CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The finite element method (FEM), sometimes referred to as finite element analysis (FEA), is
a computational technique used to obtain approximate solutions of boundary value problems
in engineering. Simply stated, a boundary value problem is a mathematical problem in which
one or more dependent variables must satisfy a differential equation everywhere within a
known domain of independent variables and satisfy specific conditions on the boundary of
the domain. Boundary value problems are also sometimes called field problems. The field is
the domain of interest and most often represents a physical structure. The field variables are
the dependent variables of interest governed by the differential equation. The boundary
conditions are the specified values of the field variables (or related variables such as
derivatives) on the boundaries of the field. Depending on the type of physical problem being
analyzed, the field variables may include physical displacement, temperature, heat flux, and
fluid velocity to name only a few.

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY

The mathematical roots of the finite element method dates back at least a half century.
Approximate methods for solving differential equations using trial solutions are even older in
origin. Lord Rayleigh and Ritz used trial functions (in our context, interpolation functions) to
approximate solutions of differential equations. Galerkin used the same concept for solution.
The drawback in the earlier approaches, compared to the modern finite element method, is
that the trial functions must apply over the entire domain of the problem of concern. While
the Galerkin method provides a very strong basis for the finite element method, not until the
1940s, when Courant introduced the concept of piecewise-continuous functions in a
subdomain, did the finite element method have its real start.

In the late 1940s, aircraft engineers were dealing with the invention of the jet engine and the
needs for more sophisticated analysis of airframe structures to withstand larger loads
associated with higher speeds. These engineers, without the benefit of modern computers,
developed matrix methods of force analysis, collectively known as the flexibility method, in
which the unknowns are the forces and the knowns are displacements. The finite element
method, in its most often-used form, corresponds to the displacement method, in which the
unknowns are system displacements in response to applied force systems. In this text, we
adhere exclusively to the displacement method. As will be seen as we proceed, the term
displacement is quite general in the finite element method and can represent physical
displacement, temperature, or fluid velocity, for example. The term finite element was first
used by Clough in 1960 in the context of plane stress analysis and has been in common usage
since that time.

During the decades of the 1960s and 1970s, the finite element method was extended to
applications in plate bending, shell bending, pressure vessels, and general three-dimensional
problems in elastic structural analysis as well as to fluid flow and heat transfer. Further
extension of the method to large deflections and dynamic analysis also occurred during this

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time period. An excellent history of the finite element method and detailed bibliography is
given by Noor.

The finite element method is computationally intensive, owing to the required operations on
very large matrices. In the early years, applications were performed using mainframe
computers, which, at the time, were considered to be very powerful, high-speed tools for use
in engineering analysis. During the 1960s, the finite element software code NASTRAN was
developed in conjunction with the space exploration program of the United States.
NASTRAN was the first major finite element software code. It was, and still is, capable of
hundreds of thousands of degrees of freedom (nodal field variable computations). In the years
since the development of NASTRAN, many commercial software packages have been
introduced for finite element analysis. Among these are ANSYS, ALGOR, ABAQUS and
COSMOS/M. In today‟s computational environment, most of these packages can be used on
desktop computers and engineering workstations to obtain solutions to large problems in
static and dynamic structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, electromagnetics, and seismic
response. In this text, we do not utilize or champion a particular code. Rather, we develop the
fundamentals for understanding of finite element analysis to enable the reader to use such
software packages with an educated understanding.

1.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

The field of Mechanics can be subdivided into three major areas: Theoretical, Applied, and
Computational.

Theoretical Mechanics deals with fundamental laws and principles of mechanics studied for
their intrinsic scientific value.

Applied Mechanics transfers this theoretical knowledge to scientific and engineering

applications, especially through the construction of mathematical models of physical
phenomena.

Computational Mechanics solves specific problems by simulation through numerical

methods implemented on digital computers.

Due to the complexity of physical systems, some approximation must be made in the process
of turning physical reality into a mathematical model. It is important to decide at what points
in the modelling process these approximations are made. This, in turn, determines what type
of analytical or computational scheme is required in the solution process. There are two
common branches of the general modelling solution process as shown in Figure 1.1.

For many real world problems the second approach is in fact the only possibility. For instance
suppose that the aim is to find the thermo-mechanical stresses in an air-cooled turbine blade
depicted in Figure 1.2.

The complex three-dimensional geometry of the blade along with the combined thermal and
mechanical loadings make the analysis of the blade a formidable task. Nevertheless, many
powerful commercial finite element packages are available that can be implemented to
perform this task with relative ease.

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 Figure 1.1: Modelling of a Physical Problem

Figure 1.2: Modelling of a Turbine Blade

1.4 THE FEM ANALYSIS PROCESS

A model-based simulation process using FEM consists of a sequence of steps. This sequence
takes two basic configurations depending on the environment in which FEM is used. These
are referred to as the Mathematical FEM and the Physical FEM.

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1.4.1 The Mathematical FEM
As depicted in Figure 1.3, the centerpiece in the process steps of the Mathematical FEM is
the mathematical model which is often an ordinary or partial differential equation in space
and time. Using the methods provided by the Variational Calculus, a discrete finite element
model is generated from of the mathematical model. The resulting FEM equations are
processed by an equation solver, which provides a discrete solution. In this process we may
also think of an ideal physical system, which may be regarded as a realization of the
mathematical model. For example, if the mathematical model is the Poisson‟s equation,
realizations may be a heat conduction problem. In Mathematical FEM this step is
unnecessary and indeed FEM discretizations may be constructed without any reference to
physics.

Figure 1.3: Mathematical FEM

The concept of error arises when the discrete solution is substituted in the mathematical and
discrete models. This replacement is generically called verification. The solution error is the
amount by which the discrete solution fails to satisfy the discrete equations. This error is
relatively unimportant when using computers. More relevant is the discretization error,
which is the amount by which the discrete solution fails to satisfy the mathematical model.

1.4.2 The Physical FEM

As depicted in Figure 1.4, in the Physical FEM process the centerpiece is the physical system
to be modeled. The processes of idealization and discretization are carried out concurrently to
produce the discrete model. Indeed FEM discretizations may be constructed and adjusted
without reference to mathematical models, simply from experimental measurements. The
concept of error arises in the physical FEM in two ways, known as verification and
validation, respectively. Verification is the same as in the Mathematical FEM: the discrete

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solution is replaced into the discrete model to get the solution error. As noted above, this
error is not generally important.

Figure 1.4: Physical FEM

Validation tries to compare the discrete solution against observation by computing the
simulation error, which combines modelling and solution errors. Since the latter is typically
insignificant, the simulation error in practice can be identified with the modelling error.
Comparing the discrete solution with the ideal physical system would in principle quantify
the modelling errors.

1.5 FEM STEPS

Certain steps in formulating a finite element analysis of a physical problem are common to all
such analyses, whether structural, heat transfer, fluid flow, or some other problem. These
steps are embodied in commercial finite element software packages. The steps are described
as follows.

1.5.1 Preprocessing
The preprocessing step is, quite generally, described as defining the model and includes
Define the geometric domain of the problem.
Define the element type(s) to be used.
Define the material properties of the elements.
Define the geometric properties of the elements (length, area, and the like).
Define the element connectivities (mesh the model).
Define the physical constraints (boundary conditions).
Define the loadings.

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The preprocessing (model definition) step is critical. In no case is there a better example of
the computer-related axiom “garbage in, garbage out.” A perfectly computed finite element
solution is of absolutely no value if it corresponds to the wrong problem.

1.5.2 Solution
During the solution phase, finite element software assembles the governing algebraic
equations in matrix form and computes the unknown values of the primary field variable(s).
The computed values are then used by back substitution to compute additional, derived
variables, such as reaction forces, element stresses, and heat flow.

As it is not uncommon for a finite element model to be represented by tens of thousands of

equations, special solution techniques are used to reduce data storage requirements and
computation time. For static, linear problems, a wave front solver, based on Gauss
elimination, is commonly used.

1.5.3 Postprocessing
Analysis and evaluation of the solution results is referred to as postprocessing. Postprocessor
software contains sophisticated routines used for sorting, printing, and plotting selected
results from a finite element solution. Examples of operations that can be accomplished
include
Sort element stresses in order of magnitude.
Check equilibrium.
Calculate factors of safety.
Plot deformed structural shape.
Animate dynamic model behavior.
Produce color-coded temperature plots.

While solution data can be manipulated many ways in postprocessing, the most important
objective is to apply sound engineering judgment in determining whether the solution results
are physically reasonable.

EXAMPLE 1.1
Find the perimeter L of a circle of diameter d. Since L = π d, this is equivalent to
obtaining a numerical value for π. (Archimedes’ Approximation of π)

Draw a circle of radius r and diameter d = 2r as in Figure 1.5(a). Inscribe a regular polygon
of n sides, where n = 8 in Figure 1.5(b). Rename polygon sides as elements and vertices as
nodes. Label nodes with integers 1, . . . 8. Extract a typical element, say that joining nodes 4–
5, as shown in Figure 1.5(c). This is an instance of the generic element i– j pictured in
Figure 1.5(d). The element length is Lij = 2r sin(π/n). Since all elements have the same
length, the polygon perimeter is Ln = nLij , whence the approximation to π is πn = Ln/d = n
sin(π/n).

Values of πn obtained for n = 1, 2, 4, . . . 256 are listed in the second column of Table 1.1. As
can be seen the convergence to π is fairly slow. The last value displays 15-place accuracy.

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Figure 1.5: The “find π” problem treated with FEM concepts: (a) continuum object, (b)
a discrete approximation by inscribed regular polygons, (c) disconnected element, (d)
generic element.

Table 1.1: Rectification of Circle by Inscribed Polygons (“Archimedes FEM”)

n πn=n sin(π/n) Exact π to 15 decimals

1 0.00000000000000
2 2.00000000000000
4 2.82842712474619
8 3.06146745892072
16 3.12144515225805
32 3.13654849054594
64 3.14033115695475
128 3.14127725093277
256 3.14151380114430 3.14159265358979

1.6 Applications of the FEM

The finite element method can be used to analyze both the structural and nonstructural
problems. Typical structural areas include
(a) Stress analysis, including truss and frame analysis and stress concentration problems
typically associated with holes, fillets or other changes in geometry in a body
(b) Buckling
(c) Vibration analysis

Nonstructural problems include

(a) Heat transfer
(b) Fluid flow, including seepage trhouh porous media
(c) Distribution of electric or magnetic potential
(d) Biomechanical engineering problems (which may include stress analysis).

1.7Advantages of the FEM

The finite element method has been applied to numerous problems, both structural and non-
structural. This method has a number of advantages that have made it very popular. They
include the ability to

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 (a) Model irregularly shapes bodies quite easily.
(b) Handle general load conditions without difficulty.
(c) Model bodies composed of several different materials because the element equations
are evaluated individually.
(d) Handle unlimited numbers and kinds of boundary conditions.
(e) Vary the size of the elements to make it possible to use small elements where
necessary.
(f) Alter the finite element model relatively easily and cheaply.
(g) Include dynamic effects.
(h) Handle nonlinear behaviour existing with large deformations and nonlinear materials.

EXERCISE 1
1. Determine the circumference of a circle of radius „r‟ using the basic principles of the
finite element method.

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