CHAPTER 1 Student Version

Introduction to Chemistry
Chapter 1
Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 1 / 57

Outline
1 The Central Science
2 What is this thing called science?
3 Phases and Classification of Matter
4 Measurement
5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy and Precision
6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results

The Central Science

What is chemistry?
“The branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of
which matter is composed; the investigation of their properties and the ways
in which they interact, combine, and change; and the use of these processes
to form new substances.”
“Chemistry is that branch of natural philosophy in which the greatest

improvements have been and may be made.”
∼M. Waldman
“Engineering, too, owes its most useful materials to the achievements of

chemists in identifying, separating, and transforming materials: structural
steel for the framework of bridges and buildings, portland cement for
roadways and aqueducts, pure copper for the electrical industries, aluminum
alloys for automobiles and airplanes, porcelain for spark plugs and electrical
insulators. The triumphs of engineering skill rest on a chemical foundation.”
∼Horace G. Deming

What is chemistry?

Chemistry: The Central Science

Why are you really here?
http://www.npr.org/sections/money/2013/09/10/219372252/the-most-and-least-lucrative-college-majors-in-1-graph
Chemistry plays a central role in almost all of the college

majors with the highest earnings!

Why are you really here?
http://www.npr.org/sections/money/2013/09/10/219372252/the-most-and-least-lucrative-college-majors-in-1-graph

What is this thing called science?

What is this thing called science?

So you say science is built on the facts?
(A) Facts are given directly to

careful, unprejudiced observers
(scientists) via the senses.
(B) Facts are prior to and

independent of theory
(C) Facts constitute a careful and

reliable foundation for scientific
knowledge

There is more to seeing than meets the eyeball!

Finding the facts through observation
What an observer sees is affected by his or her past experiences.
Theory-dependence of observation
Language shapes perception!
Jules Davidoff worked with the Himba tribe from Namibia. In their
language, there is no word for blue and no real distinction between green
and blue.

Finding facts through observation
The act of visual observation involves
1 Physical properties of the eye: light forming images on the retina
2 The inner state of our minds, depends upon our cultural upbringing,
knowledge, and expectations
Seeing the same thing does not imply identical perceptual experiences!

The Scientific Approach

Phases and Classification of Matter

Phases and Classification of Matter
Macroscopic Microscopic

Some useful definitions
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter comes in four
different phases; solid, liquid, gas and plasma.
Solids are rigid, possess a definite shape and volume
Liquids flow, take the shape of their container and possess a definite volume
Gases flow and take both the shape and volume of their container

Some more useful definitions
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter.

Typically measured using a balance to
compare the mass of an object with a
standard.
Weight refers to the force that gravity exerts

on an object. Weight changes with the force
of gravity, mass does not!
Law of conservation of matter there is no detectable change in the total

quantity of matter present when matter converts from one type to another (a
chemical change) or changes among solid, liquid, or gaseous states (a
physical change).

Atoms and molecules
Matter is comprised of tiny building blocks
Atoms are sub-microscopic particles that

are the fundamental building blocks of
ordinary matter. “Atom” is derived from the
Greek atomos, meaning “indivisible”
Molecules are specific geometrical

arrangements of atoms bonded together.
Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand the behavior of matter by

studying the behavior of atoms and molecules.

Atoms and molecules
The details of how specific atoms bond to form a molecule; a straight line, a
particular angle, a ring, or in some other pattern, as well as the type of atoms
in the molecule, determine everything about the substance that the molecule
composes.

Atomic theory
John Dalton performed the first quantitative measurements which supported
the atomistic theory of matter in the 1900’s.
We now have over 200 years of experimental evidence supporting the theory
that matter is comprised of atoms.
During this course we will explore the structure and properties of atoms in
great detail. For now, there are a couple key points:
Atoms are small. A single carbon atom has a diameter of ∼0.000000015 cm. It
would take ∼10000 carbon atoms to span the diameter of a single cotton fiber!
Atoms are light. The world’s most sensitive balances ∼0.0000001 g, it would take
over 300,000,000,000,000 (3 × 1014 ) lead atoms to reach this weight!

Classifying Matter

Classifying Matter
A pure substance is made up of only one component, composition is

invariant.
An element is a substance that cannot be chemically broken down into
simpler substances.
A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements in a
fixed, definite proportion.
A mixture is composed of two or more components in proportions that can

vary from one sample to another.
A heterogeneous mixture (a.k.a solution) has a non-uniform
composition
A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition

Physical and chemical properties
A physical change alters only the A chemical property is a property a
state or appearance of the the substance displays only by changing
substance, not the composition. its composition via a chemical
change.
A physical property is a property a
substance displays without changing
its composition.

Physical and chemical Changes and Properties
Determine whether each change is physical or chemical. What kind of
property (chemical or physical) is demonstrated in each case?
(a) the evaporation of rubbing alcohol
(b) the burning of lamp oil
(c) the bleaching of hair with hydrogen peroxide
(d) the formation of frost on a cold night

Measurement

Units of measurement
The two most common unit systems are:

1 the metric system (used in most of the
world)
2 the English system (used in the United
States).
Scientists use the International System of

Units (SI), which is based on the metric
system
Paying close attention to units will prove

invaluable in guiding problem solving,
failure to do so can be disastrous!

SI Base Units
In this section we will focus on the first four of these units:

The meter is defined as the distance light travels through a vacuum in
1/299,792,458 seconds
The kilogram is defined as the mass of a metal cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
The second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the
radiation emitted from a certain transition in a cesium-133 atom.
Temperature scales

Converting between temperature scales
A sick child has a temperature of 40.0◦ C. What is the temperature in (a)

K and (b) ◦ F?
(a) Begin by finding the equation

that relates the quantity that is
given (◦ C) and the quantity you
are trying to find (K).
K =◦ C + 273.15
Then substitute in the correct

value for the temperature in ◦ C
and calculate the answer:
K = 40.00 + 273.15 = 313.15K

Converting between temperature scales
A sick child has a temperature of 40.0◦ C. What is the temperature in (a)

K and (b) ◦ F?
(b) Begin by finding the equation that
relates the quantity that is given (◦ C) and
(a) Begin by finding the equation the quantity you are trying to find (◦ F).
that relates the quantity that is ◦
given ( C) and the quantity you
◦ ◦
C = F1.8
−32
are trying to find (K).

Use this equation to obtain an expression
K =◦ C + 273.15 for ◦ F:
Then substitute in the correct 1.8(◦ C) = (◦ F − 32) →◦ F = 1.8(◦ C) + 32

value for the temperature in ◦ C
and calculate the answer: Then substitute in the correct value for the
temperature in ◦ C and calculate the
K = 40.00 + 273.15 = 313.15K answer:
◦
F = 1.8(40.00◦ C + 32 = 104.0◦ F

SI Prefix Multipliers
As we saw in appendix B, scientific notation allows us to express very large or

very small quantities in a compact manner using exponents.
The SI system uses prefix multipliers to change the value of the unit by
powers of 10, just like the exponent does in scientific notation.
For example, the kilometer has the prefix kilo meaning 1000 or 103 . Therefore:
1 kilometer = 1000 meters = 103 meters
Similarly, the millimeter has the prefix milli meaning 0.001 or 10−3 .
1 millimeter = 0.001 meters = 10−3 meters

SI Prefix Multipliers: MEMORIZE!
Prefix Symbol Multiplier

Derived Units
A derived unit is a combination of other units.
For example, the SI unit for speed is meters per second (m/s). A combination
of two SI units.
Volume is another derived unit. Volume = (length)3 , or m3 in SI units.
For example,
volume of cube = (edge length)3
A cube with a 10cm edge has a
volume of (10cm)3 or 1000cm3 .
To convert this to m3 :
1m 1m 1m
1000cm · cm · cm × 100cm 100cm 100cm
= 0.001 m3

Derived Units
A derived unit is a combination of other units.
For example, the SI unit for speed is meters per second (m/s). A combination
of two SI units.
Volume is another derived unit. Volume = (length)3 , or m3 in SI units.
For example,
volume of cube = (edge length)3
A cube with a 10cm edge has a
volume of (10cm)3 or 1000cm3 .
To convert this to m3 :
1m 1m 1m
1000cm · cm · cm × 100cm 100cm 100cm
= 0.001 m3 = 1 liter

Derived Units: Density
The density (d) of a substance is the ratio of its mass (m) to its volume (V ).
mass m
Density = volume or d = V
Density is a characteristic physical property of substances that depends upon

temperature.
Density is an intensive property, one that is independent of the amount of

the substance.
Intensive properties are the same regardless of how much you have, i.e. the
density of aluminum is the same if you have 1g or 1 kg. Mass, in contrast,
depends on the amount of substance and is therefore an extensive property.

Application of density
Because density is a characteristic

property of a substance, we can use
density to help identify an unknown
substance.
Step 1: determine the mass of the

unknown
Step 2: determine the volume of the
unknown
Step 3: calculate the density and

compare to density of known
substances.
m
d= V

Calculating density
A man receives a platinum ring from his fiancee. Before the wedding, he
notices that the ring feels a little light for its size, and so he decides to
determine its density. He places the ring on a balance and finds that it
has a mass of 3.15 g. He then finds that the ring displaces 0.233 cm 3 of
water. Given that the density of platinum is 21.4 g/cm3 , is the ring made
of platinum?

Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy and Precision

Reporting the Correct Number of Digits
The number of digits reported in a measurement depends on the measuring

device.
The graduated cylinder has markings

every 0.1 mL.
Report the volume to the correct

number of digits.

Counting Significant Figures
The precision of a measurement must be preserved when recording the

measurement and when performing calculations involving the measurement.
Preservation of the precision is achieved using significant figures.
In any reported measurement, the non-place-holding digits are called

significant figures
The greater the number of significant figures the greater the certainty of the
measurement.
For example, the number 23.5 has three significant figures, while the number
23.56 has four.

Rules for determining the number of significant figures

Exact Numbers
Exact numbers have no uncertainty, never limit the number of significant

figures in any calculation.
We regard exact numbers has having an unlimited number of significant

figures.
Exact numbers originate from three sources:

1 The accurate counting of discrete objects. For example, 3 atoms means
3.000000... atoms
2 From defined quantities, such as the number of cm in 1 m.
3 From integral numbers that are part of an equation. For example,
diameter
radius = 2

Determining the number of significant figures in a
number
How many significant figures are in each number?

(a) 0.04450 m
(b) 5.0003 km
(c) 10 dm = 1m
(d) 1.000 × 105 s
(e) 0.00002 mm
(f) 10,000 m

Significant Figures in Calculations

To avoid rounding errors in multi-step calculations, round only the final

answer! Do not round intermediate steps.
If you write down intermediate steps, keep track of significant figures by

underlining the least significant digit.

(a) 1.10 × 0.5120 × 4.0015 ÷ 3.4555
(b) 0.355 + 105.1 − 100.5820
(c) 4.562 × 3.99870 ÷ (452.6755 − 452.33)

Precision and accuracy
Measurements are often repeated several times to increase confidence in the
result.
There are two different kinds of certainty:

Accuracy refers to how close the measured value is to the actual value.
Precision refers to how close a series of measurements are to one
another, or how reproducible they are.

Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results

Converting from One Unit to Another
Many problems you encounter in chemistry are unit conversion problems,
where you are given one or more quantities are asked to convert them to
different units.
Using units as a guide to solving problems is called dimensional analysis.
Units should always be included in calculations! They are multiplied, divided,

and canceled like any other algebraic quantity.
Consider the conversion of 12.5 inches to cm:

2.54cm
12.5in × 1in = 31.8cm
The quantity 2.54cm

1in is a conversion factor obtained from the fact that there
are 2.54 cm in one inch.
Most conversion problems will have the following form:
Information given × conversion factor(s) = information sought

given unit × desired unit
give unit = desiredunit

Unit conversion
Convert 1.76 yards to centimeters:

Unit conversion
Convert 1.8 quarts to cubic centimeters:

Unit conversion
Calculate the displacement (the total volume of the

cylinders through which the pistons move) of a 5.70-L
automobile engine in cubic inches.

Unit conversion
The mass of fuel in a jet must be calculated before each

flight to ensure that the jet is not too heavy to fly. A 747 is
fueled with 173,231 L of jet fuel. If the density of the fuel is
0.768 g/cm3 , what is the mass of the fuel in kilograms?

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Introduction to Chemistry

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 1 / 57

1 The Central Science

2 What is this thing called science?

3 Phases and Classiﬁcation of Matter

5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy and Precision

6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 2 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 3 / 57

“Chemistry is that branch of natural philosophy in which the greatest

“Engineering, too, owes its most useful materials to the achievements of

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 4 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 5 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 6 / 57

Chemistry plays a central role in almost all of the college

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 7 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 8 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 9 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 10 / 57

(A) Facts are given directly to

(B) Facts are prior to and

(C) Facts constitute a careful and

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 11 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 12 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 13 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 14 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 15 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 19 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 20 / 57

Solids are rigid, possess a deﬁnite shape and volume

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 21 / 57

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter.

Weight refers to the force that gravity exerts

Law of conservation of matter there is no detectable change in the total

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 22 / 57

Matter is comprised of tiny building blocks

Atoms are sub-microscopic particles that

Molecules are speciﬁc geometrical

Chemistry is the science that seeks to understand the behavior of matter by

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 23 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 24 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 25 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 26 / 57

A pure substance is made up of only one component, composition is

A mixture is composed of two or more components in proportions that can

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 27 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 28 / 57

(b) the burning of lamp oil

(c) the bleaching of hair with hydrogen peroxide

(d) the formation of frost on a cold night

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 29 / 57

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 30 / 57

The two most common unit systems are:

Scientists use the International System of

Paying close attention to units will prove

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 31 / 57

In this section we will focus on the ﬁrst four of these units:

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 33 / 57

A sick child has a temperature of 40.0◦ C. What is the temperature in (a)

(a) Begin by ﬁnding the equation

Then substitute in the correct

K = 40.00 + 273.15 = 313.15K

Chapter 1 Intro to Chemistry 34 / 57

A sick child has a temperature of 40.0◦ C. What is the temperature in (a)