature.
Pittalà et al. [62] performed an experiment on milling of tita-
nium alloys and measured workpiece temperature by utilizing
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
infrared camera. They noticed that the values of cutting speed
and feed rate were altered during experiment. By using the
experimental data, an FEM model was developed. Later, the
model was calibrated using different milling tests. The exper-
imental values were promising with FEM model. It was con-
cluded that the methodology can be beneficial to tool designer
engineer to develop the tool enactment.
Pervaiz et al. [24] performed an experiment of machining
Ti6Al4Valloys and recorded cutting temperatures using infra-
red camera under dry, minimum quantity cooled air lubrica-
tion (MQLCA) and flood environment. Flood cooling tech-
nique was the most effective way of heat removal at cutting
edge of the workpiece and tool. By utilizing the MQLCA
strategy at cutting speed of 90 m/min, the temperature reduced
by 25 % as compared to dry machining same like the temper-
ature reduced 17 °C at speed of 110 m/min. The machining
temperature measurement of Titanium alloys under dry envi-
ronment at different speeds is shown in Fig. 7.
2.3 Influence of lubrication/cooling on tool wear and life
During metal cutting machining operation, cutting tool gets
deformed and loses tool material. The more the machining
time, the more heat is produced at tool–chip interface [63,
64]. With the progress of cutting operation, two general modes
of wear, namely flank wear and crater wear, grow on the flank
and rake faces, respectively [63]. It is reported in the literature
that flank wear directly controls the machining performance
by affecting geometric accuracy and surface integrity, whereas
crater wear can destroy the integrity of the cutting edge that
facilitates fracture. In the metal cutting industry, tool life is
generally evaluated by monitoring flank wear as guided by
ISO standard (3685: 1993 -E) [65]. Shaw [64] describes that
heat generation at the cutting interface controls the overall
machining performance of the cutting operation. In order to
improve machinability, cutting fluids have been applied ex-
tensively in the cutting processes. These cutting fluids either
facilitate the heat dissipation from the cutting zone or lubricate
the cutting interface between rake face, chips and machined
surface [66].
Astakhov [67] developed the first law of metal cutting. He
reported the existence of a critical value of temperature called
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 5 Diagram of experimental

setup. a Tool with a cooling
block. b Cross-section of cooling
block. c Pyrometer for
temperature measurement. d
Change in coolant temperature
difference [58]

Fig. 7 Cutting temperature of titanium alloys in dry cutting. a Cutting speed = 150 m/min and feed = 0.15 mm/rev, b cutting speed = 150 m/min and

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feed = 0.25 mm/rev [24]

Tr m
s .co
cutting fluids, gas-based coolants/lubricants and solid-based grain size tools was better than the coarser grain size tools. On

l
lubricants [70]. Abukhshim et al. [46] performed cutting tests flank face, some abrasion wear mechanism was perceived.
on high strength alloys and monitored cutting temperature and Cordon et al. [73] studied the machining performance of tita-
flank wear. The study pointed out at higher cutting tempera- nium alloys using polycrystalline diamond, carbon boron ni-

ge du
ture in dry cutting. William and Tabor [71] inspected the func- tride and TiB2-coated tools. They found that polycrystalline
tion of cutting fluids in machining operation. They observed diamond performance was best at cutting speed of 150 m/min.
the friction mechanism at the cutting interface between tool Carbon boron nitride tools were highly appropriate to finish

Pa F and chip. The study suggested a design of interconnecting

capillaries to reduce friction at the interface.
h PD
It is reported that Titanium alloys possess low thermal con-
ductivity due to which heat stays close to the cutting edge. To
maintain the integrity of the cutting edge, different cooling ap-
itc w.
cutting conditions, while the functioning of TiB2-coated tool
was found reasonable at the cutting speeds lower than 100 m/
min. They also reported that the dominant wear mechanisms
were adhesion and diffusion. Elmagrabi et al. [74] led an in-
vestigational study to evaluate dry slot milling of titanium

proaches can play a vibrant role. Pervaiz et al. [5] performed an alloys using coated and uncoated tools. The coated carbide
experiment on machining of Titanium alloy Ti6Al4V under dry tools were found to have improved tool life whereas feed rate
mist and flooded conditions and observed the flank wear using a and depth of cut have controlling influence on surface
St w

tool maker microscope at different cutting speed, as shown in roughness.

Fig. 8. They used coated and uncoated tools for this experiment. Wang et al. [70] performed stress analyses of machining of
u //w

Hence, under all cutting environments, Flank wear rate was
found for greater feed rate. To reduce the coefficient of friction,
tool coatings are found very useful between chip and tool. When
as optimal cutting temperature (θopt) that results in maximum the coefficient of friction is reduced, the production of heat dur-
Fd tp:
RBSN ceramic tool with CBN insert and used a cryogenic
coolant. They came to know that there is a decrease in tem-
perature when cryogenic coolant is used, and it results in stress
reduction at the flank face. Li et al. [75] showed that diffusion

machinability. The study revealed that θopt is strongly linked
with the cutting tool and workpiece material’s properties.
Generally, cutting fluids are applied to maintain the cutting
t
PD h
ing metal cutting operation also cuts down. It will not only in- and adhesion of tool chip interface are reduced when machin-
crease the tool performance but also the tool life [5]. In compar- ing under cryogenic cooling condition ferrous metals with
ison to the dry cutting, mist and flood cooling approaches facil- natural diamond tools.

Fig. 6 Temperature relationship with Vickers hardness of Inconel® 718 [61]
temperature at lower level to enhance cutting tool’s perfor-
mance. However, the other methods such as pre-heating, plas-
ma and ion-beam heating are engaged to facilitate the cutting
temperature near the optimal cutting temperature value. The
application of cutting fluid helps the cutting edge to maintain
its integrity by lowering the thermally induced wear mecha-
nisms such as diffusion and adhesion. The reduction in fric-
tion at the tool chip interface results in lower abrasion wear
[68]. El Baradie et al. [68] reported that by decreasing the
temperature of the workpiece can increase hardness of the
material. Consequently, it increases the cutting forces and
power consumption, thus reducing the tool life [11, 68].
However, coolants provide more encouraging results for high
speed machining. Literature [69] reports low cutting forces
and elevated cutting temperatures under high speed machining
arrangements. It is also reported that, in machining, the sub-
stances used for cooling and/or lubrication are termed as
itate heat transfer and result in improved machining performance,
as shown in Figs. 8 and 9 [5].
Ecological condition plays a vital role towards flank wear
transmission. They also reported that a rapid increase in flank
wear is observed with increasing cutting speed when environ-
ment is dry. Nevertheless, the results for flank wear are equally
good in misty and flood environments. They found, apart from
misty environment, the flood environment showed better re-
sults when at low feed and cutting speed. It is seen that
Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) technique is more
suitable as compared to flood or dry technique to cut down
ecological pollution when applied at higher cutting speeds [5].
Jawaid et al. [72] investigated experimentally to assess the
machinability of Ti-alloy under dry conditions. The experi-
ment was conducted with four different levels of cutting speed
at constant depth of cut. They used uncoated cemented carbide
tools. The investigation showed that the performance of finer
Hwang et al. [76] estimated machining performance of Al
6061 using different cooling and lubrication methods. The
study was conducted using minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL) system and water-soluble conventional flood cooling.
Taguchi method was utilized in this study, and it was exposed
that machining parameters have an important influence on the
cutting forces. Kumar and Choudhury [77] performed an ex-
periment on machining of stainless steel 200 in dry and cryo-
genic LN2 coolant environment and investigated tool wear
conditions. They reported that cryogenic machining provided
37.39 % improvement in the flank wear when compared with
dry machining. Dhar et al. [20] studied LN2 coolant behaviour
in machining of AISI 304 stainless steel and reported that LN2
cooling initiated cracks on the tool at all cutting speeds. This
cooling strategy was endorsed to make the workpiece material
harder. Dhar et al. [4] performed an experimental study on
AISI-4340 steel using MQL system. The study was focused
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 8 Flank wear on coated and

uncoated tool: a dry, b mist and c
flood [5]

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s .co
l
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Fig. 10 Flank wear in dry, wet and MQL environments [4]

Pa F
h PD
Fig. 11. In order to indicate the needed power for machine Kordonowy et al. [83] studied thoroughly different
module, the machine should be turned on with the spindle proportions of power consumption for a variety of ma-
on the tool wear and surface roughness. They obtained prom- important to decrease the usage of energy consumptions [78].
turned off. It has observed that idle power represents the pow- chine tools. The study performed energy calculations
ising results in dry, wet and MQL cooling strategy, as shown Pusavec et al. [16] have proposed various approaches to enhance
itc w.

in Fig. 10.
The results in Fig. 10 shows ample reduction in tool wear rate
and surface roughness by MQL technique. It is studied that MQL
St w
sustainability in manufacturing. They reported that the carbon
dioxide CO2 emissions can be reduced by using energy-
efficient protocols. In machining power, consumption is a major
er required to run the components of the machine and spindle. using the energy consumption data for different phases
The metal removal rate and workpiece material are highly of the machining operation. The study was based on
influenced by the machining power. Figure 11 represents the injection moulding, manual milling, automated milling

reduced the cutting zone temperature and favourable change in factor. The study showed that from, the total, only minor portion use of power in non-cutting operations which is more as com- and automated lathe machine. Diaz et al. [84] analysed
pared to cutting process. It is observed that, in actual practice, a machine tool to develop a more proficient strategy of
the chip tool and work tool interface. of energy is needed for a machining process [79]. While machin-
u //w

the power consumed in machining process was 31, 35 and energy consumption. The study established a methodol-
ing a product, if the power usage is reduced, it can save not only
cost but also reduce the global warming. The greater the amount 39 % at various cutting speed of 300, 400 and 500 m/min ogy of using energy specifically as a functional process
2.4 Influence of lubrication/cooling on cutting forces
correspondingly [16]. Gutowski et al. [80] have concluded rate. The suggested method without actually measuring
and power of energy is used in machining more the CO2 emissions will be in
that the supply of power for machining ranges between 0 power demand provides perfect energy consumption.
Fd tp:

the environment. Many researchers studied this area of machin-

ing in order to reduce power usage. and 48 % and also depends on the cutting load. Therefore, it Diaz et al. [84] also presented some design and opera-
It is reported that climate change is due to carbon dioxide emis-
is important to select the machine which utilizes less power, tional strategies to minimize energy consumption. They
sions and, consequently, based on energy demands and con- Gutowski et al. [80] studied the power distributions in ma-
consequently resulting in the less emission of carbon dioxide studied kinetic energy recovery system (KERS), process
t

sumptions. Therefore, for sustainable manufacturing, it is chining process for different cutting speeds, as shown in
PD h

(CO2) [16]. parameter selection strategy and web-based energy esti-

The consumption of power increased when the machining
Fig. 9 Maximum flank wear
measurement [5] continued due to an increase in tool wear and by applying
cutting fluids as their cooling action tended to increase the
shear strength of the work material. Gutowski et al. [80] stud-
ied machining process with respect to its environmental im-
pact and found that more energy is wasted in non-machining
process. Munoz et al. [81] analysed the environmental impacts
of machining operations. The study showed that power uti-
lized by a machining process depends on workpiece complex
geometry, material and the kind of coolant selected. Drake
et al. [82] recommended a methodology to explain how power
is consumed in machine tools. The proposed approach in-
volved a six-step process to describe energy consumption.
The study determined that out of total energy, only 35 % of
it was used by spindle and the rest of energy was consumed in
machine controller.
mation tool. The study showed that by using KERS,
25 % of energy can be saved. Kara et al. [85] offered
an experimental model to predict energy consumption
against the process parameters as input. This model
got verification when applying on different metal cutting
processes. The suggested model calculates power con-
sumption with 90 % perfection. Shan et al. [86] focused
on energy involved in mechanical equipment and of-
fered some strategies on energy-saving and emission
reduction. Reddy et al. [87] performed an experiment
on machining AISI 1045 steel with solid-coated carbide
end mill cutters and used some solid lubricants. They
successfully discovered that the use of solid lubricant
can reduce cutting forces, specific energy and good sur-
face finish. They also studied that friction at tool chip
interface was greatly decreased in case of molybdenum
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 12 Cutting temperature at

different cutting speeds under
different cooling environments
[79, 70]

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l
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min, the semi-synthetic cutting fluid exhibited the best cooling and MQL conditions. The behaviour of cutting forces and
strategy and it is followed by emulsion-based mineral oil, 5 % power consumed has been observed. More power was con-

Pa F concentration and 10 % concentration of synthetic fluids.

Suresh et al. [36] performed an experiment on machining
h PD
AISI 1045 by using solid lubricant with different cutting tools
geometry. It was observed that performance of solid lubricant
molybdenum disulphide revelled better results as compared of
graphite and wet machining in terms of temperature, cutting
itc w.
sumed at higher cutting speed. In Fig. 14, it can be seen that
during dry machining process, the force of cutting somewhat
increased when the feed augmented from 0.15 to 0.20 mm/rev.
The graph trend exhibited an increased slope because of ad-
vanced order temperature established at greater speeds of cut-
ting. This increased in temperature factor would affect the

forces, specific energy and surface finish. By using ANOVA property of the tool and consequently increase the force of
techniques, they found the relative contributions results of cutting, as shown in Fig. 15a. By using MQL strategy, it
St w

speed, feed, rake angle on cutting forces, as shown in was observed that when speed of cutting at 90 m/min was
Fig. 14. It is studied that radial rake angle found to be the most used, there was an increase of the force of cutting at steady
u //w

important factor persuading the cutting force in all range of
machining system. The study observed that the chip thickness
was less in molybdenum disulphide as compared to wet and
graphite machining.
Fd tp:
rate with feed range from 0.15 to 0.25 mm/rev, as shown in
Fig. 15b. When the cutting speed at 60 and 75 m/min were
used, there was negligible variation in cutting power and the
tool has mitigated the heat generated to the lubricant. It was

Devim et al. [25] performed drilling experiments using noted that cutting force was meager pertaining to all the
aluminium (AA1050) by employing dry, flood-lubricated speeds in flood lubricated environments, as shown in
t
PD h

Fig. 13 Cutting power consumed

during machining under various
coolants and cutting speeds [79]

Fig. 11 Power partition for different cutting speeds (redrawn from [79])

disulphide when compared with graphite and flood ma-
chining [88].
Vieira et al. [79] operated face milling experiments to ma-
chine AISI8640 steel with coated carbide tools using dry,
emulsion-based mineral oil, semi-synthetic cutting fluids and
synthetic metal working fluids. The study monitored surface
roughness, power consumption and cutting temperature. It
was recorded that when machining with the semi-synthetic
and synthetic cutting fluids, the power consumed is highest,
as shown in Figs. 12 and 13. At high cutting speed of 110 m/
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

result, more heat is generated. The data related to energy con-

sumption exhibited that energy utilization was less at lower
cutting conditions (feed and cutting speed). Variation in ener-
gy utilization during each machining case can be linked to the
variation in cutting forces and power requirement to pump
coolant. For proper energy comparison in dry, mist and flood
machining tests, particular energy utilization was calculated
by keeping in view the material removal rate (mm3/min), as
shown in Fig. 16a–c. The results show that more energy was

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consumed at low feed and cutting speed. Machining will take

Tr m
more time with low feed rate if the movement of tool is slow.
The consumption of power for mist and flood was more

s .co
because of higher cutting forces and higher pumping require-

l
ments for hydraulic pump. Least energy was consumed by dry
cutting at the cutting speed of 60 m/min consumed least ener-
Fig. 14 Relative contribution of cutting parameters on cutting force gy for both feed levels. At both feed levels, misty environment

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(cutting speed ‘S′, feed ‘f ’, radial rake angle ‘α’ and nose radius ‘r’) [36] showed potential of improved heat dissipation at 90 m/min
speeds of cutting. In most of the cases, flood environment
Fig. 15c. Similarly, the cutting forces, power and energy were consumed high energy which shows clearly that, under flood

conditions. Pa F
more for dry machining and reduced in MQL, flood lubricated
h PD
Pervaiz et al. [5] studied machinability of Ti6Al4V by
monitoring power consumption and tool wear. They found
that, if compared, the dry environment exhibited less energy
consumption than mist and flood environments, but as a
itc w.
conditions, high cutting forces were produced. The coated
tools at cutting speed of 30 m/min utilized additional power
than their uncoated counterparts. On the other hand, energy
consumed is very less for coated tools at higher levels of Fig. 16 Specific energy consumption: a 30 m/min dry, spray and flood environments; b 60 m/min dry, spray and flood environments; c 90 m/min under
dry, mist and flood conditions [5]
cutting speeds (60–90 m/min), as shown in Fig. 16a–c. Less

energy will be consumed when the feed rate is high. Thus, it is

concluded that when machining Ti6Al4V using PVD-TiAlN of the machining process. Some machining operations
and uncoated carbide tools, the coefficient of friction can be such as grinding, broaching and deep hole drilling re-
Fig. 15 Cutting power and
St w

specific cutting force behaviour

reduced with the help of TiAlN coating. TiAlN-coated tools quire more amount of cutting fluids than other conven-
using different machining especially at elevated cutting speeds showed comparatively tional machining process such as turning, milling and
u //w

parameters: a dry machining, b less energy consumption. drilling operations [89]. Generous amount of cutting
MQL (250 ml h−1), c fully fluids in grinding operation facilitates heat dissipation,
lubricated (120,000 ml h−1) [25]
grinding wheel cleaning and chip evacuation.
3 Utilization of conventional cutting fluids Taylor [90] in 1907 was the first who reported the use
Fd tp:

of coolants in machining and achieved an increase of

It is not wrong to say that, in machining processes, 40 % in cutting speed when machining steel with high
cutting fluid is taken as an essential add-on which is speed steel tools. He used water as a coolant. In spite of
t
PD h

regularly applied to enhance production rate, improve
surface quality, reduce costs and increase profit [67].
Cutting fluids provide cooling action and lubrication
effect at the cutting interface to dissipate heat generation
and lower friction at the tool chip contact, resulting in
improved machinability [69]. Cutting fluid helps to
maintain the temperature close to the optimum cutting
temperature ( opt). Optimal cutting temperature ( opt) is
the temperature at which highest ratio of cutting tool
material hardness over the workpiece material hardness
is accomplished. Highest possible machinability is
achieved when cutting temperature is maintained close
to optimum cutting temperature ( opt) [67]. Cutting fluid
also performs other important functions of chip disposal
and avoids corrosion on workpiece and tool materials.
Amount of cutting fluid being applied during the ma-
chining operations also depends on the nature and type
water’s outstanding cooling ability, it lacks the lubricating
property, and literature [17] also reports corrosion-related
issues at machine tool structure and workpiece. Since that
time, all new approaches are designed in a way that their
good lubricating and/or cooling properties are very good.
Cutting fluids can be classified as oil or water based [91,
92]. Mainly to assist lubrication and cooling during ma-
chining, water-based fluids are used. They can be further
divided into emulsions and solutions. To achieve a good
lubricating property, an oil base or pure oil is mainly
used. The water-based fluids consist of water combined
with oil particles suspended in it. The solutions comprised
of basic fluid with many additives. Semi-synthetic fluids
comprise of 5–50 % of mineral oil and synthetic compo-
nents also known as additives which form emulsions in
water. The lubricating and wetting properties of synthetic
and semi-synthetic fluids are very good. They combine
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
low corrosion rate and low vulnerability to bacteria
growth, and thus, there is less irritation to the skin and
very less odour.
Machado et al. [92] studied a variety of cutting fluids when
turning AISI 8640 steel with triple-coated cemented carbide
tools. He showed that by using synthetic and semi-synthetic
fluids, tool life could become longer than emulsions of min-
eral oils. The synthetic fluid performed well as compared to
the semi-synthetic fluid when machining at lower cutting
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speeds (up to 250 m/min). On the other hand, the semi-
Tr m
synthetic fluid gave at high cutting speed longer tool life. In
order to improve tool life, cutting temperature should be main-
s .co
tained lower than the thermal softening temperature of the tool
l
material. The cutting fluid facilitates cooling effect and tool
wear mechanisms such as diffusion and adhesion gets de-
creased. The abrasion on the rake face could be reduced by
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the lubrication [88]. On the contrary, by decreasing the work-
piece temperature in certain conditions, material hardness
could be increased, thus cutting forces and power consump-
Pa F
tion got increased and the tool life would be reduced [68].
Flushing of chips away and avoiding the machined surface
h PD
and cutting tool from corrosion are other major responsibili-
ties of cutting fluids [93]. It is very important to select cutting
fluids properly because the tool life, cutting forces, power
itc w.
consumption, machining accuracy, surface integrity, etc. could
be affected. Generally, cutting fluids with higher lubrication
capacity are encouraged for severe machining processes such
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as for low speed machining and machining difficult-to-cut
alloys. Cutting fluids with higher cooling action are recom-
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mended in high speed machining where high cutting temper-
atures are reached [93].
Mendes et al. [94] performed experiments on aluminium
alloy (AA 1050-O) under drilling operation by applying mist.
Fd tp:
The study also incorporated turning experiments on AA 6262-
T6 by employing cutting fluids under conventional flood. The
cutting fluid was contained additives like chlorine, sulphur
t
PD h
and phosphor. It was found that drilling operation (AA
1050-O aluminium) with mist condition, the feed forces de-
creased but torque and power consumption increased. It was
studied that surface finish was not considerably affected by the
cutting fluid flow rate. On the other side, in the turning oper-
ation of AA 6162-T6 aluminium, the best results were ob-
served when applying 10 % fluid concentration. At higher
speeds, cutting fluid with chlorine as an additive provided less
surface roughness and lower cutting forces at low feed/depth
of cut. In spite of all the significant effects of cutting fluids, the
nature and arrangement of delivery system are chosen on the
recommendations of cutting fluid manufacturers and machine
tool makers [67]. Cutting fluids can be categorized as cutting
fluids, gas-based coolants/lubricants, solid lubricants, etc.
[69]. Many approaches are used to categorize the cutting
fluids due to their varying nature and characteristics.
However, miscibility in water is one of the broadly established
characteristics of the cutting fluids. Thus, it is generally used
to classify the cutting fluids, i.e. water-soluble (water-
miscible) cutting fluids and non-water-soluble (oil-based
cutting fluids) [11].Also, gas-based and solid coolants are
used in a variety of machining processes, which are discussed
in next section.
3.1 Water miscible cutting fluids
As quoted earlier, the benefits of cutting fluids are to eliminate
the heat which is produced due to conduction at the cutting
zone. Hence, it is imperative that for the cooling action to take
effect, cutting fluid must have a high degree of thermal con-
ductivity [11]. Progress in the development of water-miscible
cutting fluids was carried out with the development of carbide
cutting tools. Water is the main ingredient in these types of the
cutting fluids, where 1–20 % cutting fluid is concentrated in
water. The quality of water is an important aspect of the cut-
ting fluid. The hardness of water and its corrosive nature have
controlling influence in the cooling applications [95].
Particularly, the most favourable coolant fluid is water which
is also very economical in cost, but water has corrosive effect
to ferrous materials particularly when used in some expensive
machine tools. The low lubricating effect of water has a neg-
ative impact on the surfaces of the lubricant and consequently
results in the wear of machine. Thus, in order to rectify the
difficulties and improve the lubricating characters of water-
based cutting fluids, many composite additives were mixed
with water [93].
The water-miscible cutting fluids are categorized into three
groups, i.e. synthetic fluids, semi-synthetic fluids and soluble
oil. It is noted that soluble oil includes a mineral oil which is
complemented by emulsifiers to permit the oil to get spread in
the water [96]. It not only has a cooling effect but also is a
remedy against corrosion. The organic and inorganic proper-
ties of synthetic fluids are free from mineral oil, thereby
preventing corrosion and surface tension [1]. Synthetic
cooling lubricants possess lubricants which are water-soluble,
high pressure additives, corrosion resistance and defoamer.
They are water-based and are used for low cutting force oper-
ations. These are the major demerits of these coolants and that
is why its use is restricted in industries [67, 68]. On the other
hand, both mineral oils and chemical additive properties con-
tain semi-synthetic cutting fluids, which make it more consid-
erable and favourable lubricant as compared to synthetic fluid.
They have anti-rust property and are cleaner than soluble oils.
The main problem of the water-miscible fluids is the bacterial
and fungal growth which can cause serious health issues. To
overcome these shortcomings of the cutting fluids, some ex-
tracts like humectants, germicide and bactericide are recom-
mended [68]. Water-miscible cutting fluids are utilized in the
metal cutting industry as one of the major shareholders for the
cooling/lubrication-related applications. In one of the
reflections, the annual sales of water-miscible cutting fluids
have been reported to be 140,000 t/a for the EU [97].
3.2 Oil-based or neat-oil cutting fluids
There are other alternative coolants which are oil-based and
are broadly used in majority of the machining processes. They
are generally mineral oils containing some additives compris-
ing lubricants and amalgams with high pressure to improve
their usage [96]. The cutting fluid of such kind is normally
utilized in lubrication of the interface of the tool-chip. It also
helps in overcoming the friction at cutting zone. This reduced
friction results in minor cutting forces and less crater wear at
tool face. It also helps to minimize the friction between the
machine moving parts [68]. There are two categories of oil-
based cutting fluids which are paraffinic mineral oils and
naphthenic mineral oils. By adding fatty lubricants, the char-
acteristics of these mineral oils can be enriched. These high
pressure additives contain chlorine, sulphates and phosphates.
It also possesses viscosity index modifier, thickness modifier,
odorants and polar additives [67].
These types of oils have the ability to lubricate, anti-
lock property and resistance of corrosion, but they can-
not maintain their properties at higher temperatures and
load. Due to this drawback, these types of oils are not
suitable for aluminium, magnesium and low carbon
steel. The composite mineral oils are favourable at high
machining temperatures and pressures. It is also suitable
for low speed substantial machining operations like tap-
ping, threading and broaching [67, 93]. It is observed
that these types of lubricants make film between the
sliding surfaces, resulting in less friction. It is also im-
portant that there should be no chemical reaction with
machining surface. For example, in machining titanium
alloys, chlorine is used as an additive which could de-
velop chemical reaction on the machined surface [98].
Oil-based cutting fluids dominate in the metal cutting
industry for cooling/lubrication-based applications. As
reported in one of the reflections, their annual sales
volume was approximately 220,000 t/a [97].
3.3 Gas-based coolant–lubricants
These coolants are usually referred to the substances
which are in the gas form at room temperature, but in
machining processes, they are applied either in the shape
of pressured fluids and gas. The major constitutes of gases
coolants are nitrogen, argon, helium or carbon dioxide.
The gas coolants are also utilized in combination with
conventional cutting fluids in the form of spray [1]. The
common application of these types of coolants is used in
dry cutting process. The main function of the air is to cool
the tool and workpiece and remove the chips from cutting
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
surfaces [68]. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of gases
is very poor, and also they have low cooling capacity.
Various approaches are in vogue to improve the efficiency
of gas coolants like compressing and liquefying at low
temperatures. Compressed gas coolants are suitable for
heavy duty machining process where the conventional
cooling techniques fail [68].
Brandao et al. [99] in their study tried to find out the
effect of three gas-based cooling techniques. These tech-
niques comprised of dry, chilled and compressed air.
They observed that by using compressed chilled air,
the heat dissipating efficiency increased as compared
to dry cutting. The minimum dimensional variation on
machine surface can be achieved by using compressed
air coolant. Chilled air is applied as cutting coolant in
machining medium density fibreboard (MDF). It im-
proves the service life of tool without altering the power
consumption and cutting forces [100].
Hong et al. [101] studied the machining of Ti–6Al–4 V
titanium alloy under turning experiments and reported the
effects of different cooling methods in which liquid nitrogen
(LN2) is used as a cutting fluid. They observed that by the
application of LN2 on flank face of the uncoated carbide tool
increased the life up to 3.3 times. In another investigation, the
effect of LN2 on the friction coefficient was studied through
the disc-pin sliding test. The observation showed that LN2
coefficient of friction can be reduced when the frictional be-
haviour of the material is changed due to ultra-low tempera-
tures. Moreover, LN2 is a good lubricant by itself and has the
ability to minimize the coefficient of friction between sliding
parts of machine [102]. By the addition of a small amount of
lubricant, there could be a reduction in the cutting temp and
forces. It is reported that the tool wear reduced up to 44 % by
spraying micro-drops of oil in air when machining low carbon
steel [103]. Gaseous coolants like nitrogen and helium can
prevent the oxidation on machine surface at high temperatures
[103]. Yildiz and Nalbant [40] conducted a literature review
on the utilization of cryogenic cooling-based approaches for
metal cutting sector. The study assessed different types of
cryogenic cooling setups, namely cryogenic pre-cooling of
workpiece, cryogenic spraying or jet cooling, cryogenic treat-
ment and indirect cryogenic cooling. The study reported the
outcome of previously cryogenic temperature techniques on
low carbon steels, high carbon steel, stainless steel and titani-
um alloys, as shown in Table 1.
3.4 Economical, environmental and health issues
associated with coolants and lubricants
In the USA, the annual consumption of cutting fluids is ap-
proximately 100 million gallons. In Japan, this consumption is
equal to 71 billion Japanese Yen where 42 billion Yen is the
disposal cost only [104]. In 1994, the consumption of cutting
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Table 1 Cryogenic features of
different materials [40] Mechanical Toughness
properties of material
Titanium alloys No change
Aluminium 390 – No change
Carbon Steel AISI- Decrease
1008
Carbon Steel AISI- Decrease
1010
Carbon Steel Decrease
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AISI- 1070
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Chromium Steel Decrease
AISI- 52,100
s .co
Nickel Chromium Decrease
l
AISI- 304
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fluids in manufacturing industries in Germany was estimated
75,491 ton; it includes 28,415 ton of water-miscible cutting
fluids [105]. The estimated cost related to the cutting fluids is
Pa F
around 16 % of the total costs [15], and with regard to ma-
chining difficult to machine material, it is about 20–30 % [14].
h PD
This cost exceeds the tooling cost by about 2–4 % of the total
cost of manufacturing [105]. The cost of these fluids includes
the buying, preparation, maintenance and their disposal. The
itc w.
costs of their disposal can rise up to 2–4 times their buying
costs in countries like America and Europe respectively [106].
The main reason as why there is escalation in their cost is that
St w
the cutting fluids need affluent treatments since they are not
naturally bio-degradable before they get disposed [106].
u //w
There are many environmental control authorities like
(COSHH) UK based, (TRGS) German based which im-
pose regulations to control the cutting fluid waste and
hazardous [107]. It has been reported that, only in the
Fd tp:
USA, around 155 million gallons of cutting fluids are
discharged and exposed to the environment annually
[107]. To maintain their optimum characteristics, a regular
t
PD h
maintenance is required. The cutting fluids offer a rich
environment for bacterial and fungal growth. It is studied
that bacteria germs could change the PH level of cutting
fluid and increase corrosion which can be risk for the
machine operator [107]. To minimize the growth of bac-
teria in cutting fluids, some anti-bactericide constitutes are
used. It is reported that some bacteria are still alive even
above the pH level 10 in the cutting fluids [108]. It is seen
that few bactericides like Pseudomonas could last even in
the existence of anti-bacterial [109]. The existence of the
bacteria is not only restricted to the cutting fluids but also
in the work place. This needs attention to monitor the
bacterial growth at work place. There are many bacterial
infections released due to cutting fluids, and that is the
reason why the local government authorities restricted not
to dispose the waste fluid without treatment [107]. The
study revealed that to maintain the functionality of cutting
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
4 Environmentally sustainable machining of lubricant to minimize friction in the cutting zone.
Elongation Reduction Hardness Tensile and Impact
in area yield strength strength However, the generation of fumes due to the evaporation of
To access sustainability of a product, whole life cycle starting oil particles is a demerit. It is studied in the literature that, in
Decrease Increase Increase Increase Decrease from extraction until disposal has to be considered and exam- MQL strategy, more experimental work has been performed
Decrease Increase Increase Decrease ined. To obtain meaningful results in advanced models, mea- than the numerical modals. More dedicated research studies
Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Decrease sures for sustainability assessment and optimization proce- are needed to explore the operating characteristics including
dures are required to address the product, process and system optimization of air–oil moisture ratio, cutting zone tempera-
Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Decrease
levels [61]. It is reported that there is no universally accepted ture, coolant pressure and numerical modeling of MQL
Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Decrease definition for sustainable machining process. A recent study systems.
defines it as a process that leads better environmental condi- Cryogenic machining is also an emerging sustainable solu-
Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Decrease tions, operational safety and personnel health. This process tion for metal cutting sector, but studies shows inconsistent
also reduces cost and power consumption and products’ machinability findings. The results are highly sensitive to the
Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Decrease waste, as shown in Fig. 17 [115]. properties of workpiece and cutting tool materials. Change in
Wanigarathne et al. [116] reported that sustainability rating tool and workpiece properties is the main cause of inconsis-
system composed on the components as shown in Fig. 18. It tency. There should be further investigation on different pairs
indicated that rating 0–2 is worse and 8–10 best. of tools and workpiece materials. It is studied that small
fluids, antimicrobials and biocides can be used. It is re- In recent years, dry machining is considered environmen- amount of liquid nitrogen (LN2) applied to cutting Ti-6Al-
ported by International Agency for Research on Cancer tally safe and friendly. In some of the machining processes, 4V showed excellent results as compared to emulsion cutting.
(IARC) USA that the cutting fluid (mineral oil) contains car- due to drastic improvement in tool coating technology, the However, this cooling technique has high setup cost as the
cinogenic substances which could cause skin cancer [110].
The study revealed that non-formaldehydes are injurious to
cutting fluid methodology has been completely eliminated.
However, still in most of processes, the cutting fluids are still
freezing effect at the nozzle hinders the flow of coolant and
overcools the workpiece. Some of common environmentally
health [107]. Apart from biocides, there are additional essential to cater heat generation resulting from high friction conscious strategies are shown in Fig. 19.
chemicals in the cutting fluids are also risky to the environ- and plastic deformation. The heat removal from the cutting There is a potential to work further on this environmental
ment. Some constitutes in chlorine and sulphur present in zone also helps to reduce adhesion between work and tool friendly technique. In the next segment, there are some re-
cutting fluid has chemical reaction with cutting materials. materials [17]. The conventional flood cooling technique has views on different issues and achievements to cut down or
They are thought as poisonous materials for the health of the environmental issues as discussed earlier like toxicity and
workers and the surroundings [101]. In extreme pressure, cut- non-biodegradability and also it is not economical. To make
ting fluids chlorinated paraffin changed its properties in the machining process workable in nature, a reduction in the
presence of heat and pressure. The disposal of waste chlorine amount of toxicity is required with an increase in biodegrad-
processing cost increases up to 7 % due to imposed environ- ability. In order to evade the risky effects of cutting fluid on
mental controls [104]. The vaporization and atomization of the environment, the dry cutting is a better way out. However,
cutting fluids in machining operations can cause different the unnecessary heat was generated during dry cutting ma-
kinds of diseases like respiratory, asthma and cancers. It has chining which bounds the material removal rate and provides
been further reported that flood cutting process releases 12–80 poor tool life and higher surface roughness. To implement
times more air pollution than dry cutting [111]. Furthermore, near dry machining, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL)
these small air particles present in the environment can easily arrangements are used. It is reported that MQL strategy seems
be inhaled by the workers which can cause serious health to be a promising solution as it minimizes friction, but it offers
issues. low cooling capability due to the missing coolant. As per
It is reported during year 1993 that around 16 % of indus- environmental concerns, usage of vegetable oil is healthier
trial diseases in Finland were due to vapours of cutting fluids. than mineral oil. MQL techniques utilize very less amount
These diseases are musculoskeletal, hearing loss and related to
skin [112]. On the other hand, the study shows that gas
cooling lubricants are much safer to the environment, but they
are more costly than the cutting fluids. The cost of the gas
cooling lubricant is high because they require additional
equipment [113]. Moreover, gas-based coolants cannot circu-
late in machine since they are not reusable [114, 101]. The
disposable cost of the gas-based coolant is less as compared to
flooded coolant [42]. For the use of gas-based coolant, appro-
priate ventilation system is required in order to dispose of the
CO2 [101]. Hence, it is concluded that gas-based coolants
strategy is environment friendly as compared to conventional
cooling strategy, but it is expensive [106]. Fig. 17 Components of sustainable machining [115] Fig. 18 Demonstration of the sustainability rating system [116]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
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Pa F
h PD
itc w.
Fig. 19 Classification of different environmentally conscious machining techniques [1]
St w
u //w
lesson the consumption of cutting fluids in machining by
using different methods.
Fd tp:
4.1 Approaches to enhance sustainability
with conventional MWF
t
PD h
In this section, different approaches will be discussed to en-
hance the environmental performance of the conventional
metal working fluids (MWF). Generally, the chemistry of
MWF is changing throughout the service life of the fluid.
By increasing the service life of conventional MWF, overall
environmental performance of the metal cutting operation can
be significantly improved [117]. When oil-based MWF is ex-
posed to atmosphere here are chances of oxidation to take
place. Similarly, temperature changes during the operation
can initiate polymerization-based reaction. Both oxidation
and polymerization reactions can drastically change the vis-
cosity and flow-dependant properties of the MWFs. During
the machining operations such as grinding operation, work-
piece material chips and particles from the grinding wheel
adds in the MWFs during operation and significantly change
the chemistry [118]. Another important issue with the MWF is
linked with the microbial growth during service life. Microbial
growth results in biofilms that has harmful effects on the lu-
brication equipment such as storage tanks and filters [119].
It has been observed that the proper management, monitor-
ing and maintenance of the MWFs resulted in improved over-
all environmental performance. Appropriate maintenance of
the MWFs results in extended service life, and it provides
economical benefits of saving purchasing and disposal costs
[120]. Proper lubrication system management results in im-
proved machining performance and reliable production. Here,
it is also worthy to point out that poor MWF management can
cause failure of machine tool and results in machinery-related
downtime as reported by Rakic and Rakic [121]. Occupational
health concerns of the human worker are also improved by
implementing the practices related to the MWF management.
Regular monitoring of concentrations of additives in the
MWFs results in limiting bacteria and fungi growth [122].
Another important aspect of MWF application is to replace
the mineral oil-based MWFs with renewable MWFs. This
replacement supports sustainable development in the metal
working sector as these renewable MWFs have low toxicity,
small evaporation, less emissions and speedy biodegradability
[123]. Several researchers have investigated the machining
performance of such renewable MWFs. Winter et al. [124]
evaluated the performance of oil of Jatropha curcas seeds
for machining processes. J. curcas seed oil is inedible for
human and reflects the suitable fatty acid pattern. The LCA-
based analysis shows that oil of J. curcas seeds has environ-
mental advantage over the conventional MWFs. The perfor-
mance of oil of J. curcas seeds was found suitable for preci-
sion turning applications.
Lea, in another study [125], revealed that extraction and
utilization of lubricants from harvestable resources were
gaining popularity in the European market. The European
market study revealed the growth of 16 % from 2000 to
2006 time period. The study projected that by strict environ-
mental rules and regulations, this 16 % can further be in-
creased to 35 % approximately. Herrman et al. [126] conduct-
ed a life cycle analysis (LCA)-based study to compare the
properties of mineral oil and plant seed-based esters. The
LCA was focused to draw conclusions regarding the econom-
ical, technological and ecological perspectives. The grinding
operation was conducted under the mentioned MWFs. The
study revealed that when market price and environmental per-
formance were considered together, then animal fat and used
cooking esters provided the best ratio. The global warming
potential (GWP) associated with different conventional and
renewable MWFs has been reported in Fig. 20 [126, 127].
Lawal et al. [128] provided a detailed review about the usage
and application of vegetable oil-based MWFs for the machin-
ing of ferrous metals. The study concluded that vegetable oil-
based MWFs have enormous potential to replace the mineral
oil-based MWFs for machining ferrous metals.
To facilitate sustainability in the metal cutting industry,
another important aspect is related to the energy consumed
for the pumping and handling of conventional MWFs. In case
of machining where generous amount of cutting fluids are
employed, higher amount of energy is also utilized to pump
the higher flow rates. Oda et al. [129] investigated the energy
consumption in the machine tools. The study revealed that
54 % of the overall energy was consumed in the coolant-
related equipment. The study investigated the energy con-
sumed in different types of pumps to explore the potential of
energy-efficient pumping. Shimoda [130] pointed out that
Fig. 20 Global warming
potential (GWP) associated with
different MWFs [127]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
reducing the MWF consumption results in the opportunities
to reduce energy consumption as well. Such cooling strategies
that deal with the reduced amount of MWF consumption
(MQL, MQCL, etc.) require significant design changes in
the machine tool accessories for coolant pumping system
[116]. Denkena et al. [131] also point out at the huge potential
of energy saving by optimizing the performance of high pres-
sure pumps. The study was focused to reduce and control the
flow rate of cutting fluid to explore the energy-saving poten-
tial. The outcome of study revealed the potential of saving up
to 37 % of energy, and feed rate was found to be the most
dominant factor for energy optimization.
4.2 Dry cutting
Dry cutting is one of the adoptable approaches to diminish the
utilization of cutting fluids in cutting processes and thus helps
in cutting down the machining costs and environmental issues
[105]. Weinert et al. [116] reported the merits of implementing
dry cutting which are shown in Fig. 21.
To employ cutting fluids can help in improving tool life,
preventing built up edges (BUE) and reducing the cutting
forces and surface roughness. Higher friction and cutting tem-
peratures were found in dry machining than that of in flood
machining. The presence of high temperature during cutting
can results in lower tool life, poor surface quality and geomet-
rical deviations in the machined surface. Another important
issue associated with dry cutting is the production of metallic
dust during the metal cutting process. However, this does not
happen for all materials. Some positive effects are noted in ma-
chining operations under dry cutting like lesser thermal shock
and improved tool life in some circumstances [17]. Different
techniques have also been employed to avoid the use of cutting
fluids in machining. These techniques involved indirect heat dis-
sipation, improving cutting tools properties and coatings or tool
geometries. This introduced the need to explore advanced tooling
materials like as different multi-layer-coated tools, Cubic Boron
Nitride (CBN), Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN),
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD), cermet and ceramics.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
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Pa F
h PD
itc w.
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Fig. 21 Benefits of adopting dry machining [116]
u //w
Nouari and Ginting [132] performed dry end milling of
Titanium alloys using uncoated tungsten carbide (WC) inserts
Fd tp:
with cobalt binders alloyed with 20.7 wt.% of (Ti/Ta/Nb)C.
These findings were focused on chip formations, tool wear,
cutting temperature and surface finish of the machined sur-
t
PD h
face. The study also observed wear mechanisms on worn tools
using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The study ob-
served that the leading tool failure mode is due to localized
flank wear, and the other reason of failure is the brittle fracture
of the cutting edge. Dearnley et al. [133] investigated that a
tool did not suffer from unnecessary crater wear as reported by
Nouari [132]. This could be further elaborated by the fact that
continuous machining (turning) results in higher cutting tem-
perature than that of in intermittent cutting (milling) operation.
The presence of high cutting temperature aids the chip mate-
rial to get adhered at the rake face and results in built up edge
(BUE) formation. The BUE material is later removed by the
flow of the chips. Also, high cutting temperatures assist the
cutting tool material to diffuse into the chips at the cutting
interface. Nouari et al. [132] studied that in turning process
due to high cutting temperature, abrasion and diffusion are
accountable for crater wear on the rake face of the cutting tool.
Nouari et al. [132] made the conclusions that uncoated alloyed
carbide tools are suitable for dry end milling of titanium alloys
with cutting speed >150 m/min, feed rate = 0.15 mm/tooth,
2 mm of axial depth of cut and 8.8 mm radial depth of cut. All
these machining parameters showed clearly that the tool life
was 11.3 min with 0.61 μm surface roughness. Also, these
investigations which are based on experiments revealed that
FEA model can successfully predict the results when simulat-
ed for dry end milling operations.
Krain et al. [134] observed the dry machining process of
Inconel® 718 nickel-based alloy to get increased productivity
with optimized material removal rate. They noted that because
of high cutting pressure at tool tip and chemical reactivity
between tool and workpiece materials, adhesion and attrition
were found to be the dominant tool wear mechanisms.
Inconel® 718 low thermal conductivity helps to attain high
localized cutting temperature at the cutting interface and thus
assists the wear mechanisms. The workpiece material is ad-
hered to the tool while cutting at high temperature and forms a
BUE on the flank face.
It has been stated that nanostructured tools material is used
in many researches for dry cutting. Kustas et al. [114]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
observed that nanostructured materials can increase the char- temperature can be reduced up to 50 %. However, there is a
acteristics of the cutting tool like increased hardness, increased limitation of geometrical restrictions of cutting tools and
strength, increased Young’s modulus and increased wear re- manufacturing difficulties in applying this method. Noor-ul-
sistance, increased fracture toughness, increased chemical sta- Haq et al. [138] obtained 25 °C reduction in cutting tempera-
bility and less frictional behaviour. They also investigated that ture by using a modified tool holder integrated with brass heat
coated tools can give better performance than uncoated cutting pipe when turning engine crank pins using CBN tool. The
inserts under dry cutting as this coating can increase the tool study provided 5 % reduction in the cutting temperature at
hardness and prevent the tool material from exposing and the cutting zone and leads to 9 % reduction in the tool flank
reduce the friction coefficient. They also experimented on wear. Dry cutting can reduce environmental pollution, health
the influence of multi-layer solid lubricant (MoS2/Mo)-coated risk for Machine’s operator and thermal shock in interrupted
high speed steel (HSS) drills and made a comparison in the cutting, but lack of cutting fluids can limit cutting speed and
results with an uncoated drill when drilling Ti64 workpiece high cutting temperature, rapid tool wear and degradation of
material. The reduction of 33 % in the cutting torque was workpiece surface integrity may occur as reported in the
observed when coated drill is used. Nabhani et al. [135] ob- literature.
served that the performance of PCD (SYNDITE1) tools is
better than PCBN (AMBORITE2) carbide tools in the dry 4.3 Minimum quantity lubricant
turning of titanium alloy. These carbide tools chemically
reacted with titanium, thus forming a TiC layer. The cutting Minimum Quantity Lubricant (MQL) or near dry machining
tool is protected by this TiC layer from abrasion, thus reducing (NDM) is another substitute to conventional flood coolant. In
the diffusion rate. Consequently, that chemical reaction be-
tween tool and workpiece materials could make tool life better
MQL technique, a few drops of cutting oil is applied in the
form of mist particles in the cutting zone. The well-directed
by forming a protective layer. penetration of oil particles reduces friction at the cutting inter-
Liu et al. [136] studied what happens to the machinability face, thus resulting in the reduction of the temperature, surface
with CBN tools when aluminium is added to pearlite cast iron. roughness and the cost [20]. The demerit of this method in-
They observed that by adding aluminium to pearlite cast iron, cludes health hazard as a result of the production of mist.
there is a creation of a shielding layer of aluminium oxide on Vegetable oils are a better replacement of mineral oils related
the tool surface. This layer gives protection to the cutting tool to cost, health, safety and environment. The work quality can
from abrasive wear and enhances the cutting speed up to be enhanced by the use of chip evacuating system. There is a
4500 m/min. Liu et al. [59] reported while machining titanium need of some new researches which includes optimization of
alloys, the main tool wear mechanisms were adhesion and air–oil moisture ratio and coolant pressure. MQL system can
diffusion at the rake and flank faces. They also reported that be applied where dry machining operation is difficult [20].
the other feature related to the machining of titanium alloys is Klocke et al. [30, 105] have reported the comparison between
the generation of narrow crater wear that is formed closer to MQL and dry machining processes of different materials, as
the cutting edge due to a small contact area between tool and shown in Table 2.
chip. Nouari et al. [137] performed an experiment of dry dril- Various companies have attempted to produce advanced
ling of aluminium alloys with WC-Co cemented carbide tool. MQL systems for machining operations. UNIST Inc. designed
In this experiment, the enhanced tool geometry and cutting its first MQL system called uni-MIST® which was patented in
conditions were observed without lubricant. The studies re- 1957 at the Grand Rapids, Michigan [140]. A complete
vealed that combination of the optimized tool geometry and
the cutting conditions caused a high surface quality, a good Table 2 Application areas of dry and M.Q.L techniques for various
materials [30]
dimensional accuracy of the machined material and confirmed
long tool life. It was observed that use of diamond layer as Material Machining processes
coating material generated less heat and increased tool life.
In machining operations, most of the energy used gets Drilling Deep hole Turning Milling
drilling
transformed into heat. When there are no cutting fluids in
dry cutting, then the heat produced should be transferred by Aluminium M.Q.L M.Q.L M.Q.L M.Q.L
means of conduction mode through the chips, workpiece and /Dry /Dry
cutting tool. Noor-ul-Haq et al. [138] reported an alternate Steel M.Q.L M.Q.L M.Q.L M.Q.L
solution to enhance the heat conduction to cool indirectly of /Dry
Cast iron M.Q.L M.Q.L M.Q.L M.Q.L
the cutting tool or workpiece using heat pipes. Jen et al. [139]
/Dry /Dry
performed an experiment and used coolant fluid through the
Titanium M.Q.L M.Q.C.L M.Q.L M.Q.C.L
heat pipe for HSS drills. FE analysis and experimental exam- Alloys /Dry
inations clearly showed that, by using this method, the cutting
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
commercial MQL system consists of five main parts, namely
air compressor, CL container, tubing, flow control system and
spray nozzle. The controlled coolant and pressured air after
mixing are provided through the tubing and nozzle into the
cutting point. The nozzle offer both arrangements either exter-
nal or internal through-the-tool. Kamata et al. [141] developed
a usual MQL system for turning process, as shown in the
Fig. 22.
Sales et al. [142] developed a MQL system for face milling
ia /
and the fluid is passing through the tool cooling, as shown in
Tr m
Fig. 23.
Rahim and Sasahara [26] performed experiments and used
s .co
MQL setup with palm oil and synthetic ester. The experiment
l
showed that palm oil arrangement performed better than syn-
thetic ester. Kamata and Obikawa [141] utilized MQL ar-
rangement to machine Inconel® 718 using TiCN/Al2O3/TiN
ge du
and TiN/AlN-coated carbide tools. The study revealed that
TiCN/Al2O3/TiN-coated tool provided the highest tool life,
but TiN/AlN-coated tool provided the lowest surface rough-
Pa F
ness. Zeilmann and Weingaertner [27] studied MQL setup to
machine titanium alloy. The study employed uncoated and
h PD
coated drills and reported that internal MQL system showed
better performance than external MQL system. Pervaiz et al.
[24] did an experiment on machining of Ti6Al4V by using
itc w.
MQCL (minimum quantity lubrication + cool air) system. It is
reported that MQCL cooling technique performed better than
dry cutting condition and found that average cutting tempera-
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ture decreased by 26.6, 17.9 and 17.5 % than the temperature
attained in dry environment with cutting speed levels of 90,
u //w
120 and 150 m/min, respectively. The MQL’s technique is
also suitable for ductile materials. It is reported that MQL
performed well when machining steel and aluminium alloys.
Davim et al. [25] performed an experiment on aluminium
Fd tp:
(AA1050) drilling. The experiments were performed under
dry, minimum quantity of lubricant (MQL) and flood condi-
tions. The experiments were intended on orthogonal arrays,
t
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made with machining conditions and various cooling strate-
gies. The ANOVA technique was implemented to validate the
Fig. 22 Schematic representation of MQL system [141]
proposed machining conditions. The test results showed that
by selecting the range of cutting parameters properly, similar
performances can be obtained to flood lubricated conditions
by using MQL system. Dhar et al. [4] have performed exper-
imental investigations on the influence of MQL system when
machining AISI-4340 steel using uncoated carbides. The re-
sults showed good temperature control at cutting zone and less
tool wear and surface roughness occurred. Park et al. [38]
extended the study to investigate the operational aspects of
MQL. They have established a potential additive to MQL
lubricant. The study combined exfoliated nanographene par-
ticles in the vegetable oil to use it under MQL arrangement.
The study also computed coefficients of friction for this newly
developed cutting fluid under different cutting parameters.
The same MQL-based system was then employed in the ball
milling cutting experiments. The study shows an extraordi-
nary improvement in controlling the tool wear and edge
chipping. However, the generation of fumes due to the evap-
oration of oil particles is a demerit. This less efficient cooling
ability limits the effectiveness of MQL arrangements especial-
ly when machining difficult-to-cut materials like titanium and
nickel-based alloys where the major difficulty is excessive
heat generation. It is studied in the literature that MQL strat-
egy is explored experimentally and is rare to find the numer-
ical modal for MQL system. More dedicated research studies
are needed to explore the operating characteristics including
optimization of air–oil moisture ratio, cutting zone tempera-
ture, coolant pressure and numerical modelling of MQL
systems.
4.4 Cryogenic machining
Over the last six decades, there have been many studies on the
Cryogenic cooling technique, but it is only during the last
10 years that there was substantial work in this technique
which produced tremendous results. It has been noticed that
Cryogenic cooling technique is still important in machining
processes [40]. Cryogenic method guides cutting fluid (liquid
nitrogen) under pressure and low temperature on the cutting
edge. The liquid nitrogen is a well-secured, clean, non-toxic
and easy to disposal coolant. It is lighter than air and has a
share of 78 % in the atmosphere. This technique improves tool
life, increase production and do not harm the environment
[143]. Cryogenic machining process is performed at lower
temperatures usually at 120 K [144]. Cryogenic technique
proved to be an efficient method to keep the cutting tempera-
ture lower than the softening temperature of the tool material
[145].
On the other side, CO2 is considered as an air pollutant.
However, it has been recommended [146] that CO2 is made
from the power plants’ exhaust gases. Thus, it is not contam-
inating the atmosphere. It is to be noted that carbon dioxide is
heavier than air which can deplete air and can cause serious
Fig. 23 Schematic view of face milling with through-the-tool MQL system [142]
problems at work place [106]. In cryogenic technique, the
workpiece temperature is decreased which is followed by
the changes in the workpiece properties as well as the tool
materials. It is noted that, due to low temperatures, there is
an increase in strength and the hardness of the material which
produces brittleness in the material. This technique is suitable
at room temperature [147]. Moreover, due to this cooling ef-
fect, the hardness of the tool increases and thereby enhances
its life [106].
Many studies have revealed that a chemical reaction occurs
in machining of ferrous alloys with diamond tools and
graphitisation is observed. To overcome this problem, liquid
Nitrogen below −196 °C as a coolant is used to avoid tool
wear both chemically and thermally [148]. S. Hong [92, 99]
reported that LN2 is not only a good coolant but also good
lubricant. It is studied that liquid nitrogen can easily enter
between the tool and chip interface and consequently reduce
the friction and temperature at cutting edge. It is also reported
that this cooling technique has marvellous results while cut-
ting titanium and nickel alloys. The commonly used cryogenic
coolants are the air, liquid nitrogen, liquid carbon dioxide,
solid carbon dioxide and liquid helium.
The adhesion and diffusion wear of the tool and chip inter-
face can be reduced by spraying cryogenic coolant at the cut-
ting zone which increases tool life [42, 106]. There are less
chances of tool face built up edge and more surface finish by
this cooling technique [44]. Venugopal et al. [149] concluded
that by the application of liquid nitrogen, 77 % less tool wear
was observed as compared to dry machining while cutting
titanium alloys, as shown in Fig. 24. Hong and Ding [44]
performed an experiment on machining of titanium alloys
using cryogenic cooling technique and observed results which
were four time better than dry cutting as shown in Fig. 25.
Su et al. [150] performed an experiment of machining of
Inconel 718 base super alloy. The study examined cooling/
lubrication approaches of dry, minimal quantity lubrication
(MQL) and cooling air with minimal quantity lubricant
(CAMQL). They performed a machining process of Inconel
718 alloys and studied the workpiece surface finish and tool
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
wear mechanism. The study revealed that, in the use of cool
air with MQL, the tool life improved to 124 % at cutting speed
of 76 m/min when related to the dry cutting. It is observed that
the tool life increased by the application of chilled air as a
coolant. They concluded that by using this chilled air tech-
nique, the workpiece surface finish is extremely reliant on the
cutting forces. Consequently, lower surface roughness was
observed in air cooling as compared to dry machining.
There are few limitations of using chilled air and gases.
They are more expensive as compared to cutting fluid and
required additional equipment to deliver air to the tool work-
piece interface. It is reported that gases cannot be reusable as
they are vaporized after the application.
They also reported cutting temperatures conditions of ma-
chining RBSN with CBN tools in dry cutting, cryogenic tool
back cooling, emulsion cooling, pre-cooling the workpiece,
cryogenic flank cooling, cryogenic rake cooling and simulta-
neous rake and flank cooling strategy, as shown in Fig. 25.
Their analysis by FEA showed there was a temperature de-
crease of 1153 °C in dry cutting to 829 °C in the method of
indirect cryogenic cooling. Wang et al. [70], by utilizing an
indirect cryogenic technique in hybrid machining of titanium
alloys, found that the tool life increased up to 156 %. In one of
the investigations, it was found that indirect cryogenic tool
cooling was 13 times less tool wear as compared to cryogenic
Fig. 24 Comparison of tool wear in machining titanium alloys [149]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Shaw et al. [64] reported that consumption of energy is

directly proportional to cutting and friction forces.
Bhattacharyya et al. [151] have performed machining experi-
ment on Kevlar composite material by cryogenic and flood
coolant techniques. They observed that the cutting forces were
50 % higher in cryogenic cooling as compared to flood
cooling. The shearing force Fs was calculated for comparison
of cryogenic chip cooling and workpiece pre-cooling.
Figure 27 depicts the measured force components Fc, Ft and

ia /
Ff. The results showed that cryogenic chip and workpiece pre-

Tr m
cooling formed an increase in shear force as compared to dry
machining. It was observed that at a cutting speed of 6 m/s, the

s .co
shear force increased up to 8 % in chip cooling, while in case

l
of workpiece pre-cooling it increased more than 37 %.
Fig. 25 The observed and expected tool temperatures, Hong and Ding
Therefore, it is concluded that in cryogenic cooling technique
[44] the cutting forces will increase [77].

ge du
Similarly, Kumar and Choudhury [77] have performed
chip cooling [151]. It is studied that small amount of liquid an experiment of machining of stainless steel 202 and that
nitrogen (LN2) applied to cutting Ti-6Al-4V showed excellent 14.83 % cutting temperature decreased by using cryogen-

Pa F
results as compared to emulsion cutting. However, this ic LN2 as compared to dry cutting. Considering all these
drawbacks, the cryogenic cooling technique is still attrac-
h PD
cooling technique has high set up cost, overcooling the work-
piece and produces freezing effect at the nozzle. There is a tive and widely used by industry [155]. There are two
leading like companies Air Products Inc. and MAG IAS Fig. 28 a MQL + CO2 adopter nozzles developed for this study. b Tool life observed during different cooling strategies [157]
potential to work further on this environmental friendly tech-
nique to reduce the cooling effect on the workpiece. LLC which are manufacturing cryogenic cooling equip-
itc w.

Hong et al. [106] investigated that the tool flank wear re- ment. ICEFLY is the first company which made commer-
sults are used to determine the tool life when using indirectly cial cryogenic equipment. The MAG cryogenic cooling stand-alone both MQL and CO2 cryogenic settings and 4.5 High pressure compressed air cooling
cryogenic cooling in machining of steel alloys and found that system distributes liquid nitrogen by CNC machine to combination of MQL with CO2 cryogenic, as shown in
St w

the tool life increased up to four times [152]. Similarly, in the tool’s face. Presently, it is used in the production of Fig. 28b. Tool life for MQL + CO2 cryogenic was found Researchers in the metal cutting sector observed that for
another study with the same indirect cooling technique, the the Lockheed Martin’s F-35 stealth fighter plane [156]. second best after wet cutting. It has been revealed in sev- higher cutting speeds, cutting fluids lose their effectiveness
u //w

Al2O3 ceramic inserts were used and found better results as
compared to dry PCBN operations [153]. Hong et al. [44, 50,
106, 154] compared the results of machining low carbon steel
Fd tp:
Pereira et al. [157] performed milling experiments on eral studies that CO2 is easier to handle than liquid nitro- to penetrate in the cutting zone. In 1952, Piggott and
Inconel 718 with a novel combination of MQL mixed gen in terms of storage [157, 158]. Collwell [160] developed a high pressure (2.75 MPa) oil jet
with CO2 cryogenic-based cooling. The main objective Pušavec et al. [159] assessed the scope of cryogenic to enhance cooling for a metal cutting operation. The machin-
of combining both strategies was to get the benefits of machining as per sustainability ideas. The study consid- ing performance was observed outstanding as the tool life was

by dry cutting, pre-cryogenic cooling of workpiece and chip,

as shown in Fig. 26. The abovementioned techniques showed both being green and economy feasible in nature. Two ered 1 year period to perform life cycle assessment increased to 7–8 times and surface integrity was also en-
better performance as compared to dry cutting [154]. nozzle adopters were developed and fixed on MQL noz- (LCA) and compared the cryogenic-assisted machining hanced. The study also revealed that high pressure jet cooling
zle, as shown in Fig. 28a. The study also incorporated outcomes with conventional flood cooling method, as discouraged the formation of built-up-edge (BUE).
t
PD h

Fig. 26 The tool wears by various cooling methods [154]
computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations to opti-
mize adopter nozzles. Tool life was observed for dry, wet
Fig. 27 Shear forces at various cooling techniques [154]
shown in Fig. 29. The study provided a holistic over-
view of the sustainability by considering the aspects
such as acidification, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
solid waste generation, water consumption, land usage
and energy utilization. The study revealed that flood
cooling generates sustainability concerns related to the
acidification, water usage, greenhouse gas emissions and
solid waste. However, cryogenic cooling only involves
high amount of energy consumption, as shown in
Fig. 29.
In another study [16], the life cycle analysis (LCA)-
based material production outcomes of conventional
flood and cryogenic cooling were reported. The out-
comes for both cooling strategies were broken down in
sustainability components for further understanding. The
huge difference in the amount of energy usage was re-
ported in case of cryogenic cooling.
Ramainyengar et al. [161] also conducted turing experiments
under internally assisted high pressure jet cooling method.
The study revealed that cutting forces decreased by 60 %.
Mazurkiewicz et al. [162] performed high pressure
(280 MPa) cooling machining experiments on UNS 1020
steel. The study revealed that feed force was decreased signif-
icantly by 50 %. At the same time, surface finish improved
and coefficient of friction reduced. Wertheim et al. [163] in-
vestigated the role of high pressure flushing at rake face in
grooving operation. The study incorporated the flushing pres-
sure up to 25 bars. The study also revealed that chip curling
and removal can be improved by increasing coolant pressure
and flow rate. The application of high pressure cooling also
minimizes built up edge formation.
The new emerging technology, like chilled and compressed
air tool cooling, is widely used in industry. Air as a cooling
method is considered as a clean option. Gandarias et al. [164]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol Int J Adv Manuf Technol

718. A typical high pressure air cooling system is 5 Conclusion

shown in Fig. 30a. Similarly, other cutting tool manu-
facturers have developed solutions for high pressure
co oling, as sho wn i n F ig. 30 b, c [171 , 17 2].
ChipBlaster was the first manufacturer that developed
high pressure cooling systems for the metal cutting in-
dustry and market. ChipBlaster was the first company
that applied patent the use of cooling pipe as a nozzle
for laminar flow [173, 174].
The conclusions drawn out of the current review have been
mentioned as below:
& The most favourable method to reduce the use of cutting
fluids in manufacturing processes is dry machining which
consequently minimize the machining costs and environ-
mental issues. However, dry cutting gets failed to produce

ia /
Sorby and Tonnessen [175] utilized high pressure required tool life and surface finish in some cases. Dry

Tr m
cooling at rake and flank face arrangements to perform cutting also produces metallic dust that is also very harm-
grooving in Ti6Al4V. Grooving operation was selected ful for the environment and the health of the worker. Dry

s .co
due to the difficult nature of cooling application required. cutting offers limited material removal rate in the machin-

l
The study revealed that tool life was increased by 200– ing process due to excessive amount of heat generation at
300 and 50–100 % under 10–30 MPa pressure cooling at cutting interface with increasing cutting speed. To under-
rake and flank faces, respectively. They also found that stand more about dry machining advanced cutting tool

ge du
rake face flushing disturbed the surface finish of the materials, further research on the cutting parameters is
workpiece due to the chip flow, whereas surface finish required. However, development of advanced cutting tool
was found better under flank face flushing. Herranz technologies will be more expensive, resulting in higher

Pa F et al. [176] provided an efficient way of process planning

to cater static and dynamic problems (vibrations, deflec-
h PD
tions, etc.) of machining of thin wall structures. Yalcin
Fig. 29 Outcomes of life cycle analysis (LCA) for conventional flood and cryogenic cooling methods [159]
et al. [168] reported that the tool life and surface finish
decreased by dry machining of soft materials. It was sug-
itc w.
&
machining costs.
There is a need to develop novel hybrid lubrication/
cooling methodologies by combining the existing
lubrication/cooling techniques. For example, some studies
revealed methodologies where minimum quantity lubrica-

utilized high pressure cooling (HPC) and minimum quantity tool, and the cool air was produced by a vortex tube. gested that chilled air is an environmentally friendly, less tion (MQL) was mixed with cryogenic cooling such as
lubrication (MQL) methodologies to machine different grades The annealed steel material AISI 1050 was used as the expensive as compared to flood cooling method. It is seen low temperature air and CO2. In stand-alone MQL tech-
of stainless steel under drilling and turning arrangements. workpiece and HSS-Co8 DIN 844/BN as a cutting tool that the lower workpiece surface roughness is produced nique, only lubrication has been provided and temperature
St w

HPC outperformed MQL in both drilling and turning arrange- material. Prime cutting parameters were selected, and by high pressure air cooling as compared to dry cutting. is controlled by reducing friction at the tool chip interface
ments. The study drilled more than 1600 holes using tool wear and surface quality were measured. The dif-
u //w

emulsion-based coolant with pressure of 60 bars, and machin-
ing performance was found much better than MQL method.
Sun et al. [41] reported that chilled air coolant in machining
process can consequently increase the tool life. Kumar et al.
Fd tp:
ferent cooling strategy effects were observed for 10–
30 min of time duration. The air cooling strategy
showed lower surface roughness values than dry cutting
and more in flood cutting technique. The measured

[77] reported that the consequences of chilled air on the sur-
face of workpiece are dependent on machining characteristics.
Kevinchou et al. [165] have studied turning the A390 alumin-
t
PD h
flank wear result values (Vb) for air cooling technique
were nearby to flood cooling technique. On the other
side, the flank wear results were showed high values

ium with an uncoated WC tool and reported the properties of
chilled air. The investigations revealed that tool flank wear
decreased by 20 % at the cutting speed of 5 m/s and feed rate
of 0.055 mm/rev by using chilled air. In addition, chilled air
also reduces and there is less affinity of BUE at the tool face.
This apart, they found that the tool life efficiency depends on
the cutting conditions. It is reported that, in the machining of
aluminium alloys, the leading tool wear occurs due to abrasion
of silicon particles in the material structure.
Rahman et al. [166] studied the milling of steel al-
loys with uncoated WC tool at −30 °C and found lower
surface roughness as compared to flood cooling. Kim
et al. [167] reported that chilled air can increase the
tool (TiAlN coated WC) life when machining hardened
steel. Yalçın et al. [168] examined the machining per-
formance of soft materials under different cooling strat-
egies. They designed cool air cooling system to cool the
at dry cutting due to material adhesion affinity.
Klocke et al. [30] exposed the potential of high pres-
surized cooling (up to 300 bars) for cutting titanium
alloys. They mainly monitored the cutting temperature
at the cutting interface; in addition, the study also ob-
served tool wear, chip formation and cutting forces. The
study provided that application high pressure cooling
reduced tool wear by 50 % and cutting temperature by
25 %. Nandy et al. [169] studied the influence of flood
cooling and high pressure cooling (HPC) with neat oil
a n d w a t e r- s o l u b l e o i l f o r m a c h i n i n g Ti 6 A l4 V.
Experiments were operated using cutting speeds ranging
from 90 to 111 m/min and supply pressure ranging from
70 to 140 bar. The results provided 250 % betterment in
tool life with respect to the flood cooling. Sandvik
[170] reported that by using compressed air, the results Fig. 30 a Tool holder by Sandvik Coromant AB to operate high pressure coolant internally [170], b Jet Stream tooling from SECO Tools [172], c JET
observed enhanced tool life for Ti6Al4V and Inconel HP–HELI TURN from ISCAR [171], d Fixed volume system for high pressure system (D 30–35), 8 gpm at 500 psi [174]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
and evaporative mode of heat transfer. Mixing the cryo-
genic arrangement provides the missing cooling part. The
concept was to reduce friction from MQL oil mist and
achieve cooling action by the cryogenic arrangement such
as low temperature air, liquid nitrogen and CO2.
& Literature has highlighted that MQL/MQCL have poten-
tial to replace the conventional flood cooling method for
the machining of several conventional and high perfor-
mance alloys. However, MQL technique mixed with
ia /
nano-particles is still a new research area that should be
Tr m
explored for better understanding.
& Another observation was that there is still a need to inves-
s .co
tigate the physics involved in the MQL methodology. The
l
physics would be clearer if the fluidic behaviour of the
cutting oil can also be investigated with respect to the
cutting environment. For example, the fluid properties like
ge du
viscosity, density, etc. of the oil play a critical role towards
the lubrication capacity and penetration ability of the
lubricant.
&
Pa F
The lubrication capacity has a strong link with the viscos-
ity of the cutting oil. Theoretically speaking, more viscous
h PD
cutting oils in the MQL system should perform better.
However, more viscous cutting oils are difficult to pene-
trate in the cutting zone. It means that only the appropriate
itc w.
level of viscous behaviour is required to reach the cutting
zone and lubricate at the same time.
& It has been observed that, in literature relevant to MQL
St w
strategy, only experimental methods have been explored
in research, and it is rare to find the numerical modal for
u //w
MQL system. More dedicated research studies are needed
to explore the operating characteristics including optimi-
zation of air–oil moisture ratio, cutting zone temperature,
coolant pressure and numerical modelling of MQL sys-
Fd tp:
tems. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based ap-
proaches can be developed to investigate the interaction
of cooling environment with the cutting tool.
t
&
PD h
For the efficient application of MQL/MQCL techniques in
machining, cutting tools are made compatible to adopt the
MQL/MQCL techniques. The general guideline for de-
signing such cutting tools is based on rapid heat dissipa-
tion through chip evacuation and ability to with stand high
temperatures through tool coatings. Lubricant supply can
be optimized in MQL/MQCL systems through internal
delivery passages in the cutting tools. Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD)-based simulations can play vital role to
reduce cost and facilitate the prototyping of such custom-
made cutting tools.
& Solid materials (nano-sized) are developed as a lubricant
itself, which are able to remove cutting fluids. Also, they
can act as an additive for lubricant. For the solid lubricant
materials, molybdenum disulphide (MoS2), graphite, bo-
ron nitride and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) have been
used as dry powders or coating materials. These solid
lubricants in the machining test can cut down the cutting
forces and surface roughness.
& Using liquid gases, especially LN2, is considered as a fea-
sible alternative to get rid of the conventional cutting
fluids in the machining operations despite the fact that
there is improvement in the general machinability. The
use of cryogenic LN2 has been recognized as an efficient
technique to increase the tool life. However, literature
points out at the inconsistent performance of cryogenic
machining that is highly influenced by the tool–workpiece
material pairs. The type of cryogenic cooling method also
controls the machining performance. There is a need to
study and explore cryogenic machining with different
combinations of workpiece–tool material pairs. The life
cycle analysis (LCA) of LN2 cryogenic cooling shows that
the generation of LN2 is very energy extensive as com-
pared to other alternate approaches. At the same time, it
has advantage that it has no other sustainability-related
concerns such as acidification, solid waste, land usage
and water utilization. To evaluate the overall sustainability
for LN2 systems, the energy mix (fossil fuels or renew-
able) of the geological location plays vital role.
& There is a potential to work further on this environmental
friendly technique to mitigate the cooling effect on the
workpiece. Thus, it is concluded that not a single of the
abovementioned techniques could be considered as a
wide-ranging method which can be utilized for all tool–
piece material pair. In fact, at the present stage, each of
these approaches has their own merits and demerits.
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