CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
 SYNTHESIS OF BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
 CARBOHYDRATES
 LIPIDS
 PROTEINS
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Biological Macromolecules
- are molecules, necessary for life that are from smaller organic
molecules
- are organic, meaning they contain carbon
- they contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
additional minor elements
Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
 - Dehydration Synthesis
to put together while losing water
-the hydrogen of one monomer combines with hydroxyl
group of another monomer, releasing of molecule of water
Hydrolysis
Polymers are broken down into monomers
To split water, a reaction in which water molecule is used
during breakdown
The polymer is broken into two components: one part gains
a hydrogen atom (H+) and the other gains a hydroxyl molecule (OH-) from a split water molecule
Carbohydrates
Provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar that is component of starch and an ingredient in many
staple food.
Stoichiometric formula (CH2O) : Ration 1:2:1 ---- Components are carbon and components of water
Monosaccharides
- Number of carbons usually ranges from
three to seven
- End with the suffix -ose
- Aldehyde (−CH=O) – aldose
- Ketone =C=O – ketose
- Glucose is an important source of energy.
- During cellular respiration, energy is
released from glucose, and that energy is
used to help make ATP.
- - Plants synthesize glucose using CO2 and H2O, and glucose in turn used for energy requirements for the plant.
 - Excess glucose is often stored as starch that is catabolized
(breakdown of larger molecules by cells) by humans and
other animals that feed on plants
- Galactose (part of lactose, milk sugar)
- Fructose (found in sucrose, in fruit)
- Isomers same chemical formula (C6H12O6)
- Asymmetric carbon- different arrangement of the functional
group
- - Glucose in a ring form have two different arrangement of
the hydroxyl group (OH) around the anomeric carbon 1
- Alpha ( ) position – (OH) below carbon 1
- Beta (ϐ) position - above the plane

Isomers

Disaccharides
- form when two monosaccharides undergo a
dehydration reaction (condensation reaction)
- the -OH group of one monosaccharide
combines with H+ of another monosaccharide,
releasing of water molecule and forming
covalent bond
- - Glycosidic bond – a covalent bond formed
between two monosaccharides
- Glycosidic bonds (also called glycosidic
linkages) can be of the alpha or the beta type

Polysaccharides
- a long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
- the chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides
- Starch- stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin (polymers of glucose)
- Starch in the seeds provides food for the embryo as it germinates
- Starch is consumed by humans is broken down by enzymes, such as salivary amylase into maltose and glucose
- Glycogen- storage form of glucose in humans
and other vertebrates
- Highly branched molecule usually molecule
usually stored in liver and muscle cells.
- Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, to
release glucose in the process glycogenolysis
- Cellulose – most abundant biopolymer. The cell
wall of plants is mostly made up of cellulose
- Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that
are linked by ϐ 1-4 glycosidic bond

- Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is

flipped over

- While the *alpha1-4 linkage cannot be broken down

by human digestive systems
- Herbivores are able with the help of the specialized
flora in their stomach, to digest plant material that is
rich in cellulose
- Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose
monomers that can be used as an energy source by
the animal
- Chitin – is a long-chain polymer of an N-
acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose
- Exoskeleton of arthropods (insects, crustaceans)
- Component of fungal cell wall (fungi)
Benefits of Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates should be supplemented with proteins, vitamins, and fats to be part of well-balanced diet.
 Calorie-wise, carbohydrates (4.3 Kcal/g)
 Fats (9 Kcal/g)
 Carbohydrates contain soluble and insoluble
 Fiber (insoluble)- promotes regular bowel movement
 Regulates the rate consumption of blood glucose
 Helps to remove excess cholesterol from the body: fiber binds to the cholesterol in the small intestine, then attaches to the
cholesterol and prevent the cholesterol from entering the bloodstream, and the cholesterol exits the body via feces
 Fiber-rich diets also have a protective role in reducing the occurrence of colon cancer
 Immediate source of energy, glucose is broken
down during the process of cellular respiration,
which produces ATP
 Without the consumption carbohydrates, the
availability of instant energy is reduced.
 Eliminating carbohydrates from the diet is not the
best way to lose weight.
 |Low-calorie diet that is rich in whole grains, fruits,
vegetables, and lean meat, together with plenty of
exercise and water