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It occurs in some metals, notably certain stainless steel, aluminum, and copper alloys at
ambient temperature after solution heat treatment, the process being one of a constituent
precipitating from solid solution. Where used, the consequences include increased
strength and hardness, decrease ductility.
The solution heat treatment results in a single-phase solution while the rapid cooling
results in a stable material by preventing the creation and propagation of lattice defects.
This greatly strengthens the metal matrix.
Q.
The aging at moderately elevated temperature expedites the process and is called
A. Artificial Aging
Artificial aging is the treatment of a metal alloy at elevated temperatures to accelerate the
changes in the properties of an alloy as a result of the casting and forging process.
Generally, the chemical properties of newly cast and forged metals naturally change and
settle very slowly at room temperature. Artificial aging will speed up this change more
rapidly at higher temperatures. This process ensures quality and accuracy in close
tolerance specifications. It also helps manufacturers make machine-ready parts available
much more quickly to machinists and distributors.
What is aging?
Basic construction metals tend to physically transform over time due to natural
environmental conditions. The texture and color of the metal surface changes with an
oxide layer forming on it in the initial stages. Soon this layer converts to a hydroxide
layer. Later this hydroxide layer combines with other elements in the atmosphere and
finally the metal surface gains a stable mineral composition that is very resistant to any
further alteration.
This weathering or aging process can be clearly seen in natural aluminum, copper and
copper alloys, lead, steel and zinc.
Aging has been extensively studied and many companies are working towards perfecting
the ability to accelerate and increase the weathering or aging process to bring the metal
surface to a desired texture and color. The aging process used by several companies is
simply an extended heat-treatment process. This process is important for strengthening
heat treatment of alloys containing Al, Cu, Mg, and Ni.
Q.
A substance with metallic properties, compound if two or more elements which at least
one is metal
A. Alloy
An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are
defined by a metallic bonding character. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal
elements (a single phase) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions).
Q.
In steel are usually considered to be the metallic elements added for modifying the
properties
A. Alloying elements
Alloying elements are used to alter the mechanical and chemical properties of steel to
give them advantages over standard low carbon steel. While there are many alloying
elements used to achieve various enhanced properties, certain elements are much more
common than others.
Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel can be segregated into three main categories: Low carbon steel (sometimes
known as mild steel); Medium carbon steel; and High carbon steel.
Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel): Typically contain 0.04% to 0.30% carbon content. This
is one of the largest groups of Carbon Steel. It covers a great diversity of shapes; from
Flat Sheet to Structural Beam. Depending on the desired properties needed, other
elements are added or increased. For example: Drawing Quality (DQ) – The carbon level
is kept low and Aluminum is added, and for Structural Steel the carbon level is higher
and the manganese content is increased.
Medium Carbon Steel: Typically has a carbon range of 0.31% to 0.60%, and a
manganese content ranging from .060% to 1.65%. This product is stronger than low
carbon steel, and it is more difficult to form, weld and cut. Medium carbon steels are
quite often hardened and tempered using heat treatment.
High Carbon Steel: Commonly known as “carbon tool steel” it typically has a carbon
range between 0.61% and 1.50%. High carbon steel is very difficult to cut, bend and
weld. Once heat treated it becomes extremely hard and brittle.
These are 5 common alloying elements:
1. Chromium
Chromium added to carbon steel in percentages usually greater than 11% creates stainless
steel. At this percentage and greater, the corrosion resistance of a steel vastly increases
and oxidation of the iron is prevented in many conditions. The iron does not oxidize
because the chromium will oxidize first and form a protective layer over the steel.
Chromium also helps to improve mechanical properties, even in smaller amounts. It will
increase the steel’s strength, hardness, and ability to be heat treated.
2. Molybdenum
Molybdenum, like chromium, has an effect on the corrosion resistance of steel.
Molybdenum can also increase the hardenability, toughness, and tensile strength of steel.
It increases the hardenability by lowering the required quench rate during the heat-
treating process to make a strong and hard steel. Molybdenum can also reduce the risk
of pitting in steel as it improves resistance to chloride induced corrosion. The Pitting
Resistance Equivalent, or PRE, is actually calculated by multiplying the amount of
molybdenum, chromium, and nickel by coefficients and then adding the values together.
3. Vanadium
Vanadium is used to help control the grain size of the steel, keeping it small. The grain
size is kept small because the vanadium carbides that form when vanadium is added to a
steel block the formation of grains. This blockage prevents the grains from growing to be
as large as what they would be without the added vanadium. This finer grain structure
helps to increase ductility. In some steels, carbides formed by vanadium can increase the
hardness and strength of steel.
4. Manganese
Manganese is frequently used in steels to help with the heat treating process. When steels
are heated and quenched to increase hardness and strength, the quench must be done a
fast rate. The faster this rate, the more unstable the process becomes. Manganese allows
hardness and strength to increase the same amount but at a slower quench rate. This helps
to reduce the risk of defects forming during the heating and quenching process.
5. Nickel
Nickel is used to manufacture austenitic stainless steels because it is an austenite
promoter. When amounts of chromium around 18% or greater are used and nickel
composition is greater than 8%, austenitic stainless steel is created. This combination is
extremely corrosion resistant, and austenitic grades are some of the most widely used
stainless steels. Nickel is also used to improve the mechanical properties of steel. It is
used to increase toughness and impact strength, even at lower temperatures.
Q.
It is the characteristics of exhibiting different properties when tested in different
directions (as tensile strength “with grain” or “across the grain”)
A. Anisotropy
Anisotropic material's properties such as Young's Modulus, change with direction along
the object. Common examples of anisotropic materials are wood and composites.
Orthotropic materials have material properties that differ along three mutually-
orthogonal twofold axes of rotational symmetry. They are a subset of anisotropic
materials, because their properties change when measured from different directions. eg:
wood.
Isotropic material means a material having identical values of a property in all directions.
Glass and metals are examples of isotropic materials. anisotropic material's properties
such as Young's Modulus, change with direction along the object.
In material science and solid mechanics, Orthotropic materials have material properties
that differ along three mutually-orthogonal twofold axes of rotational symmetry. They are
a subset of anisotropic materials, because their properties change when measured from
different directions.
Q.
It is one in which specimen, supported at both ends as a simple beam, is broken by the
impact of a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is a measure
of the impact strength of the metal.
A. Charpy Test
Charpy impact testing involves striking a standard notched specimen with a controlled
weight pendulum swung from a set height. The standard Charpy-V notch specimen is
55mm long, 10mm square and has a 2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm
machined on one face. In some circumstances, sub-size Charpy specimens can be tested
with thickness less than 10mm. The specimen is supported at its two ends on an anvil and
struck on the opposite face to the notch by the pendulum. The amount of energy absorbed
in fracturing the test-piece is measured and this gives an indication of the notch toughness
of the test material. The pendulum swings through during the test, the height of the swing
being a measure of the amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen.
Conventionally, three specimens are tested at any one temperature and the results
averaged. Alternatively, tests are carried out at a range of temperatures in order to
generate a ductile to brittle transition curve.
Charpy tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either brittle or
ductile. This is particularly useful for ferritic steels that show a ductile to brittle transition
with decreasing temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy when
impact tested, a tough ductile metal absorbs a large amount of energy. The appearance of
a fracture surface also gives information about the type of fracture that has occurred; a
brittle fracture is bright and crystalline, a ductile fracture is dull and fibrous. The
percentage crystallinity is determined by making a judgement of the amount of crystalline
or brittle fracture on the surface of the broken specimen, and is a measure of the amount
of brittle fracture.
Q.
Is the brittleness of metals at ordinary or low temperatures
A. Cold Shortness
Cold shortness was a big problem for a long time in sword making. It means that things
get brittle when it’s cold. The word “short” is old English, meaning, “having a tendency
to break or crumble”.
Q.
It is the process of deforming a metal plastically at a temperature below the
recrystallization temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening
A. Cold working
In most cases, metal is cast or forged into a desired shape after it is made
malleable through the application of heat. Cold working refers to the process of
strengthening a metal by changing its shape without the use of heat.
The process gets its name because it is conducted at temperatures below the metal's
recrystallization point and mechanical stress, not heat, is used to affect change. The
technique is most commonly applied to steel, aluminum, and copper.
When these metals are cold worked, permanent defects change their crystalline makeup.
These defects reduce the ability of crystals to move within the metal structure and the
metal becomes more resistant to further deformation.
The resulting metal product has improved tensile strength and hardness, but less ductility.
Cold rolling and cold drawing of steel also improve surface finish.
Q.
Steel that is frequently used because it increases strength and machinability, and
improves surface finish
A. Cold drawn steel
Steel that is drawn passes through a series of dies to achieve a desired shape is known as
drawn steel. Dies apply specified amount of pressures with the help of a machine press,
and the steel starting stock typically has to be passed through the die or a series of dies
more than once. Cold refers to the drawn steel being manufactured at room temperature,
which requires additional pressure to shape the steel, but gives the steel extra qualities
and visually aesthetic appearance.
Initially, a steel manufacturer starts with a starting stock of steel product – either hot
rolled straight bars or hot rolled steel coils - that is brought down to room temperature.
Regardless if the end product is bar, tube or wire, the undrawn steel product is drawn
through a die, which stretches the starting stock into the desired shape and size. This is
done with the help of a grip that attaches to the steel stock and pulls the steel through the
die. To the naked eye, the steel does not change much in shape through a single pass
through the die, and usually takes multiple passes before it takes on the desired end
shape.
Q.
Commercials amounts of cold working of steel are the order of
A. 10% – 20%
NA
Q.
It is the ability of a material to absorb or damp vibrations, which is a process of absorbing
kinetic energy of vibrations owing to hysteresis. The absorbed energy is eventually
dissipated to the surroundings as heat.
A. Damping capacity
The exceptionally high damping capacity of gray cast iron is one of the most valuable
qualities of this material. For this reason it is ideally suited for machine bases and
supports, engine cylinder blocks and brake components. The damping capacity of gray
iron is considerably greater than that of steel or other kinds of iron. This behavior is
attributed to the flake graphite structure of the gray iron, along with its unique stress-
strain characteristics.
Materials like brass and steel have small damping capacities allowing vibration energy to
be transmitted through them without attenuation.
Q.
It is a loss of carbon from the surface of steel, occurring during hot rolling, forging, and
heat treating, when surrounding medium reacts with the carbon (as oxygen and carbon
combining)
A. Decarburization
Decarburization is detrimental to the wear life and fatigue life of steel heat-treated
components. This article explores some factors that cause decarburization while
concentrating on its measurement.
Decarburization occurs when carbon atoms at the steel surface interact with the furnace
atmosphere and are removed from the steel as a gaseous phase. Carbon from the interior
diffuses towards the surface, moving from high to low concentration and continues until
the maximum depth of decarburization is established. Because the carbon diffusion rate
increases with temperature when the structure is fully austenitic.
Decarburization varies with material grade, hardenability, furnace atmosphere, carbon
potential and the type of heat-treatment process being performed (e.g., temperature,
time). Decarburized parts exhibit lower (surface) hardness, reduced wear resistance and
lower fatigue life, which affects their service life. One example is an automotive
manufacturer whose steering columns were found to be loosening on the assembly line
due to the presence of a 0.025- to 0.075-mm (0.001- to 0.003-inch) partial
decarburization layer on the shaft retaining ring.
Q.
The percent elongation for ductile material
A. Greater than 5% in 2-in gage
NA
Q.
The percent elongation for brittle material
A. Less than 5% in 2-in gage
NA
Q.
It involves the loss of ductility because of a physical or chemical change of the material
A. Embrittlement
Free carbon is the part of the total carbon in steel or cast iron that is present in elemental
form as graphite or temper carbon. In steels none of the carbon is present as free carbon;
it is all dissolved in the iron.
As free carbon is a major impurity, the pig iron becomes brittle and hard. Pig iron may be
made into steel (with up to about 2% carbon) or wrought iron (commercially pure iron)
through oxidizing some or all of the carbon, together with other impurities. The hardness
of the steel depends on its carbon content: the higher the percentage of carbon, the greater
the hardness and the lesser the malleability. Regardless of the heat treatment, higher
carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, higher carbon content also lowers
the melting point.
Q.
It is a temper produced in a wire, rod or tube by cold drawing
A. Hard drawn
AB
Q.
Materials that have the same properties in all directions
A. Isotropic
AB
Q.
A test in which specimen, supported at one end as a cantilever beam, is broken by the
impact of a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is a measure
of the impact strength
A. Izod test
Izod impact testing is an ASTM standard method of determining the impact resistance
of materials. A pivoting arm is raised to a specific height (constant potential energy) and
then released. The arm swings down hitting a notched sample, breaking the specimen.
The energy absorbed by the sample is calculated from the height the arm swings to after
hitting the sample. A notched sample is generally used to determine impact energy and
notch sensitivity.
The test is similar to the Charpy impact test but uses a different arrangement of the
specimen under test. The Izod impact test differs from the Charpy impact test in that the
sample is held in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to a three-point bending
configuration.
Q.
A steel that has been deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent such as silicon or
aluminum in order to eliminate a reaction between the carbon and oxygen during
solidification
A. Killed steel
Deoxidized steel is steel that has some or all of the oxygen removed from the melt during
the steelmaking process. Liquid steels contain dissolved oxygen after their conversion
from molten iron, but the solubility of oxygen in steel decreases with cooling. As steel
cools, excess oxygen can cause blowholes or precipitate FeO. Therefore, several
strategies have been developed for deoxidation. This may be accomplished by adding
metallic deoxidizing agents to the melt either before or after it is tapped, or by vacuum
treatment, in which carbon dissolved in the steel is the deoxidizer.
Killed steel is steel that has been completely deoxidized by the addition of an agent
before casting, so that there is practically no evolution of gas during solidification. They
are characterized by a high degree of chemical homogeneity and freedom from gas
porosity. The steel is said to be "killed" because it will quietly solidify in the mould, with
no gas bubbling out. It is marked with a "K" for identification purposes.
The main disadvantage killed steels is that it suffers from deep pipe shrinkage defects. To
minimize the amount of metal that must be discarded because of the shrinkage, a large
vertical mold is used with a hot top. Typical killed-steel ingots have a yield of 80% by
weight.
Q.
Are those that have to do with stress and strain, ultimate strength and percent elongation
A. Mechanical properties
Physical properties include: appearance, texture, color, odor, melting point, boiling
point, density, solubility, polarity, and many others.
Extensive physical properties depend on the amount of matter in the sample. Examples of
extensive properties include size, mass, and volume.
Any property you can see, smell, touch, hear or otherwise detect and measure without
performing a chemical reaction is a physical property.
color
shape
volume
density
temperature
boiling point
viscosity
pressure
solubility
electric charge
Q.
It is the stress which causes a specified permanent deformation of material usually 0.01%
or less
A. Proof Stress
Simply put, proof stress is a term used in general engineering to describe the stress that
will cause a specified small, permanent extension of a tensile test piece.
A tensile test is conducted when a piece of material (whose dimensions have been
calculated) is placed between a pair of grips.
Then, weight is applied to "the material gripped at one end while the other end is fixed,"
according to Michigan Technological University, a public research university located in
Houghton, Michigan. According to Michigan Tech, "We keep increasing the weight
(often called the load or force) and at the same time we measure the change in length of
the sample."
A more simple way to think of proof stress is to imagine the point at which a particular
degree of permanent deformation occurs in a test sample.
A yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a
material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear
(elastic + plastic) deformation begins. Prior to the yield point the material will
deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed.
Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and
non-reversible.
Q.
It is a brittleness in steel when it is red hot
A. Red shortness
Red-Shortness
the tendency of steel to form cracks during hot pressure treatment, such as forging, stamp
ing, and rolling, in the temperaturerange corresponding to red or yellow heat (850°-
1150°C).