Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91

Generation and management of construction and

demolition waste in Greece—an
existing challenge
D. Fatta∗ , A. Papadopoulos, E. Avramikos, E. Sgourou,
K. Moustakas, F. Kourmoussis, A. Mentzis, M. Loizidou
School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zographou Campus, 9 Heroon,
Politechniou, 157 73 Athens, Greece

Received 10 August 2002; accepted 31 January 2003

Abstract

In Greece, the construction industry has been developing rapidly over the past decades and the
Olympic Games that, will be held in Athens in 2004 have made this development even more intense.
The stream of construction and demolition (C&D) waste must be dealt with special attention because
of the shortage of landfill space for disposal and the various dangerous substances contained in it,
which, can potentially affect the environment and human life if not managed properly. The working
group of the NTUA was provided with a grant by Eurostat in order to collect data and illustrate the
current status in the country in regards to C&D waste. This paper presents the results of the study
and analyses the generation sources, the estimated quantities of C&D waste as well as the current
waste management practices in Greece. Recommendations are made in order to deal with this problem
effectively and promote sustainable waste management solutions such as reuse and recycling.
© 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Construction and demolition waste generation and management; Recycling of construction and
demolition waste; Treatment of construction and demolition waste; Greece

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +30-210-772-3108; fax: +30-210-772-3285.

E-mail address: dfatta@orfeas.chemeng.ntua.gr (D. Fatta).

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0921-3449(03)00035-1
82 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91

1. Introduction

Waste minimization and effective and sustainable waste management are basic princi-
ples of the European Environmental Legislation and Strategy. As a part of the overall waste
management strategy, several specific waste streams have been defined to receive priority
attention, the aim being to reduce the overall environmental impact of each waste stream
(EC, 1999). Construction and demolition (C&D) waste according to the EU Waste Strategy
is considered as one of the ‘priority’ waste streams. According to the Sixth Environment
Action Program entitled ‘Environment 2010: Our future, Our choice’, recommendation
actions need to be taken with respect to the stream of C&D waste, (EC, 2001).
C&D waste refers to a wide range of materials. Depending on their origin, they are
categorized as follows:
• Excavation materials: this category includes excavated soil, sand, gravel, rocks, clay and
all those materials that, derive from excavations. They arise almost in every construction
activity and especially during the underground constructions and geotechnical engineer-
ing works. These materials may also arise from natural phenomena like stream overflows,
landslides, etc. The chemical synthesis of these materials depends on the their geological
characteristics.
• Road planning and maintenance materials: These materials may be asphalt and all pave-
ment materials such as sand, gravel, metal and material coming from road dismantling
and renovation. They may be also generated during underground hydraulic and electrical
installations in cities as well as from repairing activities.
• Demolition materials—debris: These materials consist of soil, gravel, pieces of concrete,
lime-cast, bricks, overlay plates, gypsum, sand, dressed stone, porcelain etc. They are
not homogenous and arise from the demolition of buildings or other civil engineering
infrastructures. Their composition varies depending on the type, age, shape, use and size
of the building, while at the same time the historical, cultural and economic value of
the building are very important factors for the quality characteristics of the demolition
materials.
• Worksite waste materials: These materials consist of wood, plastic, paper, glass, metal,
wires, pigments, enamels, covers, glues, and all those material coming from the oper-
ation of worksite construction, repairing, propping, accretion, expansion or renovation
activities (Donovan, 1991; Bringezu and Schutz, 1998).

2. Generation sources

C&D waste can be found in various sites such as (i) demolish and clear sites (i.e. sites
with structures or infrastructure to be demolished, but on which, no new construction is
planned in the short term), (ii) demolish, clear and build sites (i.e. sites with structures or
infrastructure to be demolished prior to the erection of new ones), (iii) renovation sites, (iv)
greenfield building sites (i.e. undeveloped sites on which, new structures or infrastructures
are to be erected), (v) road build sites and (vi) road refurbishment sites, (SYMONDS Group
Ltd, 1999).
 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91 83

Fig. 1. Activities found on C&D sites (SYMONDS Group Ltd, 1999).

Fig. 1 demonstrates the five basic activities, which, may take place on the aforementioned
working sites.

3. Hazardous characteristics of the C&D waste stream

Council Directive 91/689/EEC (1991) (in Annex III) established a list of criteria to be
used when the hazardousness of waste is being determined. This list was subsequently
published as Council Decision 94/904/EEC (the hazardous waste list) and recently revised
by the Commission Decision, 2001/118/EC (2001).
Very few materials, which, may be classified as C&D waste, are invariably hazardous
as defined in Directive 91/689/EEC and Decision 94/904/EEC. One of the most obvious
examples of this small group, and certainly the one which, is most frequently cited, is
84 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91

asbestos-based insulation. However, some other materials may be hazardous because they
display one or more of the characteristics used in the Directive’s Annex III to define haz-
ardousness (such as toxicity or flammability). These characteristics may only be revealed
under specific circumstances, which, it may be possible to avoid.
Furthermore, some other waste materials, which, are found in relatively small amounts
in C&D waste (such as paint and plastics), although not necessarily hazardous, are not
inert either. For the sake of the much larger inert fraction, such materials should be kept
separate from this fraction. If they are not, it may not be possible to treat the main bulk of
the materials as inert.
Some C&D waste fractions are hazardous because the materials originally used contained
a high proportion of materials, which, were themselves hazardous (e.g. lead, tar, asbestos,
paint and preservative residues). Other materials become hazardous as a direct result of the
environment in which, they have existed for many years. Finally, other C&D waste fractions
become hazardous if they are in contact with hazardous materials and/or subsequently get
mixed with them. (Council Directive 91/689/EEC, 1991; Council Decision 94/904/EC,
1994; SYMONDS Group Ltd, 1999).

4. Existing situation in Greece concerning C&D waste generation and management

Greece is generally characterized by the absence of a network for the collection and
utilization of the materials contained in the C&D waste generated. The limited actions are
fragmental and dependent on the willingness of the responsible people for the construction.
More specifically, few materials are reused such as wires, glass, frames of doors and win-
dows. Some quantities end up to landfills, while the major quantities are disposed of either
in uncontrolled sites or in other inappropriate sites. An attempt has been made during the
last years to dispose of this waste in inactive mining sites and to use it for the rehabilitation
of the natural terrene. This solution can be effective in case this waste is properly collected
so as only the inert materials is used for the two aforementioned purposes (Kollias, 1993;
Skordilis, 2001).
The direct determination of the generated quantities and the exact composition of C&D
waste are difficult. First of all, the construction companies until now are not obliged to
record and report the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the waste they generate
and, therefore, they are unable to provide relative accurate data.
For the time being, the only way for estimating the generated quantities of C&D waste
is through the use of data relevant to the building activity and the number of the demolition
licenses. These data are shown in Figs. 2 and 3 with reference years from 1991 to 2000.
In order to evaluate the quantities of C&D waste generated, three basic assumptions were
made as follows:
• 1000 m2 of building activity entail the generation of 50 m3 of waste.
• Each demolition corresponds to building of 60 m2 and the volume of the generated waste
is 114 m3 .
• In order to convert quantitative data from cubic meters into tonnes, the average value of
the C&D waste density was considered as 1.5 tonnes/m3 .
 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91 85

Fig. 2. Total number of construction licences in Greece (data provided by NSSG, 1999).

All the above assumptions were made after consultation with the National Statistical
Service of Greece (NSSG, 1999) and thorough research in other European countries.
In this way, the total quantities of C&D waste in Greece were estimated for the years 1996,
1997 1998, 1999 and 2000 (Table 1). It should be noted that, these quantities do not include
waste from construction and conservation of infrastructure activities. The distribution of
the aforementioned total quantities of C&D waste in the 13 peripheries of Greece is shown
in Fig. 4 for the years 1999 and 2000. Fig. 5 demonstrates the quantities of C&D in Greece
for the years 1999 and 2000 separately.

Fig. 3. Total number of demolition licences in Greece, (data provided by NSSG, 1999).
86 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91

Table 1
Total estimated quantities of C&D waste for the years 1996–2000 in Greece
Year Quantities of C&D waste (tonnes)

1996 1 636 298

1997 2 006 625
1998 2 130 939
1999 1 899 075
2000 2 092 387

Fig. 4. Total C&D waste in the Greek peripheries for the years 1999 and 2000.

On the basis of the last population inventory (10 939 605), the estimation of 2 092
387 tonnes of C&D waste for the year 2000 gives an average generation of 191 kg per
capita. This value is far lower than the average of the rest Member States of the European
Union (about 656 kg per capita including waste from infrastructure works). If the waste
from infrastructure activities were taken into consideration, the value of 191 kg per capita

Fig. 5. C&D waste generation in Greece for the years 1999 and 2000.
 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91 87

for Greece would substantially increase and most probably it would be comparable with the
average quantity generated in other European countries. Taking into account that, in most
countries, C&D waste approach and exceed the volume of municipal waste the volume of
C&D waste in Greece is estimated to exceed 3.9 million tonnes.
Nevertheless, it should also be noted that, waste amounts per capita vary considerably
from one country to another. This can partly be explained by the economic and cultural
differences that, exist between the countries. The different levels could also, to some extent
be explained by the different procedures of registration and use of this type of waste, (EEA,
2001).

5. Management plan for the construction and demolition waste in Greece

In 2001 a new Law was published (Law 2939, 2001) regarding the Alternative manage-
ment of packaging and other waste. This Law together with the Joint Ministerial Decision,
69728/824/96 on Measures and conditions for the management of solid waste, set the frame-
work on which, a management plan for the C&D waste must be based. More specifically
the management must take into account and be in line with the following principles:
• Sustainability and viability.
• Waste prevention and minimization.
• Polluter pays principle.
• Producer’s responsibility.
• Energy and raw materials conservation.
• Protection of the natural resources.
• Minimization of the hazardous characteristics of waste.
• Minimization of the waste quantities stored temporarily.
• Increase of the quantities being reused, recycled and recovered.
• Promotion of environmental investments.
• Safe final disposal.
• Launch of awareness campaigns and educational programs.
During their study the authors ended up with the following proposals and suggestions that,
are related to the achievement of orthological management of the C&D waste in Greece.
Since the inventory of the generated waste has not taken place yet, the proposals are based
on the calculations made by the NTUA working group.All the proposals are in line with the
aforementioned principles.
The first important step that, needs to take place is the recording of the generated quantities
of C&D waste. It should be noted that, EU puts emphasis on the collection of accurate
statistical data and the development of integrated information channels. These results would
constitute the basis for the determination of the treatment methods and the capacity of the
treatment units per periphery. Moreover, all the illegitimate areas used for disposal of C&D
waste should be registered and quantitative data should be collected.
A large amount of C&D waste is generated from infrastructure activities. Therefore, the
cooperation with the big building companies that, undertake such projects is essential for
the collection of quantitative data about waste generation.
88 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91

The fact that, the main quantities of this waste stream are generated in Athens and
Thessaloniki gives priority to the implementation of management plans for these areas and
especially Athens due to the forthcoming Olympic Games of 2004, which, requires the
development of thousands of building sites for the following years.
These plans should ensure that, the consumption of resources does not exceed the carrying
environmental capacity and contribute to sustainable development (Koliopoulos, 1999). The
achievement of a de-coupling of resource use from economic growth through significantly
improved resource efficiency, dematerialization of the economy and waste prevention should
be the main objective (EC, 2001).
The main feature for the proposed scheme in cities, where large quantities of C&D are
generated, is the construction and operation of a unit for the treatment/recycling of C&D
waste and the disposal of inert waste. This unit should include equipment for the sorting
and fracture of inert waste, as well as landfill for the disposal of the remains. The unit would
result in the production of building materials, metal scrap, timber, mixed useless materials
and inert residue.
The mixed useless materials have to be disposed of in controlled landfills, while the
rest useful materials must be promoted for sale. A tax is suggested to come in effect for
the disposal of non-inert waste such as debris that, contains timber, metals, etc. This tax
would constitute a strong incentive for the development of separation techniques from the
waste generators. Concerning taxation and the introduction of specific disposal fee, it should
be noted that, unless the generated quantities of C&D waste are registered and legitimate
disposal sites and waste treatment units are established, the uncontrolled disposal, the so
called fly tipping, will become a phenomenon of greater dimensions.
C&D waste could be used as covering material in landfills after the removal of the
dangerous substances. In addition, it could be used in road construction, in parking lot
construction, as embankments, etc (EC, 2000).
It should also be noted that, the immovable C&D waste treatment plants have higher
supply and installation cost than that, of mobile unit. Their equipment follows the latest
technology and they produce recycling material of high quality. Of course, a necessary
precondition for the fruitful outcome of such plants is that, they are installed in areas where
large quantities of C&D waste are generated. Regarding the majority of the areas of Greece
except Athens and Thessaloniki, the solution of the mobile treatment units seems to be the
optimum.
Regarding the management of the examined waste stream in the numerous Greek islands,
the following special circumstances should be stressed:
• There is limited available land for the installation of units.
• There is substantial distance from the continental Greece, while the sea transportation is
often hindered by the bad weather conditions.
• The activities are concentrated in certain parts of the islands.
• The local economy is dependent of tourism.
• Islands are characterized by long periods of high temperature and strong winds.
As a result, sites should be established for the temporary disposal of C&D waste. After-
wards, a mobile treatment unit, that, will serve the needs of the periphery, will exploit the
inert mixture of waste. Furthermore, the transportation of inert waste from one island to
 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91 89

another (with some exceptions on the basis of the distance) is not economically practicable
due to the large volume of the waste. In addition, there is the danger for social reactions if
waste is transported to other islands.
Similar special conditions exist in mountainous areas of Greece and, therefore, the frame-
work for the management of C&D waste should be relevant to the aforementioned.
The waste stream arisen from demolitions is characterized as having the higher degree of
difficulty regarding its management. Today, the development of a C&D waste management
plan prior to the granting of a demolition license is not a prerequisite in Greece. However,
in agreement with the principles of ‘the polluter pays’ and ‘the producer’s responsibility’,
the aforementioned management plan should become obligatory. Furthermore, this plan
should include estimation of the hazardous materials that, the building may contain, while
the demolition techniques should also be analyzed, as they can influence the composition of
the generated waste. The whole management system of the C&D waste should be described
in detail, before a license is granted to proceed to a demolition.
The waste stream from constructions presents less difficulty in respects to its manage-
ment because the quantities and the types of materials, which, enter the building sites, are
known. Waste prevention is an element requiring an integrated approach. The focus on
waste prevention now needs to be related both with quantitative (i.e. volumes) and qual-
itative (i.e. hazardousness) aspects. Good communication between the contractor and all
actors involved should be established in order to be able to use alternative materials instead
of e.g. timber as well as to adopt low-waste technologies. Also the training of workers to
improve their skills in handling materials and performing construction works, the regular
site inspection, the on-site sorting, the publication of waste indices, the better material or-
dering, the better material storage, the better material handling, the use of less packaging
materials and so on are considered to be of great importance (Poon et al., 2002).

Fig. 6. Management methods for C&D waste in selected European countries, (data provided by Eurostat and
elaborated by authors).
90 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91

In addition, the development of technical specifications for the reuse of the treated inert
products would be a valuable step. More specifically, their physical and mechanical char-
acteristics, as well as their application potential should be determined. In cooperation with
the building companies, the builders’ associations, the engineers, the Technical Chamber
of Greece and other competent authorities, the future establishment of a quality certifica-
tion concerning recycled products should be examined. In that, way, consumers will be less
suspicious towards recycled products. Moreover, agreements between the industry and gov-
ernmental authorities should contribute to lower prices of the recycled products in relation
to raw materials.
Waste volumes are predicted to continue rising unless remedial actions are taken together
with further measures to encourage recycling and recovery of waste. Several European
countries such as Belgium and Germany have already achieved high recycling rates of
this waste stream. Fig. 6 demonstrates the management methods applied in other European
countries. The data was retrieved from New Cronus, which, is the main database of Eurostat.

6. Conclusion

The issue of the management of C&D waste is rather complicated. The special charac-
teristics of Greece, related to the morphology and the high availability of raw materials,
makes the confrontation of this matter even harder. Not only should this issue attract the
attention of the competent management authorities, but also simple citizens should draw
their attention to it.
The necessary treatment technology for the effective management of C&D waste is quite
simple. The management difficulties mainly concern administrative factors and the lack of
fruitful cooperation between the competent authorities. For the time being, the only man-
agement scheme referring to C&D waste concerns excavation soil and inert waste, which,
are used for the rehabilitation of the natural terrene and inactive mining sites. Taking into
account the fact that, the solid waste management plans that, are currently being developed
focus on municipal waste so that, new landfills and other facilities are constructed and oper-
ate, it is really difficult to achieve the simultaneous establishment of landfills for inert waste
and C&D waste treatment units. Since the main volume of this waste stream is generated in
Athens (Attika region) and Thessaloniki (Central Macedonia), the management initiatives
should focus on these two cities.
In the framework of the development of integrated recycling schemes, most governments
of EU Member States reached agreements with the industries. This practice is not common
in Greece, although it should be. The technique of the selective demolition, the promotion
and use of materials friendly to the environment, the substitution of dangerous substances,
the market development for the recycling products and the introduction of technical spec-
ifications are measures that, could be beneficial provided that, the government is in close
cooperation with the industrial sector, the builders’ and engineers’ associations.
In other European countries the introduction of more strict measures such as taxation
and disposal have proved to be effective. In respects to Greece, such measures would have
a satisfying outcome if combined with the aforementioned actions. Nevertheless, measures
regarding the record of the generated C&D waste and the management techniques (for
 D. Fatta et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 40 (2003) 81–91 91

instance preconditions for demolition licensing) as well as the control of the quantity of
waste are necessary for the success of a management scheme.
Finally, Greece can be taught by the example of other Member States of the EU that,
have achieved high recycling rates of C&D waste in order to succeed in the application of
suitable C&D waste management plans.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their appreciation to Gerasimos Antzoulatos of the
NSSG for his continuous cooperation. Moreover, the authors wish to thank Eurostat (the
Statistical Service of the European Commission), Unit F-3: Environment, for providing
NTUA with a grant in order to collect data on C&D waste in Greece.

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