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To cite this article: Cristina Rodríguez & Juan E. Jiménez (2016) What cognitive and numerical
skills best define learning disabilities in mathematics? / ¿Qué habilidades cognitivas y
numéricas definen mejor las dificultades de aprendizaje en matemáticas?, Estudios de
Psicología, 37:1, 115-134, DOI: 10.1080/02109395.2015.1129825
Download by: [RMIT University Library] Date: 10 March 2016, At: 05:39
Estudios de Psicología / Studies in Psychology, 2016
Vol. 37, No. 1, 115–134, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02109395.2015.1129825
This study explored whether the specific combination of certain cognitive and
numerical skills can classify students with MLD, with LA, and without MLD.
In order to do this, an analysis was carried out of the performance of 756
Spanish students in grades two to six, on different numerical and cognitive
tasks. Two factors were extracted using a principal component analysis of the
tasks: a semantic-cognitive factor and a verbal-automation factor. The results
obtained from comparing the groups showed that students with MLD and LA
demonstrated significant differences in the semantic-cognitive factor, and that
these differences were consistent across grade levels. In contrast, there were
no differences between groups in the automatic-verbal factor. These results
confirm that the groups are not only quantitatively different but also qualita-
tively different.
Keywords: learning disabilities; low achievement in mathematics; cognitive
processes; dyscalculia; number sense
consistentes entre los grados. Por el contrario no hubo diferencias entre ambos
grupos en el factor verbal-automático. Estos resultados constatan que los
grupos son no sólo cuantitativamente diferentes sino también cualitativamente
diferentes.
Palabras clave: dificultades de aprendizaje; bajo rendimiento en
matemáticas; procesos cognitivos; discalculia; sentido numérico
estimation tasks (Butterworth, Varma, & Laurillard, 2011; Jordan, Hanich, &
Kaplan, 2003), which in turn are influenced by deficits in the cognitive processes
that are needed to solve these tasks (Cowan & Powell, 2014). In this sense, some
authors suggest that a working memory deficit underlies low performance in
number fact retrieval (e.g., Sowinski et al., 2015), although it has also been
suggested that this is related to a lack of automation, i.e., the ability to quickly
retrieve numerical facts from long-term memory (Passolunghi & Siegel, 2004;
Van Daal, Van der Leij, & Adèr, 2013). Additionally, it has also been found that a
deficit in the visuo-spatial sketchpad component of working memory influences
performance on number line estimation tasks (e.g., Fischer, Castel, Dodd, & Pratt,
2003). Thus, it is recommended that both numerical and cognitive tests be used to
reliably identify MLD (Kaufmann & von Aster, 2012; Watson & Gable, 2013).
Regarding the distinction between students with MLD and those with LA, the
debate is complex since both cases present numeric and cognitive deficits.
Therefore, lower cut-off scores have been proposed for diagnostic tests to identify
MLD and slightly higher cut-off scores for LA. Nevertheless, this a priori
approach would indicate that both groups are of the same nature, which manifests
itself more severely in the case of MLD. However, results are contradictory. While
in some cases it appears that MLD and LA are part of the same continuum (Geary,
Hoard, Nugent, & Bailey, 2012), in others it has been shown that they are not only
quantitatively different but also qualitatively different (e.g., Desoete, Ceulemans,
de Weerdt, & Pieteres, 2012; Geary, Hoard, Byrd-Craven, Nugent, & Numtee,
2007; Murphy, Mazzocco, Hanich, & Early, 2007).
Murphy et al. (2007) compared the performance of two groups with maths
difficulties to a control group. The groups were created based on percentiles from
a standardized mathematics test. Overall, the MLD group (≤ 10th percentile) and
LA group (between 10th and 25th percentiles) showed lower performance than
the control group (N-MLD, > 25th percentile) across both the initial measurement
taken in early childhood education and another measurement taken in the third
Cognitive and numerical skills in MLD / Habilidades cognitivas y numéricas en DAM 117
grade during the growth of these mathematics skills. The differences that emerged
between the MLD and LA groups could not be explained by general cognitive
factors or by specific numeric skills, but rather by differences in the growth rates
of mathematics skills. In this regard, this study concluded that MLD and LA are
qualitatively different groups, which is supported by the study conducted by
Desoete et al. (2012), who used the same classification as Murphy et al. (2007).
Geary et al. (2007) also concluded that MLD and LA groups are qualitatively
different, although their results differed from those of Murphy et al. (2007)
regarding the involvement of cognitive processes. In this study, the difference in
performance across the groups MLD (≤ 15th percentile) and LA (between 23rd
and 39th percentiles) was modulated by working memory and processing speed
(RAN), two cognitive variables. The involvement of cognitive processes in the
distinction of the above groups was replicated in a later study carried out by Geary
et al. (2012). Groups with different performance levels were selected using a
cluster-based model (Mclust). The MLD group consisted of students with poor
performance during early education and slow growth of mathematics skills. The
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
Method
Participants
The initial sample was composed of 756 individuals enrolled in the second to
third grades (173 boys and 163 girls) and the fifth to sixth grades (229 boys and
191 girls), in public and private schools from different municipalities on the island
of Tenerife. From this sample, three groups were selected according to grade,
118 C. Rodríguez and J.E. Jiménez
p < .001, d = 0.46. Mean age and IQ per group and course are shown in Table 1.
Instruments
Culture Fair Intelligence Test (Scale 1 and 2, Form A). This test (Cattell & Cattell,
1989) measures general mental ability without the interference of cultural bias.
The authors conducted the test adapted to Spanish. The reliability obtained by the
split-halves method was .86 and when the correlation with scores from the
Primary Mental Abilities Test (TEA-1) (Seisdedos, De La Cruz, Cordero, &
González, 1991) was used as a criterion of validity, a correlation coefficient of
.68 was obtained.
Arithmetical Calculation Test (Prueba de Cálculo Aritmético, PCA) (Artiles &
Jiménez, 2011). This is a standardized calculation test for Canary Islands students.
It consists of 37 exercises. The first 20 are addition and subtraction tasks with one
or more digits, with or without carry-overs. The rest include multiplication tasks
with one or two digits, with and without decimal points; division tasks with one
and two digits and with and without decimal points; and finally the simple use of
fractions (α-Cronbach = .88).
Multimedia Test for the Assessment of Cognitive Processes and Performance
with Learning Difficulties in Mathematics-BM-PROMA (Jiménez, Rodríguez,
Peake, Villarroel, & Bisschop, 2014). This instrument was developed with
Unity 2.0 Professional Edition and SQLITE Database Engine was used as a
database. The following tasks were selected for the present study:
Magnitude comparison task. In this task, two double-digit numbers appear on the
computer screen and the child must indicate which of them is the greatest. Both
correct answers and reaction times were recorded. Two measures, accuracy and
speed, were assessed. The score was calculated based on the latency time of the
stimuli read correctly (α-Cronbach = .96).
Number line estimation task. This test is an adaptation of the assessment created
by Booth and Siegler (2006). Firstly, a 15-cm line is shown on the screen. For the
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
first 20 items, the value on the left end of the line is 0 and the value on the right
end is 100. For the following 22 items, the value of the right end is replaced by
1,000. This study only used the scores obtained with the 0–1,000 line. The items
presented for the 0–1,000 line were: 2, 11, 67, 99, 106, 162, 221, 325, 388, 450,
492, 511, 591, 643, 677, 755, 799, 815, 867, 910 and 988. Values below 100 were
over-represented, as in the aforementioned study. The score was based on the
absolute value of the percent error (α-Cronbach = .87).
Reading numbers. In this task, children have to read the Arabic numerals that
appear on the screen; the instructions ask them to do so as quickly as they can
without making mistakes. It consists of 30 items: 10 one-digit numbers, 10 two-
digit numbers and 10 three-digit numbers (α-Cronbach = .88). Two measures,
accuracy and speed, were assessed. The score was calculated based on the latency
time of the stimuli read correctly.
manner according to the magnitude (low magnitude 1–5 vs high magnitude 6–9)
of the two terms in the operations.The presentation format is as follows: the
arithmetic operations are shown horizontally and the participants are asked to
say the answers out loud. Scores are calculated from the correct answers given
within 200–3,000 ms (α-Cronbach = .95).
Naming speed. This test is an adaptation of the Denckla and Rudel (1976)
technique called Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) and consists of four subtests:
series of letters, series of numbers, series of colours and series of drawings. Each
series consists of 50 items distributed in a matrix of five rows and 10 columns. In
this task participants are asked to name horizontally, aloud and as quickly as
possible, the stimuli shown to them. This task records the average time taken to
read the stimuli of the four subtests. To normalize the score distribution, scores
were transformed to number of stimuli per minute.
Counting task (Case, Kurland, & Goldberg, 1982). It is a dual task comprised of a
word span memory task (total number of dots on a card) given simultaneously
with a counting task; thus, it can be taken as an indicator of the central executive
component of working memory. The child is asked to count and memorize the
total number of yellow dots on cards with yellow and blue dots that appear in the
centre of the screen. When they have counted all dots on a set of cards (two to
five), they are asked to repeat the total number on each card in the order they were
presented. They have three attempts to pass each level or span.
Procedure
Data collection was carried out by a total of eight previously trained examiners, who
were distributed in pairs to four elementary schools. These examiners administered a
standardized calculation test, the Arithmetical Calculation Test (PCA) and the intelli-
gence test collectively. The intelligence test was used to rule out intellectual deficit in
the poor performance groups. Subsequently, they applied the BM-PROMA multi-
media test individually in a room suitable for the administration of this type of test.
Results
Firstly, in order to combine numerical and cognitive variables, a principal com-
ponent analysis was conducted with varimax rotation. The sample size was large
Cognitive and numerical skills in MLD / Habilidades cognitivas y numéricas en DAM 121
enough for the viability of this analysis (KMO = .85), and Bartlett’s test of
sphericity indicated that the correlation matrix differed significantly from the
identity matrix; in other words, there was an acceptable level of correlation
between the variables for performing the analysis, χ2(36) = 1952.63, p < .001.
Two components had eigenvalues greater than 1, thereby fulfilling the Kaiser
criterion and completely coinciding with the scree plot. These two factors
accounted for 56.63% of the variance. Table 2 shows the factor loading after
rotation, factor 1 — which was designated ‘semantic-cognitive’ — is comprised
of those skills that are related to the more semantic aspects of number knowledge:
spatial working memory, the number line estimation, computational estimation,
subtraction and numeric working memory. Factor 2 was designated ‘verbal-auto-
mation’ because it includes all those skills that are more related to automation and
language: reading of numbers, comparison of magnitudes, RAN and
multiplication.
Next, in order to check whether these factors were sensitive to the different
performance groups selected a priori according to the PCA test, a 3 x 2, Groups
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
Table 3. Means and standard deviation of the groups in extracted factors according to
grade.
Semantic-Cognitive Factor Verbal-Automation Factor
Grade Groups M SD M SD
2–3 MLD −1.60 0.95 0.48 1.27
LA −0.78 0.77 0.43 1.05
N-MLD −0.50 0.84 0.32 1.14
5–6 MLD −0.45 0.73 −0.43 0.88
LA −0.06 0.74 −0.24 0.82
N-MLD 0.64 0.77 −0.24 0.79
Note: MLD = children with mathematical learning disabilities; LA = children with low achievement
in mathematics; N-MLD = children without mathematical learning disabilities.
d = 0.87; and LA and N-MLD, t(686) = 6.12, p < .001, d = 0.47. Analyses were
repeated using IQ as a covariate, and the results were unchanged.
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
That is, the combination of cognitive and numerical variables that load onto
the semantic-cognitive factor is suitable for identifying children with MLD from
other groups. In fact, the differences between the groups remain stable across
grades, which confirms the initial hypothesis that the variables that are able to
differentiate MLD and LA groups are stable.
Discussion
The aim of this research was to determine whether individuals with MLD and
those with LA are qualitatively different. Previous studies suggest that differences
in mathematics performance between the two groups are influenced by cognitive
factors such as processing speed (RAN) and working memory (Geary et al., 2007;
Murphy et al., 2007). Therefore, to carry out this study it was necessary to
combine cognitive and numeric skills to properly describe both groups.
The first result of the present study was the generation of two factors from
the principal component analysis of a set of numerical and cognitive skills,
which was selected based on findings from the review of previous studies. The
first factor, referred to as ‘semantic-cognitive’, brought together mathematical
tasks related to number sense, the number line estimation, computational
estimation and subtraction (number fact retrieval). As stated by Dehaene,
Piazza, Pinel, and Cohen (2003), these tasks share a common neuroanatomical
substrate, horizontal segments of the intraparietal sulcus, and also all require
access to the semantic representation of quantity in order to be resolved.
Additionally, some cognitive variables load onto this factor, the visuo-spatial
working memory and the working memory-counting task. The visuo-spatial
working memory is highly involved in solving the number line estimation
tasks, as has been shown in other studies (e.g., Fischer et al., 2003; Geary
et al., 2007); thus, its association with this factor was expected. Regarding the
working memory-counting task, which measures the executive component of
Cognitive and numerical skills in MLD / Habilidades cognitivas y numéricas en DAM 123
working memory, it is also associated with the first factor, which is consistent
with previous results (e.g., Geary et al., 2007). This finding is coherent given
that the other factor is represented by skills related to automaticity, thereby
connecting it to tasks that demand less from this component. Concerning the
second factor, referred to as ‘verbal-automation’, the related variables were
fluency in number reading, comparison of magnitudes, RAN tasks and multi-
plication (number fact retrieval). All these tasks, except the magnitude compar-
ison task, require the automatic retrieval of phonological representations
associated with visual codes, although access to their semantic component is
not strictly necessary. That is, according to Dehaene et al. (2003), all these
tasks are related to the same neuroanatomical substrate, the angular gyrus,
which is not specific to number processing, but rather is related to those
arithmetic skills linked to language. While it is true that the magnitude com-
parison task does require processing semantic numerical representations, the
measurement used, ‘time taken to select correct answers’, also involves auto-
mation to retrieve phonological information, which is the characteristic shared
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
by the variables associated with this factor. In this regard, a recent study
showed that aspects such as mathematics fluency and measures based on
accuracy appear to have distinct genetic etiology (Petrill et al., 2012). In
short, the combination of the skills associated with each factor is consistent.
Concerning the second issue of this study, the fact that the semantic-cognitive
factor best defines the differences between the groups is in line with the classi-
fication proposed by Rubinsten and Henik (2009), who found that MLD is the
result of a combination of a deficit in working memory and a deficit in the
processing of quantities, which are the result of a brain dysfunction in the frontal
area and the intraparietal sulcus. This proposal is consistent with studies con-
ducted with neuroimaging techniques that have revealed that the difficulties of
students with MLD are due to a deficit in activation, as well as the presence of an
abnormal structure in the aforementioned regions (e.g., Price, Holloway, Räsänen,
Vesterinen, & Ansari, 2007; Rotzer et al., 2008). Finally, an important finding is
the consistency of the result across different grades, which makes the result more
robust.
The results of the present study constitute a significant contribution to the
diagnosis of students with different mathematics difficulties and even to differ-
entiated intervention based on their profile. Nevertheless, the use of a cross-
sectional versus a longitudinal design implies an obvious limitation. Monitoring
the sample over time would enable a more accurate diagnosis.
In summary, the results of this study reveal that the selection and combination
of cognitive and numerical variables involved in semantic numerical representa-
tion is ideal for describing those groups with specific difficulties compared to
those that only show poor performance. In this sense, it can be affirmed that both
groups are qualitatively and quantitatively different.
124 C. Rodríguez and J.E. Jiménez
Pieteres, 2012; Geary, Hoard, Byrd-Craven, Nugent, & Numtee, 2007; Murphy,
Mazzocco, Hanich, & Early, 2007).
Murphy et al. (2007) compararon el rendimiento de dos grupos con dificul-
tades con un grupo control. Los grupos fueron creados en base a los percentiles de
una prueba estandarizada de matemáticas. En términos generales los grupo DAM
(Pc ≤ 10) y BR (10 < Pc ≤ 25) mostraron un nivel inferior al control (S-DAM, Pc
>25) tanto en la medida inicial, tomada en Educación Infantil, como en el
crecimiento de estas habilidades matemáticas hasta tercer grado. Las diferencias
emergidas entre los grupos DAM y BR no pudieron ser explicadas por factores
cognitivos generales o por habilidades específicas de carácter numérico, sino por
diferencias en las ratios de crecimiento de las habilidades matemáticas. A este
respecto los autores concluyen que DAM y BR son grupos cualitativamente
diferentes, esta conclusión ha sido respaldada por el estudio de Desoete et al.
(2012), quienes usaron la misma clasificación que Murphy et al. (2007). Geary
et al. (2007) concluyen igualmente que los grupos DAM y BR son cualitativa-
mente diferentes, pero los resultados en cuanto a la participación de aspectos
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
Método
Participantes
La muestra inicial estaba compuesta por de 756 sujetos procedentes de colegios
públicos y concertados de 2º–3º (173 niños y 163 niñas) y 5º–6º (229 niños y 191
niñas) de educación primaria, pertenecientes a diferentes municipios de la Isla de
Tenerife. De esta muestra se seleccionaron tres grupos de rendimiento en base a la
puntuación en el test estandarizado Prueba de Cálculo Aritmético (PCA) (Artiles &
Jiménez, 2011) en función del curso. El grupo DAM estaba formado por 68 sujetos (2º
y 3º curso, N = 27; 5º y 6º curso, N = 41) con un percentile ≤ 10; el grupo con bajo
rendimiento (BR) estaba compuesto por 110 sujetos (2º y 3º curso, N = 52; 5º y 6º curso,
N = 58) con un percentil mayor a 10 y menor o igual a 25; y un grupo con rendimiento
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
promedio (S-DAM) formado por 578 (2º y 3º curso, N = 257; 5º y 6º curso, N = 321)
sujetos con un percentil > 25. No existían diferencias significativas en edad en función
de los grupos de rendimiento (DAM, BR, S-DAM) F(2, 753) = 1.09, p = .33, y
tampoco en la distribución del sexo por grupo (% niños: DAM = 44.1%; BR = 47.3%;
S-DAM = 55.4%), χ2(2) = 4.89, p = .087. Sí hubo diferencias significativas en CI entre
los grupos, F(2, 747) = 34.84, p < .001, ƞ2 = .08, las diferencias se encontraban entre los
grupos DAM (M = 91.08, DT = 16.01) y BR (M = 98.59, DT = 14.73), t(174) = 3.15,
p < .01, d = 0.47; DAM y S-DAM (M = 106.0, DT = 15.38), t(638) = 7.48, p < .001,
d = 0.55 y; BR y S-DAM, t(682) = 5.64, p < .001, d = 0.46. La media de edad y CI por
grupo y curso se muestran en la Tabla 1.
Instrumentos
Test de Inteligencia Factor ‘g’ (Escala 1 y 2 Forma A) (Cattell & Cattell, 1989).
Este test permite una medición de la capacidad mental general sin interferencia de
Lectura de números. En esta tarea los niños deben leer el número que aparece en
la pantalla en formato arábigo, en las instrucciones se le pide que lo haga lo más
rápido que pueda, pero sin cometer errores. Consta de 30 ítems, 10 unidades, 10
decenas y 10 centenas (α-Cronbach = .88). La puntuación en esta tarea está basada
en tiempo de los aciertos.
Procedimiento
Para llevar a cabo la recogida de información participaron un total de 8 exami-
nadores previamente entrenados que se distribuyeron por parejas en cuatro centros
escolares. Estos examinadores administraron de forma colectiva una prueba
estandarizada de cálculo, la prueba de Cálculo Aritmético (PCA), y la prueba de
inteligencia. La prueba de inteligencia fue utilizada para descartar déficit intelec-
tual en los grupos de bajo rendimiento. Posteriormente realizaron la aplicación
individual de la batería multimedia BM-Proma en una sala que reunía las con-
diciones adecuadas para la administración de este tipo de pruebas.
Resultados
En primer lugar con el objeto de configurar dimensiones compuestas por variables
numéricas y cognitivas afines, se llevó a cabo un análisis factorial realizando la
extracción de factores mediante el método de componentes principales con
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
Tabla 3. Medias y desviación típica de los grupos en los factores extraídos en función
del curso.
Factor Semántico-Verbal Factor Verbal-Automatización
CURSO GRUPOS M DT M DT
2º–3º DAM −1.60 0.95 0.48 1.27
BR −0.78 0.77 0.43 1.05
S-DAM −0.50 0.84 0.32 1.14
5º–6º DAM −0.45 0.73 −0.43 0.88
BR −0.06 0.74 −0.24 0.82
S-DAM 0.64 0.77 −0.24 0.79
Nota: DAM = Niños con dificultades en matemáticas; BR = niños con bajo rendimiento en matemáticas;
S-DAM = Niños sin dificultades de aprendizaje en matemáticas.
Cognitive and numerical skills in MLD / Habilidades cognitivas y numéricas en DAM 131
Discusión
El objetivo de este trabajo consistió en averiguar si los sujetos con DAM y BR
son o no cualitativamente diferentes. Los estudios previos sugieren que las
diferencias en rendimiento matemático entre los sujetos con DAM y los sujetos
con BR, están mediatizadas por factores cognitivos como la velocidad de proce-
samiento (RAN) y memoria de trabajo (Geary et al., 2007; Murphy et al., 2007).
Por tanto, para llevar a cabo este trabajo se planteó también la necesidad de
obtener dimensiones compuestas por habilidades cognitivas y numéricas que
hicieran posible estudiar estos perfiles de forma adecuada.
El primer resultado del presente estudio fue la obtención de dos factores a
partir de la aplicación del análisis factorial sobre un conjunto de habilidades
numéricas y cognitivas seleccionadas a raíz de los resultados de los estudios
previos revisados. El primer factor, que denominamos semántico-cognitivo,
aglutinó las tareas matemáticas relacionadas con el ‘sentido numérico’ ubicación
en la recta numérica, estimación computacional y recuperación de hechos
numéricos en relación a las restas. Tal y como manifiestan Dehaene, Piazza,
Estudios de Psicología 2016.37:115-134.
Pinel, y Cohen (2003), todas estas tareas comparten además de un mismo sustrato
neuroanatómico, segmentos horizontales de los surcos intraparietales, el requisito
de acceder a la representación semántica de la cantidad para poder ser resueltas.
Además en este factor también saturaban aspectos cognitivos como memoria de
trabajo espacial y memoria de trabajo numérica. La memoria de trabajo espacial
está altamente involucrada en la resolución de la tarea de la línea numérica tal y
como se ha puesto de manifiesto en otros estudios (e.g., Fischer et al., 2003;
Geary et al., 2007) por lo que su asociación al factor era esperable y lógica. En
relación a la tarea de memoria de trabajo numérica, que mide componente
ejecutivo, su saturación en este primer factor se ajusta también a resultados
previos (e.g., Geary et al., 2007) y además es coherente puesto que el otro factor
está representado por aspectos relacionados con la automaticidad, por lo que se
vincula con tareas que requieren menor demanda del componente. Con respecto al
segundo factor, que denominamos ‘verbal-automatización’, las variables vincula-
das al mismo fueron fluidez en la lectura de números, comparaciones de magni-
tudes, tarea de RAN, y recuperación de multiplicaciones. Todas estas tareas,
excepto comparación de magnitudes, requieren la recuperación automática de
representaciones fonológicas asociadas a códigos visuales, sin ser estrictamente
necesario acceder al componente semántico de las mimas. Es decir, según
Dehaene et al. (2003) todas estas tareas estarían vinculadas al mismo sustrato
neuroanatómico, giro angular (HI), el cual no es específico del procesamiento
numérico, sino que está relacionado con aquellas destrezas aritméticas vinculadas
al lenguaje. Si bien es cierto, que la tarea de comparación de magnitudes sí
requiere procesamiento de representaciones semánticas de los números, el hecho
de que la medida utilizada para evaluarla haya sido tiempo de los aciertos puede
hacer que se ajuste más a la naturaleza de las variables que configuran este factor.
En este sentido, en un estudio reciente se demuestra que aspectos como la fluidez
matemática y las medidas basadas en exactitud parecen tener etiología genética
132 C. Rodríguez and J.E. Jiménez
Acknowledgements / Agradecimientos
This research was funded by the Spanish National Plan for Scientific and Technical
Research and Innovation (Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness) with references
PET2008_0225 and EDU2012-35098, granted to the second author and main researcher. /
Esta investigación ha sido financiada por el Plan Nacional I+D+i (Ministerio de
Economía y Competitividad) con referencias PET2008_0225 y EDU2012-35098 conce-
didos al segundo autor como investigador principal.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors./ Los autores no han referido
ningún potencial conflicto de interés en relación con este artículo.
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