HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PENSTOCKS

Penstocks: Pressure conduit or shaft, usually of short length to convey

water from reservoir or Forebay to scroll case and thence to turbines.

• The fabricated penstocks are tested for 1.5 times the design pressure.
Radiographic and ultrasonic testing are done for detecting defects in the
welded joints.

• Gate is provided u/s of the Penstock and d/s of the gate air vent or stand pipe
is provided, which connects the top of the Penstock to the open air. Air vent
pipe facilitate proper escape of air from the Penstock while filling the
Penstocks.

• Surge shaft is provided before the powerhouse to release increased pressure

on account of sudden closure.

• Manholes are provided along the length of the Penstock at 120 m to 150 m to
provide access to the pipe interior for inspection maintenance and repair.

• A length of 5 to 10 times the diameter of the penstock should be horizontal

from the centerline of the unit, so as to have a uniform distribution of water in
the scroll or spiral case.

• The radius of curvature in the Penstock profile should be three to five times
the diameter of the Penstock.
 QUALITY OF APPROACH FLOW TO TURBINES
• Flow free of separations.

• No air entraining vortices.

• Uniform velocity profile over the complete flow cross-section.

• Deviation of local velocity from the average velocity should not be greater
than ± 5%.

• Deviation of local flow direction from axial should not be more than 50.

Turbine efficiency due to non-uniform velocity distribution

H/Hdesign Decrease in efficiency

1.2 1.4
1.0
0.8
0.77 -2.4
1.5 0.89 -2.1
1.07 -1.9
1.12 -1.7
Classification of Penstocks

(A) Based on Type of Installation

(i) Surface Penstocks – BSL in HP (Surface Penstock and Penstock in tunnel)

Advantages:

• Easy and regular inspection

• Less expensive installation

• Maintenance and repairs easy

• Safety against sliding may be ensured by properly designed anchorage

Disadvantages:

• Prone to rusting and corrosion being exposed

• Repeated painting of outer surface is needed

• Supporting and anchoring on steep hill slope is difficult and costly.

• Susceptible to damage by landslides, snowslides etc.

• Expansion joint necessary

• Chances of water conveyed being frozen in severe cold climates.

(ii) Embedded Penstocks

The steel penstock is entirely embedded in the large mass of concrete dam – serving
as watertight membrane.

• Nagarjunasagar dam: embedded and supported on the d/s slope of the dam

• Jawaharsagar dam: Partly embedded in the dam and partly encased in concrete
and buried in earth.

(iii) Buried Penstocks

Advantages:
• Protection against effect of temperature.

• Protection against freezing of water

• Landscape remains unchanged

• Protection against animals, earthquake shocks.

• No expansion joint needed

• Continuous support helps in reducing steel plates thickness

Disadvantages:

• Less accessible for inspection – difficult to locate fault.

• Installation costly

• Tendency of sliding of pipes on steep hill sides.

• Need special coating against the corrosive action of the salts

• Maintenance and repairs difficult

(IV) In-Tunnel Penstocks –

Conduits are placed in open tunnel duly supported suitably as surface penstock
or backfilled with concrete. The Penstocks are also laid in concrete diversion
tunnel converted into Penstock tunnel and backfilled with concrete as at Pong
Dam.

(V) In-Shaft Penstocks

Penstocks is laid in pressure shaft or tunnel shaft and backfilled with concrete.
In this arrangement rock participation is taken into account. So, thickness
requirement is less.
(B) Based on Method of Fabrication

(i) Riveted or Flange Bolted Penstocks

(ii) Welded Penstocks

(iii) Multilayer Penstock – several layers of thin steel plates wrapped around the
pre-fabricated central core pipe.

(iv) Banded or Hooped Penstocks – bands or hoops are slipped over thin walled
penstock pipe which induce pre-stress in the pipe

(C) Based on Rigidity of Supports

(i) Rigid pipelines with anchors

(ii) Flexible pipelines – expansion joint or flexible coupling

(iii) Semi Rigid pipelines

(D) Based on Material of Fabrication

(i) Steel Penstocks – used for head > 50 m, welded pipe is invariably used.

Minimum thickness of exposed steel pipe:

USBR t (cm) = (D + 50)/400 ; D = diameter of pipe (cm)

IS 11639-1995 t (m) = (R +0.25)/200 ; R = radius of pipe (m)

For large diameter ( > 5m ) Penstocks, stiffening rings are provided

(ii) RCC Penstock – for head upto 20 m

(iii) Glass fibre Reinforced Penstock

Layout of Penstocks

Layout of the Penstock depends on:

Topography, site condition, location of dam and power plant

Alignment:

Shortest route; sharp bends avoided

The radius of curvature in the Penstock profile should be three to five

times the diameter of the Penstock.

Grade:

Grade varies to suit the topography

Branches and Wyes:

Provided to ensure smooth streamlined flow from header to the

branch to minimize losses. And should have small angle of
deflection.
 ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF PENSTOCKS

= Minimum [Annual cost of Penstocks (Capital + OMR cost) + Cost of power

lost on account of head loss]

Empirical Formulae

1. G.S. Sarkaria’s Formulae (1958)

 P 0.43 
D  0.62 0.65 
H 

D = Diameter in (m); H = rated head of Turbines in (m); P = rated horse Power (metric)

1/ 4
 Q  2
D  3.55 
 2gH 
Q = discharge (m3/s)
2. USBR (1958)

0.466
P D(m); P(hp); H(m)
D  0.176 
H

3. USBR (1961) (P J Bier)

Permissible velocity in Penstocks, V  0.125 2gH

V(m/s); P(hp); H(m)

4. G. Isakssons Formula

D = Q0.40 for steel lined shafts at depths from 30 to 80 m

D(m); Q(m3/s)

5. F. Fahlbush’s Formula

D = 0.62 Q0.48 for concrete lined conduits

D = 1.12 H-0.12 Q0.45 for steel lined conduits

D(m); Q(m3/s); H(m)

econ_dia_Penst1.xls
Graphical Solutions

Cost of power lost due to losses  C1

Total annual cost of the penstock  C2

Total  C= C1+C2

Cost

C2 C1

Diameter
Economical diameter
Analytical Methods

Notations used:
Cc = Unit cost of concrete lining Rs/m3

Ce = Unit cost of excavation Rs/m3

Cp = Cost of 1 KWh energy in Rs.

Cs = Cost of steel Rs/kg

D = Diameter

 = Efficiency of plant

ej = Joint efficiency of Penstock

H = Head on Penstock including water hammer

N = Manning's Coefficient

Lf = Load factor (annual)

Q = Discharge

s = Mass density of steel (kg/m3)

a = Safe allowable stress

I = %age by which steel penstock is overweight due to provision of

stiffeners, Corrosion allowance etc.

Rf = Capital recovery factor

Analytical Methods

Let C1 = Annual cost of the energy lost in friction

C2 = annual costs corresponding to any Diameter D

The optimality condition is

d (C1  C2 )
0
dD

If C1 = k1 Dm and C 2 = k 2D m

k1, k2 m & n are constants

mk1Dm-1 + nk2Dn-1 = 0

mk 1
Dn  m  
nk 2

1
 mk 1  n m
D    
 nk 2 
 Annual Cost of Energy Lost, C1

fL V 2
Head Loss hf 
D 2g

hf fQ 2

L 12.1 D5

Power Lost in friction per unit length = gQhf 

fQ3
 g . 5
 W
12.1 D

Average running time = Lf  365  24 (hr)

Energy Lost per year in kWh per unit length of penstock

fQ3 1
 g . 5
.Lf . 365. 24. kWh
12.1 D 1000

fQ3
 0.724g 5  L f
D
 fQ3
C1  0.724g 5  Lf Cp  k1D m
D

Thus k1 = 0.724gfQ3 Lf Cp

and m = - 5
For  =1000kg/m3; g=9.81 m/s2

k1 = 0.7102104fQ3 Lf Cp

Annual Cost C2 corresponding to any diameter D

= Rf  capital cost of penstock + OMR costs

Let annual OMR cost = M times of capital cost (say M=0.03)

i1  i 
N

C2 = (Rf + M) capital cost of penstock Rf 

1  i N  1
Mass of steel,
W  Dts PD
t
2a e j
PD
W  D s
2a e j
 PD2
W s
2a e j

PD2
Cost of Steel  s C s
2a e j
PD2
C2  R f  M  s C s  k 2 D n
2a e j

P
Thus k 2  R f  M  s Cs ; n2
2a e j

For s  7850 kg/m 3 ; e j  0.85

k 2  R f  0.0314.5 10
P 3
Cs
a

Thus,
1 1
 k1 5  2 ( 5)
 k1  7
D      2.5  econ_dia_Penst2.xls
 k2 2   k2 
 I.S. METHOD (IS 11625 – 1986)

(a) Annual cost of energy lost

Head Loss in Penstock / m Length, N2 V 2

hf  4
3
R

N2Q2
 4 2
D 3  2 
   D 
4 4 

10.3 N2Q2
 16
3
D
Annual cost of power lost

1
C1  hf . g. Q . .L f . 365  24 . . Cp
1000

10.3 N 2Q 2
 16
 9.81  Q   Lf  365  24  Cp
3
D
0.88 106 N 2Q3  Lf Cp
 16
3
D
(b) Annual cost and OMR Cost of penstock

(i) Cost of excavation, considering tunnel dia 0.33 D in excess of

Penstock


 D  0.33D2 Ce
4

= 1.39 D2 Ce

(ii) Cost of Concrete lining taking thickness of lining as 0.165 D

=  (D+ 0.33 D)  0.165 D  Cc

= 0.6 D2 Cc

(iii) Cost of steel in Penstock

Penstock cost including I% for stiffeners etc =  Dt ( 1 + I) s Cs

HD PD HD
D (1  I) 7850 Cs t 
2 a e j 2 a e j 2 a e j
 HD 2
(1  I)Cs
 1.21108
a e j

Total capital Cost = (i) + (ii) + (iii)

 HD 2
(1  I)Cs 
 1.39 D Ce  0.6 D Cc  1.2110
2 2 8

 a e j 

Annual Capital Cost, C2

 8 HD (1  I)Cs
2 
 1.39 D Ce  0.6 D Cc  1.2110
2 2
 Rf
 a e j 

Total Annual cost = C1 + C2

Economical diameter

d(C1  C2 )
0
dD
16
16  3 1  1.21108 H(1  I)Cs 
 D  0.88 10 N Q Lf Cp  1.39 Ce  0.6Cc 
6 2 3
  2D  R f  0
3  a e j 
 22 2.35 106 N 2 Q3L f C p
D 3

 1.21108 H (1  I)Cs 
1.39Ce  0.6 Cc   Rf
 a e j 

econ_dia_Penst3.xls

i1  i 
N
Note : Capital recovery factor, R f 
1  i N  1
Number of Penstocks

• Decided on the basis of thorough analysis of merits and demerits and

economics of different feasible alternatives.

• Long Penstock (high head Penstock)  Single in upper stretches and

branching in lower stretches

• Short Penstock – Individual to each unit

• A single big size penstock – less costly compared to multiple penstocks

• Significant losses at the manifold

• Increased number of accessories & civil works for more number of

penstocks
Mathematical comparative study for one or n number of Penstocks
with discharge Q and head H remaining the same

(A) Velocity is kept constant, i.e., V = Vn

 2  2
D n d
4 4
D
 d
n

Thickness of pipe

PD Pd
t and t n 
2 a 2a

a = allowable stress

t
tn 
n
Volume of steel per unit length in n conduits

D t
  dt n  n   . . n  Dt
n n

 Same as for a single pipe

Head Loss

fL V 2
hf  for a single pipe
D 2g

fL Vn2 n fL V 2
h fn   . for n pipes
d 2g D 2g

h fn  n h f
(B) If head loss is kept constant

Q2 Q2 Q 2n
as h f  5  h f  a1 5  a1 5
D D d
as Q = n Qn

n2Qn2 Qn2
5
 5
D d

D
d  2/5
n

As t  diameter

t
tn 
n2/5
Volume of steel per unit length in n conduits

D t
  dt n  n  2 / 5 . 2 / 5 . n   Dtn1/ 5
n n

Q Q V
Vn    1/ 5
d 2
nD 2
n
n
4 n4 / 5 .4

V
Vn  1/ 5
n
 Design Criteria for Penstocks

Non-embedded Penstocks

According to the ASME Code, a penstock may be designed under the following
conditions.
(i) Normal conditions – maximum static head plus pressure rise due to normal
operation
Allowable stress = ultimate tensile strength /3 (3)

< 2/3 (0.5) Minimum yield stress

(ii) Intermittent condition – conditions during filling & draining the penstock
Allowable stress = Ultimate tensile strength / 2.25 (2.5)

< 0.8 (2/3) Minimum yield stress

(iii) Emergency condition – gate closure etc

Allowable stress = Ultimate tensile strength / 1.5 (2)

< (0.8) Minimum yield stress

(iv) Exceptional condition – Condition includes malfunctioning of control equipment

in the most adverse manner and shall not be used as the basis of design.
( ) As per IS 11639 (Part1) 1986
Embedded Penstocks

According to the IS 11639 (PartII) 1986, a penstock may be designed under

the following conditions.
(i) Normal conditions – maximum static head plus pressure rise due to normal
operation allowable stress = ultimate tensile strength /3

< 0.6 Minimum yield stress

(ii) Intermittent condition – conditions during filling & draining the penstock
Allowable stress = 0.4 Ultimate tensile strength
< 2/3 Minimum yield stress

(iii) Emergency condition – gate closure etc

Allowable stress = 2/3 Ultimate tensile strength
> 0.9 Minimum yield stress
(iv) Exceptional condition
Allowable stress < Minimum yield stress
Wall thickness of Penstock

1. ASME Code

PR
t (cm)   0.15
ae j  0.6P

P (kg / cm 2 ) ; R (cm); a (kg / cm 2 )

2. Pacific gas and Electric Co’s formula (1957)

0.002 a t
H
D  0.0012 t

H (m) ; D(m); a (t / m2 ); t (mm)

Subject to minimum

D
t
288
Allow 1.5mm extra thickness for corrosion
3. Barlow’s Formula

0.002 a t
H
D  0.002 t

4. Minimum thickness to provide necessary rigidity during transport

and handling
(I) U.S.B.R. (1958)

D  500
tmm   (D in mm )
400

(ii) Mosony’s recommendations

6 mm for small diameter liners
10 mm for large diameter liners

(iii) IS:11639:1995 (Part –2)

R  0.25
t t (m) ; R (m)
200
 HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PENSTOCK

(1) Head loss at trash rack

USBR Formula (IS 11388 : 1995)

Va2
ht  kt
2g

Va = actual velocity through rack opening

When the trash rack consists of a rack of bars, the loss will depend on bar
thickness, depth and spacing

2
an  an 
k t 1.45  0.45   
at  at 

an = net area through trash rack bars

at = gross area of racks and support

where max. loss values are desired, 50% of the rack area shall be considered
clogged
(2) Head Loss at Intake Entrance
depends on shape of the intake mouth

V2
he  ke
2g
V = Velocity at entrance
ke = Loss coefficient for entrance and read from following table (IS:4880
(PartIII) – 1976)
(3) Friction Loss

Darcy-Weisbach formula:

fL V 2
hf 
D 2g

Friction factor f shall be read from Moody Diagram

Manning’s Formula:
1 2 3 12
V R S
n
n = 0.012 to 0.014 for concrete pipes
= 0.008 to 0.012 for steel pipes
(4) Bend Loss
V2
hb  kb
2g
k b  f (R / D, deflection angle , roughness of interior surface)

Loss Coefficients for Pipe Bends of Smooth Interior

Loss Coefficients for 90o Bends of Rough Interior Surface
(5) Valves & Fittings Loss
V2
hv  kv
2g

General Trend of Valve Loss Coefficient and Restriction of Passage for

Butterfly Valves
IS 2951 Part II - 1965
(6) Branches and Wyes Losses

Loss = f (angle of bifurcations, ratio of x-sectional area, shape)

Loss at Pipe Junctions with Dividing Flow

(7) Loss due to expansion & contraction

Expansion

k ex ( V1  V2 )2
hex 
2g
Sudden expansion kex = 1
Gradual conical expansion
For total cone angle  =40o to 60o kex = 1
 =7.5o to 35o


1.22

k ex  3.5  tan 
 2

Contraction

 V12  V22 
h c  k co  
 2g 
 

For gradual kco = 0.1

For Abrupt kco = 0.5

Loss Coefficients for contraction
Dividing flow symmetrical ‘Y’ junction with A1+A2=A3
Dividing flow symmetrical ‘Y’ junction with A1=A2=A3
 Example for calculation of losses

The water level in the Forebay of the proposed Hanuman Ganga small hydro project is 2345.55
m and normal tail water level is 2186.20 m, calculate the available net head using the following
data:

Length of penstock = 380 m

Diameter of penstock =1.117 m.
Discharge = 3.2 m3/s
Friction factor for penstock = 0.015
Entrance loss coefficient = 0.5
Total number of bends =5
Bend loss coefficient = 0.2
Butterfly valve = one
Butterfly loss coefficient = 0.6
Ratio of solid area to total area of trash rack = 0.30
Approach velocity to track rash = 0.65 m/s
Assume other losses = 0.40 m
Use IS code method for computation of loss through trash rack.
Given Data:

Va = 0.65 m/s
L = 380 m
D = 1.117 m
f = 0.015

Velocity in penstock,

Calculations for Head Loss due to friction:

Calculations for Head Loss due to entrance:

Calculations for Head Loss due to bend:

Calculations for Head Loss due to valve:

Calculations for Head Loss at trash rack:

[ as per IS 11388: 1995 ]

where, an = Net area through trash rack bars

at = Gross area of racks and support

Solid area = 0.3 * gross area (ag)

Net area of opening (an) = (1 – 0.3) ag = 0.7 ag

Now, an/ag = 0.7

then, KT = =1.45 – 0.45 (0.7) – (0.7)^2 = 0.645
so,
Other losses = 0.4 m

Total Hydraulic losses in penstock

HL = (2.773 + 0.272 + 0.543 + 0.326 + 0.014 + 0.4) m

= 4.328 m

Available Net Head,

Hnet = (2345.55 – 2186.20) – HL m
= (159.35 – 4.328) m
= 155.022 m
AERATION INLET (AIRVENT)
An air vent is always provided just downstream of a control gate
to avoid vortices following empirical equations may be used:

h for symmetric approach

 0.3 Qa
V D
h
 0.4 for lateral approach
V D
h Air vent
h(m); d(m); and V(m/s)

V
Purposes

(i) To admit air when gate is closed and the water in the conduit recedes
down.
(ii) To exhaust air when the penstock is being filled through bye pass lines to
balance the water pressure on two sides of the gate prior to its being lifted
up.
(iii) To control sub-pressures downstream of gate at partial opening
As per IS 9761:1981 – the air vent shall be so designed as to admit air at the
rate the turbine is discharging water under full gate conditions (Qa = Q)

The area of air vent may be fixed by the following formula (IS: 9761:1981)

3
D 2
Q F 
A  t 
750000 Cd

A = Area of the inlet pipe in m2

Q = Max. discharge through penstock in m3/s.
F = Factor of safety against collapse of pipe (3 to 4)
D = Diameter of penstock in m
t = Thickness of penstock in m
Cd = Coefficient of discharge through inlet (0.5 for ordinary type of intake valves
and 0.7 for short air inlet pipes)
In the above equation it is assumed that pressure outside the penstock is equal
to pressure outside the air vent pipe and also maximum negative pressure
developed in the penstock and air vent is equal to head available
24 E I
Pe 
D3

E = Young’s modulus
D = Penstock diameter t3
I = Moment of Inertia = 12

3
t
Pe  2 E  
D

Introducing Factor of Safety F

3
2 t
Pe  E  
F D
Flow through air inlet

Qa  Cd A 2gh Pe  gh

Qa2
h
2gC2d A 2

Pe Qa2
 
g 2gC d2 A 2

 Qa2
Pe 
2C2d A 2
Qa2
3
2  t 
E   2 2
F  D  2Cd A

FQ  D 
2 3

A  2  
2 a

4Cd E  t 
3
F Qa  D  2 
A  
Cd  t  2 E
Let  = 1.2 kg/m3
E = 2.1  1010 kg/m2 = 2.1  1010  9.81 N/m2

3
FQa  D  2 1.2 1
A   .
Cd  t  2.11010  9.81 2

3
FQa  D  2 1
   .
Cd  t  828674
Some empirical relationships for size of air vent pipe air :

1. Euger & Seelay’s formula

Qa  400 Cd A Pe

Qa(m3/s); A (m2); Pe (kg/cm2)

Pe = differential pressure between the atmosphere and in the

penstock

2. Fourth congress on large dam guide

Area of air vent = 10% of control gate area

3. U.S.B.R. design guide

Capacity of air vent = 25% of conduit discharge

4. G.S. Sarkaria’s Formula

Dia of air vent pipe

0.273
P L 
2
d  0.00573  2 
H 

L = Length of air vent pipe , m

P = Rated output (hp)
H = Rated head of turbine, m
Example for design of Air Vent

A turbine develops a maximum of 5000 h.p under a head of 25 m at an overall efficiency of 80%.
Find the size of an air vent to be provided just behind the gate. Safe difference of pressure between
the inside and outside of the pipe = 0.15 kg/cm2 and Cd=0.7.

Given:

P = 5000 hp = 5000746 = 373 kW , H = 25 m, = 80 %, Cd = 0.7, Pe = 0.15 kg/cm2

Q = P/ gH

= 373000/98109.810.8025 = 19.0 m3/s

Qa = Q = 19 m3/s (as per IS 9761:1981)

Euger & Seelay’s formula

Qa  400 Cd A Pe

A = 19/4000.7(0.15)0.5 = 0.175 m2=d2/4

Diameter, d = 0.47 m

IS: 9761:1981
3
D 2
Q F 
A  t 
750000 Cd
 3
2E  t 
Pe    E  2.1 1010 kg / m 2
F D

0.5 0.5
 2E   2  2.1 10 
3/ 2
D
10
       
4 
 2645.75
 t   FPe   4  0.15 10 

3
D 2
Q F 
A  t   19  4  2645.75
750000 C d 750000  0.7

 0.1915m 2

Diameter , d  0.494m say 0.5 m

END OF CHAPTER